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Uvic Thesis Template ―Hereticks for Believing the Antipodes‖: Scottish Colonial Identities in the Darien, 1698- 1700 by Patrick Chassé B.A., Cape Breton University, 2005 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of History Patrick Chassé, 2007 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee ―Hereticks for Believing the Antipodes‖: Scottish Colonial Identities in the Darien, 1698- 1700 by Patrick Chassé B.A., Cape Breton University, 2005 Supervisory Committee Dr. Elizabeth Vibert (Department of History) Supervisor Dr. Simon Devereaux (Department of History) Departmental Member Dr. John Money (Department of History) Departmental Member Dr. Iain M. Higgins (Department of English) External Examiner iii Supervisory Committee Dr. Elizabeth Vibert (Department of History) Supervisor Dr. Simon Devereaux (Department of History) Departmental Member Dr. John Money (Department of History) Departmental Member Dr. Iain M. Higgins (Department of English) External Examiner Abstract New Caledonia (1698-1700) was Scotland‘s largest independent colonial venture. The scheme‘s collapse crippled the country financially and was an important factor in the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. This project explores the identity of Scottish settlers who attempted to colonize the Darien region of modern Panama. Colonial identity is assessed by reconstructing the Scottish dialogue about the natural world, the aboriginal population, and the commonwealth. I contend that the ideology of improvement that shaped Scottish perceptions of utility and fertility in the Darien became a powerful moral discourse used to critique the colonists. This paper also chronicles Scottish aspirations to found an empire of trade and civility, uncovering the fundamental problems created by the idealization of the Tule as eager subjects of this new empire. Finally, I argue that Caledonia‘s food shortages not only threatened the colonial government‘s legitimacy, they also exposed divergent ideals of the commonwealth among the settlers. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. vi Dedication ......................................................................................................................... vii Epigraph ........................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Clearcutting the Shades of Love ..................................................................... 30 Chapter 2: A Tale of Two Monkeys ................................................................................. 71 Chapter 3: Feeding the Commonwealth ......................................................................... 118 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 157 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 164 Primary Sources .......................................................................................................... 164 Secondary Sources ...................................................................................................... 166 v List of Figures Figure 1: Map of the Darien Reproduced in Scotland c.1699 .......................................... 32 Figure 2: Francis Borland's Map of New Caledonia ......................................................... 33 Figure 3: Coat of Arms of the Company of Scotland ....................................................... 76 Figure 4: The Tule Leader Lacenta ................................................................................... 89 Figure 5: The Tule Method of Drawing of Blood............................................................. 90 vi Acknowledgement Though words are but trite and easy thanks, I hope all of you who aided me along the way realize just how incredibly grateful I am. I find myself indebted to my friends, family and professors for the personal and professional advice that they have offered me during the past several years. I owe an inexpressible debt to my professors at Cape Breton University, especially Graham Reynolds, Scott Moir, Andy Parnaby and David Mullan. Their continuing friendship and support has been both a great boon for this thesis and a joy to me. The generous financial support offered by SSHRC and the University of Victoria that ensured that this project was expeditiously realized. The thoughtful comments of Simon Devereaux and John Money transformed this thesis by expanding its scope and my personal understanding of the Early Modern British world. I would also be remiss if I overlooked Karen Hickton, whose cheerful help I helped me to steer a path through the mountains of paperwork that would have otherwise overwhelmed me. While writing this thesis there has been one person whose time I taxed to no end with pestering questions about identity and Scottishness and the like: Elizabeth Vibert. I am afraid that I can not thank Elizabeth enough for her profound comments, unstinting editorial work, and her helpful advice. Without her oversight, this would have a poorer piece of scholarship. I end with words of thanks for my loved ones. My mother, sister, and my girlfriend have been a continual source of love and cheer. Without their wit and verve I doubt I could have finished. Please remember that any mistakes or oversights are my own, while the ideas throughout are founded upon your support and encouragement. Thank you all. vii Dedication For Maman and Emily. viii Epigraph On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer Much have I travell‘d in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-brow‘d Homer ruled as his demesne; Yet did I never breathe its pure serene Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims into his ken; Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes He star‘d at the Pacific—and all his men Look‘d at each other with a wild surmise— Silent, upon a peak in Darien. John Keats, 1816 Introduction Of all the ten thousand bubbles of which history has preserved the memory, none was ever more skilfully puffed into existence; none ever soared higher, or glittered more brilliantly; and none ever burst with a more lamentable explosion [than the Darien scheme]. Thomas Macaulay, 1861 John Hamilton, the second Lord Belhaven, was not a man to mince words. He was well known in Scotland for his direct manner and fiery disposition.1 But this man of undisciplined temper was no maverick. He was deeply committed to rescuing Scotland from the widespread poverty that afflicted the nation during the late 1690s. Like many of his contemporaries, Belhaven passionately believed that Scottish fortunes could only be improved through trade and colonial plantations. To achieve this end, in 1695 he helped to found the Company of Scotland and became a leading advocate of the short-lived Scottish settlement of New Caledonia established in 1698.2 The ambitious settlement in the Darien region of Panama was designed to transform Scotland into an imperial power by giving it a colonial port enviably located in relation to the Pacific Ocean, the rich continent of South America, and the growing trade of the West Indies. When the first fleet left Scotland on 14 July, 1698, Belhaven, like most Scots, could not suspect the degree to which failure would dog the steps of the settlers. 1 Among his more notorious exploits, Belhaven served a short term in Edinburgh Castle after arguing that the controversial Test Act (1681) designed to secure the Protestant religion was riddled with loopholes that might allow a Catholic king to come to the throne. In 1703, during heated debates about the accession of Queen Anne, Belhaven and another MP came to blows and had to be pardoned by an Act of Parliament. John R. Young, ―Hamilton, John, second Lord Belhaven and Stenton (1656–1708),‖ in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: OUP, 2004). 2 As the President of the Scottish Committee of Trade, Belhaven helped to draft the 1695 Act establishing the Company of Scotland trading to Africa and the Indies. Shortly thereafter, he joined the Company as one of its Directors and pledged to give £1000 to the Darien venture. Young, ―Hamilton, John, second Lord Belhaven and Stenton (1656–1708).‖ 2 Between 1698 and 1700, two attempts to settle the Darien killed over 2000 Scots, destroyed ten ships
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