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Zelime, J., Deutschmann, M. (2016) Revisiting the Trilingual Language-in- policy in the National Curriculum Framework and Subject Curricula: Intentions and Practice Island Studies, 3(1): 50-59

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Permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:oru:diva-53728 Educational Policies REVISITING THE TRILINGUAL LANGUAGE-IN- IN THE SEYCHELLES NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK AND SUBJECT CURRICULA: INTENTIONS AND PRACTICE

Key words: language-in-education planning, L2 medium of instruction, Kreol Seselwa, medium of instruction, multilingualism. Justin Zelime & Mats Deutschmann

l Abstract Introduction are supposed to have equal status. However, given the fact that the Seychelles is highly The policy documents of a country’s education system can An organisation’s policy documents dependent on the world surrounding it, provide evidence of that particular contain statements that aim at setting the NCF also has to meet the demands of country’s vision for its people’s socio- goals and regulating the direction of its globalization, where English is synonymous economic, socio-cultural and academic development at a particular time. In the with unmatched advantages and status, development. Such documents can also education field, these goals are supposed especially in the educational context. When say much about the power relations between different languages that might to be transmitted down into subject this is aligned with a traditional highly exam- be represented within them. Educators, curricula and teaching units, to guide the oriented education system based on the policy makers, educational leaders, teacher in the implementation process. system of the former colonial power of teachers, learners and parents are some However, research evidence shows Great Britain (exams are written in English key players directly or indirectly affected that this is not always the case in many on all higher levels), there is great potential by these policy documents. Using Critical Discourse Analysis and Spolsky’s (2004, educational contexts around the world. In for disparities between the curriculum intent 2012) framework for language policy post-colonial Africa and Asia, for instance, (equal status of the national languages) and analysis, this paper investigates the policy makers face conflicting views about its implementation. Just as in many other trilingual language-in-education policy what the appropriate content of these policy parts of the post-colonial world, educational in the Seychelles National Curriculum documents should be and how they should traditions, lack of resources for producing Framework (2013) and three Subject Curricula (English, Kreol Seselwa and be implemented. As a result, significant local learning materials etc., have resulted French), with the aim to explore how gaps between language-in-education policy in the choice of English as medium of the documents relate at the levels planning, values, beliefs and practice are instruction. Current policies thereby also have of policy planning, implementation created. For instance, Habid et al. note to take this into account and acknowledge and practice. Our findings reveal that that “there is evidence, […] with regard to that a good understanding of English is a there are discrepancies between the overarching Curriculum Framework, language practices in education in a number prerequisite for succeeding in education. where all three national languages are of polities in Africa, that English and French Here Second Language (L2) writing given central roles and equal status, are promoted while local languages are is of particular importance given the fact that and the Subject Curricula, where clear disparaged even when they are promoted by Seychellois students have to become fairly differences in the power and functions national policies” (2014, p.2). In this article, advanced English writers at an early age if of the languages emerge. On a more pragmatic level, it is of concern that our focus is the language policy documents they want to communicate their knowledge the current policy documents do not of the Seychelles, a small island state on in written exams across the curriculum. The explicitly acknowledge the role of the the eastern coast of Africa. We explore the equal status of the national languages thus language of instruction as a vehicle consistency of language-in-education policy has to be balanced against the special role for learning when describing learning documents at different levels in order to assigned to the language instruction as a goals and terminal objectives – a good understanding of English (the current L2 discover whether similar disparities may be vehicle for learning (in this case English) – a medium of instruction) is a prerequisite present in our own system. tough balancing act indeed when formulating for succeeding in education. Further, The Seychelles has three national learning goals and terminal objectives. the lack of attention to the question languages, Kreol Seselwa (hereafter KS), of L2 writing literacy and the fact that which is the mother tongue for the large Background and Theory Seychellois students have to become fairly advanced English writers at an majority of the population, English and Curriculum and Language- early age if they want to communicate French. According to the Seychelles National in-education Enquiry their knowledge across the curriculum Curriculum Framework (hereafter NCF), the is particularly disconcerting. Ministry of Education advocates a trilingual Language-in-education policies and language policy where all three languages school curricula are rarely context-free. They

50 Island Studies Indian Ocean / Océan Indien 2016 l Résumé

Les documents-cadres régissant le système éducatif d’un pays peuvent témoigner de la vision particulière de ce pays pour son développement are usually influenced by a combination of implementation. According to Goodlad, et socioéconomique, socioculturel et pedagogical, economic and political factors al. (1979, p.61) when such domains are académique. Ces documents peuvent (Prophet & Badede, 2006, p.240; Brock-Utne analysed “one finds those beliefs, values, également révéler pas mal de choses sur & Holmarsdottir, 2004, p.68; Laversuch, attitudes, and the like which society or les relations de pouvoir qui existent entre 2008, p.375). Inevitably, certain discourses some dominant group in society wishes the différentes langues. Les éducateurs, are privileged at the expense of others, and young to acquire”. In the present study, the décideurs politiques, responsables de this reflects the policy makers’ views on focus of our enquiry has been the NCF and l’éducation, enseignants, apprenants what education should be and how it should subject curricula in English, KS and French, et parents sont parmi ceux qui sont serve society and the individual. In fact, these all formal curricula, but where we argue that directement ou indirectement concernés par ces documents-cadres. A travers les policies contain goals that represent the the former represents a more ideological techniques d’analyse critique du discours et government’s particular political, economic level. Thirdly, there is the Perceived du cadre élaboré par Spolsky (2004, 2012) and social ideologies. As a consequence, domain, which stipulates that the formal pour l’analyse des politiques de langues, these same goals, ideologies, discourses curriculum is rarely identical to what other cette communication effectue une analyse and policies can shape the experience of stakeholders such as teachers, parents, de la politique trilingue des langues dans school-age children, teachers, parents, students and politicians perceive to be in l’enseignement tel que dépeinte dans le administrators and legislators. Therefore, the curriculum. The Operational domain cadre national seychellois des programmes doing research on policy is a way of providing refers to the teaching and learning activities éducatifs (2013) et dans le programme quality assurance for all actors involved, in the classroom and the school. It can vary d’études de trois matières, à savoir especially the learners. According to Prunty between teachers and subjects. Finally, the l’anglais, le français et le créole seychellois. (1985, p.136), “(i)f a policy is not contested, Experiential domain concerns the learners’ Cette analyse a pour but d’explorer les liens qui existent entre, d’une part, ces the dominant discourses represented in experience and their cognitive, emotional documents et, d’autre part, la planification the policy have the potential to become and social, practical and experimental des politiques, l’implémentation et les hegemonic”. processes. Note that, in this study we only pratiques d’enseignement. Les résultats In this article we describe the policy consider the first two levels of this model, de nos recherches démontrent des documents and language curricula of the but that future planned studies will explore disparités entre le référentiel général Seychelles through the lenses of three aspects of the other levels. (où les trois langues jouissent du même distinctive theoretical frameworks. Firstly, statut et sont décrites comme ayant une we apply John Goodlad and associates’ five A Framework for Language fonction centrale) et les programmes domains of curriculum (Goodlad, Klein & Tye, Policy Analysis (Spolsky, 2004) d’études, où des différences notables sont 1979) to allow us to narrow down our subject perceptibles dans le pouvoir et les fonctions enquiry to the Formal curricula and also to Research has shown that in order to inhérentes aux langues. D’un point de vue pragmatique, il est préoccupant facilitate our understanding of curricula in assess the success of policies, reference que les documents-cadres actuels ne school settings. We also include limited has to be made to culture, belief systems reconnaissent pas de façon explicite le analysis using Spolsky’s trilogy of language and peoples’ attitudes towards language rôle de la langue d’enseignement dans le practices, language beliefs and values, and (Schiffman, 1996). It is therefore essential processus d’apprentissage au niveau de la language planning and/or management for policy makers and other actors in the description des buts et objectifs terminaux, (Spolsky 2004, 2012), which provides a more education field to understand what the une bonne compréhension de l’anglais (la in-depth understanding of the language policy is, why it is being made, and for langue seconde qui sert présentement de policies. Finally, Fairclough’s (2003) Critical whom it is implemented in order for it to medium d’enseignement) constituant un Discourse Analysis model,is used when gain support. Knowing what teachers and prérequis pour un apprentissage réussi. examining the power relationships between learners believe about English, French and De plus, on note un troublant manque de the three languages that emerge in the KS, which of these languages they speak, considération par rapport à la question du développement de l’alphabétisation documents under investigation. and indeed when, where and why they dans une langue seconde et au fait que do so is a prerequisite to the successful les apprenants seychellois se doivent de Five Domains of the Curriculum implementation and acceptance of the développer des aptitudes avancées à l’écrit (Goodlad et al., 1979). trilingual language-in-education policy. en anglais dès un jeune âge s’ils veulent According to Sallabank (2010, p.148), exprimer leurs connaissances. Goodlad et al. (1979) divide the “[p]olicies which may be thought of as curricula into five different domains. Firstly, enlightened may fail if there is a lack of public the Ideological domain relates to the abstract support, as the Seychelles example shows”. political and socio-political level. Secondly, This reference was made in response to the Formal domain refers to a curriculum Laversuch’s (2008) recommendation to that has gained official approval by the state the Seychelles Government that education and exists in written form, and which in should be through KS, a suggestion that was turns forms the starting point for practical unacceptable to many, especially parents.

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In this article we applied Spolsky’s the 1980s (Fleischmann 2008). However, education in the State schools. According to trilogy of language practices, language after independence in 1976, KS became Leste et al. (2003, p.6), the Seychelles has “a beliefs and values, and language planning the third official language alongside the highly centralised education system with a and/or management (Spolsky, 2004), two colonial languages, and in 1981 it was common curriculum framework” for all State which he describes as “interrelated but introduced as MoI for the first four years schools. This system is further regulated independent”, as one framework for our of formal schooling. Its role as MoI was, by the Ministry of Education through head analysis of the trilingual language policy of however, reduced to the first two years of teachers. Leste et al. (2003, p.5), state that Seychelles in the NCF. He proposes that primary education after reforms in 1996, the main aim of the Ministry of Education is there are four fundamental and co-existing when English became the sole MoI for to deliver a curriculum that produces “flexible, factors that motivate a country’s language most subjects other than French and KS adaptable international learners as part of policy: national ideology, the role of English from primary three onwards. Today, KS is the human resource development strategies as a global language, a nation’s sociolinguistic taught as a subject up to primary six. Since of a small state”. Yet, to date, after all these situation, and an increasing interest in the 1996, there has not been any overt attempt reforms, the national exam results of primary rights of linguistic minorities. He also claims by the ministry to review the language six learners across the curriculum are far from that the ‘language policy for any independent policy, but in 2013 the NCF was reviewed satisfactory. This can be seen in different nation state will reveal the complex interplay to be aligned with 21st century educational examination reports dating from 2006 to 2015, of (these) four interdependent but often changes. In fact, there is limited research in which all the exam results are analyzed and conflicting factors’ (Spolsky, 2004, p.133). done on policy documents in the Seychelles commented upon. This disparity in policy These conflicting factors were observed to date. intent and outcome has partly motivated this between the three official languages in the The language-in-education present study. NCF, something which we elaborate upon in policies of the Seychelles have been Another factor that resonates the later sections. strongly influenced by a combination of strongly in this paper is the power historical, economic and political factors, imbalance between the three official CDA – Critical Discourse and Laversuch, (2008, pp.379-80) lists languages, especially between English Analysis (Fairclough, 2003) various economic arguments for greater and KS, whereby the former enjoys more emphasis being put on English in the power and status. This has raised a number Among the different models of National Curriculum. Some of these are of concerns about the quality of education discourse analysis, we chose Fairclough’s 1) the Seychelles’ economy is reliant being offered. For instance, Purvis (2004, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) approach on other English speaking countries, p.49) emphasises “the need to [raise] the as more appropriate for our study, since 2) most educational textbooks are in levels of performance and achievements our main interest was on the linguistic English from English speaking countries, of the majority of students” as well as components of the documents and their 3) there is a lack of grade-appropriate, “issues of curriculum development and intertextual nature. Fairclough (2003) standardized Kreol Seselwa-language implementation …[and] school language proposes perhaps the most linguistically teaching materials, 4) high proficiency policy”. Purvis (ibid) also highlights an focused iteration of CDA, when he argues level in English is seen as the main “inherited curriculum of grammar school that the role of discourse in social practice way of offering Seychellois graduates education, linked to external examining cannot be assumed and that it must be socioeconomic success, 5) the latter bodies in a context where teachers and derived from thorough textual analysis, would benefit from greater employment schools lack the capacity to fully adapt something which seems fitting for this opportunities and greater earning the curriculum, topped up with a language study. We also found the model useful potentials and will eventually enjoy policy promoting trilingualism in theory when analysing the relationship between higher lateral and vertical professional but in practice relegating Kreol Seselwa the grammar, semantics and lexical phrases mobility. to a lower status”. In the next section we in the three language documents to identify As described in Purvis (2004, p.49), address some of these issues. privileged or marginalised discourses. planned national curricula for schools have been in existence since 1978. Over the years there Research Aims The Seychelles Context and its have been numerous educational reforms, The main aim of this study is to Language-in-Education Policies which culminated in the launching of the NCF investigate the trilingual language-in- in 2001 and a revised version in 2013. The education policy in the Seychelles NCF and The Seychelles gained two of its three last two years have seen the formulation of a the three specific language subject curricula national languages from its former colonial National Curriculum Assessment Framework in order to understand how they relate at the masters, France and Britain. In schools, (2013), a Medium Term Development levels of policy planning, implementation French was the medium of instruction Strategy for Education 2013-2017, the and intended practice. Firstly, we analyse (hereafter MoI) until the 1940s, when it was Seychelles Early Learning Framework and the NCF and then we look at the role and replaced by English (Fleischmann 2008). KS an Inclusive Education Policy. These reforms presentation of the three national languages was completely banned from schools until have been aimed at improving the quality of in the curriculum documents.

52 Island Studies Indian Ocean / Océan Indien 2016 The National Curriculum facilitate an overview of the document. The and compared: Framework categories include: This part of the study looks at the 1. The specific roles of the languages in general representation of the role of the 1. General principle aspects: national needs; education listed in the rationale sections three national languages in the curriculum the rights of the individual; general aims of (verbs) framework documents. Firstly, we analyse the curriculum; the NCF (Ministry of Education, 2013) and 2. ‘Descriptors’ – Adjectives and try to establish how the general principles 2. Specific language-related matters: complements describing the properties of regarding rights of the citizen and the needs trilingual policy matters, medium of the languages of the nation expressed in this document instruction issues, language of support relate to the specific issues dealing with issues, the role of KS, the role of English; 3. Evaluative words used in descriptions language practice in schools conveyed in the the role of French of the language [(words of graduation framework. In this section we also attempt (see Martin & White, 2005)], attitudinal to analyse how the curriculum approaches 3. Implementation aspects: assessment adjectives and adverbials. practical issues related to L2 MoI teaching/ issues and practical implementation issues. learning in the Seychelles system. Specific 4. The semantic domains referred to in the research questions include: Based on this data, the analysis descriptions of the languages was conducted with reference to research What are the implications of the questions 1 and 2 above. These data were then used as the language issues for the general principles basis for the analysis, where the main focus which underpin the NCF? (the Ideological In Part 2B of this study we looked was on elucidating the different roles and domain in Goodlad’s model) at the specific subject curricula documents the relative status attached to the different How does the NCF approach the of KS, English and French. The sections that languages in the curriculum. practical challenges involved with L2 MoI were deemed of particular interest here teaching/learning? (the Formal domain in were the so-called ‘rationale/justification’ Results Goodlad’s model) sections of the curricula: “Zistifikasyon” in the KS curriculum, “Rationale” in the English Part 2A. The National The three national languages Curriculum, and “Justification” in the French Curriculum Framework Secondly we turn to the specific Curriculum. These sections, constituting subject curricula and analyse how the approximately one A4 page in each of the (a) Overarching principles evident languages are represented in the curriculum curricula, justify and explain the rationale for in the NCF documents and their roles in the education the inclusion and role of the particular language The NCF is a 56-page document system. We focus specifically on the in the curriculum. It is here that we found the written in English. It contains several relative power relations of the languages greatest frequency of descriptions of the role sections beginning with an Introduction, (expressed or inferred). Specific research of languages outside and within the education which describes what a curriculum is and questions include: system, as well as arguments justifying the its purpose in broad terms. In Section 2, position of the language in question in the Legal and Policy Contexts, the document 1. How are the languages described in Seychelles educational system. Since the describes the conventions and laws that terms of their roles/functions and status in documents were written in KS, English and govern the document. Section 3, The the subject-specific curriculum documents? French respectively, we first translated all National Curriculum Framework, gives texts into English. Each text was translated a brief description of the structure of 2. How are the languages described in terms by two persons and the results were then the Seychelles school system and the of their roles in the education system? compared and differences in interpretation of principles which guide it. This is followed importance were negotiated. by Section 4, Essential Learning Areas, Method and Material In this sub-study (2B) we then Competencies and Core Life Skills, where used a critical discourse analytical model the overall goals for different learning areas, In this study, we examine the (Fairclough, 2003), which assumes that including the languages, are listed. Section following documents: the NCF of 2013 social practice and linguistic practice 5, Assessment, gives a fairly detailed and the subject curricula of KS, English and constitute one another and that societal account of the principles and practicalities French (Ministry of Education, 2003). Part 2A power relations are established and that surround assessment in the system. involves a close reading of the NCF whereby reinforced through language use. More The two final sections, Implementing all references of relevance to the research specifically, we went through the text and the National Curriculum and Successful aims were isolated and copied to a table. extracted all references of interest that NCF Implementation, describe in detail Different text extracts were then categorised describe the nature and role of the language how teaching is to be planned, delivered, according to three main categories in order to in question. From this text we then listed monitored, supported, developed and

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organised on a school and classroom level. – “The national curriculum recognises the in constructing […] understanding” and that The NCF is thoroughly grounded in uniqueness of each individual and the fact “confidence in the language of instruction and the nation’s legal framework and a number that individuals learn in different ways and learning are critical prerequisites for successful of international conventions on human rights, at different rates.” (p. 10); learner-centred learning” (p.16). The NCF also explicitly states such as The Convention on the Rights of the education – “Learning and teaching […] have that the languages of instruction are KS, in the Child (UN 1989), the African Charter on the to be personalised, relevant and meaningful early childhood years (pre-school – Primary 2), Rights and Welfare of the Child (1999, ratified for individual students, requiring purposeful and English, from Primary 3 through the rest 1992), the International covenant of social, engagement and on-going negotiation of the system. With reference to the national economic and cultural rights (1976, accession between learners and teachers” (p 10); high tri-lingual policy, however, the NCF also points in 1992), etc. It is an ambitious document quality, goal oriented education – “support out that any of “[t]he three national languages in this respect and it is full of references to has to be provided through various strategies can also be used as support languages”. overarching principles of human rights and including individual learning plans, alternative KS is fore-fronted in the NCF. It is educational rights. routes and pathways that will help students acknowledged as the first language of the According to the document, “the get there [achieve the goals]” (p.13). In nation, and it is the language mentioned by overall aim of the National Curriculum summary, the NCF propagates learning that is name most frequently in the NCF (eleven Framework is to enable children and young “purposeful”, “stimulating” and which builds times), followed by English (ten times) and people to become successful lifelong on modern collaborative pedagogic principles. French (seven times). On all the occasions learners” (p.4). The NCF also links individual The NCF talks of a system with focus on the languages are listed together (six times), development to the national development at “understanding, reflection and application of the order is always KS, English followed by several points in the document. For example: skills”, learning that is continuous and “builds French. This suggests that a central role is • The Ministry’s stated mission on prior knowledge and skills”, education given to KS in the system, and indeed at first is ‘to build a coherent and which affords several opportunities to learn, sight constructions such as “confidence and comprehensive system of quality and where students are “responsible for their proficiency in one’s first language contribute education and training, reflecting own learning” while still being supported by to self-esteem, a sense of identity and shared universal and national the school in their pursuits (p.42). achievement throughout life” (p.18) seem to values which promote the The NCF stresses the importance support this. In addition, the NCF establishes integrated development of the both of continuity/stability and development in KS as the medium of instruction throughout person and empower him/her the education system. For example, the NCF the curriculum in the subject of Personal, to participate fully in social and points out that “society has changed” and Social and Citizenship Education (PSCE). The economic development’ (p.8). that the “demands of the workplace are more subject aim is “to help children and young With reference to development, both complex”, consequently leading to a system people make sense of their life experiences”, local and global contexts are emphasised. which must “respond” to the challenges of and when teaching the subject, teachers are For example, it speaks of “education for the 21st century (foreword). The monitoring encouraged to “establish open and honest empowerment, education for productivity, of the system is also emphasised. The NCF relationships that will enable students to feel education for social cohesion and education talks of self-monitoring – the “development comfortable and secure in discussing and for global participation” (p.7). Similarly, there of a culture of reflective practice, school self- expressing views on sensitive aspects of are several references to the role of the evaluation” – as well as external reviews to their lives. To further promote this, PSCE is system in promoting peace, tolerance and assure quality. Good leadership and effective generally taught in Kreol” (p.24). national harmony. For example, the vision teacher support in the form of continuous On a closer reading, however, for education expressed is “to empower professional development are some of the it becomes apparent that although our children and young people to learn to measures mentioned to meet the quality the importance of KS in early personal perceive, understand and act in a manner demands. development and in the subject PSCE is well that promotes peace, justice, harmonious co- A final important principle evident in established in the NCF, learning KS is not existence and respect for diversity”(p.8). the NCF is the connection of the education entirely seen as an end in itself, but arguably “The National Curriculum actively system with the local community: “Successful rather as transitional tool which establishes promotes the principle of educational equity learning has to connect with the wider basic cognitive skills and facilitates the and inclusion” (p.41). Educational rights contexts of students’ lives, engaging the acquirement of literacy in the ex-colonial listed in the framework include: ten-year support of their families and the community languages English and French: “The use of compulsory education for all regardless they live in” (p. 10). Kreol at key stage 1 helps children develop of the background of the students – “It foundation skills for further learning, along [the curriculum] places at centre stage the (b) The role of language/s with the confidence and self-esteem to learn learner, every student in all our schools who in the NCF English and French as they progress” (p. are entitled to programmes for purposeful With special reference to the role 17). Concrete evidence for this view is the learning that will enable all of them to of languages in the NCF, the document fact that KS as a subject disappears from the succeed.” (p.1); individualised education emphasises that “Language is a crucial aspect system after Primary Six.

54 Island Studies Indian Ocean / Océan Indien 2016 Another conspicuous feature of the learning is noteworthy. The issue of languages and communicating their ideas, especially NCF is the weight attached to the trilingual of support is mentioned in one sentence: “The where the language of communication in the policy of the Seychelles. Most references to three national languages can also be used as classroom is relatively new to them (p.17). the role of language in the system list all three support languages in the teaching of particular Again, the NCF does not deal with languages: “Kreol, English and French are our subjects […] to ensure a maximum level of how this is to be achieved, however, but national languages and they are integral to our understanding by all learners” (p.16), but there simply states that “it is the responsibility historical and cultural heritage. Learning and are no guidelines as to how this support is to of ALL teachers to promote language and teaching in these three languages are guided be carried out, to what extent and under what literacy development” (p.19). by the country’s tri lingual policy” (p.16). The circumstances KS can be used, for example. tri-lingual policy is, according to the NCF, the Assessment in a second language is Part 2B. The ‘Rationale’ gateway to cultural and global awareness: also an issue one would expect to be covered sections of the subject-specific “Literacy in Kreol, English and French and given the overarching principles of human curricula – the relative status the literature associated with them, should rights and educational equity expressed in and roles assigned to the enable children and young people to make the NCF. The document does acknowledge different languages connections with different people, appreciate ‘the problem’: “The language of assessment their diverse cultures and learn to become is also a crucial issue to consider. Students The subject-specific curricula are global citizens” (p.18). Note that the role of are unfairly disadvantaged when they written in the subject languages (KS, English French in the system is only mentioned in are assessed in a language they don’t and French), and are 30-40 page documents relation to the trilingual policy. understand or understand poorly” (p.31), where the general motivation for including As regards English, we would expect it but there are no guidelines as to how to the subject in the curriculum is discussed to be given special attention in the NCF, since it is deal with this problem in the assessment (the Rationale sections). Following this the medium of instruction from Primary 3 in most section, in spite of the fact that it is quite are lists and tables of general objectives subjects. This practical reality, however, seems detailed in its description of other areas and terminal objectives for the different to be downplayed in the document: “From the (principles, uses, monitoring etc.). Finally, key stages in the education system. The beginning of Key Stage 2 (P3), English becomes only one sentence addresses the potential documents also include short final sections the medium for certain subjects” (p.16). Note problems of acquiring the subject -specific on teaching strategies and assessment. In the use of the word ’certain’ here. ‘Certain’ in language knowledge in English needed to this part of the study, we focus specifically on fact refers to all academic subjects except the successfully understand what is going on in the ‘Rationale’ sections of the documents. other languages and PSCE mentioned above. the classroom: Unlike in the NCF, the different roles Given the amount of space allocated to aspects Teachers have to help students of the languages emerge more clearly in the of assessment and implementation in the NCF acquire the specialist vocabulary associated rationale sections of the subject curricula. We (17 pages in all), the lack of attention paid to the with particular learning areas, assist them in were able to isolate the following descriptions potential challenges involved in L2 MoI teaching/ reading and understanding texts, listening of the functions of the languages (verbs):

Table 1 Verbs depicting the different roles of the three national languages

Kreol Seselwa English French

l facilitates basic l encodes major cultural l opens up the Indian Ocean region… understanding understanding and traditions… l allows for greater sensitivity of linguistic phenomena… l contributes to the l broadens awareness and l raises awareness of the language universe… personal development… appreciation… l develops learners’ linguistic capacity… l helps the child… l enhances cognitive skills… l encourages opening up towards others… l enhances development… l contributes to the development of the child… l provides access… l favours more accurate understanding of others… l feeds on linguistic l awakens tolerance… experiences… l prepares to accept… l contributes to tolerance…

From these descriptions it is clear that the role of KS is quite awareness. In contrast, KS is depicted as a transition language, different from that of French and English. English emerges as which provides basic learning skills and thereby helps the young a gateway to the cognitive universe and learning, while French child to enter the more complex cognitive universe of the is described more in terms of broadening language and cultural ex-colonial languages.

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The properties of the languages (complements and adjectives) that we managed to elucidate from the texts are listed below:

Table 2 complements and adjectives depicting the different roles of the three national languages

Kreol Seselwa English French

l the mother tongue l a national language l significant in local social, l important in the life of l deeply embedded in our history political and economic our nation on a social, l part of our national linguistic heritage contexts economic, political and l a major international language l an international cultural level l a medium of instruction language l important in the l a support language l a means for learners to promotion and l central to learning understand, speak and development of Creole in l a language of administration, media express themselves Creole-speaking nations and popular entertainment l officially a language l an international language for l part of the educational promoting trade, cultural, scientific and policy technological links l a language of instruction l a support language

Noteworthy here is that much of the francophone world. “[…] being able to think in and learn ‘rationale’ of the KS curriculum is allocated A look at the evaluative words that through English, will provide our learners to justifying policy rather than the language are used in the descriptions of the three with access to this international language itself. In this discussion, one of the languages is telling: of power and to the major cultural tradition motivations given for using KS in education l KS: important (x3), basic (x2), clean (pure) which it encodes”. In contrast, French is is that this practice will raise the status l English: deeply, central, major (x4), widely, merely ‘significant’. of the language and expand the domains power Finally, the semantic domains where it can be used in the future. It is l French: significant associated with the languages were also significant that the acknowledgement looked at and this provides a fairly accurate of KS as a language has to be stated in ‘Important’ is used with reference picture of the roles of the languages in the the document. In contrast, the position of to KS on three occasions but all of these Seychelles: English in the system does not have to appear in the motivation of the policy of be justified in the same way. There is no using KS in education. The fact that it has l KS: social life, economics, politics, culture attempt to justify its use as medium of to be stated that KS, the mother tongue (x2) instruction in spite of the fact that it is a of 98% of the Seychellois population, is l English: trade, culture, science, second language to the majority. Instead, ‘important in the life of our nation’ seems technology, administration, media, popular references to it being a ‘national’ language to suggest that some may think otherwise. entertainment, traditions and ‘deeply embedded in our history’ and The use of clean with reference to KS l French; social life, politics, economic life, a ‘national linguistic heritage’ seem to is also interesting. This word is used in specific communicative contexts suggest that it has first language status. a description of its linguistic properties, Its importance in official contexts and as where it is being argued that Kreol Seselwa Here the role of KS as a social an international language also emerges is spearheading the development of vernacular emerges as does its role in from the description. In contrast, French Creoles in Creole-speaking nations. As politics and culture. The fact that the is given less weight in the descriptions for English, words such as central, major, language should be mentioned with – it is ‘significant’ rather than ‘major’, it is and widely confirm its given and powerful reference to economics is surprising, but admittedly ‘international’ but its role here is position, as indeed does the word power, in this description, the local context is limited to the Indian Ocean region and the which appears in the following context: emphasised (see Table 2 above). As for

56 Island Studies Indian Ocean / Océan Indien 2016 English, just as in the previous description, lack of qualified local labour (Ministry of in learning and teaching. the semantic domains reflect its importance Labour and Human Development, 2014). However, the prescribed in officialdom, trade and learning and At the same time the nation is experiencing medium of instruction has popular international media. The use of high unemployment (National Bureau of to be respected by teachers French seems to be confined to “specific Statistics, 2015) and this reality does not and greater emphasis has to communicative contexts” according to the reflect the NCF’s general ambitions for all be placed on more effective description in the French curriculum. “children and young people to become curriculum implementation. successful lifelong learners.” This is due to the fact that Analysis and Discussion A major feature that strikes us in 80% of inspectorate reports the NCF is its contradictory nature. The revealed a high degree of While the ambitions expressed role of KS is elevated in the rhetoric, code-mixing during the delivery in the NCF as regards human rights and but downplayed in practical terms, and of lessons (p.47 – highlights educational equity are impressive, we the reverse is the case for English. The added by the current authors.) find it remarkable that so little attention trilingual policy is described as one where We fail to see how KS can be used is paid to role of languages in this pursuit. all languages have equal status, but in as language of support without code-mixing, Ambitions such as providing quality, goal practical terms this is not the case at and what is referred to as “curriculum -oriented, individualised and student- all – French for example, has in reality a implementation” here in fact goes against centred education for “ALL” regardless foreign language status in the system, the principles of the same document. Also of social class or gender, are obviously and KS is excluded as a subject after note that Kreol is spelt “Creole” in the latter affected by the L2 MoI context. Given the Primary 6. Here then is a clear document, a generic spelling used for Creole detailed attention paid to aspects such mismatch between the Ideological languages in general rather than the national as assessment and implementation in domain and the Formal domain, variant – Kreol Seselwa. We would argue the NCF, we would have expected the that this is an example of what Spolsky acknowledged risk that some learners As regards the (2004) describes as the “interrelated but may be excluded from the system due to issue of language of independent” nature of language practices, language difficulties to be followed up with support, for example, language beliefs and values, and language practical guidelines as to how this is to be planning and/or management, where the dealt with. This is not the case. the NCF clearly states emphasis falls on the word independent It is well established that there that KS can and should here. In conversations with policy makers of is great variance in learners’ levels of be used when needed the NCF who attended a work in progress proficiency in English in the Seychelles, in order to facilitate seminar at the of Seychelles and that this variance is closely tied to understanding. autumn 2015, it became clear that social variables such as gender and socio- the policy makers and the team economic status (see Hungi & Thuki, 2010; implementing policies were in Hamid et al., 2014). National exam results fact working quite separately, over the past decade have also indicated as described in Goodlad’s model and that the latter group was that English is a subject where students (1979). highly influenced by “language experience particular difficulties, something There is also evidence that beliefs and values” that did not which impacts on all subjects taught in the educational policies and principles necessarily build on the ideas of the English, and this may be one of the key stated in the NCF do not reflect the practical NCF. reasons for the ‘national crisis’ in education reality – the hidden curriculum. As regards This may be one of the reasons for experienced at the moment (see Ministry the issue of language of support, for the double messages in the NCF. Clearly, of education National exam report, 2015). In example, the NCF clearly states that KS can there are conflicting interests at work. fact, the system is currently not delivering and should be used when needed in order Some of these have been hinted at in enough young adults that can “participate to facilitate understanding. At the same previous research. Laversuch (2008), for fully in social and economic development”. time, we found the following statement example, points to the forces of economics Many are excluded from further academic in the Education Sector Medium-Term and globalisation in the diminishing role of or vocational training as a result of their Strategic Plan (Ministry of Education, 2014): KS in the Seychelles education system, and poor grades from school, something that • While Creole is the medium of this is partly confirmed through interviews obviously has many potential underlying instruction in Crèche P1 and with senior Curriculum Officers (see Ivanov, causes, but where we would argue that P2, English is the language Deutschmann & Enever, 2015). We would the language issue is a major contributory of instruction throughout also argue that there are internal political factor. Today, Seychelles is importing labour the school system from P3 forces at play. The current government is in essential trades such as construction, onwards. Emphasis is placed well aware of the delicate balancing act the nursing, and tourism and policing due to on English as a key language language issue in education involves. Giving

Island Studies Indian Ocean / Océan Indien 2016 57 Educational Policies

too much emphasis to English as medium of the system has to be justified and and as evidenced above, the Ministry of instruction would potentially alienate motivated, and there is no question that also, want to see less KS being used in the large parts of the population who value English does not have primary status. schools (see also Fleischmann 2008). KS, while the reverse risks irritating the Similarly, the descriptions of French Another feasible explanation, for which we influential middle classes and those who clearly reflect its status as periphery in have also seen limited evidence, is that the do not appreciate the importance of KS in the curriculum. We would argue that one two domain levels Ideological and Formal education. Avoiding the issue is a way of of the explanations for the differences of operate separately in the system (cf. Spolsky playing safe, a strategy which unfortunately the language descriptions of the NCF and 2004). On the other hand, differences may comes at the expense of leaving teachers the subject-specific curricula may be the also have to do with the fact that the curricula and students without clear guiding principles intended audience. The NCF is a more public documents have not been updated recently as regards language practice in the system. document that is likely to be read by parties and date back to 2003 while the NCF was In the second part of this study, of interest outside the education system, written a decade later and more research the descriptions of the languages in the while the subject-specific curricula are is needed to investigate the processes and subject-specific curricula are arguably primarily aimed at teachers in the subjects in individuals involved in policy making, as less politically correct, but instead, in our question, and here the differences in status well as the attitudes surrounding language opinion, they reflect reality to a greater assigned to the languages in the system are and education among these groups before extent. It is apparent that KS being part not controversial. In fact, many teachers, anything certain can be concluded.

out. In fact, some documents suggest that such practice is l Conclusion actually undesirable. Additionally, the examined documents do not deal with the potential problems of acquiring the subject- When it comes to the disparities, evident from many specific language knowledge in English needed to successfully parts of the post-colonial world, between formal language perform in other subjects. Neither do they explicitly address ideologies stated in national language policy documents and the specific question of L2 writing literacy, a skill absolutely the translation of such policies into practical implementations of decisive for succeeding in the current system. We would language-in-education policies, the Seychelles is no exception. argue that while the overarching principles of the Seychelles We read clear intentions of language and educational equity language policies are commendable, it may be prudent to start in the overarching documents, but it seems that the practical more serious explorations as to how these principles are to implications of such ideological intentions are not fully be realised in practice. We do not in anyway underestimate addressed on the lower levels in the policy implementation the dimension of this task – there are many practical and structure. For example, there seems to be little attention paid psychological hurdles to be overcome on all levels before to the potential challenges involved in L2 MoI teaching/learning visions and reality can marry. In this work, however, there is a and assessment, and although the NCF clearly states that the real need to reduce the distance between visions and reality by three national languages can support each other, there are no understanding the challenges through further research, and by indications as to how the language support is to be carried providing space for discussions and solution findings.

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