LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES 6 2001 ISSN 1392-2343 pp. 172–161

Vytautas Smilgevičius. ‘Karlo I Prahos grašiai Lietuvos muziejų lobiuose’ [Prague Groats of Charles IV in the Collections of Lithuanian Museums]. Kultūros paminklai, kn. 6, 2000, pp. 12–23.

In Lithuanian museum collections there are 30 Prague groats of Charles IV. Fourteen of these coins are the latest variety, dated at the 1370s, and their way to Lithuania could be attributed to the years 1405–1407. The author of this paper extensively discusses the schemes of coin typology, proposed mostly by the Czech scholars J. Smolik, E. Nohejlová, K. Castelin, L. Nemeškal, V. Pinta and S. Veselý and presents a table, containing the place of the coins, their variety, weight (in grams) and the site where a given coin was found. In conclusion, the author proposes to adhere to the rules of coin description in publishing information about new findings of Prague coins (to indicate their weight after restoration, their diameter and thickness, their variety and present location).

Kęstutis Katalynas. ‘Vilnius XIII amžiuje. Mitai ir faktai’. [Vilnius in the Thirteenth Century: Myths and Facts]. Kultūros paminklai , kn. 6, 2000, pp. 207–219.

The author analyzes several deeply entrenched assumptions about thir- teenth-century Vilnius and seeks to answer a question of what the facts and the myths are. He questions the statements that Vilnius occupied a large territory before Gediminas established his capital here, that it was reliably protected (with stone fortifications having replaced wooden ones, according to some opinions), crafts and trade with other countries flour- ished here and that it was a religious centre (hearths of pagan rites were found, subsequently a Christian cathedral was erected on the site of a pagan temple). Intensively re-reading the accounts of archaeological investigations the author comes to a guarded verdict about the accept- ability of these assumptions. Attention is paid to the interpretation of erroneously selected facts and even their disregard, inaccurate dating of the findings, misleading analogies with other cultures and the research of a particular theme divorced from the entire context.

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Rimvydas Petrauskas. ‘Vytauto laikų didikų kilmė’ [The Origin of the Nobility of Vytautas’ Times]. Lituanistica , no. 1/2 (41/42), 2000, pp. 16–31.

The rise of the nobility is associated with the appearance of the estate privileges, which are accounted for by the social policy of the Grand Duke Vytautas. In order to verify this theory, the author of this article investi- gated the origin of the most influential noble families (Mantvidas and Gedgaudas, Minigaila, Andrius Goštautas, Astikas, Valmantas and Valmantaitises, Bratošas, et al.) in Vytautas’ times. The author concludes that in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries the state of the Lithuanian nobility was defined both by the service and by the birth. The geography of the origin of the nobility shows that at that time nearly all their patrimonial lands were located in the territory, partially coinciding with the lands of ‘genuine’ Lithuania. Polish and Russian chronicles and those of the Teutonic Order, as well as the international treaties of Kęstutis were used to research this topic.

Algimantas Miškinis. ‘Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės miestų ir miestelių planingas formavimas iki XVII a. vidurio: ypatumai ir sąveika su Vakarų bei Rytų Europos urbanistika’ [The Planned Formation of Cities and Towns in the GDL before the Mid-Seventeenth Century: its Specific Characteristics and Contacts with Urban Planning in Western and Eastern Europe]. Kultūros paminklai , kn. 6, 2000, pp. 101–119.

The author holds that a planned development of cities and towns in the GDL could have begun in the middle of the sixteenth century, although at that time only a part of urban centres were built. Planned construction of large and small towns was instigated by the contemporary rise of economic centres, which in turn was conditioned by general economic progress and the need to repopulate empty or war-devastated territories. Besides, the necessity of a planned construction of economic centres coincided with the need for the reform the agriculture of the GDL – the so-called Valakas Reform. Though the process of planned construction did not proceed smoothly everywhere, the majority of cities and towns in the GDL acquired a more or less planned structure according to the Western- and Central-European patterns of urban planning by the middle of the seventeenth century. The overwhelming majority of such centres of trade and crafts are found in the territory of the present-day Lithuania, in Belorussia their number becomes smaller, and the further to the east, the less is that number.

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Nerijus Gudaitis. ‘1621–1622 Kuršo-Livonijos kampanija’ [The Courland– Livonia Campaign of 1621–1622]. Darbai ir Dienos , 21, 2000, pp. 39–60.

The author characterizes the general political and economic situation of this area of the Baltic Sea, which led its eastern region to become a permanent theatre of war from the second half of the sixteenth century. An attempt is made to reveal the course of the Courland–Livonia cam- paign of Kristupas Radvila II in 1621–1622, to review the main stages of the siege of the city of Riga, which prevented the advance of the more numerous Swedish forces towards ethnic Lithuanian lands. The principal attention is paid to particular events of the campaign, taking into account the strategic and economic importance of Livonia and Riga and the nature of the forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, engaged in the campaign. The course of the campaign is reconstructed on the basis of archival, primary and secondary sources.

Lina Vidauskytė. ‘Jonušo Radvilos strategija ir taktika (XVII a. vidurio karai su kazokais ir Rusija)’ [The Strategy and Tactics of Janusz Radziwiłł (the Wars with the Cossacks and Russia in the Mid-Seventeenth Cen- tury)]. Darbai ir Dienos , 21, 2000, pp. 61–92.

Jonušas Radvila is one of the most illustrious figures in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, frequently attracting the attention of research- ers. Nevertheless, one can still find poorly researched aspects of his biography. The author of this paper seeks to determine whether in his wars against the Cossacks and Russia Radvila had any definite pre- arranged plans to beat the enemy or whether they were merely improvizations, prompted by the situation. The author maintains that Radvila had strategic plans and gives a favourable evaluation of his military activities. The paper also deals with the organization of the Lithua- nian army in the seventeenth century, its composition, attack and defence tactics, forces opposing it, the principal battles (at Lojów, Białocerkiew, Szklów, the capture of Kiev, the defence of Vilnius) and the theatre of war.

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Asta Vaškelienė. ‘XVIII a. Lietuvos lotyniškoji literatūra: kultūrinis ir visuomeninis kontekstas’ [Eighteenth-Century Latin Literature of Lithua- nia: Cultural and Social Aspects]. Lituanistica , no. 3/4, 2000, pp. 75–92.

Enlightenment ideas reached Lithuania in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Maintaining that the development of Latin literature in Lithuania at that time was conditioned by stormy social and political changes, the author notes that the ongoing changes were closely related to the state of education in the country, which was chiefly influenced by two orders – the Jesuits and the Piarists, whose rivalry inspired significant changes in society, scholarship and culture. The article discusses the impact of Jesuit schools on learning foreign languages, and the state of school libraries, the publication of reformed calendars, based on the new ‘scholarly spirit’, and of academic literature and belles-lettres. Attention is paid to the activity of the Educational Commission, which took over Jesuit property after the Order was suppressed, found new managers for schools and, most importantly, continued the reform of education. The publication activity of the Piarists is also discussed.

Zita Medišauskienė. ‘Konservatyvių idėjų raiška Stanislovo Moravskio palikime. [Conservatism in the Heritage of Stanislovas Moravskis]. Politologija , 4(20), pp. 115–136.

The author considers that conservatism has been spreading in Lithuanian society since the 1820s and is evident in the works of Catholic philosophy, history, ethnography, economics, statistics and fiction. This kind of thinking is detected by the author in five works of the physician Stanislovas Moravskis issued between 1848 and 1850, in which European political and ideological topicalities are discussed from the conservative standpoint as a reaction to the European revolutions of 1848 and the resulting social theories. The conservatism of Moravskis’ works is based on the idea that the human being and society in general are God’s creation, and the organization of social life on the basis of theories means an interference in the development of humankind, ordered exclusively by God. In his opinion, in the mid-nineteenth century Lithuanian society needed a moral or religious rather than political or social reform.

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Zita Medišauskienė, ‘Konservatyvi industrinės visuomenės kritika XIX a. vidurio Lietuvoje’ [Conservative Criticisms of Industrial Society in Mid- Nineteenth-Century Lithuania]. Lietuvos Aukštųjų Mokyklų Mokslo Darbai. Istorija , XLVI, 2000, pp. 3–11.

The article deals with a critical attitude of Lithuanian conservatives of the mid-nineteenth century towards the impact of the rapidly developing capitalist mode of production of Western countries on the personality of the individual and on social life. The author discusses similar processes taking place in Lithuanian society proper: trips abroad, increasing luxury, prevalence of ‘rationality’ in everyday life (interest in education, literature, the need for intellectual communication), card games, etc., leading to moral degradation, hooliganism and laziness. Observing Western industrial so- ciety, the conservatives discerned a threat posed by social changes to the agrarian feudal world.

Kazys Misius. ‘Vilniaus senienų muziejaus suvalstybinimas ir dalies jo eksponatų išvežimas 1863–1869’ [The Sequestration of the Vilnius Mu- seum of Antiquities and its Partial Removal in 1863–1869]. Kultūros paminklai , kn. 6, 2000, pp. 24–39.

The Vilnius Museum of Antiquities was opened in 1856 and soon became well known; supported by the general public and various institutions it developed successfully. However, after the Uprising of 1863 the tsarist authorities began interfering in the Museum’s activity. In 1865 a special commission compiled a long list of exhibits, related to the Republic of the Two Nations. At first they were kept locked in a separate room and in 1868 their list was revised. The new list comprised 256 items (one item could include several exhibits), and the treasures of the Vilnius Museum were taken to the Rumiantsev Museum in Moscow. The author describes exten- sively the attempts of Count Eustachy Tyszkiewicz to prevent the transfer of the exhibits; his letter to the chairman of the Commission, Aleksandr Stolypin, about the irrationality of the intended action is presented. A list of the transferred treasures is added as an appendix to the article.

Sandra Grigaravičiūtė. ‘Skandinavija lietuvių diplomatijoje 1915–1917 metais’ [Scandinavia in Lithuanian Diplomacy in 1915–1917]. Vilniaus Universiteto Mokslo Darbai. Lietuvos istorijos studijos , no. 8, 2000, pp. 40–57.

The author seeks to solve two problems: what made the Lithuanians select Scandinavia in 1915 and what Scandinavia meant for Lithuanian diplomacy in 1915–1917. The formation of Scandinavian policy by the Lithuanians

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 11:56:27PM via free access ARTICLES 177 and its causes are analyzed on the basis the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Lithuania, on reminiscences, on Lietuvių balsas , published in St Petersburg in 1915–1917 and in Voronezh in 1918, and on other sources. Scandinavian neutrality in the First World War, the infor- mational blockade of Germany, the prohibition of the Russian government to send money to the territories occupied by Germany, the economic blockade of Germany, conducted by Great Britain, etc. are dealt with in the article. The pro-Scandinavian orientation of the nations on the western fringes of the Russian Empire (the Lithuanians, Estonians, Finns, Poles), who were seeking to solve their economic and political problems, was connected with the geo-political situation of these nations. The author also reviews the tasks facing Lithuanian diplomacy in Scandinavia in 1915–1917, in particular stressing the place of Stockholm – the centre of Lithuanian propaganda in Scandinavia.

Jonas Vaičenonis. ‘Lietuvos kariuomenės modernizacija (1926–1939)’ [The Modernization of the Lithuanian Army, 1926–1939]. Darbai ir Dienos , 21, 2000, pp. 131–176.

Following the restoration of independence, Lithuanian historians again have a chance to investigate the issues dealing with the Lithuanian armed forces. This paper is devoted to a number of military re-organization problems: Kazys Škirpa’s plans, endorsed by the contemporary govern- ment, the changes in the armed forced after the coup d’etat of 17 Decem- ber 1926 and Povilas Kubiliūnas’ efforts to reform the army, which were hampered by the country’s economic hardships. The modernization of the Lithuanian army is discussed in the context of the military modernization of other countries (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Belgium and Czechoslovakia). The reforms of Gen. Stasys Raštikis (and the reformers themselves), plans of military mobilization and defence, military training and armaments modernization are presented in great detail. The author accentuates that, in comparison with Estonia and Latvia, Lithuania achieved better results. Nonetheless, it could effectively resist an aggressor only in union with these countries.

Nijolė Maslauskienė. ‘Valdininkijos šalinimas iš okupuotos Lietuvos administracijos ir jos keitimas okupantų talkininkais 1940 m. birželio – gruodžio mėn.’ [The Elimination of Civil Servants in Occupied Lithuania and their Replacement by the Protagonists of the Occupation in June – December 1940]. Genocidas ir rezistencija , 2(8), pp. 7–41.

This paper focuses on the replacement of civil servants of the Republic of Lithuania by the administration of the occupational regime in the period

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Laurynas Jonušauskas. ‘Lietuvos diplomatinis atstovavimas Prancūzijoje 1940–1960’ [Lithuanian Diplomatic Representation in France between 1940 and 1960]. Genocidas ir rezistencija . 2000 2(8), pp. 56–65.

The Lithuanian diplomatic mission in France was one of the few Lithua- nian diplomatic posts, which remained active after the Soviet occupation of the country. The article reveals the conditions (after the Soviet occu- pation of Lithuania on 15 June and the German occupation of Paris on 14 June), in which Dr Stasys Antanas Bačkis took over the embassy after the arrest of Petras Klimas, the extraordinary and plenipotentiary minister of Lithuania, in the middle of 1943. Bačkis worked in Paris until 1960; that year he left for the Lithuanian embassy in Washington, D.C. Although the second building of the embassy was given to the Soviets, France did not revoke the diplomats their immunity and constantly kept issuing their diplomatic documents. Although the diplomatic procedures were not al- ways conducted overtly, care was taken of the Lithuanian refugees, joint campaigns of the diplomats of Baltic states were organized, and the Lithuanian diplomats worked in international and émigré organizations. The present investigation is based on the archive of Dr Albertas Gerutis and personal archives of Dr S. A. Bačkis and S. Lozoraitis.

Arūnas Bubnys. ‘Lietuvių policijos 2-asis (Vilniaus) ir 252-asis batalionai (1941–1944)’ [The 2nd (Vilnius) Battalion and the 252nd Battalion of Lithua- nian Police (1941–1944)]. Genocidas ir rezistencija . 2000 2(8), pp. 42–55.

In the middle of 1942 there were 20 Lithuanian police battalions, and the history of only some of these has been investigate in some detail. This article deals with the 2nd (Vilnius) and the 252nd battalions, which, in contrast with other Lithuanian police battalions, were employed in the concentration camp of Lublin (Majdanek). In the study particular attention is paid to the conditions of the formation of the battalions and their activity in Lithuania, in Majdanek and afterwards in Russia and Belorussia.

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The functions of the battalions were similar: they guarded military objects, fought against Soviet partisans, served as guards in the concentration camp of Majdanek; the 2nd battalion was also engaged in the Nazi Holo- caust campaign. In July 1944 this battalion was defeated by the Red Army. The 252nd battalion existed until the autumn of 1944, and some of its members served already in the German regiments until the end of the Second World War.

Laurynas Jonušauskas. ‘Lietuvos diplomatinė tarnyba Antrojo pasaulinio karo metais Europoje’ [Lithuanian Diplomatic Service in Europe during the Second World War]. Genocidas ir rezistencija . 2000 1(7), pp. 7–13.

This article presents the activities of the Lithuanian diplomatic service in Europe during the Second World War and, in particular, analyzes two documents (hardly ever dealt with in historical scholarship): ‘The Protocol of the Diplomatic Meeting of 14 July 1941’ and ‘The Notes of the Berne Meeting of Lithuanian Diplomats between 21 May and 14 June 1942’. The author maintains that the complicated situation of WWII was not fa- vourable to dynamic political activity. Nevertheless, the meetings of the Lithuanian diplomats show that attempts were made to search for ways to re-establish the country’s political independence.

Justinas Braslauskas. ‘Lietuvos žemės ūkis nacių okupacijos metais’ [Lithua- nian Agriculture during Nazi Occupation]. Vilniaus Universiteto Mokslo Darbai. Lietuvos istorijos studijos , no. 8, 2000, pp. 58–76.

After occupying Lithuania, the Germans attempted to regulate the relation- ship of land property in such a way as to make Lithuanian agriculture profitable and meet German food needs. For that purpose a number of laws were issued regulating the mandatory supply of agricultural produce. The main problem of wartime agriculture was a shortage of machines and implements, seeds and workforce. Although these obstacles and obliga- tory requirements of produce affected Lithuanian agriculture negatively, attempts were made by the Lithuanian autonomous administration to continue the development of agriculture. The author’s arguments are supported by six tables, indicating the number and size of farms, the purchase of produce, the change of the crop areas, the fertility of the soil, the dynamics of the livestock and poultry, etc.

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Laurynas Jonušauskas. ‘Stasio Lozoraičio ir VLIK’o santykiai 1946–1947 m.’ [Relations between Stasys Lozoraitis and the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania in 1946–1947]. Genocidas ir rezistencija . 2000 1(7), pp. 45–57.

The paper deals with relations between the senior Lithuanian diplomat, Stasys Lozoraitis, and the Supreme Committee for the Liberation Lithuania in 1946–1947, their consultations in Berne and Paris, in which disagree- ments (and their causes) between the members of the Committee and Lozoraitis became obvious. The formation of a joint political leadership (of the type of the government in exile) and its instability are shown in the context of those consultations. The archive of Dr Albertas Gerutis, kept at the Manuscript Department of the Vilnius University Library, the per- sonal archive of Lozoraitis in Rome, as well as the protocols of the 1946– 1947 consultations and the correspondence on political issues were used for this study.

Vygintas Bronius Pšibilskis. ‘Antrojo pasaulinio karo pabėgėlių iš Lietuvos likimą sprendžiant’ [On the Fate of Lithuanian Refugees after the Second World War]. Vilniaus Universiteto Mokslo Darbai. Lietuvos istorijos studijos , no. 8, 2000, pp. 77–93.

On the basis of the publications of Lithuanian and foreign authors, war- time and post-war periodicals, the author analyzes the principal attitudes, trends and endeavours of the international democratic community and Lithuanian organizations to solve the complicated problem of the WWII refugees, among them those from Lithuania. Attention is focused chiefly on the activity of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Adminis- tration (UNRRA), the United American Lithuanian Relief Fund ( Lith. BALF) and the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania (Lith. VLIK). The paper also deals with the relief, offered by the International Refugee Organization (IRO) in the transitory period, the attitudes of the governments of different countries on the issues of limited and mass emigration and the solutions of this problem.

Daiva Dapkutė. ‘Lietuvių rezistencinės santarvės dalyvavimas Lietuvos laisvės byloje’ [Participation of the Lithuanian Concord of Resistance in the Cause of Lithuania’s Freedom]. Genocidas ir rezistencija . 2000 1(7), pp. 14–44. The Lithuanian Concord of Resistance ( Lietuvių rezistencinė santarvė ), established in Great Britain in 1950, was a liberally-oriented political and cultural organization. It had branches in the major states of Europe and the Americas. The paper presents a concise account of how the Concord was established. It was founded during a conflict between the émigré

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Catholics and liberals to counterbalance the Supreme Committee for the Liberation Lithuania. Its activities, contacts with Lithuania, relations with Stasys Lozoraitis, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, and other émigré organizations are discussed. The research is based on archival materials from the collections of Henrikas Žemelis, Bronys Raila, Vincas Rastenis and Bronius Kviklys, kept in the Centre for Emigration Studies at the University of Vytautas Magnus, Kaunas.

Arvydas Anušauskas. ‘KGB ir lietuvių visuomenė. Slaptasis karas 1954– 1991 metais’ [The KGB and Lithuanian Society. The Secret War of 1954–1991]. Darbai ir Dienos , 21, 2000, pp. 233–283.

In discussing the activity of secret services of the totalitarian states, the most difficult task is to reveal their impact upon the social processes, separate events and the motivation of the actions of individuals. The author of this article aims at doing that in discussing the traits of the activity of the KGB between 1954 and 1991 on the basis of the documents of the Lithuanian Special Archive and recent scholarly studies. The article presents a review of the security structures (their functions, personnel selection criteria, the formation of the network of agents), KGB spying on Lithuanian émigré organizations (the Supreme Committee for the Libera- tion of Lithuania), concrete individuals (art collector Mykolas Žilinskas), even industrial spying, and the activity directed against the national movement of the 1980s and early 1990s. The author holds that the KGB managed to penetrate into the most varied spheres of life and could influence the contemporary social processes. Nevertheless, it could not change the direction of the processes of 1988–1991.

Vytautas Berenis. ‘Holokaustas ir lietuvių istorinė sąmonė’. [The Holo- caust and the Lithuanian Historical Conscience]. Politologija , no. 3, 2000, pp. 3–25.

The article deals with the attitudes to the Holocaust prevalent in Lithua- nian historical scholarship and their reflection in Lithuanian public con- sciousness. Three historiographical notions are analyzed: the Soviet opin- ion, that of the Lithuanian émigrés and the recent post-Communist one, stemming from the time of Sąjūdis. The Soviet and Nazi occupations, their ideologies and politics, Lithuania’s occupation by the USSR, the ‘cold war’ and Soviet propaganda conditioned peculiar Lithuanian attitudes to the Holocaust. Historical research is blocked by ‘the theory of double genocide’, still current in Lithuanian historiography and preventing a more objective treatment of the events of 1940–1944 and of the former life of the Jewish community in Lithuania.

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