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Human Spaceflight and Exploration Human Spaceflight and Exploration Carol Norberg (Editor) Human Spaceflight and Exploration Published in association with Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK Editor Dr. Carol Norberg Swedish Institute of Space Physics Kiruna Sweden SPRINGER±PRAXIS BOOKS IN ASTRONAUTICAL ENGINEERING ISBN 978-3 - 642 - 23724 - 9 ISBN 978-3 - 642 - 23725 - 6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-23725-6 Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012942470 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project copy editor: David M. Harland Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer ScienceþBusiness Media (www.springer.com) Contents Foreword............................................ ix Editor’s preface ....................................... xi List of contributors ..................................... xiii Acknowledgments ...................................... xv List of figures ........................................ xvii List of tables ......................................... xxiii List of abbreviations and acronyms ........................... xxv 1 Introduction (Carol Norberg)............................ 1 1.1 Exploration ................................... 1 1.2 Space....................................... 2 1.3 Organization of space activities ...................... 4 1.4 Chapter summaries .............................. 7 1.5 References/recommended literature .................... 9 Websites ..................................... 9 2 History of human spaceflight (Sven Grahn and Carol Norberg) ...... 11 Abstract ......................................... 11 2.1 Introduction ................................... 11 2.2 Early Russian success............................. 13 2.3 Mercury and Gemini ............................. 18 2.4 Soyuz....................................... 24 2.5 Apollo....................................... 25 2.6 Early space stations .............................. 32 vi Contents 2.6.1 Salyut and Mir............................ 32 2.6.2 Skylab ................................. 39 2.7 Space Shuttles.................................. 41 2.8 The International Space Station ...................... 45 2.9 Shenzhou..................................... 52 2.10 Commercial space travel ........................... 54 2.11 Milestones in the development of human spaceflight......... 61 2.12 References/recommended literature .................... 62 Websites ..................................... 63 3 The space environment (Carol Norberg) ..................... 65 Abstract ......................................... 65 3.1 Introduction ................................... 65 3.2 Gravity ...................................... 66 3.2.1 Drop towers ............................. 70 3.2.2 Parabolic flights ........................... 71 3.2.3 Sounding rockets .......................... 76 3.2.4 Recoverable satellites ........................ 78 3.2.5 International Space Station .................... 80 3.2.6 Space travel and the human body ............... 83 3.3 Neutral particle environment ........................ 92 3.3.1 Drag .................................. 92 3.3.2 Spacecraft glow ........................... 92 3.3.3 Surface erosion and degradation ................ 94 3.4 Vacuum environment ............................. 94 3.5 Plasma environment.............................. 95 3.6 Radiation environment ............................ 98 3.6.1 Radiation, definition and units ................. 98 3.6.2 Earth’s radiation belts ....................... 100 3.6.3 Galactic cosmic rays ........................ 103 3.6.4 Solar particle events ........................ 104 3.6.5 Radiation effects........................... 106 3.7 Micrometeoroid and space debris environment ............ 110 3.8 References/recommended literature .................... 117 Websites ..................................... 119 4 Space exploration (Carol Norberg) ........................ 121 Abstract ......................................... 121 4.1 Solar system exploration ........................... 121 4.2 The Moon .................................... 125 4.2.1 Unmanned exploration....................... 126 4.2.2 Apollo ................................. 132 4.3 Mars........................................ 137 4.3.1 Travel time to Mars ........................ 138 4.3.2 Unmanned exploration....................... 141 Contents vii 4.3.3 Human exploration . ....................... 150 4.3.4 Mars analogues on Earth ..................... 153 4.4 Asteroids ..................................... 158 4.5 References/recommended literature .................... 159 Websites ..................................... 160 5 Life support systems (A˚ke Ingemar Skoog)................... 161 Abstract ......................................... 161 5.1 Introduction ................................... 162 5.2 Human needs? Requirements and design philosophies ........ 162 5.3 Types of life support systems. ....................... 166 5.4 Types of life support functions....................... 170 5.4.1 Air supply and revitalization ................... 171 5.4.2 Water management . ....................... 175 5.4.3 Food and waste management .................. 177 5.4.4 System safety ............................. 178 5.5 Physicochemical life support systems ................... 179 5.5.1 The first spacecraft life support systems............ 180 5.5.2 Life support systems of recent space vehicles ........ 186 5.6 Controlled ecological life support systems................ 193 5.6.1 CELSS background and constraints .............. 194 5.6.2 Large-scale CELSS testing .................... 200 5.6.3 CELSS flight experiments ..................... 203 5.7 Future development .............................. 207 5.8 References/recommended literature .................... 207 Website ...................................... 207 6 Space suits (A˚ke Ingemar Skoog)......................... 209 Abstract ......................................... 209 6.1 Introduction ................................... 209 6.2 What is a space suit? Background and requirements......... 210 6.3 Space suit design ................................ 220 6.3.1 The space suit system ....................... 220 6.3.2 The suit enclosure . ....................... 222 6.3.3 The life support system ...................... 229 6.3.4 Monitoring and control, communication, and safety . 235 6.3.5 Maneuvering systems . ....................... 237 6.4 Working in the space suit . ....................... 238 6.4.1 Preparation and execution of an EVA............. 238 6.4.2 Personal reflections on an EVA by ESA astronaut Christer Fuglesang . ....................... 240 6.5 Future development .............................. 245 6.5.1 Background .............................. 245 6.5.2 Lunar requirements . ....................... 246 6.5.3 Martian requirements. ....................... 246 viii Contents 6.5.4 Prototype testing........................... 247 6.5.5 Future technologies ......................... 248 6.5.6 Next-generation U.S. suits .................... 248 6.5.7 Ultimate goals ............................ 250 6.6 Space suits for suborbital ‘‘tourist flights’’ ............... 252 6.7 References/recommended literature .................... 253 7 Astronaut selection and training (Hansulrich Steimle and Carol Norberg) 255 Abstract ......................................... 255 7.1 Astronaut selection .............................. 255 7.1.1 General requirements ........................ 255 7.1.2 United States of America ..................... 257 7.1.3 Soviet Union/Russia ........................ 260 7.1.4 European Space Agency ...................... 264 7.1.5 Canada ................................. 274 7.1.6 Japan .................................. 277 7.1.7 China .................................. 279 7.2 Astronaut
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