International Journal of Health Sciences and Research www.ijhsr.org ISSN: 2249-9571
Review Article
Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases
Khushboo Jain1, Neetin Desai2
1Research Scholar, Department of Biosciences, ITM University, Uparwara, New Raipur (Chhattisgarh), India. 2Director, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Mumbai, Pune Expressway Bhatan, Post - Somathne, Panvel, Mumbai, Maharashtra – 410206, India.
Corresponding Author: Khushboo Jain
ABSTRACT
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is most adapted subtropical fruit crop, which was introduced in India during 15th century from the Mediterranean region. India is largest grower, producer and exporter of pomegranate since last decade. Among eight major pomegranate growing states, Maharashtra is the largest producer, occupies 70.2% of total area in the country with average productivity of 13.24 MT. In recent years, there is decline in production in Maharashtra due to a disease like anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum sp. Colletotrichum causes the infection on all plant parts as sub circular or angular black lesions results in stem deformation, defoliation during shoot development, death of inflorescences, necrotic lesions on leaves. The productivity has decreased though the land coverage has increased in last decade. Under unfavorable climatic conditions this disease has caused yield loss of up to 100%. This review sheds light on the production, agricultural practices, crop biology and diseases of pomegranate causing crop losses. It highlights the epidemiology, symptoms and management strategies for common diseases in pomegranate. It has been observed that, due to monoculture practices and change in environment, the disease like anthracnose causes tremendous losses. Therefore, it warrants urgent consideration for developing new agricultural practices and effective methods to eradicate the disease. Keywords: Pomegranate, Anthracnose, Colletotrichum sp., Disease management
1. INTRODUCTION production raised with the rate of 2.7% per Fruits are major source of nutrition annum and yearly production expanded by as well as sustainable income for farmers. 7.0%. During 2013-14 annual growth of Presently in India, 7.2 million hectare area fruit production was highest (9.5%) as is under fruit crops cultivation which compared to aromatics, flowers, crops, produces 88.9 million tons of fruits with spices and vegetables production. The 12.3MT productivity. India contributes leading fruit growing states in India are more than 30% share in total production of Maharashtra which accounts for 15.0% of horticulture (Horticultural Statistics at a total fruit production by whole country, Glance, 2015). India stands at second followed by Andhra Pradesh (12.0%), position with 13.6% share in world‘s total Gujarat (9.0%), Tamil Nadu (8.0%), fruit production (Indian horticulture Karnataka (8.0%), Uttar Pradesh (8.0%), database, 2014). Madhya Pradesh (6.0%), Telangana (5.0%), In the course of the most recent Bihar (5.0%), and West Bengal (21.0%) decade, the region under horticulture (Horticultural Statistics at a Glance, 2015).
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Banana is the major fruit accounting for France, Greece, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, 33.4% of total production followed by Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, mango (20.7%), citrus (12.5%), papaya Myanmar, Portugal, Spain, Syria, (6.3%), guava (4.1%), grape (2.9%), apple Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, (2.8%), sapota (2.0%), pineapple (2.0%), Turkmenistan, the USA and Vietnam, are pomegranate (1.5%), litchi(0.7%) and others some Pomegranate growing countries in the (11.1%) in India (Indian horticulture world for table use and as an ornamental database, 2014). tree (Mars, 1996; Tous and Ferguson, Among all, Pomegranate is known 1996). as most adaptable, perishable, subtropical Among these China, India, Iran, fruit crop with increased cultivation. It was Turkey and the USA are five major acquainted from the Mediterranean territory producers of Pomegranate contributing 76% to Africa, Asia, Europe and Indian of total production from all over the world. promontory. At first, it was grown in However, Spain, Egypt and Israel are Indonesia of Indian peninsula amid the 15th leaders in export and research by developing century, reported by Levin (2006a). several new varieties of pomegranate At present, Afghanistan, (Quiroz, 2009). Bangladesh, Chile, China, Cyprus, Egypt,
Table 1: Total Pomegranate production in India during last ten years. Year Area Area over 2005-06 Production Production over 2005-06 Productivity Productivity (in 000‘ ha) (in %) (in 000‘ MT) (in %) Over 2005-06 (in %) 2005-06 116 - 849 - 7.3 - 2006-07 117 0.86 840 - 1.06 7.2 - 1.36 2007-08 122 5.17 884 4.12 7.2 - 1.36 2008-09 109 - 6.03 807 - 4.94 7.4 1.36 2009-10 125 7.75 820 - 3.41 6.6 - 9.58 2010-11 107 - 7.75 743 - 12.48 6.9 - 5.47 2011-12 112 - 3.44 772 - 9.06 6.9 - 5.47 2012-13 113 - 2.58 745 - 12.24 6.6 - 9.58 2013-14 131 12.93 1346 58.53 10.3 41.09 2014-15 143 23.27 1774 108.95 12.4 69.68 Source: www. nhb.gov.in
Table 2: Total Pomegranate production in Maharashtra during last ten years. Year Area Area over 2005-06 Production Production over 2005-06 Productivity Productivity over (in 000‘ ha) (in %) (in 000‘MT) (in %) 2005-06 (in %) 2005-06 91.0 -- 593.6 -- 6.5 -- 2006-07 92.5 1.64 601.5 1.33 6.4 - 1.53 2007-08 90.5 - 0.54 596.2 0.43 6.2 - 4.61 2008-09 82.0 - 9.89 550.0 - 7.34 6.7 3.07 2009-10 98.9 8.68 555.5 - 6.41 5.6 - 13.84 2010-11 82.0 - 0.108 492.0 - 17.11 6.0 - 7.69 2011-12 82.0 - 9.89 478.0 - 19.47 5.8 - 10.76 2012-13 78.0 - 14.28 408.0 - 31.26 5.2 - 20.0 2013-14 90.0 - 1.09 945.0 59.19 10.5 61.53 2014-15 99.14 8.94 1313.4 121.25 13.24 103.69 Source: www.nhb.gov.in
India stands first in the list of scenario of pomegranate production in India Pomegranate producer countries with and in Maharashtra state during past few respect to cultivation area. The leading years is portrayed in table 1 and table 2 pomegranate growing states of India are respectively. Among all pomegranate Maharashtra (70.2%), Karnataka (10%), producing countries, India is the biggest Gujarat (7.4%), Andhra Pradesh (6.7%), exporter of pomegranate from the most Telangana (1.9%), Madhya Pradesh (1.9%), recent decade as its fruits are of edible Tamil Nadu (1.0%) and Rajasthan (0.4%) quality and available almost throughout the (Horticultural Statistics at a Glance, year. Table 3 represents the data about 2015). Maharashtra occupies 66.67% of export of pomegranate from India in past total pomegranate farming area. The few years. According to the horticulture International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 316 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases database of India, it has become the biggest ft) in height, although some are dwarf (1- exporter of pomegranate to entire world and 2m) and has bushy appearance. It has UAE, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and smooth and often quadrangular stem with Bangladesh are major importing countries dark grey bark at maturity (Teixeira da Silva of pomegranate from India. Due to its et al., 2013). Leaves are1-10 cm long, increasing demand and export value around evergreen or deciduous, opposite or sub the world, it is considered as one of the opposite, petiolate, simple, entire, ―Vital Cash Crop‖ of India. This review exstipulate, oblong or obovate, glossy, covers the important aspects of glabrous, glandular, exist in whorls of 5 or 6 Pomegranate crop including its production and usually remain crowded on short lateral scenario, crop biology, agricultural shoots (Lawrence, 1951; IBPGR,1986; practices, common diseases and strategies Morton, 1987). Flowers are actinoid, available for their management. hermaphrodite, terminal or axillary single or sometimes five in a cluster. They are three Table 3: Statistics of export of Pomegranate from India. Year Quantity Value centimeter wide, funnel shaped, red to (in Tons) (in Lakh) brilliant orange in color and distinguished 2005-06 19652.1 5670.15 2006-07 21670.4 7957.30 by cylindrical, thick, meaty calyx with five 2007-08 35175.1 9119.49 to eight lobes. They contain five to seven 2008-09 34811.2 11461.61 2009-10 33415.0 11942.84 lanceolate, wrinkled, red or white variegated 2010-11 18211.7 7095.19 petals which enclose numerous stamens, 2011-12 30162.2 14727.82 dorsifixed anthers, colporate pollen grains 2012-13 36027.4 23449.61 2013-14 31328.2 29851.62 and inferior ovary (Morton, 1987; El Kassas 2014-15 20937.0 32361.45 et al., 1998; Teixeira da Silva et al., 2013). 2015-16 310723.6 41599.77 Source: DGCIS, Annual export: Two flowering seasons have been observed https://www.agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/product in pomegranate cultivars which are gown in search/pomegranate (Last visited on 28/3/17) North India while those of Central and
Western India has three blooming seasons 2. Biology of Pomegranate viz. Ambe bahar (January-February), Mrig Pomegranate; fruit bearing shrubs or bahar (June-July) and Hasta bahar trees comes under small genus of Punica. (September-October) as reported by Although, earlier placed in monogeneric Nalwadi et al. (1973). The fruit is nearly family Punicaceae, now it has been shifted round, 5-12 cm in diameter with a to family Lythraceae by the Angiosperm prominent thick calyx. Fruit pericarp (skin Phylogeny Group (APG IV, 2016) based on or rind) is glossy, coriaceous and hard, phylogenetic studies (Graham et al., 2005). differs in surface color among cultivars Including Punica there are 32 genera and from yellow with a dark red cheek to strong about 620 species of flowering plants in this caramel red and splendid red. Mesocarp family. Punica is a minor genus with only (albedo, the spongy tissue) is separated into two species named as Punica protopunica a few chambers by a horizontal diaphragm and Punica granatum. Among these two, and vertical septal films which are the better known species is P. granatum and comprised of papery tissue. Each and every based on the color of ovary it has been chamber is packed with transparent sacs, subdivided into two sub species, that are filled with several arils (number varies Chlorocarpa and Porphyrocarpa. In among cultivars but may be as high as 1300 pomegranate, color of ovary is a steady per fruit) which represent about 52% weight attribute that is held even when reproduction of the whole fruit (Lawrence, 1951; occurs by seeds. The chromosome number Purseglove, 1968; Dahlgren and Thorne, varies among different cultivars of 1984; Morton, 1987; Levin, 2006b). The pomegranate; 2n=16 or 18 (Levin, 2006a). palatable part of the fruit is known as arils, The pomegranate tree is an which are fleshy, flavorful, juicy, red or attractive, perennial tree of 6-10 m (20 to 30
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 317 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases pink in color and not attached to the septal flourishes well under arid climate. High membrane (Morton, 1987; Watson and temperature with sufficient time duration is Dallwitz, 1992). Wild type pomegranate required for development of sweet fruits. fruits are acidic, whereas cultivated cultivars (Halilova and Yildiz, 2009). Southern India have sweet to sour flavor. Fruits get ripe has preferred arid climate for pomegranate after 6-7 months of flowering, developed a cultivation hence; quality fruits are available unique color and produce metallic sound throughout the year. While in other after tapping. pomegranate producing countries around the Pomegranate is self-pollinated as well as world, availability is confined to a shorter cross pollinated crop in which the size and and specific period in a year. In Spain, fruits fertility of pollens vary as per the season are available during August to March, in the and cultivar (Pross, 1938; Nalwadi et al., USA from August to November and in Peru 1973; Jalikop and Kumar, 1990). From all from April to July (Jalikop et al., 2006; over the world, hundreds of cultivars have Kulkarni and Dethe, 2006; Kotikal et al., been characterized on the basis of aril color, 2009). It requires annual rainfall of 500- flower type, fruit size, rind color, resistance 800mm. to biotic and abiotic factors, sugar and acid 3.2 Soil type content in fruit, shelf life of fruit, seed The pomegranate can develop on hardness and yield. (Harlan, 1992; Hancock, differing sorts of soil however prefers 2004; Levin, 2006a; Holland et al., 2009). profound loamy or alluvial soil which is Interestingly, huge genetic diversification prolific, wealthy in humus, have medium has been observed among 500, globally thickness with great seepage. It grows best distributed varieties of pomegranate, out of in neutral soil (pH 5.5-7.0) but can tolerate which around 50 are commercially soil alkalinity up to pH 7.5 and active lime cultivated (IPGRI, 2001). Some significant, concentration between 12-15%. Although, it Indian varieties of pomegranate having is a salt tolerant plant but excess commercial value are Ganesh, Jalore, accumulation of salts in soil (more than Khandhari, Kabul, Mridula, Bhagwa, G- 0.5%) is harmful (Wang, 2003). According 137, Arka Ruby, Jyoti, Amildana, Alandi, to Indian Horticulture database (2013) Dholka etc (Hiwale, 2009). pomegranate plant can withstand salinity up 3. Agronomic Practices to 9.00 EC/mm (electrical conductivity per 3.1 Climatic conditions millimeter) and sodicity 6.78 ESP Mediterranean environment with (exchangeable sodium percent). It produces cool winters and hot summers is most quality fruits in medium or light black soils favorable for Pomegranate but it can be of at least 60 cm deep. In major grown in tropical or subtropical humid pomegranate growing areas of Maharashtra environment. It can easily withstand the crop is grown in black, red, gravel and temperature up to 45oC-48oC in rocky lands of sub marginal and dry areas combination with dry hot winds but (Chandra et al., 2006; NRCP, 2007a; 2008; optimum temperature is 38oC. Mature plant 2009). Adequate moisture in soil is can tolerate frost when it is in dormant recommended throughout the growing phase but, young tree up to three years of season which contributes to reduction in age is injured by early or late winter frost splitting, growth and production (LaRue, due to temperature less than -11oC 1980; Sharma et al., 2006). (Badizadegan, 1975; Morton, 1987; Patil 3.3 Irrigation and Shewale, 2003). The pomegranate crop Regular irrigation (weekly in has long growing season of about 4-7 summer and biweekly in winter) is months and requires hot and dry atmosphere recommended to obtain higher fruit yield amid fruit development and aging. It is a whereas irregularity results into formation drought tolerant, winter hardy crop which of cracked fruits (Badizadegan, 1975;
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Kulenkanp et al., 1985; Levin, 2006b). of fertilizers in February, May and Implementation of different irrigation September is suggested to improve plant schedules during spring and autumn seasons vigour hence, the yield. Annual supply of was also suggested by Intrigliolo et al., nitrogen fertilizer alone is suffecient for (2011) as they observed a considerable many pomegranate crops and if added in difference in leaf photosynthesis and excess it affects the fruit maturity and color. stomatal conductance of pomegranate trees In contarst to this, Bose et al., (1988) which were grown under different irrigation reported that higher levels of nitrogen regimes. Drip irrigation and bed or basin enhance juice and rind percentage of fruit irrigation strategies are usually implemented yet decline TSS and TSS/TA proportion.The by farmers for pomegranate crop. Drip dose of fertilizers/plant/year (FYM and irrigation has proven to be more effective N:P:K) for important Indian cultivars of for proper growth of trees compared to pomegranate is recommended by the basin irrigation because of slow and even National Hoticulture Board and summerized distribution of water through plastic micro in table 4. tubes. Additionally, it saves water, cost of labor, reduces soil erosion and provide Table 4: Recommended dose of fertilizers for Indian pomegranate cultivars. space for intercropping (Chopade et al., Age of plant (in years) Dose of Fertilizer/Plant/Year 2001; NRCP, 2007b; 2008; 2009; Patil and FYM(kg) N(g) P(g) K(g) 2 5 250 125 125 Bachhav, 2009). Over irrigation causes 3 10 500 125 250 adverse effects on the crop yield by favoring 4 20 500 125 250 5 20 500 125 250 the growth of field pathogens due to Above 5 30-40 625 250 250 increased humidity and moisture. # FYM: Farm Yard Manure; N: nitrogen; P: phosphorus; K: Continuous flowering is observed in potassium pomegranate plant when watered regularly Foliar application of micronutrients and quite frequently. Fruits are available not only helps to maintain nutrient balance from these plants throughout the year which in soil but also convenient for field use and is economically undesirable. To regulate induces very rapid plant response (Obreza et this ―Bahar treatment‖ is given in which al., 2010; Fernandez et al., 2013). Foliar irrigation is with hold for two months prior spray of Urea and Calcium chloride resulted to normal flowering period. This treatment into increase in aril size, diameter, weight is helpful to get better quality fruits during a and length of fruit and ascorbic acid content. particular period in a year. Similarly, enhanced growth, yield and fruit 3.4 Nutritional requirement quality was obtained through treatment of Application of farmyard manure (10- proline and tryptophan (Ramezanian et al., 20 Kg/tree) alongwith chemical fertilizers, 2009; El Sayed, 2014). salts of micronutrients (Zn, Mn, B, Fe, Cu Intercropping is practised by Indian each in 15-25 g/Plant), vermi-compost (3-5 farmers since long time ago to acquire Kg/ plant) and Neem Cake (1-3 Kg/plant) is technical as well as economic benefits from commonly practised by farmers to provide either both the component crops or atleast various required macro and micronutrients one in comparsion to monocrop system. to pomegranate crop. The type and dose of Wasaki et al., (2003) reported that chemical fertilizers which need to be intercropping improves mobilization of applied varies among cultivars and nutrients in the rhizosphere thus, resulted geographic location of farm, like zinc is the into better growth and yield from only required nutrient in California whereas, component crops. Green compost crops, in Isarail, nitrogen and potassium fertilizers pulses and vegetables are recommended as has to be added in equal amount for intercrop till the main crop attain 4-5 years pomegranate crop (LaRue, 1980; age. Blumenfeld et al., 2000). Split application
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Sharma et al., (2015) reported that concentration of carbon and nitrogen which Pomegranate-Urd-Pea intercrop sequencing lead to better growth of plants (Chirinda et improve the availability of macro and al., 2008). Maity et al., (2014) observed micronutrients as well as microbial improvement in uptake of potassium and population in soil as compared to phosphorus (47.47% and 63.44% pomegranate monoculture. Increased respectively) by plants growing in soil microbial activity resulted into higher inoculated with Penicillium pinophilum.
4. Diseases and Pests of Pomegranate Table 5: Important pests and diseases of Pomegranate. Diseases caused by insect pests Name of disease Causal organism Symptoms Affected References plant part Pomegranate fruit borer Virachola Isocrates Cater-pillars puncture the fruit and feed on arils. Fruit NHB database, (Pomegranate butterfly) 2012 Bark eating cater pillar Indarbela tetraonis Pest pierces the stem of tree and feed inside it. Stem NHB database, 2012 Stem borer Aleurodes sp. This pest makes a hole in the main trunk of the Stem NHB database, tree and feeds on the stems. 2012 Pomegranate whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae Yellowing of leaves, short growth and defoliation Leaf NHB database, of leaves in extreme cases. 2012 Aphids Aphis punicae Chlorotic patches on leaves. Leaves NHB database, 2012 Mealy Bugs Drosicha mangiferae Sap sucking mealy bug secretes some droplets on Fruit NHB database, fruits as its feeding activity, on which black or 2012 dark brown sooty mould can grow. As a result fruit drop occur. Scale insects Saissetia nigra Insect feed on fruits and tender shoots by sucking Fruit NHB database, cell sap, causes drying of shoot. The severe 2012 invasion may prompt to drying of whole tree. Flat mite Brevipalpus lewisi Causes rusting and checking on fruit Fruit Stover and Mercure, 2007 Leaf roller Platynola stultana Causes rusting and checking on fruit Fruit Stover and Mercure, 2007 Diseases caused by fungal and bacterial pests Alternaria fruit spot A. alternata Tiny, round spots, red to brown in color on the Fruits and Ezra et al., 2010 surface of fruits and leaves. leaves Alternaria internal black A. alternata, A. Fruits Tziros et al., 2008 rot tenuissima and A. arborescens Heart rot Aspergillus niger Black sporulating fungus inside the fruits causes Fruits Yehia, 2013 decay of fruit skin. Arils & skin color changes to brown & pale respectively. Fruit rot Alternaria Sp., Symptoms are similar to heart rot, fruit rot and Fruits Munhuweyi et al., Fusarium Sp., and fruit spot. 2016 Aspergillus niger Grey mould rot Botrytis cinerea, Grayish mycelium causes rot of whole fruit. Fruits Munhuweyi et al., Botrytis spp. 2016 Wilt Ceratocystis Yellowing and withering of leaves causes death Leaves Munhuweyi et al., fimbriata, Fusarium of plant in a few weeks. 2016 oxysporum, Rhizoctonia Anthracnose Colletotrichum Round to sporadic, dark brown spots with Complete Munhuweyi et al., gloeosporioides depressed centers, resulting in fruit decay plant 2016 Fruit rot Cytospora punicae Apoplexy collar rot Fruits Ammar and El- Naggar, 2014 Blue mould fruit rot Penicillium Water-doused regions on fruit surface, followed Fruits Munhuweyi et al. implicatum by development of green to blue green powdery 2016 mould. Tainted regions are tan or grey when cut. Fruit rot Penicillium sp., Fruit decay Fruits Palavouzis et al., Botrytis cinerea, 2015 Coniella granati, Die back and fruit rot, Coniella granati Decay of aerial parts of tree and growth of Fruits Munhuweyi et al. dry rot fruiting bodies around the fruit. 2016 Shoot blight (stem Neofusicoccum Blighted shoots having cankers on stem, prompts Stem Kc and Vallad, canker) parvum to death of whole tree. 2016 Leaf spot or blight Xanthomonas Dark brownish, circular to Complete Munhuweyi et al. axanopodis pv sporadic water doused spots on leaves and fruits. plant 2016 punicae Under extreme invasion premature defoliation occur.
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Plant pathogens and diseases caused Dhutraj, 2017) in the year 2009-2010 and by them is a major reason for crop losses 2013-2014 respectively to analyze the which are occurring worldwide. Successful extent of damage due to anthracnose. cultivation of pomegranate has met with a Disease symptoms were observed on all huge economic loss because of diseases and parts of plant but the maximum PDI was pest attack in recent years. A summary of reported on fruits (28.80%), followed by various diseases caused by fungi, bacteria leaves (23-24%). Similarly, incidences of and other pests on pomegranate is outlined anthracnose had been reported in all major in table 5. Some common diseases which pomegranate cultivating countries around affect pomegranate crop severely and have the world. Thus, anthracnose presents a major contribution in yield loss are threat to pomegranate plantation and described comprehensively in following demands a higher level of concern. paragraphs. Therefore, this review emphasizes on important aspects of anthracnose disease. 4.1 Anthracnose disease Pomegranate anthracnose is beset by Anthracnose is a fungal disease Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. and characterized by variety of symptoms like Sacc. which belongs to phylum Ascomycete leaf spots, defoliation, blighted shoots, and Coeleomycetes class of Fungi blotches or distortion, twig canker and imperfectii (Dean et al., 2012). On PDA dieback. It is caused by different species of medium; C. gloeosporioides initially Colletotrichum, a fungus which covers a develops mycelia of white to grey in color broad host range of deciduous and which becomes pink to orange due to evergreen trees, shrubs, fruits, vegetables, formation of conidia. It is circular in shape various legumes, and turf grass. Farmers with regular margin and shows radial face huge economic loss due to incidences pattern of growth. The conidia are of anthracnose disease as 10-80% reduction cylindrical with both apices rounded, pink in marketable yield of total crop production to orange in color and vary in size from has been reported (Ashwini and Srividhya, 7.57-15.50 × 3.38-7.52 µm (Chowdappa et 2012).Whole plant is affected by this al., 2012). disease and finally die due to severe infection. Up to 80-100% loss in overall 4.1.1 Physical factors for disease yield has been recorded for lemons, sweet development oranges (Goes and Kupper, 2002), olives, Incidences of anthracnose had been sorghum (Ali et al., 1987; Thomas et al., detected from all pomegranate growing 1996) and strawberries (Denoyes and countries around the world but their Baudry, 1991). Remarkable decrease in percentage is higher in countries having photosynthetic activity is reported in tropical or subtropical environment like affected plants which led to diminution in India. The fungus remains latent during hot yield (Makambila, 1978; Theberge, 1985; summer and cool winter seasons in or Obilo and Ikotum, 2009). Information about outside seeds, in soil or in garden debris. It the etiology and severity of anthracnose on starts infecting developing shoots and young different plants of economic significance is leaves during spring and flourishes very compiled and represented in table 6 which well in rainy season (Moral et al., 2009). shows; fungus Colletotrichum sp. has a very Moisture is required for infection on the broad host range. Pomegranate cultivation plant and for germination of conidia. Direct have been used to bear a major loss in fruit influence of environmental factors had been quality and yield, mainly due to anthracnose observed on disease occurrence and disease. Surveys were conducted in various expansion. Interestingly, change in weather districts of Karnataka (Nargund et al., 2012) condition could change the behavior of and Maharashtra states of India (Chavan and pathogen and host, as well as the interaction
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 321 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases between them (Davis et al., 1987; Coakley 2001; Pandey et al., 2012). Furthermore, et al., 1999). Several authors reported that dispersal of conidia occurs primarily temperature between 20oC-30oC and relative through water by rain splash, wind, insects humidity from 80-95% for 12 hrs are and garden tools (Fitzell et al., 1984; Guyot necessary for initial invasion and its et al., 2005). development (Prakash, 1996; Roberts et al.,
S. Name of plant Name of Colletotrichum species % Damage Reference No. 1 Mango (Mangifera indica) C. gloeosporioides 60 Kumari et al., 2017 2 Chilli (Capsicum annum) C. novaezelandiae, C. siamense 12-50 Damm et al., 2012; Sharma and Shenoy, 2014 3 Banana (Musa sp.) C. musae 30-40 Ranasinghe et al., 2003 4 Coffee (Coffea arabica) C. kahawae 60-80 Mouen Bedimo et al.,2012 5 Avocado (Persea americana) C. gloeosporioides, C.boninense, C. Up to 70 Hernandez- Lauzardo et al., 2015 godetiae 6 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) C. agaves, C. dracaenophilum - Farr et al., 2006 7 Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) C. americaeborealis - Damm et al., 2014 8 Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) C. annellatum - Damm et al., 2014 9 Sugar cane (Saccharum C. falcatum - Alexander and Viswanathan 1996 officinarum) 10 Strawberry (Fragaria sp.) C. fragariae - Howard et al., 1992 11 Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) C. lagenarium - Dean and Kuc, 1987 12 Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) C. lagenarium - Dean and Kuc, 1987 13 Papaya (Carica papaya) C. gloeosporioides 75 Saini et al., 2016; Paulla et al., 1997 14 Pomegranate (Punica granatum) C. gloeosporioides 40-90 Mandhare et al.,1996 15 Guava (Psidium guajava) C. simmondsii - Singh et al., 2007 Table 6: Etiology and severity of Anthracnose on different plants.
Figure 1: Symptoms of anthracnose on Pomegranate fruit: (A) Attachment of fungal spores on the surface of fruit through infected fruits, water splash, wind, insect etc., (B) Initial stage: Distinguished by sub circular or angular, small, sunken, water doused lesions, surrounded with translucent light brown margins. (C) Intermediate stage: Identified by the nearness of black hued spots in concentric rings which become hard at development. Lesions can coalesce and become necrotic, as fruit grows cracking of peel occur, (D) Final stage: Tainted fruits dry up and transmit conidia (asexual spores) of pathogen to the next season.
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4.1.2 Disease symptoms intramural phase, or as a blend of both the The pathogen infects whole plant processes (Bailey et al., 1992; Saxena et al., and produces broad symptoms which vary 2016). No report is available which from one cultivar to another. Characteristic describes the mechanism adopted by C. symptoms are stem rot, blighted shoots, leaf gloeosporioides to infect host plant spot, defoliation, blotches, seedling blight (pomegranate). Therefore, the disease cycle and dieback (Pasin et al., 2009). On fruit, described here is of C. destructivum which observed symptoms are recognized as sub causes anthracnose disease in tobacco. circular or angular, small, sunken, water Similar infection mechanism may be doused lesions, surrounded by light brown predicted for C. gloeosporioides on the margins and at advanced stage of infection basis of its taxonomic relationship with C. lesion appears as expanded necrosis (Robert destructivum (Shew and Lucas; 1991). The et al., 2001; Pujari et al., 2013). Figure 1 fungi reported to adopt an intracellular, depicts the characteristic, observable hemibiotrophic phase in which initially symptoms which appeared on pomegranate biotrophic phase is trailed by a catastrophic fruit due to infection of Colletotrichum necrotrophic phase at later period of gloeosporioides. The course of penetration, infection (Latunde-Dada et al., 1996). The invasion and destruction is rapid to the point infection process of C. destructivum on that when side effects are perceived, the tobacco leaves was studied and reported by yield is in genuine threat (Nutman and Shen et al. (2001). Following events were Roberts, 1960). It affects the fruit quality, observed to occur in a sequential manner (i) marketability and a successful cultivation of Attachment and germination of conidia on pomegranate is converted into a waste the host cell surface, (ii) Penetration of within a short span of time (Mendgen and epidermal cell by appressorium or Hahn, 2002; Rodriguez- Lopez et al., 2009; penetration peg, (iii) Formation of multi- Prusky et al., 2013). lobed infection vesicle, the growth of this infection vesicle is limited up to initially 4.1.3Disease cycle infected host cells, (iv) Emergence of In general, disease cycle is defined secondary hyphae from primary infection as a cascade of events which occur in a vesicle which colonizes new cells and sequential manner and repeated tissues, (v) Formation of acervuli containing continuously in the same fashion. In case of conidia on the plant surface, (vi) Spread of Colletotrichum, disease cycle begins with infection. In above mentioned process steps the attachment of fungal conidia on the airy (i) to (iii) were characterized as biotrophic parts of the plant. It consists of multiple, phase of infection and step (iv) was consecutive steps like germination of designated as the beginning of necrotrophic conidium, production of adhesive phase. appressoria (crucial for cuticle penetration), Anthracnose is mainly transmitted penetration into the host cell, mycelial through conidia (asexual spores) like other growth and development on host tissue, fungal diseases. Despite the fact that formation of acervuli containing fungal appressoria, hyphal parts and appressorium spores for further spread (Prusky et al., like thick walled cells may also transmit the 2000; Wharton and Dieguez- Uribeondo, disease (Nair et al., 1983). Conidia are 2004; Arroyo et al., 2005; Gomes et al., produced in a slimy matrix and easily 2007; Mota- Capitao et al., 2008). The dispersed through water, air current, insects processes of infection and interaction with or any other form of contact with infected their hosts have been studied for several plant part (Yang et al., 1990; Agostini et al., species of Colletotrichum. They are 1993; Ntahimpera et al.,, 1999; Mouen categorized either as an intracellular Bedimo et al., 2012; Ali et al., 2016). hemibiotrophic phase, a subcuticular Disease transmission is also possible
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 323 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases through mother plant by using infected of plants, drying of branches followed by cuttings as planting material. Over wintered flower and fruit drop. In severe cases the shoots, infected leaves, mummified fruits on entire orchard is wilted. Since the infection the tree or on the soil surface are main is soil borne, it is essential to maintain soil source of inoculum for the primary fertility through judicious irrigation and infection. As a result of digging, washing application of farmyard manure and neem and transplanting exercises, conidia may cake. Treatment with copper oxychloride wash down from the infected upper parts of and Trichoderma powder (10-15kg/ha) was the plant and facilitates root infection (Peres observed to be powerful against wilt. et al., 2005). It is reported that the conidia 4.5 Fruit borer (Pomegranate butter fly) of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on This disease is caused by an insect infected stems pieces or on the soil surface named as Virochola isocrates. Infestation survive for two dry seasons (Boland et al., starts from flower and spread up to fruits. 1995). Cater-pillars puncture the fruits and feed on 4.2 Leaf spot or blight arils. Further, bacteria and fungi grow on Analogous to anthracnose, damaged fruits as secondary source of significant yield loss in pomegranate is infection; cause fruit rotting. Collection and reported due to leaf spot or blight disease proper disposal of affected fruits is (Petersen et al., 2010). It is a bacterial suggested to prevent the blowout of disease. infection caused by Xanthomonas Application of carbaryl (4g l-1of water) or axonopodis pv. punicae which is a gram phosphamidon (0.3ml 1-1of water) at 10-15 negative, flagellate, non-sporulating, days intervals is recommended to control aerobic, polar bacterium. On nutrient agar the disease. medium; colonies of this bacterium are 4.6 Bark eating cater pillar shiny, mucoid and yellow in color. Dark The causative agent of bark eating brownish, circular to sporadic water doused cater pillar is Indarbela tetraonis, an insect spots on leaves and fruits are characteristic pest, which pierce the stems of tree and feed symptoms of the disease. Under extreme inside it. Due to this trees are devitalized invasion premature defoliation occur. and unable to bear fruits. The disease is (Jadhav and Sharma, 2011, Kalyan et al., successfully controlled through sanitation, 2012). removal of unwanted twigs and cleaning of 4.3 Alternaria fruit spot the affected portions. Plugging of holes with This disease is beset by Alternaria cotton soaked in carbon disulphide or alternata and identified by brown, circular, Kerosene or petrol, reduces the disease small, and reddish spots on fruits. At the incidences by preventing insect entry into advanced stage, these spots merged to form the bark. larger patches and rotting started in fruits. 4.7 Whitefly The affected arils change color from red to Whitefly is a serious matter of pale yellow and become unfit for concern as it is reported in all pomegranate consumption. Infected fruits must be growing areas around the world including collected and destroyed to prevent the India and causes significant crop loss. The spreading of disease. The spray of disease is caused by an insect i.e. mancozeb solution at 0.25 % concentration Siphoninus phillyreae. Infection begins is suggested to control the disease (Indian from the lower surface of apical leaves Horticulture Database, 2012). (after laying eggs by female fly) and then 4.4 Wilt transferred to the upper part of the leaves The wilt in pomegranate is produced and fruits. Honeydew, a liquid secreted by by different fungal genera like Ceratocystis whitefly, causes a serious damage to crop fimbriata, Fusarium oxysporum and and supports bacterial and fungal growth Rhizoctonia. It is associated with yellowing which results into development of
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 324 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases secondary infections. Thus, the entire plant grown-ups, the crawlers are free from waxy is damaged severely and production is covering; therefore crawler stage is the best affected. Whitefly disease is characterized stage for splashing pesticides. Spray of by yellowing of leaves and stunted growth; insecticides like dichlorvos (0.02%) or during severe invasion defoliation of leaves malathion (0.2%) with fish oil resin soap occur. Mechanical and chemical methods was found to control the insect population. are commonly practiced to get rid of from Application of phorate (20 g/plant) is whiteflies. In mechanical method use of effective to control the pest population in splendid yellow sticky trap is common to the soil. catch flies. Water spray with high volume 5. Disease Management and pressure under the leaves surface; helps Pomegranate plant is very much in washing out honeydew, eggs, larvae, susceptible towards various kinds of latent pupae and adult whitefly. This should be infections. Therefore, to avail maximum followed by spray of triazophos 40 EC (1.5 economic benefit from a pomegranate crop, ml l-1 of water) or a mixture of it is desirable to protect it from the attack of Monocrotophos 36SL (1.5 ml l-1 of water) various pathogens by practicing disease and Dichlorvos 76 EC (1.0 ml l-1 of water) management. It is defined as a collection of at an interval of 8-10 days. preventive measures which are implemented 4.8 Aphids (Aphis punicae) for complete or partial eradication of Yellowish green, sap sucking insects pathogen, from a crop (Palou et al., 2007). secrete sweet mucoid substance on lower Control of disease always becomes very surface of the leaves which attracts the difficult once it spreads into the whole field. fungal growth and weaken the plant. Therefore, it is recommended to follow an Chlorotic patches can be seen on affected effective disease management program in leaves. Aphids prefer high humid every season to reduce the chances of both environment for their growth and pre-harvest and post-harvest diseases. In development. Spray of dimethoate (0.03%) pomegranate, it is observed that most of the or monocrotophos (0.05%) or malathion infections are post-harvest but they begin in (0.1%) at 15 days interval effectively the field itself so preventive and curative controls the aphid population. measures should start before harvesting of 4.9 Mealy Bugs crop (Munhuweyi et al., 2016). Every Leaves show characteristic curling disease requires a specific disease symptoms in mealy bug disease which are management strategy depending upon its similar to that of a viral infection but this is nature (pre-harvest or post-harvest), caused by an insect known as Drosicha etiology (bacterial, fungal, viral or any other mangiferae. Adult female bugs are oval in pests), severity (localized or systematic) and shape with waxy filaments throughout the time of occurrence etc. This section of body. Sap sucking nymphs and adults review paper describes various strategies secretes some droplets on fruits as their which are proposed and evaluated for feeding activity on which black and dark disease management in pomegranate by brown sooty mould can grow. The severe different research groups. infestation can cause fruit drop. Eggs 5.1 Chemical control remain torpid in the soil till the next bahar. This is the most common, easy to Amid of the next following season nymphs implement strategy which offers the hatch from the eggs and attack the plants. application of synthetic chemicals The plants in the vicinity of the orchard (fungicides, antibiotics, insecticides or should be destroyed as they serve as pesticides) to minimize the risk of variety of alternate hosts for mealy bugs. Gluing an oil infections of pomegranate crop. Fungicides band of 5cm width on the main trunk stops like; thiophanate methyl and tebuconazole the crawlers to climb. In contrast to the were found to be effective against shoot
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 325 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases blight and fruit rot (Thomidis 2015). but also improved the nutritional value of Performance of five fungicides viz., fruits. Post-harvest heat treatment leads to mancozeb (0.25%), companion (0.25%), increase in the levels of free putrescene, carbendazim (0.05%), copper oxychloride spimidine and polyamines (Mirdehghan et (0.3%) and captan (0.3%) against fruit spot al.,2007). Preconditioning or curing of and rot diseases of pomegranate was pomegranate (at 30○C - 40○C and high compared through field trials in India. relative humidity 90-95% for 1-4 days) Significant reduction in diseases was improved the antioxidant activities of arils observed by the use of captan, companion due to higher levels of total phenolics, and copper oxychloride, but copper ascorbic acid and anthocyanin. Sugar oxychloride leaves scars on the fruit after content (glucose and fructose) as well as spray which in turn reduces the market organic acids (oxalic, citric, malic acids) acceptability (Khosla et al., 2008). During a also reported to be increased as compared to survey it was found that the spray of control (Pareek et al., 2015). Among all heat streptocyclin (500 ppm) and copper conditioning (48 hrs at 35○C), intermittent oxychloride (2000 ppm) in a mixture was warming (24 hrs at 20○Cevery 9 days) and able to reduce the mean disease incidence of hot water treatment (3 min, at 52○C); hot bacterial blight by 25.5% (Jadhav and water treatment was reported to be most sharma 2011). Although effective against a effective to reduce chilling injury and range of pathogenic infections, chemical electrolyte leakage as well as to maintain methods are associated with hazardous the fruit quality (Ben Abda et al., 2010). effects on environment and human health. Although, it is reported that heat treatment Continuous use of a particular chemical improves the physico-chemical and against a specific pest, leads to development nutritional qualities of fruit but temperature of resistant strains (Palou et al., 2007). needs to be managed very carefully. A Fungicides are normally applied as dips, sudden exposure of pomegranate juice to fumigants, sprays, treated wraps and liners high temperature (70○C- 90○C for 90 or may be mixed with fruit wax to control minutes) results into decrease in antioxidant post-harvest pathogens and diseases thus activity, ascorbic acid and total phenolic extending shelf life of pomegranate during content (Paul and Ghosh 2012) while curing storage (Ghatge et al., 2005). Another and intermittent warming makes fruits mechanism of chemical control by dipping susceptible to water loss. Treatment with of fruit in the solution of fungicides like hot water is not sufficient to control fungal fenhexamid and fludioxinil have been growth hence it has to be supplemented reported to decrease incidences of gray either with chemical treatment or biological mould, caused by B. cinerea (Holland et al., process for better results. Exposure of 2009). Gamma irradiation at doses higher than 2 5.2 Physical control Kilogray (kGy) caused the complete Implementation of physical agents inhibition of microbial growth in like high temperature, humidity, radiation pomegranate juice during storage but along etc. comes under the category of physical with significant reduction in anthocyanin control of diseases. They are more content (Wisniewski et al., 2001, applicable for post-harvest infections and Alighourchi et al., 2008). diseases in pomegranate. Temperature has 5.3 Mechanical control proven to be effective in the form of curing, Proper sorting and removal of treatment with hot water, dry heating and infected, diseased and damaged plants, plant intermittent warming. Treatment with hot parts and fruits from healthy ones comes water (at 45 ○C for 4 minutes) was not only under the category of mechanical control, found to be effective to reduce chilling which is applicable at both pre-harvest and injury, electrolyte and potassium leakage post-harvest levels. Preparation of field
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 326 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases before starting new plantation by removing growth retarding activity on pomegranate old branches and twigs, leaves and fruits is aphid, Aphis punicae. The disease control suggested to prevent the spreading of mechanisms of these biopesticides disease to next generation. Special care incorporate production of anti-infection must be taken after pruning as most of the agents or phytoalexins, rivalry for plant pathogens enter into host through supplements and space with pathogenic wounds or natural cuts. Application of organisms, mycoparasitism, just as protective pastes to cut ends of pruned incitement of host resistance (Yenjerappa et branches has proven to be a strong strategy al., 2013; Mutawila et al., 2015). to restrict the infection. Although, 5.5 Use of resistant cultivars economically not feasible but covering the Development and subsequent fruits in bags when they are on trees is cultivation of disease and pest resistant crop helpful to protect them from damages; varieties is a strong approach for disease caused by insects and birds (Jadhav and management. Screening and selection of sharma 2011). existing, wild genotypes of economically 5.4 Biological control important crops are prerequisites for Several microorganisms, plants and expanding the range of resistant cultivars animals have been discovered and well (Verma et al., 2014; Thomidis, 2015). known for their antagonistic effect against Limited reports are available on screening other living organisms. Such organisms of wild genotypes of pomegranate with the paved the way of another stream of plant aim of identification and selection of disease disease management i.e. biological control. resistant natural cultivars. Wild genotypes It is highly recommended and considered as of pomegranate were subjected to screening most sustainable approach of disease to determine their susceptibility for management as it has no harmful effects on anthracnose disease (Jayalakshmi et al., environment. Bacillus subtilis subsp. 2013), dry fruit rot and leaf spot by Coniella Spizizenii (Avogreen) and Cryptococcus granati (Kumari and Ram 2015) and against albidus (Saito) were found to be effective in an insect i.e. Ectomyelois ceratoniae controlling fungal decay of pomegranate (Sobhani et al., 2015). A screening of total fruit (Janisiewicz and Korsten, 2002). The 209 pomegranate genotypes including 105 biocontrol potential of several actinomycete exotic types from USDA, 66 wild types and strains had been proved against 38 cultivated types from India against Xanthomonas axonopodispv. punicae, bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas which causes leaf spot disease in axonopodis pv. Punicae was performed by pomegranate (Chavan et al.,2016). The Tanuja Priya et al., (2016). Five genotypes potential of various bioagents including showing resistance for bacterial blight fungi, bacteria and plant extracts have been (108B and 99 A from USDA and 318734, assessed for the management of Daru-18 and IIHR.30 from India) were pomegranate anthracnose. Among the identified through this survey from natural various microorganisms which were pomegranate population. Increased level of evaluated, the maximum decrease in PDI defense related metabolites like total phenol, was obtained through Trichoderma viride in flavonoid and antioxidants were detected in both in-vitro (79.1%) as well as in-vivo resistant cultivars. Replacement of (18.9%) conditions. Along with that morphological markers with potent Eucalyptus extract showed maximum molecular markers facilitated the selection inhibition of mycelial growth of C. of resistant genotype from natural gloeosporioides (Sataraddi et al., 2011). population. Insertion of particular gene Extracts of several medicinal and conferring specific resistance into elite ornamental plants have been analyzed by genotype became feasible through use of Moawad and Al-Barty (2011) for their molecular markers and gene transfer
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 327 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases technologies (Munhuweyi et al., 2016). include cleaning of field prior to next Thorough screening of pomegranate cultivation, crop rotation, intermittent germplasm through advanced cropping, management of irrigation biotechnological tools is highly needed and schedule etc. Sanitation of field by removal will certainly assist the development of and proper disposal of infected or dead plant resistant cultivars. parts from field decreased the PDI of 5.6 Storage management anthracnose in pomegranate (Ali et al., Post harvest storage is a critical part 2016; Penet et al., 2016). Roberts et al., of disease management program. Fruits (2001) suggested that crop rotation after usually change their organoleptic properties every 2-3 years with non-host plant protects (color, taste, texture, smell) and become the host crop from variety of diseases while, susceptible towards variety of infections if Ripoche et al., (2008) supported mixed not stored properly under recommended cropping. Proper planning and environmental conditions. Pomegranate fruit implementation of irrigation program is is very much suceptible to dehydration thus observed to be compelling in shielding crop temperatre and humidity should be from broad range of infections including maintained carefully after harvesting. Colletotrichum. Overwatering and overhead Although the required conditions varies irrigation produce adverse effects on according to cultivars, production areas and pomegranate crop hence, advised to avoid post harvest treatments but fruits stored at even under drought conditions. Relatively 5oC- 10oC at 80-95% RH remain healthy high humidity and moisture built up under without any shrinkage or spoilage up to canopy favor growth of all sort of pathogens seven months (Caleb et al., 2012; Pareek et therefore, fields should have a proper al., 2015). Spermidine and calcium chloride drainage system (Than et al., 2008). (Ramezanian et al., 2010), polyamide plastic (Sadeghi and Akbarpour 2009), 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE enclosing by individual film with PROSPECTS fludioxonil (D' Aquino et al., 2010) are Pomegranate is a most adaptable normally embraced medications for fruit crop of subtropical countries in the improving the time span of usability of world. India has become the biggest pomegranate by lessening the risk of weight producer and exporter of pomegranate reduction, shrinkage, rot development, during the last decade. Deccan Plateau appearance of physiological issue like burn which consists of Maharashtra, Karnataka and chiling damage (Elyatem and Kader and Andhra Pradesh states of India produces 1984; Opara et al., 2015). Advance and pomegranate throughout the year due to its currently practiced technology for prolong unique geographical features and storage of fruits is ―Modified Atmosphere environmental conditions. Bhagwa, Ganesh, Packaging‖. In this technique, fruits are Arakta are commonly cultivated varieties of packed in special, perforated bags having pomegranate which give huge hike to the 5% CO2 and 12-14% O2 and these bags are horticulture economy. To extend the shelf stored at a particular temperature. life of pomegranate and to obtain a Pomegranates when subjected to modified continuous fruit supply throughout the year, atmosphere packaging at 6oC up to 16 the physiological disorders and diseases of weeks resulted into 7-35% reduced weight pomegranate should be comprehended. loss as compared to control (Porat et al., Pomegranates are very susceptible to 2006; Sachs et al., 2006). various insect pests and diseases. Presently, 5.7 Good agricultural practices anthracnose has become major threat to The probability of disease incidences pomegranate in India causing enormous loss and pest attacks can be minimized by and has created panic among the growers. adopting Good Agricultural Practices. These However, the pandemic nature of the
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 328 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018 Khushboo Jain et al. Pomegranate the Cash Crop of India: A Comprehensive Review on Agricultural Practices and Diseases disease has being studied since ages, many Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2016. An points are still un-researched viz; host- update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group pathogen interaction, main vector for classification for the orders and families of spreading the disease and most effective flowering plants: APG IV. Botanical disease eradication strategies. It demands Journal of the Linnean Society 181, 1–20 serious research efforts to develop high Arroyo TF, Moreno J, Garcia-Herdugo G, et quality cultivars which have resistance to al., 2005. Ultrastructure of the early stages of Colletotrichum acutatum infection of insect pests and diseases. Additionally, strawberry tissues. Canadian Journal of modifications in existing agricultural Botany 83, 491-500. practices would be helpful in management Ashwini N, Srividya S, 2012. Study of of the disease in better way and improving mycolytic enzymes of Bacillus sp. against the quality and quantity of the crop, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing subsequently giving rise to the economy of anthracnose in Chili. Acta Biologica the nation. Indica1, 81-89. Badizadegan M, 1975. Growth of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS pomegranate (Punica grantum L.) as Authors are highly thankful to Dr. Pallavi Vyas affected by soil moisture tension. Journal of Scientific writer and editor of "TEXTiFRAME" Horticulture 50, 227. Sweden, for providing substantial contribution Bailey JA, O'Connell RJ, Pring RJ, et al., to edit the manuscript. 1992. Infection strategies of Colletotrichum species. In: Bailey JA, Jeger MJ, eds. REFERENCES Colletotrichum – biology, pathology and Agostini JP, Gottwald TR, Timmer LW, control CAB International, Wallingford, 1993. Temporal and spatial dynamics of UK, 88–121. post bloom fruit drop of citrus in Florida. Ben Abda J, Yahyaoui N, Mars M, Sdiri S, Phytopathology 83, 485-90. Salvador-Pèrez A, 2010. Effect of Alexander KC, Viswanathan R, 1996. Major intermittent warming, hot water treatment diseases affecting sugarcane production in and heat conditioning on quality of Jbali India and recent experiences in quarantine. stored pomegranate. Acta Horticulture 877, In: Croft BJ, Piggin CM, Wallis ES, 1433–1440. Hogarth DM eds. Proceedings of Blumenfeld A, Shaya F, Hillel R. 2000. ACIARSugarcane Germplasm Conservation Cultivation of pomegranate. Options and Exchange 67, Canberra, 46-48. Mediterraneennes Series A2, 143–147. Ali A, Bordoh PK, Singh A, 2016. Post- Boland RM, Chakraborty S, Irwin JAG, harvest development of anthracnose in 1995. Survival of Colletotrichum pepper (Capsicum sp.): etiology and gloeosporioides on Stylosanthes scabracv management strategies. Crop protection 90, Fitz- Roy during the dry season. Australian 132-41. Journal of Agricultural Research 46, 959– Ali MEK, Warren HL, Latin RX, 1987. 69. Relationship between anthracnose leaf Bose TK, Mitra SK, Sadhu MK, 1988. blight and losses in grain yield of Sorghum. Pomegranate. Mineral nutrition of fruit Plant Diseases 71, 803- 806. crops 435–436. Alighourchi H, Barzegar M, Abbasi S, Caleb OJ, Opara UL, Witthuhn CR, 2012. 2008. Effect of gamma irradiation on the Modified atmosphere packaging of stability of anthocyanins and shelf-life of pomegranate fruit and arils: a review. Food various pomegranate juices. Food Bioprocess Technology 5, 15–30. Chemistry 110, 1036–1040. Chandra R, Marathe RA, Kumar P, 2006. Ammar MI, El-Naggar MA, 2014. Present status of pomegranate and its scope Screening and characterization of fungi and for crop diversification in arid and semi-arid their associated mycotoxins in some fruit region of Maharashtra. In: Proceedings of crops. International Journal of Advance the national symposium on agro- forestry Research 2, 1216– 27. for livelihood security environment
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How to cite this article: Jain K, Desai N. Pomegranate the cash crop of India: a comprehensive review on agricultural practices and diseases. Int J Health Sci Res. 2018; 8(5):315-336.
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International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 336 Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018