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Home , Alexander Edward, Charles McKean, Colen Campbell, Colin McWilliam, Craigiehall, Duke of Buccleuch

Aonghus MacKechnie John Lowrey and

‘With the publication of The Architecture of 1660–1750, the longstanding and Louisa Humm,

artificial cultural barrier between pre-1707 and post-1707 Scottish architecture has finally Edited by come crashing down, vividly highlighting the overpowering continuities within Scottish building and landscape design of the early modern era, and re-emphasising its strong links to contemporary continental Europe.’ Miles Glendinning, Scottish Centre for Conservation Studies

A richly illustrated, revisionist overview of Scotland’s early Classical architecture

This volume tells the story of Scotland’s unique and influential contribution to the Age The Architecture of of Classicism during a period of major political and architectural change. Interposed between Scotland, 1660–1750 the decline of the Scottish and its revival as Scotch Baronial architecture, proto- Enlightenment Scotland straddled the age of ‘’ and union with .

This beautifully illustrated book documents the architectural needs and developments of a transformational period in Scottish history as the country emerged from a decade of military occupation. It draws on a wealth of primary sources, including family, institutional and national archives in Scotland, England and France, to evidence the architectural ambitions of Scotland’s new elites in the ages of the last Stuart kings and of the new monarchies. It also analyses some of Scotland’s best-known architectural sites, as well as reference points from further afield including Parisian apartment blocks, Roman precedents and English parallels.

Broad in scope, The Architecture of Scotland, 1660–1750 covers private and public/civic architecture, as well as the architecture and design of both the urban scene and country estate in the era before New Town.

Key Features • Highlights and contextualises the work of Scotland’s first well-documented major architects, including Sir William Bruce, Mr , , and the Adam dynasty • Provides a fresh resource for architectural, documentary, cultural and Enlightenment historians • Showcases Scotland’s early Classical architecture as a distinct yet significant strand of The Architecture of Europe’s broad mainstream • Beautifully illustrated with 300 drawings, maps, photographs and paintings Scotland, 1660–1750

Cover image: Edited by Louisa Humm, Arniston House entrance hall. Photography by kind permission of Althea Dundas-Bekker. Image © Nick Haynes, 2019. John Lowrey and Aonghus MacKechnie Cover design: Bekah Dey and Stuart Dalziel The Architecture of Scotland, 1660–1750 Sir William Bruce by John Michael Wright, c. 1664. National Galleries of Scotland, PG 894. Purchased 1919. The Architecture of Scotland, 1660–1750

Edited by Louisa Humm, John Lowrey and Aonghus MacKechnie Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com

© editorial matter and organisation Louisa Humm, John Lowrey and Aonghus MacKechnie, 2020 © the chapters their several authors, 2020

Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road 12 (2f) Jackson’s Entry Edinburgh EH8 8PJ

Typeset in Miller Text by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire and printed and bound in Malta at Melita Press

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 1 4744 5526 8 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 4744 5528 2 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 1 4744 5529 9 (epub)

The right of the contributors to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498). Contents

List of Abbreviations ix List of Contributors xi Acknowledgements xiv List of Figures xvi List of Tables xxix

I Setting the Scene

Introduction 3 Aonghus MacKechnie 1 Political Economy and the Shaping of Early Modern Scotland 15 Allan I. Macinnes

II Classicism and the Castle

2 The Paired Columned Entrance of Holyroodhouse as a Solomonic Signifier 39 Ian Campbell 3 Exiting Europe? The Royal Works in the Age of 1689 Revolution and 1707 Union 51 Aonghus MacKechnie 4 Sir William Bruce: Classicism and the Castle 72 John Lowrey vi Contents

5 A Classic Looks at the Gothic: Sir John Clerk, Ruins and Romance 98 Iain Gordon Brown

III The Business of Building, Trades, Materials and Pattern Books

6 Scottish Ironwork, 1670–1730 121 Ali Davey and Aonghus MacKechnie 7 Thomas Albourn, William Bruce’s Plasterer: ‘An Englishman and the Best Plaisterer that was ever yet in Scotland’ 141 William Napier 8 The Roof Structure of ’s Hospital Chapel and Roof Design in Scotland During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 156 Anna Serafini and Cristina González-Longo 9 Colen Campbell, James Gibbs and Sir John Vanbrugh: Rethinking the Origins of the British Architectural Plate Book 170 James Legard

IV The Country House

10 The Architectural Innovations of Mr James Smith of Whitehill (c. 1645–1731) within the European Context 191 Cristina González-Longo 11 From England to Scotland in 1701: the Duchess of Buccleuch returns to Dalkeith Palace 213 Sally Jeffery 12 Women Patrons and Designers in Early Eighteenth- century Scotland: Lady Panmure and Lady Nairne 233 Clarisse Godard Desmarest 13 Architectural Works by Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun 253 Rory Lamb

14 Mannerism in the Work of John Douglas in Eighteenth- century Scotland 269 Dimitris Theodossopoulos Contents vii

V Gardens

15 ‘The Inexpressible Need of Inclosing and Planting’: Country House Policies in Scotland, 1660–1750 293 Christopher Dingwall 16 The Terraced Garden in Scotland in the Seventeenth Century 308 Marilyn Brown 17 ’s European Tour, 1701–2 322 John Lowrey 18 and Formal Landscape Design in Scotland, 1720–45 346 Louisa Humm 19 William Adam and Antiquity: an Arcadian retreat at Arniston? 379 Nick Haynes

VI Urban Architecture

20 Town Housing and Planning: Alexander McGill, James Gibbs and Allan Dreghorn in Early Georgian 407 Anthony Lewis 21 Interpretation of European Classicism: Three Eighteenth-century University Libraries 429 Deborah Mays 22 Edinburgh and Venice: Comparing the Evolution in Communal Living in Geographically Challenged Mercantile Communities 442 Giovanna Guidicini 23 Living Horizontally: the Origin of the Tenement in Paris and Edinburgh 455 Clarisse Godard Desmarest 24 William Adam’s Public Buildings 483 David W. Walker viii Contents

VII Conclusion

25 Was Scotland a ‘Narrow Place’? 517 Ranald MacInnes

Notes 530 Index 613 Abbreviations

BL British Library BOEC The Book of the Old Edinburgh Club (Edinburgh: The Old Edinburgh Club) BoS: Borders Cruft, K., , J. and Fawcett, R. The Buildings of Scotland: Borders (New Haven, CT and : Yale, 2006) BoS: D&G Gifford, J. The Buildings of Scotland: (London: Penguin, 1996) BoS: Gifford, J. The Buildings of Scotland: Dundee and Angus (New Haven, CT and London: Yale, 2012) BoS: Edinburgh Gifford, J., McWilliam, C. and Walker, D. The Buildings of Scotland: Edinburgh (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984) BoS: Gifford, J. The Buildings of Scotland: Fife (London: Penguin, 1988) BoS: P&K Gifford, J. The Buildings of Scotland: (New Haven, CT: Yale, 2007) Colvin, Dictionary Colvin, H., A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600–1840 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 3rd edition, 1995; 4th edition, 2008) CUP Cambridge University Press x Abbreviations

DSA Dictionary of Scottish Architects, www. scottisharchitects.org.uk (all refs accessed May 2019) EUP Edinburgh University Press GTCM Glasgow Town Council Minutes, Glasgow City Archives GUA Glasgow University Archives HES Historic Environment Scotland MUP Manchester University Press Mylne, Master Masons Mylne, R. S., The Master Masons to the Crown of Scotland and their works (Edinburgh, 1893) NLS National Library of Scotland NRAS The National Register of Archives for Scotland NRHE National Record of the Historic Environment NRS National Records of Scotland ODNB Matthew, H. C. G., et al. (eds) Dictionary of National Biography: from the earliest times to the year 2000, 62 vols (Oxford: OUP, 2004) OUP Oxford University Press PSAS Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland RCAHMS Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland RPC Burton, J. H. et al. (eds) The Register of the Privy Council of Scotland (Edinburgh: Register House, 1877–1970) SAS Society of Antiquaries of Scotland SBRS Scottish Burgh Records Society SCA Scottish Catholic Archives SHR Scottish Historical Review SHS Scottish History Society Contributors

Louisa Humm has been employed by Historic Environment Scotland since 2002, first in their listing team and more recently as a Senior Casework Officer, responsible for listed building consent casework in Glasgow and other parts of south-west Scotland. Her job involves researching and protecting buildings of all types and dates. This is her first publication. John Lowrey is an Edinburgh University academic who specialises in Scottish architectural history. He has published widely on urban architecture and urban design, the country house and on landscape history and theory in relation to both the city and the country house estate. Aonghus MacKechnie is former Head of Historic Buildings and Monuments Casework, Historic Environment Scotland, and a pro- fessor at the University of Strathclyde. He has published widely on the architectural history of the and later periods in Scotland, on Romanticism and on the architecture and culture of the .

* * * Iain Gordon Brown was Principal Curator of Manuscripts in the National Library of Scotland, where he is now an Honorary Fellow, and Curator of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He is a Trustee of the Penicuik House Preservation Trust. Marilyn Brown is a garden archaeologist and historian. xii Contributors

Ian Campbell is Honorary Professor of Architectural History at the . Ali Davey is a project manager focusing on traditional skills and materials at Historic Environment Scotland. Christopher Dingwall is a freelance heritage consultant with a special interest in historic gardens and designed landscapes. Clarisse Godard Desmarest FSA Scot is a lecturer in British Studies at the University of Picardie Jules Verne (Amiens) and a fellow of the Institut Universitaire de France. Cristina González-Longo RIBA SCA RIAS FHEA FRSA is a Chartered Architect and the Director of the MSc in Architectural Design for the Conservation of Built Heritage at the University of Strathclyde. Giovanna Guidicini is a Senior Lecturer in the and Urban Studies at the Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art. Nick Haynes is a freelance historic environment consultant Sally Jeffery is an architectural and garden historian. Rory Lamb is a PhD candidate in Architectural History at the University of Edinburgh. Anthony Lewis is the curator of Scottish History for Glasgow Life Museums. James Legard is an architectural historian at Simpson and Brown, Architects, Edinburgh. Allan I. Macinnes is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Strathclyde. Ranald MacInnes is Head of Place and Publishing at Historic Environment Scotland. Deborah Mays IHBC, FRSA, FSASCOT, FInsTILM is Head of Listing at Historic England. William Napier is a Chartered Building Surveyor and Architectural Historian with Adams Napier Partnership Ltd. Anna Serafini is a freelance conservation architect. Contributors xiii

Dimitris Theodossopoulos is a lecturer in architectural technology and conservation at the University of Edinburgh. David W. Walker is the author of Aberdeenshire: North in the Buildings of Scotland series, co-author of Aberdeenshire: South and a contributor to Lanarkshire. Acknowledgements

This book is essentially the proceedings of a conference we held in 2015. Because of its scope, the book’s creation has required the help, support and advice of a large number of individuals and organisations, colleagues, family and friends, and it is a pleasure to record their names here: Keith Adam, Peter Auger, Malcolm Bangor-Jones, Steven Blench, Daniel Bochman, Peter Burman, Clare Brown, the and his archivists Crispin Powell at Boughton, and Gareth Fitzpatrick at Drumlanrig, Desmond Chang, Sir Robert Clerk, Bill Coltart, John Crae, Barbara Cummins, Joanna de Giacomo Aravjo, Althea Dundas-Bekker and Henrietta Dundas, Richard Emerson, Marcello Fagiolo, John Frew, Glasgow Museums, Miles Glendinning, John Goffin, Eric Graham, Richard Hewlings, the Earl of Hopetoun, Jessica Hunnisett, Fraser Hunter, Catherine , Robin Kent, Caroline , Jim Lawson, Grace McCombie, Lyndsay McGill, Barbara and Arthur MacMillan, Eddie McParland, Andrew Martindale, David Mitchell, Nick Mols, the , Sam Moorhead, Hugh Morrison, Tom Parnell, Dara Parsons, Vincenzo Piscioneri, Martin Roberts, Joe Rock, Juliette Roding, Donald Rodger, the late Treve Rosoman, Murray Simpson, Andrew Skelton, Pete Smith, Vanessa Stephen, Andrew Stevenson, Margaret Stewart, Joanna Swan, Pieter Vlaardingerbroek, David M. Walker, Diane Watters, Patty Watters and Marion Wood; and, of course, the front-of-house staff in both the National Library of Scotland and the National Register of Archives, as well as the numerous families and others who have been good enough to have made their archives available to researchers. Acknowledgements xv

Sourcing nearly 300 photographs has been a considerable ­undertaking, requiring the kindness and co-operation of staff and volunteers at many archives, institutions, libraries and picture libraries, as well as property owners and private photographers – too many for us to mention individually, but we have done our best to ensure that all images are properly credited and traceable to their source. Especial thanks are due to Nick Haynes, who has been extremely obliging in going out of his way (including while on holiday) to take photographs for several chapters in this book. In addition, he arranged to photograph the Arniston copies of Britannicus and Vitruvius Scoticus for us and we are par- ticularly grateful for that. Above all, we wish to record our gratitude to the University of Edinburgh, The Strathmartine Trust and Historic Environment Scotland. Without their support, financial and otherwise, this book could not have been produced.

Louisa Humm, John Lowrey, Aonghus MacKechnie Edinburgh, July 2019 Figures

Frontispiece: Sir William Bruce by John Michael Wright ii 1.1 Culross Palace (1597–1611), 1835 17 1.2 Craigievar Castle (1610–26) 18 1.3 West Quay, Port Glasgow 21 1.4 Castle, engraving published 1790 22 1.5 Greenhill Farmhouse, a former Covenanter’s house at Wiston, near Biggar 23 1.6 Parliament House, Edinburgh, drawn by James Gordon of Rothiemay 26 1.7 The Porteous Mob in Edinburgh, painted by James Drummond, 1855 28 1.8 Gourlay’s House, Old Bank Close, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh by James Skene, 1827 30 1.9 Duff House (1735), engraving from 1797 sketch 32 1.10 Archibald Campbell, 3rd . Painted by Allan Ramsay, 1749 33 1.11 Gardenstown, a planned fishing village founded c. 1720 by Alexander Garden of Troup 35 2.1 Holyroodhouse entrance (c. 1676) 40 2.2 Alexandre Francine, Livre d’Architecture (1631), plate 11 41 2.3 Alexandre Francine, Livre d’Architecture (1631), plate 20 42 2.4 Castle (1594) 44 2.5 Tomb of , Dunfermline Abbey (1604) 47 2.6 David Loggan, ‘Arch of Concord’, in John Ogilby, Entertainment (1662) 49 Figures xvii

3.1 Holyroodhouse. Plate 5 from Vitruvius Scoticus: section drawing looking east 52 3.2 Holyroodhouse. Bird’s eye view of 1753 looking east 53 3.3 Parliament House, Edinburgh by John Elphinstone 54 3.4 Plan of Fort William with the country adjacent, c. 1710 59 3.5 Blackbarony House 61 3.6 Melville House 62 3.7 Family tree showing family connections within the Mastership of Works 65 3.8 John Urquhart of Meldrum (d. 1726). Portrait by Sir John Medina 66 3.9 Meldrum House 67 3.10 Argyll Lodging 68 3.11 Dundarave 69 4.1 Glamis Castle (Thomas Winter, 1746) 74 4.2 (c. 1690) 79 4.3 Jan Slezer, view of Dunkeld, Theatrum Scotiae 81 4.4 Leslie House, plan. Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 66 82 4.5 Argyll’s Lodging, courtyard entrance gate (c. 1674–5) 84 4.6 Alexandre Francine’s Livre d’Architecture (1631), plate 2 85 4.7 Argyll’s Lodging, courtyard gateway from rear (probably 1630s) 86 4.8 Balcaskie, view from courtyard (north elevation) (c. 1668) 86 4.9 Balcaskie, view to from terrace 87 4.10 Methven Castle, Perthshire (1678–82) 88 4.11 Hatton House, Ratho (c. 1660s–1690s) 89 4.12 Jan Slezer, front view of Thirlestane Castle, Theatrum Scotiae 92 4.13 Jan Slezer, side view of Thirlestane Castle, Theatrum Scotiae 93 4.14 Sir William Bruce/Alexander Edward, design for Melville House (1697) 95 4.15 Craighall Castle, Fife (1697) 96 4.16 Serlio, Book 3 (1540), Poggio Reale 97 5.1 Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, 2nd baronet (1676–1755) 99 5.2 Waltham Cross, engraved by after a drawing by William Stukeley, 1721 104 5.3 Durham Cathedral, etching and drypoint, by 106 xviii Figures

5.4 Salisbury Cathedral from Wilton Park, etching and drypoint, by John Clerk of Eldin, 1772 107 5.5 Rosslyn Castle, after a painting by James Phillips 109 5.6 Rosslyn Chapel, after a drawing by Francis Grose. Detail showing John Baxter’s roof 110 5.7 Old Penicuik House (‘Newbiggin’), after a drawing by John Clerk of Eldin 114 5.8 Sketch design for Gothic ‘eye-catcher’ ruins by Sir John Clerk 115 5.9 Sketch design for castellated tower cum pigeon house on Knight’s Law by Sir John Clerk 116 5.10 Sketch design for castellated tower cum pigeon house by Sir John Clerk 117 6.1 Window grill at James V’s palace, (c. 1540) 122 6.2 West Gate at Panmure House (c. 1672) 124 6.3 Detail of Glamis Castle roof cresting (c. 1673) 125 6.4 Glamis Castle roof cresting 125 6.5 Stair balustrade leading to the Picture Gallery, Holyrood Palace (c. 1673–6) 126 6.6 Courtyard screen and gates at Traquair (c. 1695) 130 6.7 Gate at Traquair – detail of overthrow (c. 1695–1705) 130 6.8 Railings at Hopetoun House (c. 1701) 131 6.9 Staircase at Hopetoun House, William Aitken (c. 1699–1704) 133 6.10 Staircase at Newhailes, William Aitken (c. 1686) 134 6.11 Staircase at Raith House, James Horn (c. 1695) 135 6.12 Caroline Park House, north stair, attributed to Alexander Gairdner (c. 1685) 136 6.13 Drumlanrig Castle external staircase, James Horn (c. 1684) 137 6.14 Drumlanrig Castle external staircase, James Horn (c. 1684) 137 6.15 staircase, possibly James Horn (c. 1708) 138 6.16 screen: section representing Scotland, Jean Tijou (c. 1689–92) 139 7.1 Dalry House, first-floor hall (1660s) 142 7.2 The House of the Binns, King’s Room (c. 1630) 143 7.3 Wemyss Castle, Kings Room (c. 1671) 144 7.4 Harden House, Drawing Room (c. 1672) 145 Figures xix

7.5 Menzies Castle, Withdrawing Room (1660s) 147 7.6 French Ambassador’s House, Linlithgow (1660s) 147 7.7 First floor, east room, Law’s Close, (early 1670s) 148 7.8 Balcaskie House, Ante-Room (1674) 150 7.9 The Palace of Holyroodhouse, Queen’s Ante-chamber (1671–2) 151 7.10 The Palace of Holyroodhouse, Morning Room (c. 1675–6) 152 7.11 , Edinburgh, Cupid Room (c. 1690) 153 7.12 Kinross House, Great Stair (c. 1679) 154 8.1 The common rafter roof covering the chapel of George Heriot’s Hospital (1628–74) 157 8.2 The trusses in the central part of the roof of George Heriot’s Hospital chapel (1628–74) 158 8.3 Parliament Hall, Edinburgh (1631–40) 159 8.4 Tron Church, Edinburgh (1636–48) 160 8.5 The development of Scottish timber roof structures 161 8.6 The common rafter roofs at Pinkie House’s painted gallery (1613) and Cockenzie House (1680–3) 162 8.7 The roof structure of Holyrood Palace (1671–9) 163 8.8 The roof structure of (1729–48) 164 8.9 The roof structure of the Trades Hall in Glasgow (1791–4) 165 8.10 Alterations over time to the roof structure and ceiling of George Heriot’s Chapel 166 8.11 Alterations over time to the roof structure and ceiling of George Heriot’s Chapel 167 9.1 Colen Campbell, design for a house dedicated to the Earl of Halifax, Vitruvius Britannicus, vol. 1 (1715), plates 29–30 172 9.2 L. Aubert, The Front of Towards Ye Gardens (c. 1710–11) 176 9.3 Sir John Vanbrugh, south front of Castle Howard, Vitruvius Britannicus, vol. 1 (1715), plates 69–70 180 9.4 Colen Campbell, west front of Wanstead III, Vitruvius Britannicus, vol. 3 (1725), plates 39–40 180 9.5 Sir John Vanbrugh, design for south front of Castle Howard, Yorkshire, with inset plan, c. 1699–1700 (detail) 181 9.6 Colen Campbell, drawing for a great house related to Wanstead House 181 xx Figures

9.7 James Gibbs, ’s Lodge (design for Comeley Bank Lodge, , Clackmannanshire) (c. 1710–14) 183 9.8 James Gibbs, design for Dupplin Castle, Perthshire (c. 1710–14) 184 10.1 Letter dated 10 January 1676, from Christopher Irvin, Paris to John Irvin, Rome 194 10.2 Holyrood Palace, James Gordon of Rothiemay view c. 1649 197 10.3 Holyrood Palace, west front and entrance 197 10.4 Drumlanrig Castle balustrade 201 10.5 Caramuel’s Barbaric Doric, as used at Drumlanrig Castle 202 10.6 Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, as depicted in Kircher’s Turris Babel (1679) 203 10.7 Entrance to the building in front of the icehouse, Newhailes House (c. 1705) 204 10.8 Plate 33 from G. B. Vignola, The Regular Architect (1669) 205 10.9 Canongate Church. James Smith, 1688 206 10.10 Oratory of St Philip Neri, Rome. Francesco Borromini, 1637–50 207 10.11 Tomb of Sir George MacKenzie of Rosehaugh, . James Smith, c. 1690 208 10.12 Chapel of Reginald Pole, Via Appia Antica, Rome (1539) 209 10.13 Hatton House Gate. Dated 1692 210 10.14 Hatton House Pavilions. Built some time between 1664 and 1691 210 10.15 Farnese Gardens, uccelliere 211 11.1 Dalkeith Palace from the south. James Smith, 1700–10 213 11.2 Ship entering the harbour at (c. 1710) 217 11.3 Bill of lading for Captain Bapty’s ship, The Ouners Goodwill, bound for Leith, 5 August 1702 218 11.4 The King’s Bedchamber at Hampton Court (1690s) 222 11.5 Ground floor plan of Dalkeith Palace. Plate 22 from Vitruvius Scoticus 223 11.6 Chimneypiece in the Great Closet, Dalkeith with marble relief of Neptune and Galatea by Grinling Gibbons, 1701 224 11.7 Chimneypiece in the Picture Closet, Dalkeith 226 11.8 Chimneypiece from Lodge Low, Dalkeith, now at Drumlanrig 227 Figures xxi

11.9 Plan of Buckingham House in St James’s Park. Plate 43 from Vitruvius Britannicus, vol. 1 228 11.10 The staircase hall at Dalkeith 229 11.11 The staircase hall at Dalkeith photographed for Country Life, 1911 230 11.12 Portrait of Ann, Duchess of Buccleuch and her two sons, James, Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Henry Scott, later Earl of Deloraine, by Sir , c. 1685 231 11.13 Portrait of the Duke of Monmouth on horseback, unknown artist, c. 1672–3 232 12.1 Panmure House. Front elevation from Vitruvius Scoticus 236 12.2 Panmure House, attic, principal and ground floor plans. Plate 130 from Vitruvius Scoticus 237 12.3 Prospect of the town of . Jan Slezer, Theatrum Scotiae (1693) 238 12.4 Main façade of Brechin Castle. Completed in 1711 after a design by Alexander Edward 239 12.5 Plan of the second storey and west front of ‘Brichen Castle’ 240 12.6 Brechin Castle, ground floor plan, 1704. Drawing attributed to Alexander Edward 240 12.7 Brechin Castle, ground floor plan 241 12.8 Brechin Castle, first floor plan 242 12.9 ‘The House of Nairne of Strathord, built by William, Lord Nairne and destroyed by his nephew, James, (1747)’ 244 12.10 Draft of the new garden at Nairne. Included in a letter from Margaret Nairne to the Earl of Breadalbane, dated 22 February 1709 245 13.1 Reconstructed plan of a house for Henry Fletcher (1699) 255 13.2 Front and rear elevations of a house (c. 1707) 256 13.3 Principal floor plan (c. 1707) 257 13.4 Upper floor plan (c. 1707) 258 13.5 Basement plan (c. 1707) 259 13.6 Section of Fletcher’s house design 260 13.7 Stills of Fletcher’s house design from 3D model 261 13.8 Sketch of a roof design by , redrawn by Dr Gregory Lether (1707) 263 14.1 Map showing location of John Douglas’s main buildings 272 xxii Figures

14.2 Timeline of John Douglas’s major projects 273 14.3 Galloway House, front elevation (late 1730s) 274 14.4 Lochmaben Town House (1743) 275 14.5 Archerfield, the restored façade (c. 1747) 276 14.6 Archerfield, original design attributed to Douglas 278 14.7 Archerfield: plan showing original tower and Douglas’s additions 279 14.8 Archerfield: south elevation showing the original house incorporated into Douglas’s design 280 14.9 Finlaystone, first floor plan by Douglas 282 14.10 Finlaystone, west elevation, by Douglas (1746–7) 282 14.11 Finlaystone, west elevation with later additions 283 14.12 Interpretation of Douglas’s design with dotted lines showing the succession of later additions 284 14.13 Ground floor plan of Wardhouse 285 14.14 Wardhouse elevation (1757–8) 286 14.15 Campbeltown Town Hall (1758–60) 287 14.16 St Andrews United College, north building 288 15.1 Castle, panel depicting Geometria 295 15.2 John Reid’s ideal garden, from The Scots Gard’ner (1683) 296 15.3 Kinross House garden plan, attributed to Alexander Edward (c. 1685) 298 15.4 Glamis Castle by (1746) 300 15.5 Title page of ’s The Theory and Practice of Gardening 301 15.6 Title page of Thomas Hamilton’s A Treatise on the Manner of Raising Forest Trees 303 15.7 Detail from General Roy’s Military Survey of Scotland showing Binning Wood 305 16.1 Aerial view of Clunie Castle in the Loch of Clunie built for Bishop Broun of Dunkeld in the early sixteenth century 309 16.2 Reconstruction drawing of the gardens at Aberdour Castle in the mid-seventeenth century 311 16.3 Moray House and its terraced gardens depicted on the 1647 plan of Edinburgh by James Gordon of Rothiemay 312 16.4 Terraces at Balcaskie House laid out by Sir William Bruce to face the Bass Rock 315 16.5 Leslie House as it was depicted on the manuscript map of Fife by John Adair in 1684 316 Figures xxiii

16.6 The terraces at Drummond Castle showing the double staircases 317 16.7 Hatton House from the engraving in Theatrum Scotiae by Jan Slezer 318 16.8 Detail from Slezer’s engraving of Hatton House showing the use of the terrace wall for growing espaliered fruit trees 319 16.9 Plan for Thirlestane Castle and its gardens by Jan Slezer and Jan Wyck (c. 1680) 320 17.1 Alexander Edward’s notebook 324 17.2 Map showing places visited by Edward and conjectural route 326 17.3 Transcription of two commemorative tablets from the Antonine Wall recorded in Alexander Edward’s notebook 328 17.4 Sketch survey of St James’s Park 332 17.5 Plan for a Palladian House 336 17.6 Extract from the list of engravings purchased by Alexander Edward in Paris 337 17.7 Edward’s plan of Château de Pont 338 17.8 Château de Pont, from Manière de bien bastir by Pierre Le Muet (1647) 338 17.9 Alexander Edward, topiary designs 342 17.10 Topiary designs for Versailles from the at Versailles 343 17.11 Alexander Edward, topiary designs 344 17.12 Topiary designs for Versailles from the royal collection at Versailles 344 18.1 William Adam, General Plan of the Gardens of Newlistone, 1736 348 18.2 Dezallier d’Argenville, Designs of Woods of Forrest Trees 350 18.3 Niddry Castle at the head of the cascade walk 351 18.4 Plan of Newliston (1759) marked to show alignments 352 18.5 John Watt, detail from survey plan of Johnston Estate, Renfrewshire (c. 1729) 355 18.6 North Merchiston, as shown on Robert Kirkwood’s Plan of the City of Edinburgh (1817) 357 18.7 Blair Cranbeth as Adam bought it in 1733 358 18.8 Blair Cranbeth at William Adam’s death in 1748 359 18.9 House, avenue and rond-point at Drum (1760s) 363 18.10 William Adam’s proposals for Buchanan (1745) 364 xxiv Figures

18.11 Plan of Dalkeith Parke 365 18.12 Gateway at Dalkeith supplied by William Adam, c. 1734 365 18.13 William Adam’s plan for La Mancha (c. 1732) 366 18.14 Dezallier d’Argenville, Designs for Groves of Middle Height 367 18.15 Airth Garden. William Adam, c. 1730 368 18.16 Garden buildings shown on William Adam’s Hopetoun Plan 369 18.17 Garden pavilion at Hopetoun, believed to incorporate the of William Adam’s bowling green pavilion of 1732–3 370 18.18 William Adam, A General Plan of Hopetoun Park and Gardens (c. 1731–2) 371 18.19 Fishing Pavilion, Duff House. William Adam (c. 1735) 372 18.20 William Adam, garden pavilion at Brunstane (c. 1735) 373 18.21 Chatelherault. William Adam, 1731–4 375 19.1 The General Plan of Arniston House Parkes and Gardens, 1726 380 19.2 Arniston Designed Landscape, c. 1720 390 19.3 Arniston Designed Landscape, c. 1750 391 19.4 Plates 42 and 39 from William Adam’s Vitruvius Scoticus showing the north elevation, c. 1730 394 19.5 Arniston House entrance hall 395 19.6 Detail of Roman emperors’ heads on the underside of the entrance hall arches 396 19.7 Detail of the entrance hall showing an acanthus leaf capital and antique-style basket of fruit and flowers 396 19.8 Plate 41 from William Adam’s Vitruvius Scoticus showing the internal elevations of the library, engraved c. 1730 397 19.9 Detail of The General Plan of Arniston House Parkes and Gardens, 1726 400 19.10 Plan of Arniston Inclosures, survey’d March 1752, Dd Dundas 402 19.11 Plan of the Arniston and Shank Inclosures, dated 1758, by an anonymous surveyor 403 20.1 Shawfield, Colen Campbell (1711–15). Plate 51 from Vitruvius Britannicus II 409 20.2 Trongate, Glasgow. Charles Ross, ‘A Map of the Shire of Lanark’ (1773), detail from Glasgow inset 411 Figures xxv

20.3 Detail from John McArthur, ‘Plan of the City of Glasgow’ (1778), showing location of Montrose lodging 413 20.4 The Duke’s Lodgings, Drygate, view at the back, 1843. Watercolour painted by William Simpson (1823–99) in 1897 414 20.5 Alexander McGill, site plan of proposed house for Duke of Montrose (1717) 415 20.6 Alexander McGill, plan and elevation of house for the Duke of Montrose (1717) 416 20.7 Town Hospital, Glasgow. Elevation drawing by Jack Russell (1841) 418 20.8 View of Trongate from the east by Robert Paul 420 20.9 . Plate 16 from Vitruvius Britannicus I 421 20.10 Architectural model of Glasgow Town House by Alan Dreghorn (c. 1756) 422 20.11 A view of St Andrew’s Church at Glasgow from the of the Old Town House. After Robert Paul (1769) 423 20.12 Dreghorn Town House. Detail taken from The Old Town’s Hospital and residence of R. Dreghorn Esq. Thomas Fairbairn (1849) 426 21.1 Trinity College Library, Dublin by Thomas Burgh, 1712–32. capacious roof by Deane and Woodward, 1856–61 429 21.2 Glasgow University Library, William Adam, 1732–44 (now demolished). Photograph by Thomas Annan 430 21.3 King James I Library, North Street, St Andrews. John Gardner, 1764–7, extended by Robert Reid in 1829 430 21.4 James Malton’s view of the interior of the Long Room (Trinity College Library) 433 21.5 William Adam’s design for the decorative ‘End Prospect towards the North’ of Glasgow University Library (1732) 435 21.6 Internal elevations of the College Library of Glasgow from Vitruvius Scoticus (plate 157) 436 21.7 Detail from Joseph Swan’s engraving of Glasgow Old Library (1828), from John M. Leighton, ‘Select Views of Glasgow and its Environs’ 437 xxvi Figures

21.8 John Gardner’s Classical design for the north elevation of the King James I Library (1764) 438 21.9 John Oliphant’s drawing of the King James I Library on completion (1767), with the gateway to the quad and entrance behind 439 21.10 Interior of King James I Library showing Gardner’s columned gallery 440 22.1 James Gordon of Rothiemay, map of Edinburgh (c. 1647) 443 22.2 Jacopo de’ Barbari, View of Venice (c. 1460–70) 443 22.3 Detail of Figure 22.1 444 22.4 Detail of Figure 22.2 445 22.5 Gladstone’s Land, Edinburgh (1617–20) 447 22.6 Ca’ Loredan, Venice 448 22.7 Milne’s Court, Edinburgh (1690) 452 22.8 Edinburgh New and Old Towns. John Laurie, 1766 453 23.1 Section, elevation and plans of a house 12ft wide and 21ft deep. Pierre Le Muet, Manière de bien bastir (1623) 458 23.2 Map showing location of 14 rue Tiquetonne. From Vasserot and Bellanger, Atlas général (1827–36), vol. 1, plate 46 459 23.3 Elevation of a house at 14 rue Tiquetonne 460 23.4 Ground and upper floor plans of a house at 14 rue Tiquetonne 461 23.5 Elevation of a house at 6 rue Tiquetonne 462 23.6 Ground floor plan of a house at 6 rue Tiquetonne 464 23.7 Plan of the upper floors of a house at 6 rue Tiquetonne 465 23.8 Plan of the cemetery of the Saints Innocents. Claude- Louis Bernier, 1786 469 23.9 Elevation to the rue de la Ferronnerie, 1669 470 23.10 Elevation to the cemetery of the Saints Innocents, 1669 470 23.11 Floor plans for two houses on the rue de la Ferronnerie, 1669. 470 23.12 Sections of a house on the rue de la Ferronnerie, 1669 471 23.13 View of the illuminations on the rue de la Ferronnerie in 1745 471 23.14 Map showing the rue des Blancs-Manteaux and rue Vieille du Temple. From Vasserot and Bellanger, Atlas général (1827–36), vol. 2, plate 53 472 Figures xxvii

23.15 A project for seven houses with shops on the corner of the rue des Blancs-Manteaux and the rue Vieille du Temple, 1640 473 23.16 Map of the rue Childebert showing houses built for the Abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Prés. From Vasserot and Bellanger, Atlas général (1827–36), vol. 2, plate 97 474 23.17 Elevation of houses to be built for the Abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Prés, south side of the rue Childebert 474 23.18 and 23.19 Ground and first floor plans of houses to be built for the Abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Prés, south side of the rue Childebert 475 23.20 Gladstone’s Land, Edinburgh (1617–20) 476 23.21 Contract drawing for a flat in Writers’ Court, Edinburgh (1695) 479 24.1 Conjectural reconstruction of Town House, c. 1760 483 24.2 Robert Gordon’s College, preliminary scheme, principal elevation (1731). Vitruvius Scoticus, opposite plate 107 485 24.3 Robert Gordon’s College, principal elevation as altered by John Smith in 1829–33 487 24.4 Dundee Town House, principal elevation and floor plan (1731–5). Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 104 489 24.5 Sanquhar Tolbooth (1736–9) 492 24.6 Hamilton (Old) Parish Church (c. 1729–34), 494 24.7 Glasgow University Library, entrance gable and east elevation (1732–44). Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 156 497 24.8 The Orphan Hospital, Edinburgh, principal elevation (1734–6). Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 140 498 24.9 Design for completion of the Orphan Hospital, Edinburgh, published by Thomas Tod, 1781 500 24.10 George Watson’s Hospital, Edinburgh, principal elevation and floor plans (1738–41).Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 151 502 24.11 The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, principal elevation (1737–48). Vitruvius Scoticus, plate 150 505 24.12 The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, central pavilion photographed by Thomas Begbie 506 24.13 The Work-house, Edinburgh, preliminary scheme engraved by Paul Fourdrinier, 1739 or 1740 510 xxviii Figures

24.14 The Charity Work-house, Edinburgh, executed design without courtyard wings, engraved 1820 510 24.15 The Surgeons’ Hospital, Edinburgh, Dean of Guild drawings, attributed to William Adam, dated 1738 512 25.1 ’s inscription above entrance to Old College University of Edinburgh 528 Tables

7.1 Late seventeenth-century decorative schemes which share older-style decorative features 146 18.1 Newliston alignments 353 18.2 Blair Adam alignments 361

Part I Setting the Scene

Introduction Aonghus MacKechnie

It’s a matter worthy of ones enquiry, how a Nation, as SCOTLAND, so much addicted to Military Arts, and so constantly ingaged in both Foreign and Domestick Wars, should have been in a Capacity to erect such superb edifices as that Kingdom abounds with. There is no Country in Europe that can brag either of greater Piles of Buildings, or a more regular Architecture in its Ancient Churches . . . You may receive this Impartial Account from me as a Foreigner, who am now settled in this Nation.1 Military engineer Captain Jan Slezer, 1693

As well as young Scottish students and noblemen going to France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and elsewhere, many of their counterparts, eager to enhance their experience, travelled throughout Scotland, visited its universities, its royal palaces, the houses of its nobility and of its learned gentlemen and there found a cordial reception within a cosmo- politan society with which they were already familiar throughout the continent.2 Historian James K. Cameron, 1986, concerning the late Renaissance-early modern periods

his book is a story of Scotland’s early Classical architecture. We Task where, within the European context, does Scotland’s early Classical architecture sit? And we address that question by provid- ing this platform both for established scholars and for a new genera- tion of scholars who have original things to say. These authors each have their own individual and fresh perspectives, and they highlight Scotland’s place as both an integrated and a contributory part of 4 Aonghus MacKechnie

contemporary Europe – and yet also a place which has retained its own individuality. It could be argued that interest in our topic was invigorated – initiated, even – by the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain’s annual conference in 1983 where early Classicism in Scotland was the conference theme. A scholarly guidebook was produced under the direction of Kitty Cruft, and visits were made to buildings designed by Sir William Bruce (c. 1625–1710), Master James Smith (c. 1645–1731), William Adam (1689–1748) and others, examining not simply architectural design but also the craftsman- ship displayed in the stone, timber, plaster and ironwork. There were specialist contributions from (amongst others) John Dunbar, John Gifford, Bruce Lenman, Colin McWilliam, James Simpson and David M. Walker. The numerous overviews and academic papers which have since followed have transformed the state of scholarship in this area, but no modern books on Bruce and Smith exist yet; nor has a dedicated book on this early Classical period been produced, until now. So the following pages present an unprecedentedly broad coverage of our topic, with a combination of not simply ‘orthodox’ architectural and garden history, but also more discrete aspects such as craftsmanship and roof construction. Another context for this book’s European theme is that, over recent years, outside interest in Scottish architecture has resulted in our welcoming a fresh generation of scholars from Europe who have studied or domiciled in Scotland. These individuals inevitably bring welcome new perspectives to the subject, and the book is profoundly the richer from having their contributions. We have also sought to consider the architecture within the wider and dramatically changing political environments of our period, a framework for which is in the narrative below. The broader politi- cal/cultural interface of Scotland with the wider world is described by documentary historian Allan Macinnes in Chapter 1.

The political context within the seventeenth to early eighteenth centuries in Scotland For the reader new to Scottish history, we must highlight some of the key political factors which drove the events and fortunes of our period. A good place to start is with King James VI (r. 1567–1625), who in 1594 provided northern Europe with one of its earliest Classical buildings – his Chapel Royal, in Stirling. It was designed by his Master of Work, William Schaw, as a replicate of the Biblical Introduction 5

Temple of Solomon, and was created to celebrate the baptism of James’s son in a ceremony and setting calculated to present the Stuart dynasty as appropriate to succeed England’s childless Queen Elizabeth. In 1603 James duly inherited as James I, King of England and Ireland. In that same year the monarchy emigrated, thereby inaugurating the process of Scotland becoming a satellite terri- tory; because, immediately, Scotland’s monarchs – having resisted waves of English military invasion and attempted annexation from 1296 – now, as a united monarchy, wanted Union with England and conformity to English norms. James, and then his successors, Charles I and Charles II, worked autocratically towards these ends. The increasing frustration with Charles I’s policies became open defiance from 1637 when he sought to impose an English Episcopal prayer book. In exasperation, (Presbyterians) devised and signed the National Covenant in 1638, from which came their name. They took control of parliament and government in defiance of the king and the royal interest; civil warfare followed, and an alliance with English Parliamentary forces which collapsed when the latter executed Charles I and opposed the Scots crowning his son as Charles II. All this concluded in conquest and English military occupation from 1651 to 1660, along with the resultant destruction or militarising of many of Scotland’s major buildings. At the restitution of the monarchy in 1660 the country had to rebuild. Parliament rather meekly allowed its gains to return to the Crown (the opposite to the position in post-Commonwealth England). And Charles II immediately picked up where the likewise non-consensual Charles I had left off, issuing directions for Scotland, demanding obedience, creating societal divisions and igniting another unnecessary phase of civil warfare. Charles’s brother and heir, James, Duke of Albany and York, had meanwhile converted to Catholicism, which turned English opinion against him. James was sent to Scotland where, at Holyroodhouse, intermittently between 1679 and 1682, he held a satellite royal court, encouraging and invigorating the arts and sciences, and promoting architecture. He inherited the thrones of the three kingdoms in 1685, reigning as James VII/II until the ‘Glorious Revolution’ in England. That was in 1688, when, at the invitation of disgruntled English Protestants, William of Orange was invited to invade England. James left for France, and William was crowned England’s King William III – as joint monarch with his wife Mary, James’s daughter. Back in Scotland, the 1689 Convention (parliament in a variant form), composed of an anti-Catholic majority, declared James 6 Aonghus MacKechnie

forfeit and (copying England) William and Mary were offered and accepted the throne. The dramatic new environment meant difficult decisions for the ruling elites, desperate to be on the winning side, whichever that would be: the Earl (and future first Marquess) of Annandale, for instance, that year changed sides five times in as many months; the , three times. The old Catholic ascendency, such as the Chancellor Earl of Perth and his brother, Secretary of State Melfort, was replaced by supporters of King William (see Chapter 3). What the Privy Council called the 1689 ‘alteratione of the ­government’ was a turning point in Scotland’s history. To its pro- moters, it had been born of desperate measures; but it burned divisions in society perhaps even more searingly than the Stuarts had achieved, giving birth to ‘’ – supporters of the for- feited Stuarts – and it inaugurated Scotland’s longest (intermit- tent) civil war which ended only in 1746 on Culloden’s battlefield. The formerly downtrodden Covenanters were now in charge, and Jacobites were the new downtrodden. In the Highlands, the ‘alteratione’ created a vast, militarised landscape, a venue for the state/Crown terrorism exemplified by the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692 – an attempt to exterminate a clan which had shown insuf- ficient attachment to the new monarchy. Unlike in 1660, parlia- ment this time (that is, from 1689) retained much of its new status and power, albeit Scotland’s soldiers were placed in what was a de facto ‘British’ army under King William in his wars against the old ally, France, warfare that was both damaging and irrelevant to Scotland’s political priorities. Then, in 1707, Scotland entered into incorporating Union with England (see Chapter 25), thereby formally exiting from international politics. On the other hand, the new order and the Union, in time, presented opportunities, as we shall also see. This book shows that these two political events – the ‘alteratione’ of 1689 and the Treaty of Union in 1707 – impacted upon architecture. Royal architectural patronage effectively ended in 1689, together with what over the previous two centuries had been architectural leadership from royal architects. The palaces, created over centuries in a spirit of showy optimism and national self-confidence, became all but unwanted. Best placed amongst these (the other palaces all fared significantly worse) was Holyroodhouse, which retained a ceremonial role. But it essentially became an ill-maintained block of superior houses of multiple occupation, with what would soon be declining ruins attached to its eastern corners – the medieval Abbey Introduction 7

Kirk and a matching 1670s neo-Gothic kitchen built on a royal scale, but useless by the eighteenth century and demolished.3 The revolutionary political changes meant that the royal archi- tects William Bruce (in post 1671–8) and – the postholder in 1689 – James Smith were suddenly problematised, being Jacobite. We highlight aspects of their careers in the chapters below, in addition to the careers of others whose fortunes were dictated by changing politics. Amongst the latter was gentleman architect John Erskine, 6th and 11th Earl of Mar (1675–1732), exiled in 1715 for leading a Jacobite army against the government forces, exposing the latter’s vulnerability and threatening the overturn of the still-new settle- ment. From numerous bases in France and elsewhere, Mar designed and sometimes sent home architectural designs including some for royal palaces. His story is told elsewhere by Margaret Stewart.4

Renaissance–early modern relations with Europe People have for centuries been Scotland’s primary export, and of course they took their culture with them to their new surround- ings. Merchants, academics, shipbuilders, masons – vast numbers of people found new lives elsewhere.5 On a much smaller scale, people immigrated to Scotland – French weavers, for instance, from Picardy to the new-made Picardy village near Edinburgh, in 1730, which was Alexander McGill’s and probably Scotland’s first Classical terrace. It seems clear that Scotland in the earlier part of our period imported more architectural expertise than it exported. This impor- tation was restricted to craftsmen and excluded architects. The primary source for this expertise was the English royal works, a pattern which simply replicated that established in the 1610s when specialists – notably carvers/sculptors and plasterers – from there were engaged at the Scottish palaces. (Expertise was seemingly at that time brought from no other foreign country – save for a French gardener at Stirling.)6 Their expertise doubtless helped inspire the new architectural and sculptural excellence which from then onwards developed its own character under the leadership of Master of Work/royal architect Sir of Kilbaberton (d. 1634), only to be stifled by the wars. All this was a contrast with the royal court of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries where Italian, English, Low Countries and French excellence was imported (more exotically still, James IV even had African drummers). Regarding our own period, the imported specialists themselves had amongst them people from not only England, but also the Low 8 Aonghus MacKechnie

Countries. The plasterers John Houlbert and George Dunsterfield were brought from London to help decorate Holyroodhouse (1670s), and their skills were exploited by patrons including Bruce at his own Balcaskie, Lord Lauderdale at Thirlestane, Lord Hatton at Hatton House, and Lord Tarbat at Caroline Park and Tarbat. Dutchman Jacob de Wet (1640–97) represented another category of foreign specialist, namely those who appear to have reached Scotland inde- pendent of the English royal works. He executed a series of royal portraits for Holyroodhouse (1684), as well as private commissions such as the 1688 chapel at Glamis. The carver Henry Manners, of unknown origin, was employed from the royal works by Lauderdale, and also at Lord Perth’s Drummond Castle (1688). Jan van Santvoort carved timber decoration in Holyroodhouse in the 1670s, and in the following decade Peter Paul Boyse and Cornelius van Nerven carved decoration in stone on the main façades of Kinross House and Drumlanrig Castle (1686). Other imported specialists included Jan Slezer, quoted above, who had a lengthy career as a military engineer and who also dabbled in house design – as at Kinnaird (Angus) in 1689, for example (unexecuted). Two other Low Countries sculptors, Arnold Quellin and Jan van Nost, both worked for Scottish clients; Quellin executed statuary for Glamis (1686), while van Nost provided the tomb of the and (‘the Union Duke’ – d. 1708) at Durisdeer. Possibly these works were shipped north after completion, as may also have been the case with the monument in Holy Trinity Church St Andrews to Archbishop Sharp (assassinated 1679), said to have come from the Netherlands. The baldacchino in Durisdeer’s Queensberry aisle is a clear copy of the St Peter’s formula; it also rather exemplifies the vigorous interest in marble imports (for example, see Chapter 11). Scotland’s ancient Baltic timber trade is of course well known, while for New Tarbat House in 1688 Lord Tarbat wanted timber imported from Holland for his sash windows. As regards external Scottish architectural influence, this was strongest at first through colonisation. After 1603, Scots-type build- ings were built in Ireland for Scots clients (Malcolm Hamilton’s Monea, for example) as part of an anti-Catholic and anti-Gael colonisation programme. Isolated documented instances of non- Scots patrons elsewhere included Norway’s Erik Rozencrantz, whose tower in Bergen was built by ‘muremestre oc stenhuggere af Skotland’ (Scots masons and stone hewers) in 1563.7 Hardly surpris- ingly, Scots masons were in occasional demand nearer to home. Introduction 9

Some early modern Cumbrian houses (Crakeplace Hall, for example, or Johnby) have distinctive Haggs-Kenmure-type neo-Romanesque detailing of 1560s–80s character,8 and Berwick has a plethora of crowsteps and skewputts of various dates, all illustrating people favouring Scottish design in provincial northern England. More usually, particularly in the early modern period, Scottish buildings elsewhere – such as the Scots merchant houses at Veere, or the Stuart Château de la Verrerie – were in the local style. But regarding our period, Scottish architects seem at first to have had little presence externally – though as we shall see, this situation was to reverse from the 1710s. The Episcopalian minister-turned- architect and landscape specialist Alexander Edward (1651–1708) was remarkable in that he travelled abroad for the specific purpose of conducting research for others into contemporary French archi- tectural fashion and landscape design (see Chapter 17). This perhaps underlined the dissemination rather than exchange of ideas, as prestigious French culture was, simply, attractive to others. That said, John Reid’s book A Scots Gard’ner (1683) disseminated ideas from Scotland, while, at the close of our period, Thomas Blaikie was gardener at the French court and to courtiers until ruined by the French Revolution in 1789 when payment from his rich clients abruptly ended. Here we must make a slight detour to remind ourselves that Scottish patrons and architecture existed far beyond Europe, notably in the colonies. Scots in Jamaica, for instance, built them- selves new houses while missionaries strove to save the souls of those whose bodies and lives the house-building slavers destroyed. For his house-cum-observatory in Kingston (built early 1740s), slave- owner Alexander MacFarlane (1702–55), benefactor to Glasgow University of the MacFarlane Observatory, chose a Classical design, with loggias on two levels.9 But to return to Britain. It is important to stress that politically, and just like Scotland, England was a separate European country until 1707 when the two merged. While the Treaty of Union created the new, integrationist state of Great Britain, there was an inde- pendent cultural continuity on either side of the border, and a rather two-way flow of cultural influence. Off to England, where the power and richer patronage lay, went architects Colen Campbell (1676–1729) and James Gibbs (1682–1754), soon to be followed by Robert (1728–92) and James (1730–94) Adam, and (1733–1811), all of whom feature amongst the foremost architects working in eighteenth-century England. Both James ‘Athenian’ 10 Aonghus MacKechnie

Stuart (1713–88) and William Chambers (1722–96), though English- based, were half-Scottish. From the other direction came a range of English cultural norms – possibly most evidently, the English form of the English language and deletion of Scots from formal use, while English architects and military engineers now arrived in Scotland as part of the anti- Jacobite militarisation programme that was to continue until the end of the century. This context of English architects and anti-Jacobite militarism helped bring about the next sea-change in Scottish architecture. The Classicism documented throughout this book can be considered as bringing the end to the country’s First Castle Age, because clients now more frequently decided to build in a Classical style. However, at 1740s , the Second Castle Age of the Scotch Baronial was inaugurated by an Anglo-Scot client, the 3rd Duke of Argyll. Here, a Gothic-windowed new castle was begun, complete with a protective deep and wide fosse. The design emerged from a grouping or committee of architects and specialists including William Adam and military engineer Dougal Campbell (d. 1757), with the executed design being that of Englishman Roger Morris (1695–1749), itself a version of an unexecuted 1720s project by his fellow-countryman Sir John Vanbrugh (1664–1726).10 By the time the castle’s foun- dation stone was laid on 1 October 1746, the Jacobite ‘threat’ was gone, the fosse consequently redundant. But a new fashion for neo- castellation had begun.

The architectural historiography of Scotland in Europe If it is a truism to state that ‘everything’ is political, then the story of Scotland’s architecture certainly complies. Scottish historiogra- phy (and accompanying martial architecture) at the start of our period was shaped by the triumphalist Scottish nationalism of the Scotichronicon (compiled from the fourteenth century and influen- tial over the centuries, first published 1759), while by our period’s end, that paradigm had somersaulted to a British nationalism with an accompanying new ideology of pre-Union Scotland having been a failure, rescued by Union. The new ideology was promulgated from the mid-eighteenth century by already-inferiorised Scots: historians such as (1711–76) and William Robertson (1721–93), who set a new and contrasting tone that dominated, arguably, into the mid-twentieth century and is seen sometimes with us still. Establishment historians sometimes presented Scotland’s past as a Introduction 11 sequence of glorious Unions – 1603 and 1707, of course – but now added to this (and contradicting their own sources) a which re-presented the Scots ninth-century conquest of Pictland as the ‘union’ that created Scotland. From the latter half of the twentieth century a new generation, taught by people such as Gordon Donaldson, and learning docu- mentary discipline from luminaries such as Ronald Cant and John Durkan, provided a new framework. These were historians such as Allan Macinnes and Michael Lynch who determined to avoid Scottish or British partisanism, setting Scotland within her own, her , European and global contexts. The topic of ‘Scotland and Europe’ was mainstreamed, to be followed by apprais- als of Scotland within a global context, and addressing external aspects such as, more recently, the humiliating and dehumanising aspects of colonialism and Scottish slavers – another somersault, upending the triumphalising norms boasted by British nationalist/ imperialist writers such as W. H. Fitchett (1841–1928). The architectural story fits broadly into this pattern; for an outline overview of Scotland’s fluctuating architectural historiog- raphy, readers are referred to Scotland’s Castle Culture.11 Earlier accounts of Scotland, such as that by Spain’s Don (1498), noted that Scottish buildings tended to be ‘built of hewn stone’ (that is, dressed stone),12 which is to say there was a dis- tinguishing national architectural tradition upon which visitors remarked. English visitors gave Scotland’s buildings mixed reviews. Jan Slezer, quoted above, was in 1693 particularly careful to praise Scottish architecture, and to emphasise that he was doing so from an informed, European standpoint. Presumably, this was the sort of opinion Scots wanted to hear and would enjoy, and he knew it. The change in tone came quickly after the Union of 1707, in Colen Campbell’s Vitruvius Britannicus, published from 1715. Where Slezer had been anxious to praise Scotland’s historic architecture, Campbell instead published a manifesto for a new British architec- ture. This would lionise , and present England’s cultural achievement as that of Britain, an imagined common heritage that Scots could – and in time, did – celebrate as their own.13 Campbell gave Scotland little presence (although approximately a quarter of volume I’s subscribers were Scots), and the only ‘tradi- tional’ Scottish castle (Drumlanrig) was presented in naïve perspec- tive whereas everything else was in professional two-dimensional sharpness. The Scottish castellated tradition was thus made to seem – intentionally or not – at best rustic or quaint, but Campbell’s 12 Aonghus MacKechnie

real point was to create a new architectural paradigm for the new Britain. James Gibbs’ Book of Architecture (1728) avoided political rhetoric, perhaps because Gibbs was a Catholic Scot seeking a career in anti-Catholic England. On the other hand, the Whig, pro-Union Presbyterian William Adam was making a pro-Scottish statement by compiling a riposte to Campbell with his projected Vitruvius Scoticus – where, ironically, the only naïve perspective design was that of Bruce’s super-sleek Classical Kinross House. Mention of Drumlanrig (rebuilt from c. 1675) diverts this story once again towards the Scottish castellated tradition, a tradition which seems during the First Castle Age to manifest in stone the ide- ology, or cult almost, of Scottish martial excellence. were still being built in contemporary Europe during our period, so to that extent 1670s Scotland was unremarkable; the strength or persis- tence of that culture here, even as the classicising castellation it had now become (notably at Holyroodhouse), did however set Scottish architecture apart from Europe’s mainstream. This changed in the decades around 1700, when the new Classicism became ubiquitous, thereby making Scottish architecture as mainstream European as could be, only for the castellated tradition to return with a venge- ance – the Second Castle Age – under Robert and James Adam, fol- lowing, as argued above, the design of Inveraray, from 1743, and the impact which that building had both within Scotland and beyond. But to conclude this section on the new historiography: this was accompanied, as we saw, by the quest for a European context. England, of course, for long after 1707, was de facto almost as cultur- ally ‘foreign’ as anywhere else in Europe, as shown in Glendinning et al’s 1996 A History of Scottish Architecture. Charles McKean dashed forward in 2001 to emphasise the French connection with his The Scottish Chateau. Historians discovered they could be upbeat without losing objectivity, and even the lightweight prejudice from within the sedate Oxbridge world of Howard Colvin could be attacked for his alleged disrespect of a Scotland ‘different from us’ by declaring loftily his Anglocentric presumption that the Scottish ‘tower-house was an anachronism’.14

The architects The third of the ‘star’ architects repeatedly highlighted below along- side Bruce and Smith is William Adam, though there is new work too on the first generation of Scottish architects welcomed into England – Campbell and Gibbs (see Chapter 9). As a pupil of Carlo Introduction 13

Fontana, Gibbs must have made a mark on early eighteenth-century Roman buildings. That topic awaits research, and here only his book and British context is considered. Lastly, further mention is required here of Alexander McGill (d. 1734), whom we met above. McGill, son of a Presbyterian minister, was by 1699 part of the architectural circle of Bruce, Edward and Smith. From the 1710s, he partnered the ageing Smith in projects such as Yester, characterised by its French- inspired horizontally channelled façades. William Adam (baptised 1689, the year Scotland’s new king was appointed William II) superseded Smith in the 1720s as the fore- most architect. Gifford’s 1989 book on Adam has not been super- seded,15 though here Adam’s work as a garden designer and designer of public buildings is particularly highlighted as being simultane- ously innovative, yet within the national tradition. Adam, who had travelled to England and the Low Countries, was in that sense simply another of Scotland’s premier early Classical architects who were talented, and who had travelled within Europe, which instantly confirms an architectural cosmopolitanism to their understanding and to their work.

Conclusion Our conclusion takes us back to the historiography, its shaping and reshaping by successive political agendas up to the modern age of today’s more determined search for dispassionate scholar- ship. Mainstream historiography has stepped beyond the postwar problematising of Scottish architecture by Anglocentric writers led by Sir John Summerson and (notwithstanding the scholarship of, say, John Dunbar) forefronted by some government archaeologists within Scotland. But has the dragon of inferiorism really been finally slain? That question is addressed in our concluding chapter, which strongly reaffirms today’s academic position: that the politically inexistent post-1707 Scotland, deprived for the longest time ever of royal architectural patronage, withstood the loss only to continue its individual programme or ‘national tradition’ – one that would flour- ish triumphantly in the nineteenth-century Scotch Baronial until subsumed within the international architectural environment that came after the First World War. Our period ends with Robert Adam, creator of superlative Classical buildings, but, as we saw, significant too as a key deviser of a new, revived national architecture – a new type of castellated Classicism – as inaugurated by Inveraray where he had worked, 14 Aonghus MacKechnie

and exemplified by Seton and Culzean, in a style drawing from the architecture of his own country. Ultimately, the Scoto-European connections were, and had always been, a strong aspect of Scotland’s culture, and were of course, if inconsistently, a two-way process. Precisely that point was made by James Cameron, as quoted at the start of this chapter: that while Scots travelled to Europe, bringing with them their experiences and ideas, ‘many of their counterparts, eager to enhance their experience, travelled throughout Scotland . . . and there found . . . a cosmopolitan society with which they were already familiar throughout the continent’.16