"ROCKS AND STORMS I'LL FEAR NO MORE": ANGLO-AMERICAN MARITIME MEMORIALIZATION, 1700 - 1940 A Dissertation by DAVID JAMES STEWART Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2004 Major Subject: Anthropology "ROCKS AND STORMS I'LL FEAR NO MORE": ANGLO-AMERICAN MARITIME MEMORIALIZATION, 1700 - 1940 A Dissertation by DAVID JAMES STEWART Submitted to Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved as to style and content by: _____________________________ _____________________________ Sylvia A. Grider Kevin J. Crisman (Co-Chair of Committee) (Co-Chair of Committee) _____________________________ _____________________________ Thomas A. Green James C. Bradford (Member) (Member) _____________________________ David L. Carlson (Head of Department) May 2004 Major Subject: Anthropology iii ABSTRACT "Rocks and Storms I'll Fear No More": Anglo-American Maritime Memorialization, 1700 - 1940. (May 2004) David James Stewart, B.A., Baylor University; M.A., Texas A&M University Co-Chairs of Advisory Committee: Dr. Sylvia A. Grider Dr. Kevin J. Crisman Nautical archaeology has made remarkable advances since its inception half a century ago, but one area in need of more attention is the examination of cultural aspects of seafaring. This dissertation advances understanding of eighteenth- through early-twentieth century British and American maritime culture by exploring traditional memorialization practices. Interpretations are based primarily on analysis of 412 maritime memorials recorded during two archaeological surveys in Great Britain and the United States. In addition, primary accounts from the Age of Sail are utilized to place maritime memorialization into its proper cultural and historical context. Research reveals three major themes in Anglo-American maritime memorialization. First, memorials show a striking concern for the dangers and hardships of life at sea. Numerous memorials describe the perils of the natural world and the group values that mariners developed to cope with the ever-present possibility of sudden death. Such values include attention to duty, courage, group loyalty, self- sacrifice, and pride. iv Second, maritime communities faced the problem of commemorating those who never returned from the sea. Many sailors were lost at sea or died aboard ship or in distant lands. In the vast majority of such cases, the body was never returned home, and many did not receive proper burial. As a result, family members and fellow sailors created memorials to honor the lost and to symbolically lay the deceased to rest. Evidence indicates, however, that such attempts were not entirely satisfactory. Many epitaphs lament the fact that empty graves cannot provide an adequate substitute for missing bodies. Finally, investigation revealed a significant increase in religious sentiment on maritime memorials from the mid-nineteenth century until the end of the Age of Sail. It is suggested that the increase in maritime religious sentiment was linked to nineteenth-century religious reform movements. The prevalence of religious imagery and inscriptions on maritime memorials during this time, however, probably does not indicate that most sailors became religious. Rather, most religious maritime memorials were erected by sailors' families. This suggests that maritime families turned to religion as a source of comfort when faced with the deaths of loved ones at sea. v For Heidi vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project could never have been completed without the help and support of many people. First, I would like to thank the members of my doctoral committee: Sylvia Grider, Kevin Crisman, Tom Green, and James Bradford. Dr. Grider opened my eyes to the wonderful world of folklore, which provided perspectives that I had been searching for all along. One cannot understand maritime life without an appreciation of nautical technology and terminology, and my knowledge of both has been greatly enhanced by Dr. Crisman. In addition, his encyclopedic knowledge of primary accounts from the Age of Sail provided sources for many of the quotes used in this dissertation. Dr. Green helped me find my way through the tangled web of meanings that comprise semiotics and symbolic anthropology. Never before have I studied anything so difficult, but few things have been as rewarding either. Dr. Bradford helped me better understand the nature of historical research and the "big picture" of global seafaring during the Age of Sail. To each of these scholars I give my thanks for helping make this a much better study. Numerous teachers and professors helped shape the course of my career. Judy Scott and James Vardaman first stimulated my interest in English literature, history, and culture. It has also been my privilege to work with many other talented archaeologists and anthropologists. I would especially like to thank Jennifer Moody, John Fox, Fred Hocker, Fred van Doorninck, Jr., George F. Bass, Cemal Pulak, Donny Hamilton, and Paul Goldberg. While I never had the opportunity to work with them personally, my anthropological perspective has been heavily influenced by Henry vii Glassie, V. Gordon Childe, David Clarke, James Deetz, and Clifford Geertz. It has been both difficult and rewarding over the years to read their scholarship and learn from these great thinkers. Many other friends and colleagues enriched my graduate experience. Matthew Pridemore, Daria Merwin, and Scott McLaughlin have been my friends since my first days in the Nautical Archaeology Program. George Marquardt, Glenn Grieco, Steve Thornton, Christine Powell, and Bill Charlton have all provided good fellowship over the years. Wayne Smith lent valuable assistance with my application when I decided to return to Texas A&M to complete my doctorate, and also helped with the creation of a poster for the American Folklore Society meeting. Helen Dewolf took the time to talk with me about maritime memorials and burial at sea. John Eastlund provided numerous articles, references, and links to maritime web sites that opened up new avenues for my research. The Anthropology Department staff at Texas A&M, especially Karen Taylor and Don Delucia, were always helpful. In Boston, Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir and Aykan Erdemir helped make life as a graduate student much more bearable. I am also indebted to them for providing a place to stay while I was conducting dissertation fieldwork in New England. My education and research would not have been possible without the support of many family members. My parents, Lesley and George Stewart, provided unflagging support and love over the years. My nana, Dora Coulter, a world-traveler in her own right, sparked my interest in visiting other lands. An inheritance from my grandparents, Mildred and George Stewart, paid for the fieldwork in England. Thanks viii grandma and grandpa, I think I used the money well. Thanks also to my sister Suzanne and brother-in-law Darren Keck for much laughter over the years, and to my parents- in-law, Anne and Paul Luchsinger, for their encouragement. Finally, nothing that I do would be possible without the love of my family: Heidi, O. George, and Hazel, you are the best part of my life. Last but certainly not least, special thanks to Tony, Jane, Donald, and especially Vadinho: You do not travel, but your mind does You are here, but the other you isn't. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xiv LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 The Andacollo ..................................................................... 1 Danger and Death in Seafaring ........................................... 1 The Natural World .................................................. 2 Disease .................................................................... 5 Accidents ................................................................ 8 Deaths in Action ..................................................... 10 Maritime Mortality Rates .................................................... 11 The Study of Maritime Life ................................................ 13 The Andacollo, Revisited .................................................... 16 Spatial and Chronological Framework ............................... 20 Note on Terminology .......................................................... 21 II THE STUDY OF DEATH AND MEMORIALIZATION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................ 22 A Historical Framework for the Study of Death ................. 23 Rituals of Death and Memorialization ................................ 30 The Material Culture of Death ............................................ 36 Summary ............................................................................