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Recruitment and Migration of South Indian Women As Domestic Workers to the Middle East Background Paper In the Shadow of the State: Recruitment and Migration of South Indian Women as Domestic Workers to the Middle East Praveena Kodoth Copyright © International Labour Organization 2020 First published July 2020 Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation, application should be made to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email: [email protected]. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications. Libraries, institutions and other users registered with a reproduction rights organization may make copies in accordance with the licences issued to them for this purpose. Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country. ISBN: 978-92-2-032402-8 (web PDF) The designations employed in ILO publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers. The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office of the opinions expressed in them. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Office, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval. Information on ILO publications and digital products can be found at: www.ilo.org/publns. This publication was produced by the Document and Publications Productions Printing and Distribution Branch (PRODOC) of the ILO. Graphic and typographic design, manuscript preparation, copy editing, layout and composition, proofreading, printing, electronic publishing and distribution. PRODOC endeavours to use paper sourced from forests managed in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner. Code: MAS-REP X In the Shadow of the State: The Recruitment and Migration of South Indian Women as Domestic Workers to the Middle East Praveena Kodoth* * The author is a professor at the Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................. 6 Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 7 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 11 2. Description of the fieldwork and research material ................................................................ 17 2.1. Choice of study areas ................................................................................................................... 17 2.2. Fieldwork 2013–14 ......................................................................................................................... 19 2.2.1. Description of the sample ............................................................................................... 21 2.3. Subsequent fieldwork (2015–18 and 2019) .............................................................................. 23 3. Who migrates: Understanding women’s migration from the source regions ................... 26 3.1. The ties that bind .......................................................................................................................... 26 3.2. Profile of migrant women ........................................................................................................... 31 3.3. Decision-making regarding women’s migration .................................................................... 41 4. How do women migrate? Governance and intermediation of migration ............................ 46 4.1. Governance regimes of migration in India and the Middle East ......................................... 46 4.2. Regular employment vs employment on the informal market ........................................... 51 4.3. Sponsors, employers and migrant domestic workers .......................................................... 53 4.4. Migration intermediaries............................................................................................................. 58 4.5. The nature of intermediation ..................................................................................................... 63 4.6. Cost and financing of migration ................................................................................................ 69 4.7. Mobility practices and the irrelevance of emigration clearance ......................................... 70 4.8. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 75 5. Destinations ..................................................................................................................................... 76 6. Mobility under the present regime ............................................................................................. 81 6.1. Travel on visit visas ....................................................................................................................... 81 6.2. Manipulation of visa categories ................................................................................................. 84 6.3. Circumventing state vigilance .................................................................................................... 86 6.4. Rising demand and elimination of migration expenses ....................................................... 89 6.5. Why do women migrate through local intermediaries and not through NORKA? .......... 91 6.6. Making reasoned decisions ........................................................................................................ 96 6.7. Destination labour markets and emigration policy ............................................................... 97 6.7.1. Aruna .................................................................................................................................... 98 6.7.2. Dhanlakshmi ....................................................................................................................... 98 6.7.3. Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 99 6.7.4. Jyothi ..................................................................................................................................... 101 6.7.5. Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 102 7. In the Shadow of the State ............................................................................................................ 104 References ...................................................................................................................................................... 110 In the Shadow of the State Acknowledgements 5 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Pooja Thakur for assistance in East Godavari and Kadapa. I would also like to with the literature review; Gouri Hari for thank S. Jayasree for helping me locate Malayali conducting interviews with migrant women domestic workers employed in the Middle East from Ernakulum; Rini S.G. and Rajini Raj for and V J Varghese for helping me with field work in transcribing interviews from Malayalam and Nilambur. In addition to the material collected in Telugu respectively; Razia Jaffer, SEWA and May and June 2019, this paper draws extensively the Kudumbasree networks in Kerala; Konda on material that was collected in 2013–14 through Ankamama and the organization PARA in a study sponsored by the ICSSR. I am indebted East Godavari for assistance in the field; and to all those who assisted me in the project, in Shraddha Jain for assistance with analysis of data particular Elsa Oommen, Ebina T S, Julie John, from the Census 2011. Devi Durga and Sheik Babjan. I am grateful to Sheena Bashir from SEWA for I would also like to thank Ryszard Cholewinski, sharing her experiences of organizing migrant Igor Bosc and Neha Wadhawan from the women in Kerala. In Andhra Pradesh, I benefited International Labour Organization (ILO) for their from the organizational work done by Sister Lizzy extensive feedback at different stages of the Joseph and Bhim Reddy, and I would like to thank drafting of this paper; and Niyati Dhuldhoya for both of them for sharing their experiences with her thoughtful editing. me and for helping me organize my field work In the Shadow of the State 6 Abbreviations Abbreviations AED: UAE Dirhams ANM: Auxiliary Nursing and Midwifery AP: Andhra Pradesh BD: Bahraini Dinar D and C: Dilation and Curettage procedure
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