TXSTUR texas state undergraduate research journal

volume viii | issue i spring 2020 For more information please contact TXSTUR via the following: Email: [email protected] Phone: (512) 245-2266 Website: www.txstate.edu/undergraduateresearch/txstur Volume VIII | Issue I This information is available in alternate format upon request from the Office of Disability Services. Spring 2020 HSI STEM Impact’s STEM Undergraduate Research Experience (SURE) Program is a supporter of the TXSTUR Journal.

TXSTUR thanks the faculty reviewers who worked alongside the authors and editors: Dr. Susan Morrison Dr. Kevin Gates Dr. Joseph Laycock Dr. Natasha Mikles Alan Schaefer Dr. Thomas Doyle Dr. Debra Law Dr. Elizabeth Skerpan-Wheeler Dr. Ron Haas Dr. Louie Dean Valencia-García

Texas State University Board of Regents: William F. Scott - Chairman - Nederland David Montagne - Vice Chairman - Beaumont Charlie Amato - Regent - San Antonio Duke Austin - Regent - Houston Garry Crain - Regent - The Hills Dr. Veronica Muzquiz Edwards - Regent - San Antonio Don Flores - Regent - El Paso Nicki Harle - Regent - Baird Alan L. Tinsley- Regent - Madisonville Katey McCall - Student Regent - Orange Brian McCall - Chancellor - Austin Texas State Undergraduate Research Journal A peer-reviewed journal for multidisciplinary research

Volume VIII | Issue I Spring 2020 EDITORIAL BOARD

KAITLYN BENACQUISTO KATHRYN MCDANIEL MANAGING EDITOR MANAGING EDITOR

CHEYANNE CLAGETT ANNEKE PATERSON EDITOR HEATHER HANSEN EDITOR EDITOR

BRIDGETTE ABBOTT SHELBY SULT EDITOR EDITOR

LYNSEY LAMOUREUX BRIANNA MATHERLY EDITOR EDITOR DEAR READER,

We are excited to present to you the Spring 2020 issue of the Texas State Undergraduate Research Journal (TXSTUR). As former editors and authors for this journal, it has been an honor to serve as this year’s managing editors. We anticipate TXSTUR to continue to develop further in the years to come and to continue featuring the excellent undergraduate research occurring here at Texas State University. This year’s publication reflects years of effort toward promoting undergraduate research at Texas State. We hope that TXSTUR inspires students to believe in their intellectual endeavors and strive to share their research with others.

We would like to especially thank Dr. Ron Haas for his dedication to TXSTUR and his mentorship, as well as Dr. Heather Galloway and the Honors College for their unending support of the editorial team. We would also like to thank all the incredible undergraduate students featured in this issue; we are so proud of our fel- low Bobcats and the work they have produced. Finally, we thank our editorial board and faculty reviewers who worked to ensure quality above all else. The journal would not be at the caliber that it is without this collaboration.Because of the unusual semester that we have had, we are especially grateful to everyone choos- ing to continue to dedicate their time to the journal amidst a global pandemic. This edition of TXSTUR demonstrates the range of undergraduate research happening at Texas State. With articles ranging from focus on epic poems and memes to nuclear weapons and the effect of news bias, this year’s edition highlights a variety of voices.

We look forward to seeing the new realms of research Texas State students will explore in the future and encourage our readers to consider publication of their own work in TXSTUR. View our previous publications and find out how to get your work published at our Undergraduate Research website, txstate.edu/undergraduateresearch/txstur.

SINCERELY, KAITLYN BENACQUISTO & KATHRYN MCDANIEL

MANAGING EDITORS, TEXAS STATE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL FASHION A Dishonest Wardrobe: Fashion and Costume in Geoffery 6 Chaucer’s “General Prologue”

INTERNET HUMOR Waiting for Dat Boi: An Absurdist Defense 14 of Internet Humor

HELL HOUSES And the Winner for Best Abortion Girl is: Performance 20 and Religious Identity in Evangelical Hell Houses

WOMEN IN FILM Behind the Screens: A History of Women’s Roles in Filmmaking 30

NUCLEAR TERRORISM Mastery of Fear: Assessing the Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism 36 SISTERHOOD 50 Girls Only: The Use and Abuse of Female-Centric Events in Patriarchal Religions MODERN EPICS 59 The Transformation of the Epic Form through Milton’s Paradise Lost

NEWS BIAS 66 American News Bias: Consequences of American News Coverage Through the Events of the 2006 Lebanon War

COMIC 73 REPRESENTATION Border Town: Subversion of Mexican-American Racialized Stereotypes in the American Southwest A DISHONEST WARDROBE

FASHION AND COSTUME IN GEOFFERY CHAUCER’S “GENERAL PROLOGUE”

BY COURTNEY LUDWICK REVIEWED BY DR. SUSAN MORRISON EDITED BY KAITLYN BENACQUISTO AND KATHRYN MCDANIEL This paper analyzes fashion in medieval literature as a means of self-representation that reflects the wearer’s honesty or dishonesty concerning their struggle with societal status. In the “General Prologue,” Chaucer depicts a wealth of characters who capture this honesty and dishonesty of clothing in the fourteenth century, mirroring dress and self-representation in modern society. How one chooses to present themselves to the world is not only a reflection of themselves. It is also a reflection of how idealized expectations and clothing’s illusion affect one’s comfort disseminating a true identity. Pieces analyzed include the Knight’s armor, the Prioress’s gold broach, the Wife of Bath’s red hose and wimple, and other noteworthy costume components demonstrating this Chaucerian concept. However, the idea is paralleled in modern times as well. As brands continue to grow and the apparel industry moves toward fast-fashion models, the lines become blurred, and one can use fashion to either reveal or hide who they really are. In the twenty-first century, clothing can deceive, as copy-cat fabrics and the façade social media and fast fashion facilitate run rampant. In this paper, I assert that dishonest clothing is dress that is selected with the intent or purpose of showing society a form of the individual that is not entirely authentic. Through idiosyncratic apparel descriptions and the use of fashion as a metaphorical device, Chaucer’s “General Prologue” serves to highlight this façade— witnessed in both the fourteenth century and today. This paper functions to address the concept of dishonest and honest clothing as it pertains to medieval literature and the implications that arise when viewing the textual evidence under a modern lens.

n another world—in another time— society. However, clothing is not always I kings, queens, and the noble class honest. In Chaucer’s “General Prologue” were the celebrities of the fourteenth of The Canterbury Tales, the wide range century. Fashion was important as of characters exploit fashion and show ever, and the clothing someone wore the world who they want to be rather mattered. It was, and continues to be, than who they really are. This medieval a representation of a person’s place in world parallels the one we live in today. 8 | TXSTUR In both medieval and modern society, emphasizes the blood-stained armor to fashion is a means of self-representation demonstrate that the Knight’s worthiness that reflects the wearer’s honesty or is directly tied to his competence in dishonesty concerning their struggle battle and gives the reader their first with societal status. How one chooses to glance at honest clothing. This honest present themselves to the world is not clothing reconciles the character’s only a reflection of themselves; it is a real face with the mask shown to the reflection of how idealized expectations world, and in the Knight’s case, his face and clothing’s illusion affect their and mask are unequivocally the same. comfort disseminating their true identity. Echoing this sentiment, Mitchell posits, As brands continue to grow, the apparel “…an excellence of strength or power industry moves toward fast-fashion (worthiness) is needed for efficiency models allowing for the manipulation of dress through integration of cheaper How one chooses to fabrics, knock-off designs, and the rise of social media influencers who presents present themselves to the a façade of themselves to society. The world is not only a lines become blurred, and one can use fashion to either reveal or hide who they reflection of themselves; it really are. Through idiosyncratic apparel is a reflection of how descriptions and the use of fashion as a metaphorical device, Chaucer depicts idealized expectations and a wealth of characters who capture the clothing’s illusion affect honesty and dishonesty of clothing in the fourteenth century, mirroring their comfort disseminating modern societal projections of dress and their true identity. self-representation. Primarily, Chaucer’s contextual descriptions regarding the costume and traits of his characters disclose revealing or effectiveness (virtue)…the Knight’s information about the dishonesty of bravery is almost synonymous with his clothing in the fourteenth century. In efficiency in action” (9). In other words, turn, the modern reader can connect this the Knight shows himself through the with the modern era we live in today. virtue of effectiveness in battle and One example of this can be seen in the never claims to be anything other than Knight and the Friar. Regarding the what he is; he never exploits his dress to former, Chaucer describes the fourteenth amend for his downfalls—whatever they century’s chivalric ideal: may be. Of fustian he wered a gipoun, However, the Knight is not the Al bismotered with his habergeoun, typical character in the society Chaucer For he was late ycome from his viage, describes. In fact, he is a reprieve And wente for to doon his pilgrimage. from the vast majority of characters (I.75-78) attempting to hide their downfalls from One word that is especially important the world through a selection of clothing within this passage is “bismotered.” specifically designed to trick society into The Middle English Dictionary defines seeing the mask and not the face. One it as “bespattered” or “soiled” (MED). example of this concept is the Friar, who Through use of this word, Chaucer does a good job of presenting this mask FASHION | 9 to the world. Chaucer depicts him as a and embraces garish and gaudy costume. man who “…was lik a maister or a pope” Rigby further examines this, arguing, (I.260). Chaucer continues, describing “…it is not (as some critics have claimed) the Friar’s dress, “Of double worstede the Prioress’s dress which the poet was his semicope…” and paints a picture criticizes but rather her failure to live of the character in exceptionally made up to the inner moral standard…” (1). So clothing and expensive fabrics (I.261). then, it must be assumed that, through Here, the Friar’s costume does not her dress, her amorality is publicized represent him; it represents his unease and proven to be of a lower standard with his societal status in the fourteenth than fourteenth-century society would century. Gerald Morgan encapsulates expect. Pious, humble, and devoted are a this idea in his work, stating, “With the few words which one might attribute to Friar there is a marked descent in both a prioress; however, Chaucer’s Prioress, the social and moral orders. The double through dishonest clothing, contrasts worsted is a good if not fine material this expected persona as her vanity in but even so at odds with the ideal of fashion prevails over her consecration to evangelical poverty” (2). Although the religion. Friar is poor—although he is expected to Likewise, the Monk exhibits wear modest cloths and simple fabrics— comparable traits through costume as his dress sharply juxtaposes this societal well. Of his dress, Chaucer describes: expectation of poverty. Rather than I seigh his sleeves purfiled at the embrace his authentic self, the Friar hond chooses to wear dishonest clothing that With gris, and that the fineste of a draws attention to the fact that he is lond; uncomfortable with his societal status, And for to festne his hood under his neglects his duties to the poor although chin his very title suggests the opposite, and He hadde of gold ywroght a curious is concurrently aware of how fashion pin… (I.193-196) plays a role in portraying this status and Similar to the Prioress, another religious lack of concern to the world. Through figure is seen rejecting the typified traits fashion, individuals tell the world who their occupation possesses and instead they are without saying anything. By uses fashion to show the world who the contrast between the Knight and they want to be rather than who they the Friar, Chaucer makes the primary actually are. Morgan argues, “The Monk distinction between projecting oneself is hardly less of an impressive figure, through clothing in either an honest or worthy indeed to follow the Knight in dishonest way. tale-telling on the evidence of ‘grys’ and The Prioress, the head of an order ‘gold’ in his array” (2). In other words, of nuns, serves as yet another Chaucerian the Monk’s clothing is “worthy” enough example of a religious figure selecting that he, in the fourteenth century, could clothing that challenges their previously stand next to the Knight and be viewed as established role in society. In the text, just as impressive a figure. This concept Chaucer describes the Prioress as being appears in the Merchant’s dress as well. “…gauded al with grene,/ And theron Chaucer states, “…he was in dette,/ So heng a brooch of gold ful shene…” estatly was he of his governaunce,/ With (I.159-160). Rather than don the religious his bargaines and with his chevisaunce” dress typically worn in an Abbey, the (I.280-282). Here, a similar contradiction Prioress disregards her role in society is evident as the Merchant—in debt and 10 | TXSTUR People exhibit what they want the world to see— whether it’s a true reflection of themselves or not.

reduced to nothing but the clothes on dress that is inconsistent with their his back—wears clothing that broadcasts own societal status or authentic self, precisely the opposite to the world. this concept is nothing new. However, However odd this may appear, the revolutionary inventions and we do, in fact, witness the same exact technological innovations of the modern occurrence in the twenty-first century world have allowed dishonest clothing as well. These oddities—these portrayals to grow at an increasing rate that has of people and the facilitation through affected self-representation similar dishonest clothing—happen every day. to what is seen in Chaucer’s “General Throughout the text, Chaucer’s characters Prologue.” don dishonest clothing, and today, fast Concurrently, the modern closet fashion, the rise of style influencers, and of the twenty-first century is not so the effect of social media allow people different than the medieval wardrobe of to don dishonest clothing as well. In yesteryear. For centuries, humans have the twenty-first century, clothing been polishing their self-image and has the ability to deceive, as copy-cat subsequently advertising that polished fabrics and the façade social media and version of themselves to their family, fast fashion facilitate run rampant. This friends, and the rest of the world. In façade is most prominent when viewing some cases, as seen in Chaucer’s Friar, celebrities, and the best modern example Monk, and Merchant, the changes made of this proves to be none other than to oneself are extreme; in other cases, the musician Taylor Swift. Swift is known polishing is barely noticeable. However, around the world, but how she is known these changes made to oneself and the is dictated by her dress. Her fashion psychological factors influencing self- has evolved throughout the decades she representation in both medieval and has remained in the spotlight, and the modern society affect how a person sees clothes she wears greatly dictate how not only themselves but others as well. she is viewed by society. Pop culture Psychologists Hajo and Galinsky, echo researcher Lyon posits, “The concept... this sentiment in their findings, stating, could also explain why now that Swift is “The current research provides initial in pop music, she distances herself away support for our enclothed cognition from that identity by not using Southern perspective that clothes can have features in her songs or in interviews” profound and systematic psychological (14). In other words, Swift dons and behavioral consequences for their dishonest clothing—or clothing that is wearers” (5). In other words, dishonest selected with the intent or purpose of clothing has the potential to alter “self”- showing society a form of the individual identity and truly change the wearer’s that is not entirely authentic—in order view on themselves and the world around to keep her public persona intact. As them. seen in Chaucer’s work, through the The Wife of Bath exemplifies the characters’ deliberate choices to wear concept of enclothed cognition, and

SPRING 2020 | 11 Chaucer describes her clothing and the unclear, and fashion takes hold as self- woman herself to be representative of representation becomes skewed. In the sexual prowess (I.445-475). One distinct modern world, the Wife of Bath appears article of clothing proves to be her red within everyone. People exhibit what hose—hose that are a clear indication they want the world to see—-whether of a deviant and sexual nature (Renn it’s a true reflection of themselves or not. 1). George Renn builds Psychologist Galinsky upon this idea, stating, posits that, “We think “consistent with and not just with our brains amplifying that view, but with our bodies… the red hose may Centuries have passed since clothes invade the body also serve as a self- the fourteenth century, but the and brain, putting the administered example clothes hanging in wearer into a different of the allopathic folk the closet — and the people psychological state…” medicine ‘doctrine of selecting the fashions and (1). As the years have signatures’” (2). Here, gone by, the rules of costume — do not seem to have the hose appears to fashion and the act of be an example of the changed much at all. embracing or rejecting Wife of Bath’s view of one’s true self through herself, and this self- costume have remained administered image largely the same. The very clearly aligns with how Chaucer twenty-first century sees the wearer and the reader view her as well. Another approaching dress as a means to embody important piece of clothing encapsulating their self-identity how they choose to— this idea is none other than the Wife of whether that has honest implications Bath’s wimple—the headdress adorning or not—and exhibits how comfortable the character’s head, neck, and sides of or uncomfortable an individual is with the face. Chaucer states, “Hir coverchiefs societal status and self-reflection. ful fine were of ground;/ I dorste swere Moreover, this self-reflection sheds light they weyeden ten pound/ That on a on the fashion choices of the individual Sonday weren upon hir heed” (I.453- and reveals how society has taken ahold 455). As a cloth maker, the Wife of Bath of the apparel industry and transformed knows the impact fashion has on the fashion into not only an art but into a individual and on society, and she uses means of deception. these articles of clothing, such as the Chaucer’s wide variety of red hose and the wimple, to dictate how characters and the descriptions allocated she is viewed by society. Further, these to them throughout the “General articles of clothing which have come to Prologue” provide the reader and represent her sexuality have also come to the modern century wearer with the represent the Wife of Bath as well—fully primary distinction between honest and indefinitely. and dishonest clothing and how that As one uses fashion to broadcast relates to self-representation in both their self-image to the world, the the medieval and modern time periods. distinction becomes blurred. Instead of Through contextual study of the Knight simply broadcasting traits, an individual and the Friar, Chaucer paints a rich wishes to show people or wishes to picture in which the Knight’s honest possess, one ends up becoming their clothing sharply contrast with the Friar’s clothing. The lines become altogether dishonest apparel. The differentiation 12 | TXSTUR between the two provides the reader Works Cited with their first glimpse into the medieval Adam, H., & Galinsky, A.D. “Enclothed Cognition.” Journal closet where dishonesty hangs. Through of Experimental Social Psychology, 2012, doi:10.1016/j. Chaucer’s thorough and idiosyncratic jesp.2012.02.008 descriptions of the wealth of characters Chaucer, Geoffrey.The Canterbury Tales. Edited by Jill Mann. Penguin Classics, 2005. within The Canterbury Tales, the Lyon, Lela. “Shifting Personas: A Case Study of Taylor Swift” distinction and the implications that (2019). Theses and Dissertations--Linguistics. 33. https:// arise are made apparent. Centuries have uknowledge.uky.edu/ltt_etds/33 passed since the fourteenth century, but Mitchell, Charles. “The Worthiness of Chaucer’s Knight.” the clothes hanging in the closet—and Modern Language Quarterly, vol. 25, 1964, pp. 66–75. EBSCOhost, libproxy.txstate.edu/login?url=http:// the people selecting the fashions and search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.asp costume—do not seem to have changed x?direct=true&db=mlf&AN=1964102859&site=ehost- much at all. The selection of honest and live&scope=site. dishonest fashion has not evolved much Middle English Dictionary [MED]. https://quod.lib.umich. edu/m/med/. Accessed February 25, 2019. since Chaucer delved into his work Morgan, Gerald. “Chaucer and Clothing: Clerical and and characters. People within modern Academic Costume in the General Prologue to the society exploit fashion just as people ‘Canterbury Tales.’” Modern Language Review, vol. 102, within the medieval era did. Overall, no. 3, July 2007, pp. 834–835. EBSCOhost, the deceit that hangs in the medieval libproxy.txstate.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost. com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mlf& closet parallels the contemporary world. AN=EIS25930309&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Upon peeking inside both closets, Renn, George A., III. “Chaucer’s ‘Prologue.’” Explicator, vol. they would remain identical—both in 46, no. 3, 1988, pp. 4–7. EBSCOhost, libproxy.txstate.edu/ the individual’s self-perception and login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.txstate. edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mlf&AN=1988025100&sit consequent self-representation within e=ehost-live&scope=site. society and fashion. Rigby, S. H. The English Historical Review, vol. 121, no. 491, 2006, pp. 594–595. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3806190.

FASHION | 13 WAITING FOR DAT BOI: AN ABSURDIST DEFENSE OF INTERNET HUMOR

BY AUBREY CLYBURN REVIEWED BY DR. KEVIN GATES EDITED BY ANNEKE PATERSON

Internet humor is While the generation gap is nothing new, it has difficult to define, been sharpened by the disparity in technological and it seems literacy and the development of an internet culture that often excludes older generations, especially not to have been “boomers.” In reaction, this gap often manifests in academically accusing Gen Z of blindness to the real world or codified yet since dismissing them altogether. In an effort to bridge that it is so new. In divide, this paper describes and analyzes “internet general, though, its humor” using the framework of a post-World War II phenomenon, the Theatre of the Absurd, and identifiers tend to treats that phenomenon’s response to the postwar be that it is often landscape as an analogue to the current landscape. dark, intentionally This paper contends that internet memes are an confusing, artistic reaction to the chaotic, doomsaying world and almost that Gen Z is growing up in. It establishes a schema in which those struggling to connect with young indecipherable to people could unlock the secret to understanding older generations how Gen Z looks at, laughs at, and participates in the world around them.

14 | TXSTUR Over the past decade or so, an abundance that emphatically rejected logic, reason, of literature has flourished on the topic and hierarchy, and was made to draw of millennials: which industries they a reaction from its audience (Gaudin). are responsible for killing, what they After the next world war, the performing think about certain political issues, arts world responded with its own genre- and opinions of every kind on their defying school that reveled in its lack of characteristics as a demographic. Now a structure: the Theatre of the Absurd. new generation is about to get the brunt The Theatre of the Absurd was of social analysis, statistics, and op-eds born out of the existentialist philosophy trying to explain why they are the way of the 1940s, which sprang from the they are. Meet Generation Z: the current tensions of living in the post-WWII high schoolers and young adults born era (Culíí). Stable-seeming institutional after 1997. These are the kids for whom frameworks, such as the church and the the internet and social media have always state, failed to protect people from the been present, and who have developed chaos of the war, leaving the survivors an online culture that frankly baffles with a world that did not make sense. older generations. As a result, they are Furthermore, the horrors of wartime often branded as ignorant or indifferent and the Holocaust, plus the added threat to the real world by those outside that of nuclear annihilation, brought to the culture. However, to dismiss them this forefront the idea that human life was way is to discard a valuable opportunity fragile, easily destroyed, and possibly to understand what makes them tick. arbitrary (Culíí). Existentialist Albert A framework in which to do this can Camus, writing in 1942, outlined his be found in a theatrical phenomenon viewpoint in his essay “The Myth of from the era of the G.I. Generation: the Sisyphus,” in which he compared the Theatre of the Absurd. human condition to the pointless eternal It might be called Gen Z humor task of pushing a boulder up a hill and or “internet humor”: the weird having it roll back down every time collective sense of humor belonging (“Absurd Existences” 216). Without to the generation that grew up on the intending to create anything like a internet. It does not pervade the entire “movement,” but all operating out of the vastness of the internet, of course, but same recently decimated world, a number is exemplified on websites like Tumblr of individual playwrights over the next and Twitter, the spawning ground of couple of decades began to express this memes: places where younger people philosophy in their works. Critic Martin gather and interact. Internet humor Esslin, in his 1962 article “The Theatre is difficult to define, and it seems not of the Absurd,” took the term “absurd” to have been academically codified yet from Camus and used it to try to codify since it is so new. In general, though, what was happening in this new theatre- its identifiers tend to be that it is often that-was-not-theatre. dark, intentionally confusing, and almost Absurdist plays illustrate the indecipherable to older generations. meaningless chaos of human life by Much of it seems like nonsense, but depicting characters engaged in some creating art that challenges its audience kind of profoundly pointless exercise, by disorienting them is nothing new. whether that is waiting for a person who Internet humor’s closest extant cousin in will never arrive (Waiting for Godot), the visual art world might be Dadaism, or continually setting up and pretending the movement arising after World War I an elaborate murder (The Maids). The INTERNET HUMOR| 15 play is carefully set up not to make sense: with other memes that to all but the time, setting, character, and other such most plugged-in viewer, it is virtually elements, which in conventional theatre meaningless. One example is the meme might be fixed and followable, are either in figure 1: variable or completely unstated (Esslin 3). For this reason, the Theatre of the Absurd is sometimes called “anti- theatre” (Culíí). In Harold Pinter’s Endgame, Hamm asks what time it is and Clov replies “Same as usual.” Setting, if there is any at all, is so vague and ill- defined as to be essentially meaningless: Waiting for Godot is famously staged near a country road with one tree. Characters may have defined traits or relationships, but even those are not reliable: the Martins of The Bald Soprano appear to be perfect strangers, but discover through comparing their lives that they are in Figure 1. “Memeception.” fact a married couple. Language, too, is @plaid-n-converse, Tumblr, 3 Aug. meaningless. Much of the dialogue lives 2016, http://plaid-n-converse.tumblr. in repetition & distortion – Esslin calls com/image/148396874485 it “the mechanical, circular repetition of stereotyped phrases” (5). The conventions of internet humor, This image references four previous while still elusive to anyone who has not memes. One is parodying the lyrics grown up within them, display parallels to “YMCA,” one is the “(shoving to the conventions of absurdist theatre. breadsticks into my purse)” meme, one The most ubiquitous unit of internet is an attempted creepy internet story humor – the meme – relies on repetition that gradually devolved in coherence and distortion, which are the linguistic and ended in the words “Man door habits of the Theatre of the Absurd. Time hand hook car door,” and the format is and place are not only undefined; they a reference to a cartoon called “Loss” do not matter in the slightest in a meme. that became a meme. It appears clever to Characters may appear very specific, someone who knows all the references but in general it does not matter who being made. To anyone unfamiliar with they are¬– only the expression on their the layers of meaning embedded in this face is significant. For example, even image – anyone who lives outside the if the meme is a picture of SpongeBob, culture of Gen Z’s internet – it appears it is not important to the joke that the to be complete nonsense. character is SpongeBob; what matters is Crucially, this intricate the feeling he appears to convey, which senselessness is what Generation Z loves. can then be captioned with whatever They revel in this “giant emptiness of relatable situation or topical quip the meaning,” a “giant race to the bottom meme-maker desires. The content is of irony” (Bruenig). They think it mostly referential to existing ideas and is absolutely hilarious. The more cultural concepts, but quickly becomes inexplicable it is to the out-group (i.e. so warped, inverted, and cross-pollinated older generations), the better. Madeleine 16 | TXSTUR Gaudin, managing arts editor of the do not have the same impact anymore. Michigan Daily, aptly notes that “Memes i constantly forget that some people are better when they reference other think ‘[f***] you’ is a terrible insult memes. Jokes are smarter when they so threats and insults have to start reference other jokes.” A step further getting really out there if the person in, internet humor that exists outside wants to even mean anything. if a the confines of a meme structure can be person told me to die i’d shrug it off even weirder. Often, even to its target but if i opened a post’s tags and saw “op i will sneak into your house and replace all your shoelaces with cooked pasta” do you know how shaken i’d be? do you know how upset i’d be if i saw “op is the personification of the look you share w other people in the grocery store when some dude is causing A Scene™ for no reason.” (@feywildwest) This phenomenon of crafting content to disarm and unsettle the viewer aligns exactly with the effect of absurdist plays on their audiences. People like to know when and where they are, and absurdist plays remorselessly rob them of their Figure 2. “Cornn flaek.” Reddit, 3 Jul. 2018, bearings, leaving them uncomfortable at https://www.reddit.com/r/dankmemes/ best and angry at worst. Bereft of all logical comments/8vy13u/cornn_flaek/ indicators and faced with a situation that audience, it is not supposed to The most ubiquitous unit of internet humor make sense. —the meme—relies on repetition and In fig. 2, unlike the previous distortion, which are the linguistic habits meme, there is no deeper layer or hidden reference out of of the Theatre of the Absurd. which someone could make some meaning. It may be alarming, discomfiting, and/or hilarious, but not sensical. It is emphatically not does not – in fact, cannot – make sense, supposed to make sense. It is supposed to the average viewer of an absurdist play is make the viewer feel something, and not left bewildered, struggling for meaning, necessarily something they want to feel. and deeply, existentially uneasy. The The same idea is evident in the culture difference with Gen Z is that they find of Tumblr text posts, which are, again, that effect funny. Even when they are hard to categorize in a scholarly manner, the ones being directly unsettled, they but can be summarized by this Tumblr are ready to laugh about it, even if they post: cannot explain exactly why. A modern “one of the weirdest ways that audience of teenagers watching Waiting language is evolving in response to for Godot would probably be in stitches the internet is that “bad words” just. watching the tramps try to reckon with SPRING 2020 | 17 They grew up on the internet. Since they were born, every part of the world has known all the terrible things happening in every other part. the nonsense around them. It would be all the terrible things happening in every like experiencing one giant, extended other part. Millennials were promised an meme: funny, baffling, and intensely easy future if they worked hard, only to relatable. discover it had all been empty (Petersen). Why do they match up so well? Gen Z has no such illusions. What is it about living as a member of Even in the face of this uncertainty Generation Z that makes them like that? and disaster, they are neither lazy nor Absurdism centers on the Sisyphean apathetic, but politically and socially exercise: continuing to try and achieve active. Recent years have seen a swell a task that has no meaning. The next in student activism comparable to the generation up, 1960s, around millennials, issues from gun live under what violence to Buzzfeed culture environmental writer Anne justice (Jason). Helen Petersen Young people calls “millennial like Greta burnout”: Thunberg, working the Parkland incessantly students behind harder to make it #NeverAgain, in a job market, Mari Copeny housing market, (“Little Miss etc. that is set Flint”), and up for them not others have to. Gen Z is in Figure 3. “Gen Z Kids.” @iskinaary, Tumblr, 23 Jun. 2017, become the face a similar, if not http://iskinaary.tumblr.com/post/162180467010/ of current issues worse, situation. gen-z-kids-dont-give-a-single-fuck-and-theyre like climate Nothing is change and promised to Gen Z except uncertainty gun control. Gen Z knows the world and the threat of disaster, sensations that is ridiculous and meaningless, but they were endemic to the postwar landscape are determined to try and make it better in which the Theatre of the Absurd anyway. They are absurdists to their core. flourished. Not only are they looking They see their Sisyphean situation for forward to crushing student debt, if they what it is, and just as Camus advocates, don’t die in a school shooting, but they joyfully continue pushing their boulders will only have a couple of years to enjoy uphill. The nihilist despairs at how it before irreversible climate change terrible, complicated, and fragile the wipes out the world as they know it. world is; the existentialist notes the And they have always known this. They unknowability of its meaning and strives grew up on the internet. Since they were to create meaning anyway; the absurdist born, every part of the world has known laughs at how pointless it all is, makes a 18 | TXSTUR meme out of it, and keeps on pushing. There may be no inherent meaning to life, but that realization also means they are free, “and this release expresses itself in laughter” (Esslin 13). The unique outlook of this generation, as compared to millennials, might be best expressed Works Cited in the meme pictured in figure 3. “Absurd Existences: Kafka, Camus, Beckett and Pinter.” A Little History of Literature, by John Sutherland, Yale All things considered, it seems University Press, 2014, pp. 214–220. as though the artistic ideals (or lack Bruenig, Elizabeth. “Why Is Millennial Humor so Weird?” thereof) of the Theatre of the Absurd The Washington Post, WP Company, 11 Aug. might be exactly the framework with 2017, www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/why-is- which to understand Generation Z. The millennial-humor-so-weird/2017/08/11/64af9cae- conventions of absurdist theatre are 7dd5-11e7-83c7-5bd5460f0d7e_story. html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.021cbe0b8807. familiar principles to young people raised Culii, Jan. “History of Theatre of the Absurd.” in the culture of the internet, and they Carduniversitycourse, sites.google.com/site/ are able to find hilarity in the bizarre carduniversitycourse/rosencrantz-and-guildenstern- and unsettling world of that theatre. are-dead/history-of-theatre-of-the-absurd. They recognize the comic figure of the Esslin, Martin. “The Theatre of the Absurd.” Educational Absurd because they see it in themselves. Theatre Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, 1962, pp. 3–15., doi:10.2307/3204538. Their gloriously indecipherable memes Gaudin, Madeleine. “Call It Fake, Call It Neo-Dada: can be understood as a product of the Absurdist Internet Humor Is an Artistic Movement.” The doom-laden uncertainty of the world Michigan Daily, 12 Sept. 2018, www.michigandaily. they are growing up in, a philosophical com/section/arts/call-it-fake-call-it-neo-dada- embrace of the senseless chaos they have absurdist-internet-humor-artistic-movement. been given. Viewing internet humor Hoins, Megan. “‘Neo-Dadaism’: Absurdist Humor and as an artistic movement in reaction to the Millennial Generation.” Medium, 23 Feb. 2016, medium.com/@meganhoins/neo-dadaism-absurdist- this world will not only allow older humor-and-the-millennial-generation-f27a39bcf321. generations a glimpse into the minds of Jason, Zachary. “Student Activism 2.0.” Harvard Ed. their successors, but it should also draw Magazine, Harvard Graduate School of Education, admiration to the youngest generation. 2018, www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/18/08/student- Gen Z are absurdist heroes, triumphing activism-20. over meaninglessness by refusing to Petersen, Anne Helen. “How Millennials Became The let it crush them. Anyone wishing to Burnout Generation.” BuzzFeed News, BuzzFeed, 5 Jan. 2019, www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ understand or relate to the kids these days annehelenpetersen/millennials-burnout-generation- has only to look through the absurdity debt-work. to the heart of meme culture. @feywildwest. “One of the weirdest ways”. Tumblr, 12 May 2018, http://feywildwest.tumblr.com/ post/173845268607/one-of-the-weirdest-ways-that- language-is-evolving. McCombs, Emily. “‘This Bill is Killing Us: 9 Sex Workers On Their Lives In The Wake Of FOSTA,” Huffington Post, May 17, 2018. Archived December 13, 2018,

INTERNET HUMOR| 19 AND THE WINNER FOR BEST ABORTION GIRL IS: Performance and Religious Identity in Evangelical Hell Houses BY PATRICK MOLONEY REVIEWED BY DR. JOSEPH LAYCOCK AND DR. NATASHA MIKLES EDITED BY CHEYANNE CLAGETT

Hell Houses have terrified historical subtext and built through spectators for the last forty years. a multitude of religious figures Developing first as a religious and movements. Specifically, three haunted house and eventually religious figures or movements morphing into a sensation, Hell are fundamental in understanding Houses have been a topic for Hell Houses: George Whitefield many researchers due to their during the First Great Awakening, ability to scare people into belief. Aimee Semple McPherson and However, much of this rhetoric the Pentecostal movement, and is reductionistic of Hell Houses, Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority. claiming they are formed only to Performance is one tool harnessed scare. The research laid out here by preachers in the Evangelical tries to understand the connection Christian tradition. My research between identity creation and attempts to explain that Hell performance through the analysis of Houses are not just events made to George Ratliff’s 2001 documentary scare, but to construct Evangelical Hell House. The Evangelical Christian identity and a political Christian identity is laced with agenda through performance. 20 | TXSTUR Since 1991, the Trinity Church in Cedar that Evangelical Christians perform Hill, Texas, has performed a “creative Hell Houses not simply as a means alternative to the traditional haunted of fear-based conversion, but also as house” that features varying hellish a means of creating and cementing scenes that range from year to year Evangelical Christian identity as an and offer “real life situations” meant integral component of a larger political to be “ambiguous” for the spectators agenda. (“Hell House”). Hell Houses have been Understanding Hell Houses described as nothing more than “a spatial and Primary Source Hell House sermon that culminates in a virtual tour of Hell.” These attractions portray (2001) “young Christian actors moaning and Hell Houses represent a twist writhing in the flickering redness of on the regular horror spectacles of special effects” (Jackson 42). Prior the Halloween season. Hell Houses research on these performances depicts originated in 1972 from the Reverend them as bastions of fear mongering Jerry Falwell’s youth ministry at Liberty used to incite terror in the viewers in a University in Lynchburg, Virginia. ham-fisted effort to inspire conversions. His event was titled Scaremare and was Prior research additionally focuses on “designed to illustrate the consequences the fear-based “scare-to-salvation” and of sin with documentary realism in the “religious feelings” produced through context of a haunted house” (Bivins viewing these performances (Jackson 132). Scaremare was ultimately more 42). For example, fear is what first of a religious haunted house but was comes to mind when seeing a depressed equally influential in the development of adolescent commit suicide or an AIDS Hell Houses, such as the one at Trinity victim die in the hospital. While such a Church. visceral reaction is appropriate, research More recently, Ratliff’s 2001 which focuses only on this reaction is documentary was filmed in the height of ultimately reductionistic; it serves to Hell Houses’ popularity. At the start of explain away Hell Houses as a simplistic the film, the audience is first introduced expression of Evangelical intolerance. to the Trinity Church community in There is more to these the preliminary planning phases of the performances than simply arousing Hell House. Planning for the Hell House fear in the unbaptized and unchurched; begins in August in preparation for a both watching and performing in a Hell public opening in early October. For House bolster the “saved” and “unsaved” most Hell Houses, there is a range of seven identities central to Evangelical to ten scenes. There is a great deal of Christianity. Fear and performance discussion surrounding the exact content together, therefore, create this identity of these scenes, but Tim Ferguson, for those who participate—an identity that Trinity Church’s youth pastor, states is explicitly political. From the research, that the Hell House deals with themes the Evangelical Christian identity can of “family violence, suicide, abortion, be defined as non-denominational, drugs, alcohol, [and] drunkenness” (qtd. conversion-focused, and aimed toward in Ratliff). A major focus is placed on social transformation (Carter and Porter themes culturally relevant at the time; 4). Moreover, through analyzing the for example, at the 2000 Hell House 2001 documentary Hell House directed depicted in the documentary, a scene by George Ratliff, this paper will argue inspired by the Columbine Shooting is HELL HOUSES | 21 portrayed. After selecting the relevant for Hell Houses (Jackson 44). Bivins, a social themes, the church implements religious studies scholar, posits in his a creative twist, making the scenes 2008 book that “erotics of fear” are explicitly religious. Following scene at play, where Hell Houses gleefully development, scripts are written for represent “sin and evil” to “establish each respective scene. What then ensues security of conservative evangelical is a complex auditioning process where a culture and belief” (141). Such emphasis great number of church congregants vie on producing fear as a primary means to for specific roles. There are only four conversion is evident in the way Hell major female parts, with the “suicide House participants discuss their work in girl” and “abortion girl” among the most the documentary. Applying this prized by the congregants (Ratliff). idea to youth pastor Copious numbers of volunteers assist Tim Ferguson, There with the physical labor in the production, the documentary is a com- as there are complex set designs and shows him an intricate ensemble of technical and rhetorically plex interplay acting roles. asking his between perfor- For many of the individuals committee, involved in the production, this work “Is our youth mance, identity, is not only theatrical, but spiritual as ministry, and religion on dis- well. Ratliff’s documentary focuses and even our both on the Hell House event and the church, driven play in the documen- spiritual perspectives of the church’s by fear? No. Is tary which remains congregation. The burning question fear a part of throughout the documentary is “Why do it? Absolutely.” largely unexamined these Evangelical Christians believe what Ferguson by contemporary they believe? Why do they think this is later states in appropriate?” As noted by Jason Bivins, an orientation commentators. Brian Jackson, and the documentarian meeting that Ratliff himself, Hell Houses certainly aim “we’re competing to produce fear in their audience. Brian for lost souls” and Jackson, a researcher in English rhetoric, “we’re trying to partner with states in his article on Hell Houses that God to bring them to eternal life” (qtd. such events employ “argumentum ad in Ratliff). baculum” or the “warning that some Many scholars, therefore, are bad or scary outcome will occur if taking the statements of the Trinity the respondent does not carry out a Church at face value and stating that recommended action” (44). this event is primarily about fear-based Jackson links this contemporary conversions. However, more is going religious technique with similar efforts on here. Perhaps if it were actually all to arouse fear through religious sermons about fear, there would not be such a in the First Great Awakening, citing rush to play “abortion girl.” There is a a connection to Jonathan Edwards. complex interplay between performance, Edwards was a prominent Protestant identity, and religion on display preacher during this period and was in the documentary which remains known for cementing “hell fire rhetoric” largely unexamined by contemporary in his sermons. This rhetoric would later commentators. What this paper seeks to be influential in serving as “a prototype” understand is how Hell Houses reflect 22 | TXSTUR the roots of the Evangelical Christian passions of his spectators(Carter and identity historically and what is the Porter 4). This resulting blur between nexus between performance, identity, church and theater would be influential and political agenda. not only to the eventual creation of an Evangelical Christian Identity Evangelical Christian identity, but also As with the understanding of to the legacy of sensationalism that would any widely encompassing identity, contribute to the modern Hell House. A religious identity is fluid and can be sermon that particularly exhibited his understood best through its historical theatricality was centered on the Biblical context. To understand the development scene of “Abraham Offering His Son.” of contemporary Evangelical Christian During this famous sermon, Whitefield identity and its deployment in the stopped and wept to “momentarily production of Hell Houses, we must discern halt the discourse” (Carter and Porter three historical events in Evangelicalism 4). Without prescience, Whitefield in America: George Whitefield and would usher in revivals, theatricality, the First Great Awakening, Aimee and performance as institutions in the Semple McPherson and the Pentecostal Evangelical Christian tradition. Movement, and Jerry Falwell’s Moral Roughly a hundred years later, Majority. These events are not the only Evangelical Christianity would continue pivotal times through which Evangelical to transform. The Pentecostals were Christians have cemented performance a religious movement born out of the as a foundational part of their identity, Azusa street revivals in Los Angeles. but their effects continue to be evident Although starting on the West coast, this in the Trinity Church community. movement spread rapidly throughout In the history and development America and the global South, of Evangelical Christianity, George particularly after the 1914 meeting in Whitefield was a well-known English Hot Springs, Arkansas, during which Methodist preacher. Whitefield was a the movement became separated into revolutionary in his religious innovation several other denominations. The of “rhetoric and communications” Pentecostal movement was a theology during the period of American history and religious practice. While not every that has come to be called the First Great Evangelical engages in Pentecostal style Awakening, roughly between the 1730s worship today, most Pentecostals see and 1740s. The purpose and importance themselves as part of the Evangelical of the First Great Awakening was the Christian movement. In fact, there are creation of a “new religious enthusiasm” hundreds of Pentecostal denominations amongst the church (Carter and Porter 1). today (Ahlstrom 820). Components The spread of Evangelical Christianity of Pentecostal practice influenced the was influential in the transformation larger understanding of Evangelical of social norms. Whitefield’s ability to identity. The use of “performance” as persuade was particularly influential a part of everyday church was a large in this transformation toward an aspect of the Pentecostal influence. Evangelical spirit. His presentations to Ministers used their authority to “call huge audiences were meant to catalyze down spontaneous eruptions of speaking a “dialogue between the speaker and the in tongues” which was characteristic hearer.” Whitefield, unlike some of his of these worship services (Fitzgerald contemporaries, understood the “rhetoric 212). The purpose of speaking in of sensation” and was able to rouse the tongues was to reinforce a belief that SPRING 2020 | 23 “the supernatural was real, present, more people” that thrived “in revivals powerful, and often even visible” (Bauer and worship services” (Maddux 295). She 46). However, this defining aspect was would later become a popular preacher not the only distinctive feature of this and sought to bring the “Christian church. They also have “a strong belief gospel to mass audiences” either through in divine healing, a distrust of medical revivals or her Angelus Temple (Maddux care, and an extremely Puritanical code 306). These massive revivals featured of personal behavior” (Ahlstrom 820). hundreds of believers who “spoke in Compared to non-Pentecostal services at tongues and convulsed on the floor” the time, the performative aspects of the (Maddux 312). Pentecostal tradition were very distinct. In 1926, McPherson was accused The Pentecostals’ religious evangelism of faking her kidnapping to Los Angeles and these unique practices did not police and was prosecuted by a grand deter attendees. Rather, small aspects of jury, but her case was later dismissed Pentecostalism disseminated throughout by the Los Angeles District Attorney. other churches in forms of folk religion or Her sermon the following Sunday after popular beliefs about the Holy Spirit. The the grand jury verdict featured “seven Pentecostals’ adherence to these religious young actors made up as demons, rising practices was influential in cementing a out of painted craters, and holding “theological[ly] conservative” identity a meeting to discredit McPherson’s and outlook (Ahlstrom 820). These character.” The sermon ended with two factors were influential not only in more actors dressed as angels where forming a religious identity, but also “one brandished the sword of truth, in impacting performance through the while the other carried a chain to bind practice of speaking tongues. While the devil and his lies” (Bauer 53). These Pentecostal Christians do not consider theatrical performances served a clear them a performance, these various actions message that the Devil sought to ruin represent an outward manifestation of her reputation; although she was never what are supposedly internal states. convicted, the mere accusation of her Aimee Semple McPherson was wrongdoing was enough for her to a Pentecostal emblematic for her use use her religion to create a particular of performance. During the late 1920s narrative for her followers. In the broad and 30s, her style of preaching utilized perspective of Evangelical Christianity, the increasingly popular performative she was influential in popularizing aspects of the Pentecostal movement. performance and cementing it as part of Semple McPherson was a product of the conversion technique, which would later Pentecostal movement and converted in impact the development of Hell House a revival. She has been characterized as performances. “a prophet, evangelist, storyteller, and Lastly, Jerry Falwell’s impact on performer” (Maddux 295). Her style of the political aspects of contemporary church became its own denomination Evangelical Christian identity was of the Pentecostal movement, known monumental. Falwell’s political activism as the Foursquare Church. During the was catalyzed following the 1954 case development of her church, certain Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. distinctions emerged among Evangelical Although common perception of the Christians. Evangelical discourse religious right view Roe v. Wade as the increasingly included “a narrative, catalyst for their political involvement, experiential framework toward reaching it was in fact this case as well as Green v. 24 | TXSTUR Kennedy in 1970 and Green v. Connally culture that “had fallen into evil ways” in 197. When the federal government and “jeopardized their covenant with started to enforce desegregation in God.” Falwell pushed for Christians to public schools, private religious white- become involved in their government or only K-12 academies were formed in “lose their freedom”(Fitzgerald 307). By retaliation. The result of these two politicizing Evangelicalism, Evangelical latter cases was the United States district Christians gained a platform to persuade court for the District of Colombia ruling society toward their identity. This that “racially discriminatory private persuasion was funneled through schools are not entitled to the Federal cooperation with politicians such as tax exemption provided for charitable, Ronald Reagan. Falwell’s initiatives educational institutions” (Balmer). reverberated throughout Evangelical This situation started the fundamental Christianity. He even started the undercurrents for the religious right and process of convincing fundamentalists, Falwell’s Moral Majority. Pentecostals, and conservative Southern Later in the 1970s, Falwell Baptists to “work for common goals worked with Paul Weyrich, founder without compromising their theology” of the Heritage Foundation, and other (Fitzgerald 318). Falwell’s impact on religious conservatives to politically Evangelical Christianity transformed advocate against school desegregation their beliefs into something explicitly and galvanize religious conservatives. political. As a result, Falwell’s impact His 1979 formation and organization on the Evangelical Christian identity is of the political organization and action crucial to understanding the purpose of group Moral Majority defined, inspired, Hell Houses. and mobilized a “Christian agenda” When combining the historical against what he saw as the rising tide of developments in Evangelical Christianity secular humanism. In addition, Falwell and the conclusions of the documentary, there is a clear pattern of Falwell’s impact on Evangelical tools that church leaders have used to build identity. Christianity transformed their beliefs In the very beginnings of into something explicitly political. Evangelical Christianity, George Whitefield established theater and sensation as a powerful and Weyrich worked with Francis A. tool to connect to congregations and Schaffer, a conservative political activist, elicit religious devotion. Aimee Semple to goad fervor over the 1973 Roe v. McPherson and the Pentecostals took this Wade court decision (Balmer). Most revivalism and added other performative political observers at the time did not actions to continue belief. Lastly, Jerry anticipate the rise of the Christian right. Falwell’s political organizing shifted Religion had previously been relegated the agenda of Evangelical Christianity. to the private sphere and understood The culturally conservative politics of as something separate from politics. Evangelical Christians combined with However, a growing tide of people such the performative aspect of revivals as Pat Robertson, Phyllis Schlafly, and, provide the optimal breeding grounds of course, Jerry Falwell himself began for the Hell House. As we shall see in to push back against what they saw as a the next section, they go beyond merely HELL HOUSES | 25 fear-based conversion efforts to act as an identity (185). Likewise, Hell Houses are important force to build identity within an exaggeration of religious devotion. Evangelical Christian circles. For many, the drastic depiction of Performativity and Hell Hell in our unwise actions is the only Houses way to convince others of salvation. These depictions reinforce a dichotomy As a theatrical experience, Hell between the “saved” and the “unsaved,” Houses are a performance aimed at thus reinforcing an Evangelical Christian transforming culture. In one sermon identity through the performance of shown in Ratliff’s Hell House, the head Hell Houses. In the latter half of the Hell pastor states, “Our mission, should we House documentary, it is reiterated that choose to accept it, is to infect the culture. the crew is “competing for lost souls” We are set to do the same thing Jesus and that they are “trying to partner with came to do… We are here to infiltrate God to bring them eternal life” (Ratliff). the culture. We are here, to expose the Just as gender is a construction of futileness of selfishness and the demonic social institutions, religious identity is a influence.” However, a great deal of construction of institutions such as the this paper is trying to understand how church and its rituals. Butler argues that such performative aspects relate to the “gender is not a fact, the various acts development of the Evangelical Christian of gender create the ideas of gender” identity. (190). With respect to religious belief, Though focusing primarily on the this identity would not exist without the development of gender, Judith Butler is rituals and performances of the religion. a pioneer in theorizing performance as Evangelical Christians speaking in a constructor of identity. Butler argues tongues, attending religious services, that gender, and indeed all identity, is and putting on Hell Houses are all a fundamentally performative act—a constructed facets of religious identity. trait which she calls “performativity.” The “punishments that attend with not Performativity can be thought of as agreeing to believe in them” are many a nonverbal social action meant to when speaking of religious identity regulate identity. Butler posits that (Butler 190). The agenda, religion, and “gender is always a doing, though not ideology are all tied to social community; a doing by a subject who might be said failure to participate in these religious to preexist the deed” (34). While Butler acts leads to ostracism and isolation theorized primarily about gender, we from the community. This threat of can apply the idea of “performativity” to isolation is a psychological exploitation a wide variety of identity constructions. As gender is performative, we may argue that the Evangelical Just as gender is a construction of Christian identity, and all religious identities for that social institutions, religious identity is a matter, are also constructed through performativity. Hell construction of institutions such as the Houses, therefore, represent a site of performative construction church and its rituals. of identity. For example, Butler discusses how Drag is an by Hell Houses. Furthermore, by exaggerated performance of the female performing in and spectating a Hell 26 | TXSTUR House, individuals are reminded of those that witnessed them are further tied their damnation, religious identity, and to the religious identity of Evangelical personal values. The revivals utilized by Christianity. The relationship between Whitefield and Pentecostals play into a Hell House performers and spectators is a similar psychological aspect that Hell two-way street that reaffirms or changes Houses do when concerning community. the identities of both parties. When spectators finish the tour of the Butler’s concepts of performativity, Hell House, they are asked to reaffirm when applied to Hell Houses, explain a their faith based on the experience. complex aspect not explored by previous Ultimately, they are asked to conform to research. Hell Houses use psychological this Evangelical Christian identity and exploitation, repetition, and public truth. Although Hell Houses are not the action to build pieces of Evangelical only factor to identity creation, they Christian identity for individuals. In play a part in the same vein that revivals addition to supporting preexisting do. concepts of identity, those who enact Butler states that gender is an Hell Houses use performance to shift the act, with this performative action current political narrative to their own requiring repetition. Religious identity, beliefs. too, is built through “reenactment and The Politics of Hell Houses reexperience.”. Those that perform in Hell Hell Houses do more than simply Houses perform each scene repeatedly. reinforce Evangelical Christian identity, With each meeting, rehearsal, and tour they also explicitly orient that identity the actors “ritualize” the experience toward political action and social (Butler 191). They are convinced of transformation. The cultural politics of the legitimacy of their feelings towards Hell Houses are an overlooked aspect abortion, homosexuality, and religion. of their performance. A great deal of Religious identity, just like gender, is the beliefs espoused by Evangelical determined by time and the “stylized Christians and specifically Hell Houses repetition of acts” (Butler 191). This are deeply conservative. The connection identity building goes beyond Hell can be drawn back to Falwell’s Moral Houses and encompasses the whole Majority between the 1970s and 1980s, as church. The repetition of church well as Robertson’s Christian Coalition attendance, Holy Communion, and even in the 1990s. These two movements not the songs sung in community meetings only cemented the idea that Evangelical also feed into this identity over time. Christians had a culture to fight for, Attendance of the Hell House is but also strengthened the conservative also a public action. The pressure to ideals already present amongst them. conform to religious identity espoused This cultural fight was even more by the church is received by spectators poignant in the context of Hell House. and the crew. Involvement, technical Since Hell House takes place in the advising, and acting to large audiences aftermath of 9/11 and other tragedies builds this identity. The “appearance of such as the Columbine shooting, there substance” Butler argues is where is the was a push to reassert conservative audience and the performer “come to Christian values amongst Evangelical believe and to perform in the mode of Christian communities. Evangelical belief” (192). We can rightly assume that Christians saw these tragedies as in the conclusion of the Hell House that opportunities to gain converts. In Dave those who performed the characters and Cullen’s book Columbine, he describes SPRING 2020 | 27 how Evangelical Christians descended are in fact deserving of going to Hell on Columbine. Evangelical Christians for their poor choices. In a scene from saw it as “an obligation to stand up for the documentary, a group of teenagers Jesus,” and one Evangelical Christian confronts the security guard after the pastor even approved of “using the performance, angry at the suggestion massacre for recruitment” (206). This that the gay man would go to Hell period cemented a political conversation (Ratliff). This situation reasserts a claim about the Evangelical Christianity and made throughout the documentary that conservative political values. Evangelical Christians can know with Cultural politics, Evangelicalism, certainty what activities will damn people and the concept of performativity to Hell. Most Evangelical Christians who combine to build a potent formula for attend a Hell House are either believers identity creation in these Christian or half-way to becoming a believer. The communities. In Ratliff’s documentary, performance serves to construct a moral one scene connects the moralizing and sensibility for Evangelical Christian political agenda of Hell Houses. The spectators; they are “good” and their spectators are introduced to a young gay secular opponents, such as members of man dying of AIDS in a hospital room the LGBTQIA+ community, are “evil”. assisted on his side by his female friend. Thus, Hell Houses help Evangelical A demon leers over him, mocking him for Christians maintain their beliefs and “choosing” his gay lifestyle, insinuating political agenda by communicating them that it was the cause of his AIDS. Just after to other people and making it clear that we are introduced to this young man, a they believe these views come from God young girl is brought in hemorrhaging Himself. from a botched abortion pill. This There is great historical context dichotomy is critical in understanding that overlays the social dynamics of the the Evangelical Christian political Evangelical Christian church community. agenda. In the boy’s final moments of Falwell wrote that America faced a life, he is tormented by images of Hell, moral crisis that impacted the sanctity and his female friend urges him to “give of the family. He claimed that abortions, [his] life to Jesus.”. He yells “I hate you, homosexuality, and drugs were all proof God” and rejects faith, and it is implied of a movement toward an “amoral society the demon in the hospital room takes him where nothing is absolutely right or to Hell. Just as the girl is about to die, absolutely wrong”qtd. in Fitzgerald 366). she pleads “God help me” and is saved in The larger argument was that Christians her final moments (Ratliff). The scene needed to take up arms “against social clearly communicates that Evangelical ills.” The Christian coalition urged a Christians understand what will damn a “pro-family” political viewpoint and person to Hell and that an adherence to the protection of “traditional values” their identity is the only salvation. (qtd. in Fitzgerald 366). The close The images of the scenes described connection to institutions of power above serve a purpose. Politics are such as the President reinforces the integral to the creation of a group connection between Evangelicalism and identity, just as action and performance conservatism. But overall, this political contribute to an individual identity. By agenda is part of building the Evangelical presenting these contrasting images, Christian identity that exists within the the audience is forced to accept that context of Hell Houses. It reiterates that members of the LGBTQIA+ community some are deserving of Heaven and some 28 | TXSTUR are damned to Hell, with this attitude to them, their political viewpoint is in line with the conservative political not a gray issue, but black-and-white. agenda. The purpose of Hell Houses is When spectating and performing a Hell to tie together the Evangelical Christian House, personal salvation is on the line. identity, religious performativity, and These performative experiences show the political agenda of this group. that it takes constant work to maintain Conclusion the Evangelical Christian worldview, In the last scene of the documentary, which might disintegrate otherwise. In Ratliff leaves us with the Evangelical the larger perspective, Hell Houses are Christian understanding that the end a facet of a constant effort to justify times are near, and our salvation should beliefs and communicate them to a wider be of utmost importance. This urgent audience beyond true believers. After reiteration of evangelism connects to all, salvation is on the line. the understanding that those who have viewed a Hell House must conform or be Works Cited Ahlstrom, Sydney E., and David D. Hall. A Religious History damned. The whole documentary serves of the American People. Yale UP, 2004. a purpose to reinforce the institutions Balmer, Randall. “The Real Origins of the Religious Right.” through which identity is created. The POLITICO Magazine, 27 May 2014, www.politico. people who participated are also the com/magazine/story/2014/05/religious-right-real- origins-107133. products of the performance. From its Bauer, Susan Wise. “The Art of the Public Grovel: start in 1991 to 2001, the film states Sexual Scandal and the Rise of Public Confession.” that 75,000 people have visited the Hell Dissertation, College of William and Mary, 2007. House at Trinity Church, with 15,000 ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, libproxy.txstate.edu/ converting or recommitting (Ratliff). login?url=https://search-proquest-com.libproxy.txstate. edu/docview/304799502?accountid=5683. Within the context of the history Bivins, Jason. Religion of Fear: the Politics of Horror in and politics of Evangelical Christianity, Conservative Evangelicalism. Oxford UP, 2008. Hell Houses play a unique role. Just as Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion other Evangelical Christian communities of Identity. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2015. use performance, so does the community Carter, Heath W. and Laura Rominger Porter. Turning Points in the History of American Evangelicalism. Eerdmans who attends Trinity Church. Hell Publishing Co., 2017. Houses use fear as a tactic not only to Cullen, David. Columbine. Old Street Publishing, 2009. urge attendance in their congregation, FitzGerald, Frances. The Evangelicals: the Struggle to Shape but also to reinforce identity. Identity, America. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2018. as discussed, is complex. There are “Hell House.” Trinity Church, www.trinitychurch.org/event/ multiple psychological, social, and hell-house-3/. Accessed 20 Oct. 2019. religious tactics used implicitly and Jackson, Brian. “Jonathan Edwards Goes to Hell (House): Fear Appeals in American Evangelism.” Rhetoric explicitly by Evangelical Christian Review, vol. 26, no. 1, 2007, pp. 42–59. Scopus, communities. Although the Trinity doi:10.1080/07350190709336685. Church and any community that Maddux, Kristy. “The Foursquare Gospel of Aimee Semple performs Hell Houses would say they McPherson.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs, vol. 14, no. 2, 2011, pp. 291–326. Political Science Complete, doi:10.1353/ only serve a religious function, that rap.2010.0227. perspective would be reductive of the Pellegrini, Ann. “‘Signaling Through the Flames’: Hell history and research surrounding these House Performance and Structures of Religious Feeling.” performances. They reinforce what it American Quarterly, vol. 59, no. 3, Sept. 2007, pp. 911–35. means to be an Evangelical Christian. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/aq.2007.0067. Ratliff, George, director. Hell Houses. Amazon Prime Video, Hell Houses moreover serve the political 2002, www.amazon.com/Hell-House-Aria-Adloo/dp/ agenda that Evangelical Christians B002ZVIKQ8/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=hell+hous enforce in their community; according e+zachary+mortenson&qid=1586923558&sr=8-1-spell. HELL HOUSES | 29 The following paper explores the often-ignored role of women in the film industry in both European cinema of the 1960’s and the international Hollywood of today. The thesis BEHIND THE focuses on an understanding of the underrepresented work SCREENS: of female directors and crew, and how this affects the current A HISTORY climate for women filmmakers in Hollywood as well as the OF WOMEN’S future of diversity in the film industry. The paper describes the ROLES extensive contributions of such highly praised film editors as IN Denise De Casabianca, as well as female directors of the era (which FILMMAKING were much fewer and further between) like Agnès Varda, who was a key player in the French New Wave. It then moves into the modern era with a statistical analysis of current Hollywood By Mackenzie Acree gender demographics and Reviewed by Alan Schaefer focus on the work of acclaimed director Kathryn Bigelow, the Edited by Heather Hansen first woman to win the Academy Award for best director. The paper concludes on a prescriptive note, calling for the promotion and incentivization of diversity in both the stories told on screen and the people working behind the camera in Hollywood.

30 | TXSTUR When Alice Guy-Blaché became the first Wave directors and their auteurist film woman to direct a film, the art form was theory), was made originally as a short still in its infancy. Her first project, The film but was adapted into an episode of Cabbage Fairy (1896) is considered by The Twilight Zone in 1964 (“Twilight”). respected author and professor of film at De Casabianca would also bring her Columbia University, Jane M. Gaines, to expertise to the television adaptation. Her be one of the first narrative films ever work on the latter with director Jacques produced (Gaines 1300). Guy-Blaché Rivette is full of emotional turmoil that was a pioneer of this new field and the oozes out of the screen; one can rightly techniques of narrative filmmaking, infer that the distance and sobriety with but these accomplishments are usually which the film’s lengthy scenes are cut is attributed to the big names of the time, her doing although, like the work of many like Georges Méliès and the Lumière editors, these choices are usually credited Brothers (Gaines 1298). The work of to the director. This is just one example women filmmakers has been systematically of how male-centered auteur culture in devalued by the experimental cinema male-dominated Studying and idolized the director film industry, but while diminishing their contributions incentivizing women’s role the importance of have helped shape in creating cinematic culture other roles, including both historical will promote diversity and editing, which movements in cinema coincidentally were and contemporary innovation in the film industry often occupied by film. Studying and and give overdue recognition women. incentivizing women’s to those who came before. One notable role in creating exception to this cinematic culture rule is that of Nicole will promote diversity and innovation Lubtchansky’s work on Celine and in the film industry and give overdue Julie Go Boating (1974), one of Rivette’s recognition to those who came before. later but still relevant additions to the While the role of editor and New Wave canon. The film is considered the importance of their work is often an experimental feminist classic, and overshadowed by that of the director, critics credit much of its visual appeal to skilled women have commanded authority Lubtchansky’s “tight” editing, calling her in the cutting room since the early days work “the backbone of the film” (Martin of film. The editing style of a film can 60). Its whimsical scenes and literary entirely change audience perception and references, including a few to the rabbit the emotional effect a scene may have; the in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventure fact that women have often occupied this in Wonderland and the films of David position is significant because it means that Lynch, are a refreshing callback to the more cinema contains the contributions influence of literature on French film. and perspectives of skilled women than is Lubtchansky’s editing work in Celine typically thought. Denise de Casabianca and Julie left a lasting impression on the is one such example, having worked on cinematic culture. such projects as The Occurrence at Owl In some cases, the director and editor Creek Bridge (1961) and La Religieuse of a film have been one and the same. (1966). The former, directed by Robert Věra Chytilová, a graduate of the Czech Enrico (a contemporary of the New Film and TV School of the Academy of WOMEN IN FILM | 31 Performing Arts (FAMU), both directed conversational grace; the former actually and cut her 1966 film, Daisies (Martin predates (and likely influenced) the 129). The editing style of the film is half foundational films of the genre, including ridiculous and avant-garde, half dead Jacques Rivette’s Le Coup de Berger serious; a key feature of this is the pattern (1956) and Claude Chabrol’s Le Beau of cutting from urban to rural backdrops Serge (1958). In Agnès Varda between and from monochrome to brightly Film, Photography, and Art, a 2018 colored overlays in the middle of scenes. book on the renowned director, author Her specific style is most evident in the Rebecca J. DeRoo argues that Varda’s stark contrast that exists in the film’s work was not only influential but served dialogue, scenery, and presentation. The as a “projection of cultural history that restaurant scenes specifically exemplify illuminated multiple disciplines” through this, showing the girls’ exploitative and the often-ignored political aspects of her mean behavior at dinner with numerous film career (DeRoo 7). Her explorations men they are pretending to date of and challenges to established aesthetic undermined with bright, happy color traditions and cultural politics would overlays across the frame. Chytilová was become part of the essential discourse of a pioneer of experimental visuals in the the French New Wave. Czech New Wave. Like many of her For an example of Varda’s subtly circle, Chytilová faced backlash from infused political and visual choices, the communist-controlled government one might turn to her most well- over the subversive material of her films. known film, Cleo from 5 to 7. The main Daisies was banned in Czechoslovakia character’s agonizing afternoon plays out until 1967 for its images of food waste and in almost real time, an uncommon and anti-authoritarian sentiments expressed experimental technique for the time. The by the characters (Rapold). Chytilová’s political significance of the film comes subversive subject matter in her political in its acknowledgement and critique of and artistic works contributed immensely the Algerian War, as the main character’s to the experimental New Wave culture in unlikely companion is revealed to be a Czechoslovakia. soldier headed to the front in Algiers. Agnès Varda is the only female This backdrop of conflict is conspicuously director of note to come out of the absent from some other notable films from French New Wave, and her influence as the same time and movement, including the so-called mother of the experimental Jean-Luc Godard’s famous 1960 film, movement was enormous. She received Breathless. Aesthetically, the audience the Palme d’honneur at the 2015 Cannes sees the point of view transition over Film Festival, an honor similar to that the course of the film from the subject of the Academy’s Lifetime Achievement gazing at Cleo to Cleo commanding Award which is presented to those heroes the gaze of the camera; she moves from of the industry who have not previously being objectified, a woman being seen, been recognized. But why had her work to being the subject of her own narrative, been overlooked for so long? One can seeing her world with her own agency infer that the industry’s undervaluation (Martin 63). The innovative ideas and of art created by women had more than techniques in Cleo from 5 to 7 and her a little to do with it. Her most famous other films make clear Varda’s directorial films, including La Pointe Court (1955) prowess. Had she been a man, she would and Cleo from 5 to 7 (1962), epitomize likely have been recognized far before the movement’s clean, effortless style and that 2015 Cannes tribute. 32 | TXSTUR Women have worked in film since One notable example who stands its inception and have had their roles out among these contemporary female systemically downplayed, but things have directors is Kathryn Bigelow, best changed in contemporary times, right? known for her action films including Well, not quite. In an article for The Point Break (1991), The Hurt Locker Criterion Collection, Girish Shambu notes (2008), and Zero Dark Thirty (2012). that women were forced out of editing She has had a remarkable impact on and directorial positions in the industry Hollywood, becoming the first woman in the 1920’s due to the rise of the male- to receive the award for best director at dominated studio system in the United the 2010 Academy Awards (Tikkanen). States (Shambu). The numbers of women She was only the fourth woman to be working behind the camera in Hollywood nominated for the honor. The importance are rising, but they’re not what one of Bigelow’s work lies in her ability to might expect. An annual study published succeed in the male-dominated field of by the Center for the Study of Women in action films; the majority of her projects Television and Film at San Diego State are driven by rugged male characters University (SDSU) found that, overall engaging in stereotypically masculine films produced in the 2018-2019 award activities, like going to war and engaging cycle, women made up only 31% of staff. in violent criminal behavior. The few that Specifically, only 26% of directors and do include prominent female characters 21% of Editors were women (Lauzen). do so without the nuance that might This means that women currently make be expected from a renowned director. up less than a third of creatives in the For instance, her 1989 film Blue Steel film industry while comprising half the starring Jamie Lee Curtis is centered population. Independent films fared around a female police officer who is only slightly better, a margin of 2-3%, stalked by a murderer. While Curtis’s according to that same report. It is crucial character is the focus, she is reduced to to note here that the SDSU study did the trope of the ‘strong female character’ not include information on the gender under which she must be stoic, tough as composition of any major film studio or nails, and just masculine enough to pull production company boards, the majority it off while still being attractive to men. of which have been headed by men since Simply put, she gets to take her shirt off their founding. Female directors are and get the bad guy all in one movie. able to expand their work but cannot This same pitfall can be seen in Jessica quite break even in Hollywood, and this Chastain’s role in Zero Dark Thirty, disparity is chief among the reasons why. although to a subtler degree. It appears that the culture of Hollywood While Bigelow’s films leave (and international cinema) has not yet something to be desired from a feminist progressed far enough past the previous standpoint, they certainly have their era. appeal, and part of their draw seems to be their focus on popular action themes (military, crime, This means that women currently make etc.) without the burden of up less than a third of creatives in the contemporary politics. The most salient instance of this is film industry while comprising half the The Hurt Locker, an Iraq War population. drama, which seems to glorify the adrenaline and comradery SPRING 2020 | 33 of conflict while placing no blame on the best opportunities for women and the shoulders of its American heroes minority filmmakers to bring innovation (Tikkanen). Despite their flaws and what to the film industry and, in doing so, one may consider directorial negligence honor the history of women who were in the area of social conscience, these at the forefront of experimental film films remain exceedingly popular and movements decades before. continue to shape and impact action As the film industry moves into cinema. In a way, Bigelow has played an era of consolidation by certain large the male-dominated studio system with studios, there have to be certain tactics her infiltration of the action genre to that the moviegoing audience can utilize inexplicably advance the cause of female- in order to promote the works of women. driven filmmaking. The fastest way to a corporation’s values A slightly different way that new will always be through its profits; thus, filmmakers can impact the current the best way to promote the production cinematic culture is by creating for of female-led and centered films is for untapped markets. This is almost moviegoers to pay to see them. According exactly what Varda, Chytilová, and to New York Times contributors Brooks their contemporaries were doing in Barnes and Cara Buckley, lack of financial Europe in the 1960’s: diverging from incentive is the most cited reason for the the established genres of film and current lack of jobs for female directors experimenting with techniques, forms, (Barnes). Film audiences have a duty to and dialogue in a new way. Today, vote with their dollar and make a point there exist numerous opportunities to to see female-led films in theaters. That stray away from the established genre is the only way more of these amazing landscape while centering the stories projects will be funded and produced for of women and minorities. One of these us to enjoy in the future. Women have newly claimed niches is that of female been at the forefront of experimental superheroes, whose films are being film and major cinematic movements helmed largely by women. Both Wonder throughout history, across borders Woman (2017) and its upcoming sequel and national cinemas, and have made were directed by Patty Jenkins. Hiring pivotal impressions on their respective female directors seems to be one more scenes. Now, the new generation has front on which DC Comics and Marvel the opportunity (and one could argue Entertainment are happy to one-up each responsibility) to push the industry in a other, as exemplified by the release of new direction, towards innovation and Captain Marvel (2019), co-directed by diversification. Anna Boden. Another example of this divergence from mainstream filmmaking is the recent work of Greta Gerwig, which centers familial relationships between women and coming-of-age narratives as opposed to the male- gaze specific requirement of endgame romance. In Ladybird (2017) for instance, the main character’s romantic interest ends badly, and her sadness redirects her towards her relationship with her mother. These newly opened genres are 34 | TXSTUR Works Cited An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge. Dir. Robert Enrico. Ed. Denise de Casabianca. The Twilight Zone, 1962. Film Barnes, Brooks, and Cara Buckley. “As Hollywood Embraces Diversity, Jobs for Female Directors Remain Sparse.” The New York Times, 14 Apr. audiences 2019. Blue Steel. Dir. Kathryn Bigelow. MGM Entertainment, 1989. Celine and Julie go Boating. Dir. Jacques Rivette. Ed. have a duty Nicole Lubtchansky. Films du Losange, 1974. Cleo from 5 to 7. Dir. Agnès Varda. Janus Films (The to vote with Criterion Collection), 1962. Daisies. Dir. Věra Chytilová. Janus Films (The Criterion Collection), 1966. DeRoo, Rebecca J. Agnès Varda between Film, their dollar Photography, and Art. 1st ed., University of California Press, 2018. JSTOR. Gaines, Jane M. “First Fictions.” Signs, vol. 30, no. 1, and make a 2004, pp. 1293–1317. JSTOR. The Hurt Locker. Dir. Kathryn Bigelow. Summit Entertainment, 2008. point to see La Religeuse. Dir. Jacques Rivette. Ed. Denise de Casabianca. Kino Lorber, 1965. Lauzen, Martha. “Boxed In 2018-19: Women on Screen female-led and Behind the Scenes in Television.” Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film, San Diego State University, 16 June 2016. films in Martin, Sean. New Waves in Cinema. Kamera Books, 2013. Rapold, Nicolas. “An Audience for Free Spirits in a theaters. Closed Society.” The New York Times, 29 June 2012. Shambu, Girish. “Hidden Histories: The Story of Women Film Editors.” The Criterion Collection, 12 Sept. 2019. Tikkanen, Amy. “Kathryn Bigelow.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 27 May 2019. “‘The Twilight Zone’ An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (Full Cast and Crew List).” IMDb, IMDb.com.

WOMEN IN FILM | 35 MASTERY OF FEAR ASSESSING THE LIKELIHOOD OF NUCLEAR TERRORISM

BY VINCENTE VILLARREAL REVIEWED BY DR. THOMAS DOYLE EDITED BY BRIDGETTE ABBOTT

The attacks on September 11th brought terrorism home for the American public and fear over nuclear weapons have been present since the first atomic bombing in August of 1945. These two combined are the explicit fear of a number of national security experts and the international community as a whole. But how warranted are these fears over nuclear terrorism? This paper examines the likelihood of a terrorist organization pursuing and acquiring nuclear weapons and finds it to be very low for a number of reasons. First, the desire of terrorist groups to acquire nuclear weapons is often assumed without considering if doing so will advance their goals or missions. Next, of those that would pursue these weapons, many are limited by a number of strategic and technical constraints. Finally operating under the assumption a terrorist organization is able to obtain a nuclear weapon, this paper shows their options following acquisition are extremely limited and threaten the survivability of their group. A survey of numerous terrorist groups and their capacities find nuclear weapons to be beyond their capabilities. Beyond this assessment, this paper aims to apply a critical lens to the dialogue that often surrounds nuclear terrorism and urges the reader to do the same.

36 | TXSTUR The terrorist attacks on September 11th, almost certainly outweigh any potential 2001 brought terrorism to the forefront advantage or benefit of attacking another of the mind of the American public. The state. In this, the presence of nuclear damage created by hijacked airplanes weapons both threatens and preserves struck fear into the hearts of not only international security (Sagan and Waltz the United States population, but the 12). international community as well. As per Through nuclear deterrence, the nature of terrorism, these acts brought the world enjoys a peace maintained the horrors of war to the United States outside of conventional war forces. and prompted citizens to wonder: If this Smaller countries with less expansive happened in New York and Washington militaries can achieve a position as a D.C., where could it happen next? This world player simply by having access is how nuclear weapons became tied to these weapons (Sagan and Waltz 12). to fears of terrorist attacks. Howard This encourages diplomacy over military Baker and Lloyd Cutler, co-chairs on force, a clear win for less militarized the Department of Energy Task Force, countries and a slight upset for countries stressed the importance of evaluating the which have historically used force to standing policies with Russia to prevent accomplish their goals. International the spread of nuclear weapons. In their security overall is maintained, showing 2001 report over the U.S. Department nuclear weapons’ fear-inspiring power of Energy’s nonproliferation programs also inspires extreme caution (Sagan with Russia, they asserted: and Waltz 8). However, the caution The most urgent unmet created by nuclear deterrence works in national security threat to the a limited capacity. Deterrence relies on United States today is the danger a state’s ability to weigh consequences, that weapons of mass destruction or in which a few assumptions must be weapons-usable material in Russia made. For one, the actors must have could be stolen and sold to terrorists fixed and defined territories. The ability or hostile nation states and used to deploy and retaliate against a nuclear against American troops abroad or attack operates under the premise that citizens at home. (Baker and Cutler an attack to one, fixed territory will 11) result in an attack against the offending, Since the release of this report, both fixed territory. Including terrorist in terrorism and nuclear armament have this trade off completely upsets the only become more widespread and nuclear order, as the majority occupy no the risk of nuclear terrorism has only fixed or defined territory (Walker 5). A increased (Early et al. 916). It is a gross terrorist group’s acquisition of nuclear oversimplification, and one often tied weapons would, for the first time since to nuclear weapons, to have to describe the inception of nuclear weapons, create nuclear deterrence as good or bad. a scenario where the warhead could be Nuclear deterrence is a policy which detonated without a country’s ability states nuclear weapons are utilized to to respond with their own retaliatory dissuade an aggressor state from attacking strike. It is for this reason that multiple another state through the weighing of security officials have listed nuclear retaliatory punishment (Sagan and Waltz terrorism as a top threat to national and 5). The state is dissuaded by the potential international security (Committee on consequences of attacking, which in the Homeland Security 3). Looking back on prospect of nuclear catastrophe would his three years sitting on the Committee NUCLEAR TERRORISM | 37 on Homeland Security and Government acquisition show that there are a limited Affairs, Senator Joseph Lieberman noted number of options. The extraordinary that “the threat of a nuclear terrorist effort required to obtain nuclear attack on the United States is growing weapons with reference to the limited faster than our ability to prevent a options available to an organization after nuclear terrorist attack on our homeland” acquiring serve to further show why the (1). But how justified is Lieberman’s acquisition and use of nuclear weapons assessment of danger? How likely is the by terrorist organizations is very low. acquisition and use of nuclear weapons Definitions by terrorist organizations? A detailed Nuclear terrorism is defined as look at the issue would reveal that the the acquisition and use or threatened likelihood of a terrorist organization use of nuclear weapons by a terrorist being able to acquire nuclear weapons organization (Iqbal 10). There are specific and use them is very low. parts of this definition that must be First, the desire for terrorist emphasized. First, nuclear terrorism can organizations to acquire nuclear weapons include both the use and threatened use is often assumed without considering of nuclear weapons (Iqbal 38). Analyzing why the organization actually wants threatened use requires an examination to obtain nuclear weapons. Terrorist of the intersection between capability organizations, like any organization, and attack conditions (McIntosh and have a wide range of goals, many of Storey 289). This intersection is one that which are not advanced by the possession will have sufficient analysis dedicated and use of a nuclear weapon. Second, it to it in the third section, the simple the desire for nuclear weapons must be understanding that threat of use falls combined with the ability to acquire under the umbrella of nuclear terrorism nuclear weapons. This is best examined will suffice for now. The second part through a lens of costs, which show of the definition concentrates on that the acquisition of nuclear weapons the “terrorist organization.” While by terrorist organizations is made even an individual terrorist actor could more unlikely due to the costs associated hypothetically gain access to nuclear with obtaining and maintaining technology, the possibility of this is so these weapons. That section will also slim as to make it negligible. As such, focus specifically on this paper will focus organizations that have its analysis on the expressed their desire possibility of nuclear Terrorist organizations, for nuclear weapons and terrorism only with the feasibility of their like any organization, have reference to terrorist desire. Lastly, there a wide range of goals, many organizations. must be an assessment of of which are not advanced The scope of this the terrorists’ strategies by the possession and use paper excludes other following acquisition. of a nuclear weapon. groups such as death The world has cults, millenarian never seen a nuclear groups (groups that weapon in the hands believe the end of of a non-state actor; therefore, much the world is impending), and racial speculation surrounds what a terrorist or ethnic hate groups. The separation group would do if it had a nuclear weapon. between the groups goes further than An assessment of their options following ideological differences or varying levels 38 | TXSTUR of political acceptability. Guelke notes goals strategically and have assessed that the “normative difference” between their goals are typically not advanced by these groups and terrorist organizations, nuclear weapons. Dr. James Forest from in that “the term, terrorism, carries a the Center for Security Research and connotation of absolutely illegitimate Technologies has identified a number violence” (181). Even more important of strategic and practical constraints than the lack of goals that align them for organizations pursuing chemical, with terrorist organizations, death biological, radiological, or nuclear cults, millenarians, and hate groups weapons (52). The following section will have a number of more easily accessible focus on the strategic constraints, while resources outside of nuclear weapons the next point will focus on practical to help achieve their goals (Sagan and constraints: Waltz 86). The last definition to outline Strategic Constraints is that of nuclear weapons. Strategic constraints identify the A nuclear weapon is described as a leverage of power between terrorist bomb or missile that uses nuclear energy organizations, their constituents, and to cause an explosion (Levi 2). Note this the international community as a whole definition does not include weapons (Forest 57). In the case of nuclear that utilize radioactive materials and weapons, terrorist groups must decide if conventional explosives to create an the pursuit and use of nuclear weapons improvised nuclear weapon, also known will assist them in achieving their overall as dirty bombs (Naseer and Amin 390). goals “faster or more efficiently than Analysis will also be dedicated to dirty other means” (Forest 57). Most terrorist bombs with reference to a terrorist organizations find that their goals are not organization’s ability to develop a strategically advanced by the possession nuclear weapon or improvised nuclear or use of nuclear weapons. device in the second section, but note One strategic goal of theirs is to the definition of nuclear weapon for the maintain material and moral support in framing of this work does not include their constant struggle, and their potential dirty bombs. use of nuclear weapons puts that support The Desire Assumption at risk. All terrorist organizations, to The first contention relies on some degree, receive assistance from the understanding that the desire of outside individuals or groups (Koehler- terrorist organizations to acquire nuclear Derrick and Milton 910). The extent of weapons cannot be assumed. Terrorist this support, however, will play a large organizations have a wide range of factor in an organization’s decision to objectives in correlation with their reason pursue nuclear weapons. Another group for existence. Terrorist groups often that does not benefit from the use of analyze their goals and the best ways to nuclear weapons would be terrorist achieve them, as these organizations “can organizations that fight for the removal be treated, theorized, and understood as of a group or occupation of a territory. strategic actors” (McIntosh and Storey This is the case for a number of terrorist 290). Furthermore, scholars also note that organizations in Afghanistan, Pakistan, “many terrorist organizations also appear and India. These include Jaish-e- to be risk-averse: the emphasis is often Mohammad, Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan, on the group’s survival” (Cameron 12). and Lashkar E-Tayyiba, all of which For both of these reasons, the majority concern themselves with “the occupation of terrorist organizations assess their of Indian Kashmir, as well as the ejection SPRING 2020 | 39 of coalition forces from Afghanistan, their goals. Aside from propaganda and Porous, and ill-defined borders in media recruitment working as a strategy, Kashmir…” (Khalid and Kayani 19). these both have the lowest risk of loss The ultimate goal of these for any of the strategies described. organizations is ridding the area of Terrorist organizations—like any outside influence, a goal that is not organization—require members to advanced by the use or threatened use of a execute its mission. As such, successful nuclear weapon. Terrorist organizations terrorist organizations are required to developing a nuclear weapon strategy organize their efforts in a strategic way with the goal mentioned above have (McIntosh and Storey 290). Risking two options: use the weapon against the members and resources in the pursuit of forces currently occupying the area or a nuclear weapon when current media attack the enemy state directly on their and propaganda strategies are working own soil. The organization’s attacking does not strategically benefit a terrorist of their own area is counterproductive, organization. The shift from propaganda as doing so would only harm the and media strategy would be seen when current inhabitants and make the land those channels no longer serve as a viable inhabitable for decades to come. That option or when they no longer achieve leaves attacking the enemy state directly the goals of the organizations. It is at as the only viable option. The strategies this time that they would most likely that are likely to be utilized in a terrorist begin to shift to the next option. organization’s targeting of an enemy Guerilla and Disruptive Tactics state will be discussed in section three, This is a strategy that was but note the inherent difficulty in utilized by groups like Hezbollah with planning, financing, and executing an significant success (Allison 35). In May attack on foreign soil. The difficulty is 2000, “Hezbollah launched a sustained not reason enough to rule out a terrorist guerrilla war against the Israelis, nuclear attack as a possibility, but the eventually forcing them to withdraw current success of achieving their goals from Lebanon,” and gaining hero status through other means is. What are these for themselves in the process (Allison 34). other means? Starting in order of most The standard premise for this strategy to easily executed: be effective relies on the organization’s Propaganda and Media Recruitment ability to inflict maximum harm while This is a strategy utilized by sustaining minimum damages and groups like ISIS and al-Shabaab. the secrecy integral to their survival. Terrorist propaganda serves the function Damages to resources include members, of radicalizing the general population finances, equipment, and weapons and encouraging action against the necessary to continue tactics (Laszlo occupying state or offending party and Tibor 70). Guerilla and disruptive (Maras 4). In more recent years within operations are seen to be most effective the early twenty-first century, there in areas where the terrorist organization has been an increased reliance on social is familiar with the landscape or terrain, media and electronic communication which has contributed to the success of to achieve this goal (Maras 6). The terrorist campaigns in Syria and Libya continued success in these fields make by the Islamic State (Whiteside 15). it likely that terrorist organizations Their knowledge of the area makes will continue using propaganda and them a superior combatant against electronic media as a means of achieving occupying or foreign forces (Whiteside 40 | TXSTUR 4). From the militia group during the and radiological (CBR) weapons seem American Revolution to the Vietcong to be the preferred choice for terrorist during the Vietnam War, modern organizations desiring WMD for a terrorist organizations will use guerilla number of reasons. For one, they are tactics in a similar way to feed into a easier to obtain than nuclear weapons “revolutionary war doctrine,” under (Chapman 113). Terrorist groups have which their struggle is linked to that of better access to the materials necessary for the oppressed heroes during great wars CBR weapons than they do for a nuclear (Whiteside 5). This tactic directly targets weapon, with some organizations even a force’s desire to continue a foreign claiming to have been able to weaponize engagement, as the principle goal isn’t chlorine (Chapman 114). destroying the enemy, but targeting Beyond obtainment, nuclear them “politically and psychologically” weapons have to be protected from (Whiteside 6). Guerilla and disruptive detection by nations and non- tactics become undesirable for a terrorist governmental organizations. Nuclear group as their own damages become too weapons contain distinct signatures high to sustain (Forest 56). Whether as and there are a range of technologies a factor of the damages or the length at able to detect special nuclear material which the unconventional war has been (SNM) (Egidi 10). There are currently waged without a foreseeable end, they nine technologies part of the nuclear will begin to pursue other means of detection portfolio, and “some detection achieving their goal. It is at this point technology is advancing faster than many that terrorist groups will advocate for have expected” (Egidi 22). Terrorist stronger means. . organizations lack the established, Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) defendable borders that nations have and WMDs have been the expressed the locating of their nuclear weapons desire of a number of different terrorist stash would result in immediate military organizations like Al Qaeda and the action. Setting up the proper facilities Islamic State (Hess 91). Nuclear weapons needed to hide SNM signatures would are included in the category of weapons not only take time, but also require of mass destruction, which are often the terrorist organization to maintain described as CBRN weapons: chemical, a more fixed position when mobility biological, radiological, and/or nuclear is key to their survival. These reasons weapons capable of inflicting significant combined make radiological, chemical, harm or damage (Hess 93). These weapons or biological weapons sufficiently more in the hands of terrorist organizations desirable over nuclear weapons. have been the explicit fear of a number The aforementioned points show a of countries; this fear has even inspired myriad of reasons why the majority of military campaigns to prevent such a terrorist organizations do not and will situation, as seen with the United States’ not pursue the acquisition of nuclear invasion of Iraq in 2003 (Bahador et. al weapons. From the small pool of terrorist 5). Few terrorist organizations, however, organizations left, it could be assumed have placed nuclear weapons at the top then that some of them have explicit and of their list of desired WMD (Chapman serious desire for nuclear weapons. 119). Nuclear weapons are hard to procure More Than Sheer Will and maintain, made evident by only The desire to acquire nuclear nine of 206 sovereign nations possessing weapons must also be paired with the them currently. Chemical, biological, NUCLEAR TERRORISM | 41 The desire to acquire nuclear weapons must also be paired with the ability to acquire nuclear weapons. ability to acquire nuclear weapons. what drives much of the rhetoric Through the case study of Al Qaeda, an around the necessity for secure nuclear organization that has expressed interest weapons. Nuclear pessimists note that in obtaining nuclear weapons, it can be international security is increased as the seen that this is easier said than done. number of places where nuclear weapons This section examines factors, outside of are present decreases (Sagan and Waltz sheer will and strategic considerations, 114). While this train of logic seemingly that would make it difficult for a terrorist follows, other scholars have still argued organization to acquire nuclear weapons. this claim as unfounded. Larger and Technical Constraints more established nuclear powers, like the Technical constraints identify United States and Russia, have maintained the aspects of the terrorist organization their nuclear weapons for years with no that would limit their ability to theft to this day. While these countries acquire nuclear weapons (Forest 54). are not exempt from scrutiny regarding The following model operates under their means of securing their nuclear the assumption that a terrorist group weapons, materials, and technology, the understands all the difficulty and risks mechanisms they have in place can be associated with acquiring/deploying a assumed to be working and a model that nuclear weapon and is choosing to pursue other states can follow (Chubb and Yeo it nonetheless. This section looks first at 228). The established nuclear powers the costs associated with acquisition and are not typically who the international maintenance of nuclear weapons, either community is worried about. New by theft, purchase, or development. nuclear weapon states seem to act as the Examined after are the organizational largest risk in the face of potential theft, structures well suited or ill equipped namely Pakistan (Khalid and Kayani 10). for acquiring and maintaining nuclear North Korea poses more of a threat for weapons. acquisition via purchase and, as such, Assuming a terrorist organization will be examined in the next paragraph. wanted to acquire nuclear weapons, Pakistan’s military operations in tribal there are steep costs to overcome in areas have led to continued conflicts that pursuit. The method that the they with terrorist organizations operating would take would vary on a number of within the country, namely, theTehrik- factors, like “the terrorist organization’s i-Taliban Pakistan (Khalid and Kayani resources, the state assistance they would 16). Examining the behaviors of Pakistan, receive, and/or their exact operational scholars note that the country “has environment and its opportunities” instituted a comprehensive, stringent (Volders 1108). Let us examine three mechanism over a short period of time primary methods under which they could to mitigate any inside or outside threats” obtain the weapons and costs associated (Khan and Abbasi 50). Pakistan’s threat with each: level posed by its security concerns is Acquisition via Theft by no means reduced to zero, but while This mode of acquisition is “it might be correct that no other state 42 | TXSTUR is more likely to be affected by nuclear not is to analyze the transaction in a way terrorism, it is also true that no state other that weighs the costs and benefits. than Pakistan has done more to secure North Korea has demonstrated its nuclear infrastructure” (Naseer and its willingness in the past to engage Amin 391). Lastly, research has found in illegal behavior to sustain its state that the “smaller [the] size of the nuclear (Hess 108). Nuclear weapons, however, establishments, the more easily guarded present a unique risk to the international as compared to larger sizes,” granting a community and may potentially have certain security to newer nuclear weapon unique retaliation for compromising states with smaller arsenals (Khalid and the safety of other states. The leaking Kayani 20). of nuclear weapons could not be done Acquisition via Purchase completely in secret as well, as nuclear Scholars note the likelihood of a and radiological material often carry “the state engaging in the sale of a nuclear unmistakable signature of the countries weapon extremely low, as doing so would that manufactured their nuclear material” potentially put their own population at (Hess 117). North Korea is allowed to risk (Khalid and Kayani, 21). In spite of maintain itself as an actor within the this, there are states that regularly show international nuclear order based on no concern for both their own population strong international norms covering and the international laws which regulate individual sovereignty. A norm even state behavior. North Korea is a clear stronger than sovereignty would be one of example of this. North Korea is a state maintaining international security with that presents challenges beyond just its relation to nuclear weapons. It is under status as a nuclear weapon state. Their this norm that entire continents have string of authoritarian leaders often banded together to call for disarmament leaves the international community and restraint for nuclear weapon states. unsure about its ability to perceive them A violation of this norm, combined with as a rational actor. the death toll a nuclear terrorist attack The country’s previous track record would yield, would threaten North does not offer much help, as the country Korea’s ability to maintain its own has previously engaged in illicit activities sovereignty. like drug production, counterfeiting Acquisition via Research and Development currency, and smuggling to help raise This mode of acquisition is most money for their regime (Hess 98). often cited when referring to Al Qaeda However, recent actions by the North and its nuclear weapon ambitions. Al Korean Leader, Kim Jong- Un, do show Qaeda leadership has explicitly stated an increased capacity for cooperation. that they intended on “developing Beginning in 2018, the leader has weapons that could cause large numbers contributed to “unprecedented changes in of casualties” (Van de Velde 685). There the inter-Korean relationship,” engaging is, however, a large disconnect between in a series of summits and meetings an organization’s intention to develop which signal the ongoing negotiations nuclear weapons and their actual between Kim Jong- Un and other state development. Financial costs, access leaders (Pratamasari 25). For those not to materials, scientists and engineers convinced by the recent actions of a required, secure locations, and time act historically tyrannical leader, another as a few of the hurdles for Al Qaeda to gauge for whether North Korea will clear in their pursuit of nuclear weapon engage in the sale of nuclear weapons or development. SPRING 2020 | 43 If they want to actually achieve would not be beyond the ability of Al nuclear weapon development, they will Qaeda to pursue dirty bombs, but the have to rely on their extensive network, fear of these weapons often supersedes which is a network compromised by the actual damage of them. its shifting in organizational structure Aside from the difficulty in following 2001 and explained more acquiring nuclear weapons, terrorist extensively in the next section. The groups would also have to analyze reliance on their network also includes their own organizational structure to approval from the actors involved within determine how aligned it is with the the network (Van de Velde 688). The acquisition of nuclear weapons. There nature of nuclear weapons and retaliation are a number of structures terrorist from a terrorist organization possessing organizations can utilize. Certain nuclear weapons would make gaining structures are better than others for support difficult (Van de Velde 688). Al coordinating group efforts for a shared Qaeda, like many terrorist groups, relies goal and, as such, certain structures do on the support of their community for not support the goal of acquiring of both finances and recruitment (Van de nuclear weapons. The four most common Velde 689). International condemnation organizational structures for terrorist of their pursuit for nuclear weapons groups are, in order of most centralized could alienate their constituency and to least, Bureaucracy, Hub-spoke, All- reduce their legitimacy in the eyes of channel, and Market (Kilberg 810). Since their allies. For support garnered by the terrorist organizations can be analyzed violent actions of these groups, there as strategic actors, the organizational is “an implicit acknowledgement that structure that these groups utilize is a violence is not only a tool to influence key factor in whether their successful public opinion, but that violence must in achieving their missions. Whether be controlled and limited by public the way a group of friends could come opinion” (Browne 11). together to plan a surprise birthday party When justifying the actions or how a football booster club could of 9/11, Osama bin Laden was very organize after-school sales, some type deliberate in emphasizing the protective of organizational structure is required elements in his concept of jihad (Ozkaya to coordinate goals too large or too Lassalle & Akgul 53). Supporters could complex for one individual to complete. point to the offenses cited as justifiable The more complex a goal, the stronger means for retaliation. With the exception organizational structure required. of nuclear weapons used in response In the case of terrorist organizations to another nuclear strike, the use of specifically, highly complex goals like nuclear weapons is almost exclusively destabilizing the military force in a regarded as an offensive tactic. Their region or conducting attacks on secure support is conditional and for Al Qaeda locations require well defined structures. to be successful in maintaining it, their Below is an overview of each of those constituency would have to support a view structures: of jihad which justified the destruction a Bureaucracy is the most hierarchical, nuclear detonation would reap. None of with established boundaries, clear these challenges make it impossible for chains-of-command, systems in place for Al Qaeda to develop nuclear weapons, the transference of information, and set but they highlight why other weapons means of the group coming to decisions and strategies may be given priority. It (Kilberg 813). Examples of terrorist 44 | TXSTUR organizations which have or currently weapons than others. The first two utilize the bureaucratic model would be models, bureaucracy and hub-spoke, are the Armed Islamic Group, Hezbollah, the best for coordinating and achieving and the Irish Republican Army (Kilberg narrow and intricate goals (Kilberg 815). 824). These groups have a centralized Hub-spoke takes a less hierarchical leader or command center, and as such approach, and has a central cell of can set a shared goal that the rest of the communication, the hub, in which organization is supposed to follow. The all communication is vetted through acquisition of nuclear weapons, by any (Kilberg 813). This structure has proven of the means examined above, requires to be especially useful for terrorist sufficient planning and coordination of organizations based on the ability for member efforts to achieve. The second one cell to fall without compromising two models are unable to facilitate the rest of the organization and was both the acquisition and maintenance utilized by a pre-9/11 Al Qaeda (Kilberg of nuclear weapons. Due to the lack of 815). central communication, necessary details All-channel networks are further such as how to go about obtaining the decentralized and require “rapid, dense, weapon, where to hold the weapon, multidirectional communications,” when to transport it, when to deploy which lack strong, central leadership it, and even the basic goal of acquiring (Kilberg 814). To clarify, there is a the weapon in the first place would leader, but the coordination under this face serious risk of not being relayed. leader is loose and the organization Ironically enough, while bureaucracy can survive with the leader’s removal and hub-spoke would be the best models (Kilberg 814). Terrorist organizations for terrorist organizations to utilize in that use or have used this model include their pursuit of nuclear weapons, these post-9/11 Al Qaeda, Red Army Faction, models are also the least safe models and the Muslim Brotherhood (Kilberg for terrorist organizations to utilize. 815). Safety, in this instance, is in relation to Market organization is the last the continued operations and existence organization style and can only narrowly of the terrorist organization. Terrorist be called an organization, as the groups organizations do not exist in a bubble, under Market organization operate with and their goals are constantly threatened a diverse, sometimes contradictory, set by counterterrorism efforts (Kilberg of goals (Kilberg 814). These are often 811). Terrorist groups that utilize either described more as social movements, model open themselves up to a higher lacking leadership of any kind outside risk of discovery and disbandment. It is of their small groups and are only a relationship in which “group structure loosely working toward the same goal is driven primarily by the need to (Kilberg 814). Examples of this type maximize concealment (to mitigate risk) of organization include the Earth at the expense of maximizing efficiency” Liberation Front and Animal Liberation (Kilberg 811). Furthermore, the study Front, under which the general goal of found that religious groups, like Al ecological awareness spurs violent and Qaeda, are more likely to follow the uncoordinated action (Kilberg 815). decentralized model over centralized As stated previously, there are (Kilberg 824). The costs of acquiring certain organizational models better nuclear weapons combined with the suited for the acquisition of nuclear structural organization required for NUCLEAR TERRORISM | 45 longevity together present very real in the status quo. technical constraints to the acquisition A unique aspect of a terrorist of nuclear weapons. organization equipped with a nuclear Acquired, Now What? weapon would be the response from The last section examines states. Due to a non-state actor never the strategies available for terrorist having possessed nuclear weapons before, organizations following their acquisition the response to these nuclear options of nuclear weapons and aims to show is largely unknown. There are some that these options for use are both responses that could be assumed based on undesirable and far less effective than previous trends within the international one would assume. These strategies rely nuclear order. It is important to note that on an intersection of attack conditions acquisition of nuclear weapons by any and capabilities, outlined by the table terrorist organization would result in provided below and created by McIntosh unparalleled international cooperation to & Storey (see fig. 1) prevent its detonation (Naseer and Amin The table consolidates the options 385). Similar international cooperation available for terrorist organizations has been seen previously with the Nunn- assuming they both desire nuclear Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction weapons and are then able to acquire Program, which was mobilized in 1991 nuclear weapons (McIntosh and Storey to assist in the securing of nuclear 292). It is intended to show how a terrorist weapons and materials following the fall organization’s options are limited by of the Soviet Union. (Potter & Shields how public they plan on making both 35). The program helped to peacefully the knowledge that they have nuclear prevent the rise of three new nuclear weapons and the conditions that will weapon states through incentives and result in them deploying said weapons. nonproliferation agreements (Potter & It is important to note that each of these Shields 36). Programs like these indicate increased collaborative efforts in the face of potential nuclear threats. As stated previously, nuclear deterrence relies on the ability to carry out a nuclear threat against an offending adversary. The offending party, in this instance, being terrorists that do not occupy clearly defined land, makes threats of retaliation obsolete. Regardless of who the terrorists intended Figure 1. Nuclear Options, McIntosh, Christopher, target is, the fear that unites and Ian Storey. 2018. “Between Acquisition and Use: nations and people following any Assessing the Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism.” terrorist attack would encourage International Studies Quarterly, vol. 62, no. 2, p. 292. cooperative efforts to suppress the threat and prevent future acquisition of nuclear weapons options are already available to terrorist by terrorist organizations. This response organizations. They have the ability to would be seen in two significant ways. make vague threats or direct blackmail First, a civilian response would be 46 | TXSTUR that of which would most likely allow for a terrorist group is able to do so, their the abridging of freedoms in the name next challenge would be overcoming of safety. The Patriot Act, signed into the collaborative efforts of an entire law October 26, 2001, and subsequent international community. laws allowed for changes to immigration Conclusion policies, mistreatment of foreigners, and Widely held misconceptions about the tracing and monitoring of United the ability of terrorist organizations States’ citizens phone calls amongst to acquire and use nuclear weapons other items (Smith and Hung 33). The have produced a heightened fear of the intention of terrorism is to launch an same. The events of September 11th and attack against an enemy directly and subsequent terrorist attacks have inspired against the psyche of that enemy as well. a fear of the unknown with unknown For Americans, this resulted in fear, fear consequences. These consequences so strong that “many Americans felt that combined with nuclear weapons create giving up a measure of personal freedom an unfounded line of reasoning which was OK, if they gained more security somehow ends with a terrorist group in the bargain” (Smith and Hung 70). detonating a nuclear weapon in New York, Los Angeles, or any other large city. This reasoning is In short, the revealing of nuclear accepted because terrorist weapon capabilities by a terrorist organizations do indeed exist, organization would present an and nuclear weapons are undeniably present throughout irreversible step, both for the this world. The critical lens organization and the world. applied in this paper conveys how necessary it is to analyze where fear of nuclear terrorism comes from and how realistic the Following the release of civil liberties scenarios described are. The majority due to fear of nuclear terrorism would of terrorist organizations have not and be the government response. will not pursue nuclear weapons. They A governmental response, both are able to achieve their strategic goals domestic and international, would be by other means or have goals that are one of significant cooperation. The not furthered by the acquisition of increased surveillance and access to nuclear weapons. From the pool that avenues previously blocked by certain would pursue these weapons, a large individual protections would feed into portion lack the financial capability and an efficient military machine that the organizational structure to make the government could then utilize to suppress acquisition and maintaining of a nuclear the terrorist threat. The international weapon possible. From those that could cooperation would allow for the sharing somehow overcome all of these factors of intel and joint-coalition missions and constraints, their options for how focused on suppressing the threat of to utilize the nuclear weapon moving nuclear terrorism. In short, the revealing forward are limited. of nuclear weapon capabilities by a When writing about nuclear terrorist organization would present terrorism, Dr. Brian Jenkins, former an irreversible step, both for the advisor to the National Commission organization and the world. Assuming on Terrorism, noted that when we talk SPRING 2020 | 47 about the danger of nuclear weapons and Works Cited terrorist organizations, we talk about Allison, Graham. Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate how “a hypothetical event produces Preventable Catostrophe. New York City: Henry historically confirmable consequences” Holt and Company, 2004. Bahador, Babak, Jeremy Moses and William (Jenkins 94). Much of the conversation L Youmans. “Rhetoric and Recollection: around nuclear terrorism is simply the Recounting the George W. Bush Administration’s conflation of all the alarm associated Case for War in Iraq.” Presidential Studies with terrorism and all the apprehension that Quarterly, 2018, pp. 4-26. accompanies the field of nuclear weaponry. Baker, Howard and Lloyd Cutler. A Report Card on the Department of Energy’s Nonproliferation Both nuclear weapons and terrorism are Program with Russia. Washington, D.C.: United abhorrent features of the modern world, but it States Department of Energy, 2001. is critical to assess them in a way that does not Browne, William W. “Constituency constraints on allow for fear to dominate the conversation. violence: Al-Qaeda and WMD.” Russell, James A. and James J. Wirtz. Globalization and WMD Proliferation: Terrorism, Transnational Networks and International Security. London & New York: Routledge, 2008. Cameron, Gavin. Nuclear Terrorism: A Threat Assessment for the 21st Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. Chapman, Geoffrey. “Islamic State and Al-Nusra: Exploring Determinants of Chemical Weapons Usage Patterns.” Perspectives on Terrorism, vol. 11, no. 6, 2017, pp. 112-121. Chubb, Danielle and Andrew Yeo. “Human rights, nuclear security and the question of engagement with North Korea.” Australian Journal of International Affairs, 2019, pp. 227-233. Committee on Homeland Security, Governmental Affairs. “Nuclear Terrorism: Strengthening Our Domestic Defenses: Hearings before the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, Part I and Part II, June 30 and September 15, 2010.” 2010. Early, Bryan R, Matthew Fuhrmann and Quan Li. “Atoms for Terror? Nuclear Programs and Non-Catastrophic Nuclear and Radiological Terrorism.” British Journal of Political Science, vol. 43, no.4, 2013, pp. 915-936. Egidi, Pietro. Detection of Nuclear Weapons and Materials. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2010. Forest, James. “Framework for Analyzing the Future Threat of WMD Terrorism.” Journal of Strategic Security, vol.5, no.4, 2012, pp. 51-68. Guelke, Adrian. Terrorism and Global Disorder: Political Violence in the Contemporary World. New York: I.B.Tauris, 2006. Hess, Ashley. “Why North Korea won’t give the worst WMD to terrorists.” The Journal of East Asian Affairs, vol. 31, no.2, 2017, pp. 91-131 Iqbal, Imrana. “International Law of Nuclear Weapons Nonproliferation: Application to Non-

48 | TXSTUR State Actors.” Pace International Law Review, vol. Smith, Cary Stacy and Li-Ching Hung. The Patriot 31, no.1, 2018. pp. 1-58. Act : Issues and Controversies. Springfield: Charles Jenkins, Brian M. “Have We Succumbed to Nuclear C. Thomas Publisher, 2010. Terror?” Jenkins, Brian M. and Godges John Paul. Van de Velde, James R. “The Impossible Challenge The Long Shadow of 9/11: America’s Response of Deterring “Nuclear Terrorism” by Al Qaeda.” to Terrorism. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 2010, pp. 682- 2011. 699. Khalid, Iram and Arifa Kayani. “Nuclear Terrorism Volders, Brecht. “Nuclear Terrorism: What Can We in South Asia: Potential Threats/Challenges and Learn from Los Alamos?” Terrorism and Political Options: Post 9/11 Analysis.” South Asian Studies Violence, 2017, pp. 1006-1025. (1026-678X), vol. 32, no.1, 2017. pp. 7-25. Walker, William. A Perpetual Menace: Nuclear Khan, Zulfqar and Rizwana Abbasi. “Nuclear Weapons and International Order. New York: Terrorism and Pakistan: Reassessing the State’s Taylor & Francis Group, 2012. Behavior.” Pakistan Horizon, vol. 68, no. 1, 2015, Whiteside, Craig. “New Masters of Revolutionary pp. 41-67. Warfare: The Islamic State Movement (2002- Kilberg, Joshua. “A Basic Model Explaining Terrorist 2016).” Perspectives on Terrorism, 2016, pp. 4-18. Group Organizational Structure.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 35, 2012, pp. 810-830. Koehler-Derrick, Gabriel and Daniel J. Milton. “Choose Your Weapon: The Impact of Strategic Considerations and Resource Constraints on Terrorist Group Weapon Selection.” Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 31, no.5, 2017, pp. 909-928. Laszlo, Gal I. and Serbakov M. Tibor. “How acts of terrorism are financed and orchestrated in secrecy today.” Journal of Eastern European Criminal Law, 2019, pp. 66-76. Levi, Michael. On Nuclear Terrorism. London: Harvard University Press, 2007. Maras, Marie-Helen. “Social Media Platforms: Targeting the “Found Space” of Terrorists.” Journal of Internet Law, 2017, pp. 3-9. McIntosh, Christopher and Ian Storey. “Between Acquisition and Use: Assessing the Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism.” International Studies Quarterly, vol. 62, no. 2, 2018, pp. 289-300. Naseer, Rizwan and Musarat Amin. “Nuclear Terrorism: Hype, Risks, and Reality -A Case of Pakistan.” South Asian Studies (1026-678X), vol. 34, no. 2, 2019, pp. 383-399. Ozkaya Lassalle, K. Eylem and Berk Akgul. “Light Years Ahead: Differences and Similarities between Al-Qaeda and Islamic State’s Approach to The Global Jihad.” Review of International Law & Politics, vol. 12, no. 2, 2016, pp. 41-74. Potter, William C. and John M. Shields. “Lessons from the Nunn‐Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program.” Asia-Pacific Review, 1997, pp. 35-56. Pratamasari, Annisa. “Kim Jong-Un’s Change of Stance: North Korea’s rapprochement for Peace in 2018.” North Korean Review, vol. 15, no. 2, 2019, pp. 23-37. Sagan, Scott D. and Kenneth N. Waltz. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: An Enduring Debate. 3rd. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.

NUCLEAR TERRORISM | 49 GIRLS ONLY

THE USE AND ABUSE OF FEMALE-CENTRIC EVENTS IN PATRIARCHAL RELIGIONS

BY CHEYANNE CLAGETT REVIEWED BY DR. DEBRA LAW EDITED BY SHELBY SULT

This paper examines how an ancient Greek fertility festival called Thesmophoria and Southern Baptist women’s conferences both benefit and harm women. Although these events are separated by millennia and religious beliefs, both are female-centric and occur within a dominating patriarchal context. During these occasions, women are led by members of their own group, focus on their re- ligion together, and exclude men from their activities. As a result, these events seem to benefit women by allowing them to leave their homes and interact with other women of their faith without the direct supervision of their male relatives or leaders. However, because these events operate with the permission of the patriarchal society and uphold its values, they are ultimately harmful to wom- en because they do not allow any real changes to be made to the society’s structure or values, even if those changes would improve women’s lives. While these events are beneficial in a short-term timeline, they function only as pressure valves in the long run as a way to relieve the tension women feel because of the restricting gender roles placed upon them.

50 | TXSTUR A common childhood experience for each other and without the interference young girls is gathering together in a or supervision of their male relatives. As backyard or a bedroom and declaring I will explain later in this paper, Greek a “girls only” or “no boys allowed” women’s rights were quite limited even space for themselves, usually to ward for the wives of citizens, and this festival off annoying little brothers or create was an opportunity for women to leave solidarity within the group. This female- their homes, gather with other women, centric space gives every girl freedom and recognize their shared female to speak her mind and time away from identity. However, it is important to her normal responsibilities and family remember that women would not have members. Religions can offer similar needed this event if their female identity spaces to women that allow them to were not covered up and hidden away express themselves, lead, and practice during the rest of the year. While their faith without the direct supervision aspects of Thesmophoria seem liberating of their patriarchal societies. One such and even touching, the festival’s purpose opportunity in ancient times was a within the Greek patriarchal society fertility festival called Thesmophoria complicates that positive view. that Greek polytheists celebrated, in In terms of what scholars know which women led other women during about Thesmophoria, there is evidence of an exclusively female event to honor the its annual celebration from as early as 2000 goddess of agriculture Demeter. During BCE across the Greek empire, including the short festival, women practiced celebration sites called “Thesmophorion their religion without the supervision sanctuaries” and references to the of their male relations and were even goddess Demeter as “Thesmophoros” duty-bound to follow the female-centric (Stallsmith 28). Although the festival rituals of the festival. Likewise, the was held throughout this massive empire, modern-day women’s conferences held scholars know the most about the by the Southern Baptists mirror this Athenian Thesmophoria in particular. festival in that they provide women a As a result, this paper only addresses the space and time to practice their religion Athenian Thesmophoria, even though with each other almost exclusively. some of the ideas would have likely Both of these events were and are seen applied to many of the other locations as positive opportunities for women as well. The most important thing to in which they can freely practice their know about the Athenian festival is that religion together within a patriarchal only the wives of Athenian citizens were context that otherwise restricts their allowed to witness it or participate in rights and opportunities to act on their it; a man’s presence was so offensive own. However, I argue that both of these that it was sacrilegious (Stallsmith events function as short-term pressure 28). Out of this group, some women valves to relieve the societal tension that known as archousai led the procedures women experience and actually create and ensured that it followed the proper long-term damage by reinforcing the rituals. The use of the word archousai is patriarchal values that oppress women in significant because it mirrors the word the first place. archon, which referred to Athens’s male In the short-term, the festival leaders; this word choice means that the Thesmophoria was an exceptional women leaders of Thesmophoria were a moment in Greek life and culture for temporary equivalent of the men who women to practice their religion with led Athens. (Faraone 25). As a result of SISTERHOOD | 51 this female leadership, male presence and Greek culture, Thesmophoria stands out supervision were totally eliminated from as a space in which women could act on Thesmophoria. their own and act outside the normal The festival took place in October societal standards they faced. or November each year as a “pre-sowing Perhaps the most interesting part ritual” that appealed to Demeter, the of the festival was the time women spent goddess of agriculture, to provide a fertile fasting on the second day to imitate and harvest for Greek farmers (Stallsmith 28). respect the grief Demeter experienced It was three days long, with the second after her daughter Persephone was day being used for fasting and the third kidnapped and raped by Hades, the god day for gathering sacrificed animals and of the dead (Faraone 25-6). Sometime feasting. During this time, women lived before the festival began, a few women together in temporary huts (Faraone 25- threw sacrificed piglets as well as 6). Although three days is very little time pine tree branches and cakes into the each year, these three days were filled underground rooms of the sanctuary. On with rituals known almost exclusively the third day, all of the women collected to women and practiced exclusively by the rotting remains of those materials women. For example, one interesting and put them on altars available to local element that occurred throughout the farmers, who could then take some of festival was “‘shameful talk’” which this mixture to enrich their crops for the would normally be egregious for citizen’s next harvest (Stallsmith 31-2). The use wives but was accepted in this context of the remains is important because it as lending itself to encouraging fertility gave Thesmophoria and the participating (Stallsmith 29-30). The nature of this women a stake in their society or a way speech is not totally clear, but it seems to directly contribute to its growth that the women were facetious with each and prosperity. Overall, the festival other in a way that was not appropriate combined religious elements with rituals in everyday Athenian society. If I had to that provided practical benefits to the make an educated guess, I think women society which supported it. were probably complaining about their While the specifics of the festival husbands and Athenian leadership during are not important to modern, casual this time simply because they could. readers, what does matter about this time This speech is interesting because it is that women lived with each other, led allowed, even required, women to break each other, and observed the grief one the codes of conduct they normally woman felt for her daughter because followed. Not only could they break of the injustice a man had committed the rules, they had to break them to against her. Basing the festival on follow the ritual correctly. Outside the Demeter and Persephone’s story shows unique space of Thesmophoria, women that the festival was an opportunity for would likely not have had the freedom women to unite with each other over to speak negatively about their husbands their shared female identities. Although and leadership with people who would rape was hardly limited to Greek women, understand and commiserate. Within there is certainly a trend in history of Thesmophoria stands out in history as a moment in which women recognized and bemoaned the injury done to one of their own by a man.

52 | TXSTUR males raping local women to establish changes by themselves in society. Any dominance during conquest and of changes they wanted to effect had to go men exerting great sexual control over through men and be enacted by men to be their wives as a way to monitor society. valid. Plus, women only had three days Thesmophoria stands out in history as together during the festival, after which a moment in which women recognized they had to return to their husbands and and bemoaned the injury done to one households. Once they were separated of their own by a man. In this context, into their individual situations, they did Thesmophoria is exceptional because not have the same persuasive power that women could address these injustices they had as a collective. This arrangement instead of being forced to accept them. damaged their chances of accomplishing Even by modern standards of gender change because individual Athenian men equality, this festival is uniquely female- could stop the efforts in their own homes centric. before the movement grew so powerful As ideal as Thesmophoria seems, that it demanded a response from a male its patriarchal trappings are obvious collective. Since these women could not when it is placed in its full cultural change the society they lived in, perhaps context. Athens is famously known as the they just embraced the time they had birthplace of democracy and the common away from those limitations and tried to man’s voice, yet Athenian women did relieve the pressure they felt from their not have this same experience outside society. As a result, Thesmophoria only Thesmophoria. For example, the only relieved that pressure women felt and did women in Greece who could use their not change women’s lives for the better own names in court were priestesses; outside those three days. otherwise, Athenian women were If this is the case, how does it known through relationships with men change the way we look at Thesmophoria? such as with their fathers or husbands Instead of the festival being shockingly (Gilhuly 18). In general, women were feminist in a patriarchal society, I argue supposed to fill very particular sexual it is a patriarchal device that gives women and societal roles as citizen’s wives, just a taste of their actual wishes so they had to be sexually submissive to their would be content with the oppression husbands, and had to maintain a clean forced upon them. Thus, it was not reputation through their anonymity a marker of equality, but another tool and support of their husbands (Stehle used to oppress women. After all, the 78, Gilhuly 17). In other words, women religion and society which contained played a quiet, even passive background Thesmophoria ultimately supported male role to support their husbands’s political superiority; as a result, any female spaces endeavours. Thus, any public expression must support maleness somehow or exist of genuine autonomy was rare, and this with its permission as the festival existed limitation changes the kind of power with the permission of the Athenian male that Thesmophoria had. leaders. Thesmophoria functioned as an Because Thesmophoria was the outlet for the female anger and frustration only time when women had public self- the patriarchy needed to quiet. In a expression in this patriarchy, it did not short-term timeline, Thesmophoria was allow for transformative ideas or actions a pressure valve that allowed women to in the long run. Since their time and commiserate, have some time together, ideas were largely controlled by men, and feel that they had a stake in their women were not able to make effective society. Of course, the women did SPRING 2020 | 53 have a small stake because the fertilizer Women’s Pre-Conference”). Likewise, they made would contribute to their the two-day long Lifeway Women’s city’s agricultural production and thus Leadership Forum hosted female speakers had a civic benefit. Nevertheless, in (with just one male exception) who the long run, this outlet covered up spoke about modern sexuality, ministry, the year-long oppression women faced and religious leaders’ spiritual health by giving them three days of freedom (Student Life). Last, the Equip training and control. Thus, the festival did not event for the upcoming year had not change a patriarchal society, but rather been posted, but its website gave the contributed to its continued existence following description of its events each by venting possible resistance to that semester: “These mini-conferences are society. In the end, Thesmophoria was led by faculty wives or guest speakers damaging, not because it was inherently who will share from their own experience damaging, but rather because the society and wisdom. Speakers at Equip provide which supported it used it as a tool for practical tips, share personal experiences, continued oppression of women. and help prepare women to apply their Even though Thesmophoria was theological education to everyday celebrated millennia ago, the conferences ministry” (“Equip: Practical Training of Southern Baptist women today mirror for Women in Ministry”). These three its exceptional religious opportunity events are quite similar in their approach for freedom for women in a patriarchal to women fellowship; they are all short, context; however, over time, these host primarily female speakers, and try conferences also reinforce patriarchal to encourage women in their ministry ideals that limited space for women in efforts and in their everyday lives. In the first place. Unlike the single annual other words, like-minded women have event that Thesmophoria was, there are a short opportunity to physically leave many annual conferences within the their homes, meet each other, and discuss denomination available to women. Three the problems they share. As a result, these examples of recent women’s conferences conferences are wonderful opportunities include the For the Church Women’s for women in the short term to grow in Pre-Conference from the Midwestern their faith and spend time with other Baptist Theological Seminary, the women who wish to do the same. Lifeway Women’s Leadership Forum with Within the Southern Baptist culture the Southeastern Baptist Theological and even Baptist culture generally, these Seminary, and Equip training from the events are seen as positive opportunities Southern Baptist Theological Seminary for women to grow as Christians and (“SBC Search”). develop relationships with other women; These three meetings demonstrate however, like Thesmophoria, these common characteristics of women’s conferences are a unique opportunity conferences, some of which ultimately within the religion to do so since the reflect the patriarchal elements of the culture is extremely patriarchal otherwise Southern Baptist denomination. For and limits what women can do. From example, the Women’s Pre-Conference my own experience of growing up in of 2019 featured four female speakers Baptist and Southern Baptist churches, I and was a half-day event that “exists to can safely say that the Southern Baptist encourage women who are in the throes denomination has a reputation (that of ministry in their homes, their churches, it probably deserves) for being sexist and throughout the world” (“FTC because of its emphasis on men as the 54 | TXSTUR spiritual leaders in a nation, in churches, and these events. Communications and in homes, potentially to the scholar Brian Kaylor examined articles exclusion of women from all positions of concerning women from August of 2004 power or influence. The denomination to January of 2005 from The Baptist tends to approach the Bible without Faith and Message, an official magazine considering how a verse can reflect the published by the Southern Baptist time and society it was written in and Convention (a body which discusses still demonstrate an important principle and suggests official doctrine). He underneath those historical influences. notes that the articles refer to women As a result, some verses about gender in three ways as the “submissive wife, roles in the Bible fulfilled mother, and have been, in my Consequently, any secondary Christian” opinion, interpreted opportunities for women (Kaylor 338). In in undesirable ways his text, he then which affect how within this denomination analyzes each role Southern Baptist all stem from a patriarchal and its implications people talk about urge to define a woman’s in the faith. To the Bible and apply quote Kaylor’s it to their lives. As position below a man’s and elegant phrasing, one women’s study to contain her to certain these articles imply scholar explains, that “women are this approach truly spaces where her actions supposed to be wives took form as the do not threaten the man’s in order to find denomination fought completion in their against the liberal and position or power. lives, and that they specifically feminist must submit to their society that was forming in the mid- husbands’ decisions and authority”; that twentieth century. She continues to say “women not only should be mothers, but that that “as the struggle progressed, should want to be because that is the women themselves broke into factions” only way they will be fulfilled in life and and “formed their own disparate groups it is the best way to serve God”; and that and organizations around competing women in ministry are best suited to concepts of womanhood” (Flowers 8). working with children or in traditionally Thus, this issue of what it means to be feminine roles of librarianship, cooking, a woman and to be a Christian woman and singing (Kaylor 342). Despite all is ongoing and formed around a protest of these restrictions, women are still against feminism and a more liberal supposedly equal to men under God’s society. Consequently, any opportunities eyes and can work in the church as long for women within this denomination all as they are under the supervision of the stem from a patriarchal urge to define presumably male pastor (Cook 190). a woman’s position below a man’s and Here lies the source of tension and to contain her to certain spaces where limitations for Southern Baptist women her actions do not threaten the man’s within their faith. Their role in their faith position or power. is supposed to be active, but they act only Despite variance among in ways that prioritize their children and individually held beliefs about husbands. Of course, because having a womanhood, certain clear definitions husband and children is so often tied to pervade and control the denomination the Christian woman’s identity, having a SISTERHOOD | 55 family is seen as necessary to be whole, how to work well within it. Even though with few exceptions. However, marriage these conferences are not as ritualized itself comes with the patriarchal rules of as Thesmophoria was, they share the obeying a husband and managing a godly same goal of allowing women to explore household under his authority. Thus, a their faith and female identities together woman’s place is not on her own in her and without the interjections of their church and in her society, but under her husbands. Overall, these conferences are husband and under her pastor in these surprisingly female-centric in spaces and places. Of course, this role is reminiscent times of male domination. of the Athenian citizen’s wife, a woman However, because these women in a supporting role for greater good of are like-minded and because the topics the society. In both cases, women are of these conferences reinforce their supposed to trust the guidance of their preexisting beliefs, these events will husband and other leaders and quietly likely never transform those beliefs manage the responsibilities given to into something more empowering. them. Even though the denomination Like Thesmophoria, these events are tries to honor women in the roles it gives problematic because of the limitations them, it did give them roles that limit the denomination applies to them. Since the way they can think and act in their Southern Baptist women do not often homes and in their churches, both places have the opportunity to speak freely where they should be able to think and within their churches, they will likely act freely. try to resolve the problems they face Because of these restrictions, within the framework of their faith conferences are exceptionally free spaces instead of reexamining what they were in the same ways that Thesmophoria taught about their faith. The fact that was. For a short period of time, it is a woman can go out of town to attend acceptable—even commendable—for a a conference means that she can share Southern Baptist woman to leave her her problems openly and without fear home without her husband and attend of judgment from those she sees each an event that her pastor is not leading week since, like all large gatherings of himself. Moreover, other women in people, Southern Baptist congregations the denomination will be meeting for tend to have a few gossips within the the sole purpose of trying to improve crowd. But, because of the limited time themselves as Christians in the uniquely frame, it is easier and faster for women feminine roles of wife and mother. The to resolve those problems through the ability to discuss these identities with faith that they already know instead of like-minded people in similar positions genuinely discussing what they were is rare outside female-centric spaces like taught in light of what the Bible actually these conferences. For example, the says and implies. While the conferences conferences’ descriptions that specifically can help women think about their mention households and sexuality imply individual problems, they do not help that these events are supposed to give women consider the gender roles that women a chance to talk about their may contribute to those problems since identities as women without the presence they are designed to reinforce those roles of their husbands. Thus, focusing on and the beliefs behind them. these background ideas in a female space If conferences were as transformative leads to women helping each other define as I wish Thesmophoria had been, their place in their society and learning Christian women might instead reexamine 56 | TXSTUR what they were taught and what they limiting in a modern world. heard about marriage, gender, sexuality, Neither Thesmophoria nor the or womanhood in the Bible while they conferences are a black-and-white were apart from the men who benefit situation where men are nefarious from women’s indoctrinated submission. overlords and women are cowering If this were the case, women would have victims. Some Southern Baptist women, the opportunity to reinterpret the Bible’s and Athenian women in their time, doctrine and, in that reinterpretation, sincerely believe that their way of life is consider whether the patriarchal men good and have wonderful relationships and women who taught them added with their patriarchal husbands. Perhaps and enforced incorrect doctrine. This such women do have real agency in this new set of eyes could lead to a change cycle if they are indeed choosing to in how the doctrine is taught or in how participate and understand what they people apply it to their lives. However, lose and gain from that way of life. like Thesmophoria, transformation does However, the real-world concern that not seem to occur because the events comes from this topic is that some women just reinforce the system that made them may continue to fulfill roles and follow necessary in the first place. rules that harm them, only because they Even though both Thesmophoria do not know that they can reexamine the and the Southern Baptist women’s principles that supposedly justify those conferences seem empowering, they things. This concern is exacerbated by cannot truly change women’s lives in the fact that women who believe in such the long-term because they exist within a lifestyle may pressure other women to a patriarchy and with its permission. do the same and ostracize them if they do As a result, both Thesmophoria and not. Events like Thesmophoria and the Southern Baptist women’s conferences Southern Baptist conferences could help are short-term tools to relieve the women by giving them an opportunity oppression women experience due to for that reexamination without the risk of their patriarchal surroundings. This ostracization, but these gatherings only alternation of relief and pressure creates vent pressure and help that patriarchy to a self-perpetuating cycle that is unlikely remain in place. If these events were not to stop without a major change. While patriarchal, women could transform the it is unclear how Greek women could oppressive way they were taught to think have changed their society, there does about religion into something liberating. seem to be a slight movement among Southern Baptist women and girls to leave the denomination or to stop If these events were not following its particularly limiting rules. For example, as the girls who are raised patriarchal, women could in the denomination grow up, I notice transform the oppressive that they often stray away from the rules and roles that their Southern Baptist way they were taught families previously enforced. However, this change is not due to the conferences to think about religion which only reinforce those old beliefs; into something instead, if this gradual shift continues, it will likely be because young women liberating. view those beliefs as unnecessary and SPRING 2020 | 57 Works Cited Stehle, Eva. Performance and Gender in Ancient Cook, Amber Louise. “The Denied Calling: A Greece: Nondramatic Poetry in Its Setting. Look at the Role of Women in the Southern Princeton UP, 1997. Baptist Church.” LOGOS: A Journal of Student Life. “Lifeway Women’s Leadership Undergraduate Research, vol. 3, S e p t . Forum.” Southeastern Baptist Theological 2010, pp. 189–205. EBSCOhost, http:// Seminary, 30 July 2018, www. libproxy.txstate.edu/login?url=http://search. aroundsoutheastern.com/index.php/2018/07/ ebscohost.com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.asp lifeway-womens-leadership-forum- x?direct=true&db=asn&AN=60845355&site=e november-8-10/. ds-live&scope=site. “Equip: Practical Training for Women in Ministry.” The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, www.sbts.edu/women/womens- programs/equip/. Faraone, Christopher A. “Curses, Crime Detection and Conflict Resolution at the Festival of Demeter Thesmophoros.” Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 131, Nov. 2011, pp. 25–44. EBSCOhost, http://libproxy. txstate.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost. com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.aspx?dire ct=true&db=hsi&AN=67485917&site=eds- live&scope=site. Flowers, Elizabeth Hill. Into the Pulpit : Southern Baptist Women and Power since World War II. The University of North Carolina Press, 2012. “FTC Women’s Pre-Conference.” Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, www.mbts. edu/about/conference/ftc/ftc-womens-pre- conference/. Gilhuly, Kate. The Feminine Matrix of Sex and Gender in Classical Athens. Cambridge UP, 2009. EBSCOhost, 2009,http://libproxy. txstate.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost. com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.aspx?direct= true&db=e000xna&AN=263480&site=ehost- live&scope=site&ebv=EB&ppid=pp_Cover. Kaylor, Brian T. “Gracious Submission: The Southern Baptist Convention’s Press Portrayals of Women.” Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, Dec. 2010, pp. 335–48. EBSCOhost, http://libproxy.txstate.edu/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.txstate.edu/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=5644835 1&site=eds-live&scope=site. “SBC Search.” Southern Baptist Convention, www.sbc.net/search/search. asp?q=women%27s+conferences. Stallsmith, Allaire B. “Interpreting the Athenian Thesmophoria.” Classical Bulletin, vol. 84, no. 1, 2008, pp. 28-45. EBSCOhost, http:// libproxy.txstate.edu/login?url=http://search. ebscohost.com.libproxy.txstate.edu/login.asp x?direct=true&db=hsi&AN=40305388&site=e ds-live&scope=site.

58 | TXSTUR The paper presents research examining the epic poem for- mat of Milton’s Paradise Lost and illustrates how Milton’s use of the form THE influences or relates to contemporary epics. This TRANSFOR- topic involves research on the structure of traditional epics, MATION Milton’s use of the form in Paradise Lost, and examples of how contemporary epics con- OF THE tinue to make adjustments to the form. Considering the EPIC FORM influence of classic epics, such as the Iliad, Divine Comedy, THROUGH and Aeneid, in modern cul- ture, there is a lack of mod- MILTON’S ern examples of the epic form with similar impact. I re- PARADISE searched the criteria for epic poems and the existence of LOST modern examples. This paper examines the connections between Milton’s epics and its predecessors as well as Mil- BY ELISE PATTERSON ton’s influence on modern ep- REVIEWED BY DR. ics. By exploring what consti- ELIZABETH tutes an epic and how Milton’s SKERPAN-WHEELER EDITED BY CHEYANNE Paradise Lost has transformed CLAGETT the genre and influenced contemporary epics, readers can better understand the importance of Paradise Lost and its format. SPRING 2020 | 59 Some of the most recognizable works Traditional epics would often embody of classic literature fall within the the beliefs of a nation and represent it genre of epic poetry, but what defines through its message. As such, epics are this genre and gives these works their meant to explain a society’s culture or importance? John Milton’s use of the beliefs wherein the hero of the epic epic poetry form in Paradise Lost exposes represents nationalistic values through the work’s influences and the meaning their actions. The journeys within epics of the narrative as an origin story. “function as re-statements of known and As a prominent seventeenth century widely held attitudes about the culture intellectual, Milton commented on and/or the state” (Wacker 126). Epics religious and political issues of the time, have the power to set apart and define such as free will and censorship. These cultures, but “[i]t was not just cultural works influenced societal change and his difference that made a national epic most famous work, Paradise Lost, is no such a pressing necessity: it was also exception. The influence of classic epics, national pride” or an epic’s ability to including Paradise Lost, is undeniable, convey that pride to a larger audience but what can be said of the existence and (Crawford 428). The epic form’s relation impact of modern epics? Classic epics, to cultural origins and values accounts such as Homer’s Iliad, Dante’s Divine for why many epics are highly regarded Comedy, and Virgil’s Aeneid are staples in the cultures from which they emerge. of literature studies, yet few examples Cilappathikaaram, a second century of modern epics come to mind. The AD epic by Illangovadigal, follows the structure of traditional epics, Milton’s epic structure and “is also an important use of the form in Paradise Lost, and source of information on the arts of comparisons to contemporary epics each music and dance of the ancient Tamil assist readers in better understanding country,” reflecting the values of the why Milton chose this format and how Tamil language and culture through its it is still in use today. Paradise Lost epic form (Bagavandas and Begum 222). and other classics tend to be considered Regardless of the culture employing the end-all-be-alls of epic poetry, but it, the epic transcends time by its modern epics can hold just as much, continued use as cultural expression. if not more, influence on a culture. Like Cilappathikaaram, Paradise Lost By examining Milton’s use of the epic represents the cultural beliefs of form in Paradise Lost alongside past and Milton’s Christian society through the contemporary epics, readers can better retelling of a biblical story. Through understand the work and recognize their representative heroes and journeys, Milton’s transformation of the epic form epics convey the values of a culture, as as well as how modern epics continue to seen from classic epics and Paradise Lost do so. itself. The Purpose and Structure of An epic can be immediately Epics identified by its length, lack of rhyme scheme, distinct chapters, and narrative Epics can serve many purposes contents. The first epics were performed and are categorized as origin stories orally, and this oral format would later that often have themes of nationalism shape how classical epics were written. and essentialism. These traits help The form’s oral origin accounts for to define the values of the society or its lyricism and use of poetics. The culture in which the epic was written. oldest known epic poem is believed 60 | TXSTUR to be the Epic of Gilgamesh, which elements that interact with the hero. solidified many of the rules set for epics. This narrative style incorporates the Formatting characteristics of classical use of heroic figures to tell the tale of epics include the poem’s substantial an entire people. The journeys of these length and use of rhythmic patterns such heroes, whether physically taken or as dactylic hexameter. Milton himself through psychological means, as seen in discusses the epic format at the start of Homer’s Iliad, give insight on a culture’s Paradise Lost, defining the verse style as values and belief systems (Homer). There a way of contextualizing the work and is a clear narrative structure featuring its influences. In The Major Works, an character interaction, conflict, and anthology of Milton’s pieces, Book I of resolutions, although not necessarily of Paradise Lost is preceded by a passage the happy sort. These patterns, including concerning the verse style of the poem, the use of long speeches, invocations of a section that was added to the work’s muses, and divine intervention in human second edition. This explains Milton’s affairs, are seen throughout Paradise influences and purpose for writing in the Lost (Milton). These plot devices move epic format. The section then prefaces the story along and engage the reader in that “the measure is English heroic verse the epic hero’s adventurous journey. without rhyme, as that of Homer in Other characteristics of epic poetry Greek and of Virgil in Latin” to connect include the hero and epic voice of the his work with other influential epics author. The hero is equally important as (Milton 355). Addressing the work’s lack the journey itself, and epics such as the of rhyme scheme, Milton also argues Iliad and Aeneid prove their focus on that “rhyme [is] no necessary adjunct or the hero through their well-known main true ornament of poem or good verse, characters. Considering the purpose of in longer works especially” (355). He an epic is to establish an origin story for then refers to the “modern bondage of a culture’s values, a representative hero rhyming” and expresses his disdain for is important. The hero is essential in that the convention of rhyme schemes in long “the epic status of a poem [depends] even works (Milton 355). In the verse section, more on the poet’s choice of subject than Milton credits Paradise Lost’s form to on his adherence to aesthetic principles,” the classical epic poem, and further and an epic’s hero must represent the evidence of the genre is seen throughout origins and values of a culture in order to the work. be relatable to that culture (Halmi 590). Considering the structural ways an A strong representative hero ensures the epic can be identified, a story can also reader’s connection to the story, Adam become an epic in terms of content by and Eve being the representatives for all following a heroic tale featuring journeys humankind in Paradise Lost. Not only and battles, all meant to tell a civilization does the hero of an epic act as a cultural or society’s origin story. Epics also representative, but also as a universally incorporate religious or supernatural relatable figure for later generations.

Not only does the hero of an epic act as a cultural representative, but also as a universally relatable figure for later generations. MODERN EPICS | 61 While Adam and Eve’s journey to wisdom be argued that Milton’s personality and relates more to the traditional epic hero, literary style show themselves through many Romantics viewed Satan as the hero the poem’s epic voice. Overall, Milton’s of Paradise Lost for Milton’s subversion epic voice shows his intentions in the of the character as complex and integral narrative and alludes to his purpose for to the story. Milton writes Satan as a the work. multidimensional character, one that Milton’s Paradise Lost faces self-doubt and pride. By examining Compared to Classical Epics the flaws of Satan through the character’s Without the popularity of past own thoughts and voice, Milton portrays epics, Paradise Lost would not be the Satan as relatable, unlike many previous work it is. Because of renowned epics accounts of the biblical adversary. This like Homer’s Iliad or Virgil’s Aeneid, subversion of the Satan character as many authors chose to incorporate the relatable and oddly appealing has since epic form into their work. Milton drew inspired many similar writings of Satan. inspiration for Paradise Lost from classical It is now a modern trope in popular epics such as these. Considering their media that Satan is clever, complicated, influence on the work, literary scholar and charming, giving him more human Michael McKeon argues that “Milton’s traits and relatability than traditional epic poem is read with and against epic depictions. This unique characterization poems of the previous century” (9). But of Satan also relates to Milton’s use of despite groundbreaking work predating epic voice. Lacey Conley examines Paradise Lost, Milton subverted the genre how Milton’s epic voice is involved and reimagined certain qualities of the in the narrative, specifically in its classic epic. At the time of its release, interaction and integration with Satan’s Paradise Lost was widely accepted into character. The connection between the the heroic poem genre, but looking at epic voice and Satan is Milton’s way of the work critically compared to earlier portraying Satan as appealing as even the epics leads readers to second guess what narrator sympathizes with him and this makes an epic and how strict these genre “distinction between Satan and the Epic regulations are. There is possible harm Voice is blurred as the poem progresses” in strictly categorizing Paradise Lost as (Conley 17). Milton’s subversion of the an epic: “when we situate these texts in Satan character reveals his own views on the broad generic category ‘epic poem,’ the biblical story. we attribute to them a formal identity Similar to the epic hero, the whose integral coherence is misleading” author’s voice itself, known as the epic (McKeon 9). Paradise Lost encompasses voice, is also key for establishing the much more than the traditional ideas narrative of the epic. Milton’s voice is of an epic, transforming the genre and clear in many sections of Paradise Lost, “complicating perspective on the idea especially in the four invocations. These of the epic poem, evoking the genre by introductions before major sections of parodying it” (McKeon 9). Traditions the work outline the plot of the section of the epic poem are seen throughout and expose Milton’s presence in the Paradise Lost; through this, “Milton narrative, giving readers an idea of means to equal or surpass the great his views concerning the work itself ancient epic poets,” but he also differs and topics such as church rule and free from them in many ways (Lewalski 153). will (Milton). While this voice is not While the work was not necessarily explicitly identified as Milton, it can 62 | TXSTUR controversial in the seventeenth century, Milton once did. Part of this change may different generations of readers have be due to the difficulty in meeting the reinterpreted the work’s messages. The requirements of an epic. As ideologies comparison of Paradise Lost to even and cultural ideals splinter across earlier epics shows how revolutionary nations, epics become more difficult to Milton’s work was, especially encounter and define. Considering the considering the content. By retelling a rarity of agreement on many topics, how highly regarded biblical story, Milton can a modern, all-encompassing, nation- opens the work up to criticism from representing epic exist? Simply put, religious perspectives, especially with most modern epics now cover smaller his sympathetic characterization of cultures, groups of people, or fictional Satan and emphasis on free will. Milton societies. Modern epics also “[use] the also subverted the militaristic beliefs of genre quite consciously to reconstruct England at the time the relationship by “[criticizing] As ideologies between modernity Homer, Virgil and and tradition” medieval epics for and cultural ideals instead of simply making war the only splinter across relying on tradition heroic deemed,” yet nations, epics become to tell an impactful still including the War epic (Wacker 133). in Heaven “because more difficult to come Instead of classical epics require battles” across and define. epics that tell the (Rawson 434). By origins and values including a battle scene of humankind or an in which no actual entire nation, there deaths occur, due to the immortality are now epics on the origins of ideologies of those fighting, “Milton preserves and fictional universes. Feminist epics epic appearances, while protecting his explain the origins of feminist ideologies poem from the epic taint” (Rawson often through a particular feminist 434). Known to play off of literary icon or fictional woman as the epic’s standards, “Milton’s aggressive approach hero. Feminist works and the epic form to inherited literary traditions” is not go hand-in-hand because “[m]any of shocking (Weller 143). Milton’s “Book the traits critics ascribe to a feminine IX of Paradise Lost [begins] with a aesthetic characterize the modern long critique of epic presuppositions” leading poem,” such as defining feminist values readers to reevaluate Paradise Lost not (Keller 305). For example, Sharon as an origin story, but as “an immediate Doubiago’s Hard Country is a feminist and renewable present of spiritual long poem that follows the traditions of experience” (Weller 153). In this way, epic poetry by discussing “[a] nation’s Milton preserves and transforms the cultural heritage and her quest for a epic format while also participating in balanced female-male love relationship the genre’s popularity at the time and within the field of patriarchal power leading to the practices of modern epics. relations” (Keller 306). The poem is Milton’s Paradise Lost separated into sections and follows the Compared to Modern Epics heroic themes of traditional epics. By employing the epic form, feminist works Modern epics continue to transform such as Doubiago’s express the values traditional ideas of the epic form, just as of the feminist community, just as a SPRING 2020 | 63 traditional epic would for a society. than a dozen occasions, and thus positively Second, modern media such as the invites readers to assess it in these terms,” Game of Thrones series or The Lord and Bryon himself referred to the work as a of the Rings franchise are similar to satire of the epic form (Halmi 589). traditional epics because of their fantasy Many critics argue that Paradise Lost genre and depictions of heroic journeys. itself is a parody of its predecessors; it is not Tolkien recreates the epic by “recycling a parody in an insulting sense, but rather distinctly medieval stylistic elements,” in that it expands upon the forms of past including “historical linguistics, to epics. In fact, Paradise Lost modernized create a medieval epic for the 20th the epic form for the time. Parody is used century” (Tober 253). However, the not to make a mockery of the traditional hero of The Lord of the Rings, Frodo epic form, but to grow from it. Milton “does not do what he does merely to himself parodies the biblical conception attain glory and fame,” subverting of characters such as Satan by writing him traditional epic stereotypes of the hero as dynamic and oddly likable at the start as prideful and greedy (Mantovani 18). of the poem. Paradise Lost “is mock epic, These modern works turn the genre on because it derives from the poet’s ambition its head through reimagining heroes to write an imitation of classical epic that and journeys and going beyond the can provide a parodic basis for a Christian poem format. Filmmakers tackle the epic that will far surpass the classical’’ challenge of integrating the epic form in which Milton aims to reimagine the onto the silver screen by “[employing] biblical creation story (McKeon 11). a spectacular breadth of space, time, and Paradise Lost is referred to as a mock epic characters to amplify their effects” in a for its radical retelling of a biblical story, story of epic proportions (Bryant 71). and contemporary epics are referred to as The “pairing of epic films with long mock epics for their imitations of classic poems bridges popular and literary forms, epics such as Milton’s. By classifying lyric and narrative modes, feminine and contemporary epics as parodies instead of masculine inflections” and results in epics, modern authors are alerting readers engaging works of cinema that combine to their use and transformation of the form. genres (Bryant 71). Movies that feature The use of this term shows the similarities the identifying qualities of an epic — a between Paradise Lost and contemporary hero, journey, and origin story — reflect epics and demonstrates how the epic the integration and transformation of the genre builds upon itself and transforms epic form into contemporary mediums, throughout time. even if these shifts from the traditional Conclusion long poem form are not always considered The adjustments made to the epic form true epics. by Milton and his contemporaries show Many contemporary epics fall how the guidelines of a genre are merely within the mock epic genre as modern a starting point for innovative writing. versions are often considered satires of These works, including Paradise Lost, classical epics. The term mock epic proves employ the epic form in order to that the epic genre is malleable and able to transform it into something new and parody itself. Works often use the title of relevant for their culture. In examining mock epic to their advantage, as a way of the epic form of Paradise Lost, through reinventing the form. Lord Bryon’s Don both its predecessors and contemporaries, Juan “calls itself an epic or calls attention readers can understand Milton’s purpose to its use of epic conventions on more in choosing this narrative style to 64 | TXSTUR Milton’s integration of revolutionary ideas into the epic poem form paved the way for contemporary epics to blend the genre with new mediums and ideologies, thus modernizing the genre of epic poetry. tell the origin story of humankind. Analyzing the structure, characteristics, and common uses of the epic form allows Keller, Lynn. “‘To Remember/Our Dismembered for better understanding of Milton’s Parts’: Sharon Doubiago and the Complementary intention for Paradise Lost. While Woman’s Epic.” American Literary History, vol. Milton incorporates traditional features 4, no. 2, 1992, pp. 305–328. JSTOR. of the epic form, he also transforms Lewalski, Barbara K. “Paradise Lost and the Contest over the Modern Heroic Poem.” Milton the epic genre from its predecessors by Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 3, Oct. 2009, pp. 153–165. redefining the standards of the epic hero EBSCOhost. and incorporating his own epic voice Mantovani, Leonardo. “Renewing the Epic: Tolkien into the work, thus allowing future and Apollonius Rhodius.” Cormarë Series, no. works to alter the epic as well. Milton’s 42, July 2019, pp. 13–24. EBSCOhost. McKeon, Michael. “Paradise Lost, Poem of the integration of revolutionary ideas into Restoration Period.” Eighteenth-Century Life, the epic poem form paved the way for vol. 41, no. 2, Apr. 2017, pp. 9–27. EBSCOhost. contemporary epics to blend the genre Milton, John. The Major Works. Edited by Jonathan with new mediums and ideologies, thus Goldberg and Stephen Orgel, Oxford University Press, 2008. modernizing the genre of epic poetry. Nyquist, Mary. “Contemporary Ancestors of de Bry, Hobbes, and Milton.” University of Toronto Quarterly: A Canadian Journal of the Humanities, vol. 77, no. 3, 2008, pp. 837– 8 7 5 . EBSCOhost. Rawson, Claude. “War and the Epic Mania in Works Cited England and France: Milton, Boileau, Prior Benioff, David and D.B. Weiss, creators. Game of and English Mock-Heroic.” Review of English Thrones. Warner Bros. Television Distribution, Studies, vol. 64, no. 265, June 2013, pp. 433– 2011. 453. EBSCOhost. Bryant, Marsha. “Epic Encounters: The Modernist Tober, Carolin. “How J.R.R. Tolkien Used Kennings Long Poem Goes to the Movies.” Journal of to Make The Lord of the Rings into a Medieval Modern Literature, vol. 37, no. 4, 2014, pp. 70– Epic for the 20th Century.” Cormarë Series, no. 90. EBSCOhost. 37, July 2017, pp. 253–278. EBSCOhost. Conley, Lacey. “‘League with You I Seek’: Inspiration Tolkien, J. R. R. The Lord of the Rings. Allen & and Narrative Control in ‘Paradise Lost.’” Unwin, 1954. The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Virgil. Aeneid. Trans. Allen Mandelbaum. New Association, vol. 44, no. 1, 2011, pp. 13– York: Bantam Books, 1971. 28. JSTOR. Wacker, Norman. “Epic and the Modern Long Crawford, Joseph. “Milton’s Heirs: Epic Poetry in the Poem: Virgil, Blake and Pound.” Comparative 1790s.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 49, no. 3, Literature, vol. 42, no. 2, 1990, pp. 126–143. 2010, pp. 427–443. EBSCOhost. EBSCOhost. Halmi, Nicholas. “The Very Model of a Modern Epic Walcott, Derek. Omeros. Farrar, 1990. Poem.” European Romantic Review, vol. 21, no. Weller, Barry. “The Epic as Pastoral: Milton, Marvell, 5, Oct. 2010, pp. 589–600. EBSCOhost. and the Plurality of Genre.” New Literary History: Homer. Iliad. Translated by A. T. Murray. Edited A Journal of Theory and Interpretation, vol. 30, by William F. Wyatt. Harvard University Press, no. 1, 1999, pp. 143–157. EBSCOhost. 2003.

MODERN EPICS | 65 AMERICAN NEWS BIAS

CONSEQUENCES OF AMERICAN NEWS COVERAGE THROUGH THE EVENTS OF THE 2006 LEBANON WAR

BY SANDRA SADEK REVIEWED BY DR. RON HAAS EDITED BY LYNSEY LAMOUREUX

The 2006 Lebanon War, a 34-day long conflict between Lebanon and Israel, was extensively covered by the interna- tional press. However, two different narratives predominated the coverage. This paper juxtaposes the different narratives by American and Arabic media outlets, and argues that American media, although considered the freest in the world, actually censors itself through a process known as “the tyranny of the majority.” The implications of this self-censorship demonstrate larger problematic societal perceptions when it comes to understanding the Middle East.

66 | TXSTUR The 2006 Lebanon War caught the Tocqueville even goes so far as to say that world’s attention and caused news there is less freedom of discussion and outlets to produce hours of coverage independence of mind in America than of the event for audiences back home. in Europe (De Tocqueville 204-213). However, the drastically different But before delving into the juxtaposed narratives of these incidents offered two narrative, it is important to understand opposite perceptions of what happened the facts of the 2006 Lebanon War and during the month-long conflict. On one the historical context of some diplomatic hand, there is the story of a victimized relations in the Middle East. Israeli nation defending herself against On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah terrorists. On the other hand, there’s launched a missile attack against Israel a narrative portraying Israel as the border towns as a diversion for an anti- perpetrator and oppressor of innocent tank attack on two armored Israeli Arabs. The American news coverage of patrol vehicles. Two of the seven Israeli the 2006 Lebanon War sheds light on soldiers were captured, and the others the true nature of American media bias were wounded or killed. After a failed and the unintended consequences that rescue attempt, the Israeli Defense follow it. Forces quickly retaliated and responded Since the integration of media into with massive airstrikes and artillery society, coverage of major news events fire, ultimately leading to a 34-day long around the world has played a crucial role in shaping Developed by 19th- century French political our understanding philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville, the of how humans and communities idea behind this concept is that public interact. While it opinion would become an all-powerful force, is widely accepted with the majority tyrannizing unpopular that news coverage minorities and marginalized individuals. around the world does present local and regional biases in the shared information, the impact war. It led to the destruction of civilian and consequences of the American media infrastructure, the death of many coverage of an event as small as the 2006 Lebanese civilians, and the displacement Lebanon War is a minuscule window to a of hundreds of thousands. The conflict broader issue plaguing American society ended with a United Nations-brokered at the moment. The media outlets’ ceasefire on August 14, 2006, although parallel viewpoint with the American the war formally ended on September government can be illuminated by 8, 2006, when Israel lifted its naval applying a principle called the “tyranny blockade of Lebanon (Kalb and Saivetz of the majority.” Developed by 19th- 43-66). century French political philosopher Known as a militant, secretive, Alexis de Tocqueville, the idea behind and religiously fundamentalist sect, this concept is that public opinion Hezbollah, which stands for the “Party would become an all-powerful force, of God,” rose to prominence in Lebanon with the majority tyrannizing unpopular in 1982 during its civil war that lasted minorities and marginalized individuals. from 1975 to 1990 (“Hezbollah”). NEWS BIAS | 67 Following the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, the media portrayal of Arabs and Muslims has often been negative, as the lines between Arab, terrorist, and religious fundamentalism are blurred.

Members of the Hezbollah party are predominantly Shia Muslims and have forced to live under Jewish rule. The historically worked closely with Iran, war ended with an armistice in 1949 the most powerful and largest Shia with Israel gaining some of the territory majority country in the region. They originally promised to the Palestinians are known for engaging in alleged under Resolution 181. Egypt and Jordan terrorist attacks, including kidnappings retained control over Gaza and the West and car bombings. In 1990, following Bank respectively and the armistice lines the end of the civil war, the militant held until 1967 (“The Arab-Israeli War group gained access to the country’s of 1948”). political power after an arrangement Today, many countries in the was approved. Although the group’s Arab region have weak or non-existent original manifesto called for resistance ties with the state of Israel, which is not against the newly formed state of Israel recognized by many as a sovereign state. and the establishment of an Islamic For example, the state of Israel does not republic within Lebanon, it dropped have a representative in the League of the latter after the 2006 war, affirming Arab States; that seat is instead given as its ideal government a democracy to the state of Palestine. Alone among representing national unity. Hezbollah its Arab counterparts, Israel quickly has been considered a terrorist group established close ties with the United by the U.S. Department of State since States in the 1970s. The United States October 1997 (“Hezbollah | Meaning, was one of the first states to recognize History, & Ideology”). Hezbollah was Israel as a newly formed country under also one of the first Arab militias to have President Harry Truman. There is fought the IDF to a standstill, making immense support from the U.S. toward them heroes throughout the Arab world Israel, especially in terms of financial (Chadwick). This regional perception of support and diplomatic backing Hezbollah is further acknowledged in a (Collins). During a speech to Israel’s later discussion of regional coverage of parliament, former President George W. the events. Bush stated that “Israel’s population may The state of Israel, proclaimed be just over seven million. But when you on May 14, 1948, following the United confront terror and evil, you are 307 Nations’ Resolution 181, allowed for million strong because the United States the split of land in Palestine between of America stands with you” (“President a Jewish and Arab State. Although the Bush Addresses Members of the Knesset,” Jews agreed to the deal, the Palestinians 2008). did not. Following the creation of the Following the 9/11 attacks on the new state of Israel, five Arab armies World Trade Center, the media portrayal invaded the territory in response to the of Arabs and Muslims has often been resolution, which many Arab countries negative, as the lines between Arab, saw as unfair to the Palestinians now terrorist, and religious fundamentalism 68 | TXSTUR are blurred. As a result of this portrayal, For example, in prepackaged daily there was an increase in American reports made by ABC to its affiliates in hostility towards Arab identity and its 2006, footage included images of the many cultural aspects, blending the battlefield, statements from the Israeli complex and rich history of the region foreign minister and a State Department into a uniform, inaccurate portrait of official, as well as speeches from the the Middle East (Alsultany 161-169). In United Nations. Generally, most local the United States, it is not uncommon editors leaned towards the position of to place all Middle Eastern culture under U.S. authorities, ensuring an undisputed the same umbrella – that all Arabs are coverage of foreign events (Cavari and Muslims and therefore are all terrorists. Gabay). It is often forgotten that there are Previous research done by Ammon Christian Arabs, Palestinian Jews, and Cavari and Itay Gabay on the differences Jewish communities in predominantly in the coverage of an Israeli strike on Muslim countries in North Africa. Beirut, July 20, 2006, by a national As the hegemon of news coverage network and local network support around the world, the United States this idea of disproportionate coverage. prides itself on having the “freest” media The ABC network reported on the in the world. However, the American disproportionate Israeli actions while media has experienced a constant need the local affiliate in Chicago emphasized for immediacy and a seemingly growing Israel’s right to self-defense. The vastly polarization of reporting that has limited different reporting of the same event the alternative perspectives available means each respective audience absorbed to American audiences. In American different information and formed news coverage, new viewpoints are different viewpoints of the same event. not informatively introduced; instead, Because local television tends to align the current societal viewpoints are with the U.S. government’s viewpoints, reaffirmed. Although this trend can be their coverage of the 2006 Lebanon War seen in other national media, it is very portrays the conflict as Hezbollah attacks prevalent in American media and carries and fully supports Israel’s work at total many visible consequences. Because the disarmament of Hezbollah (Cavari and content presented aligns comfortably Gabay). This type of coverage is in line with American society’s viewpoints, with the U.S. government’s longstanding it is widely accepted globally and, support for Israel, particularly in this unfortunately, people are left to create conflict. Rather than presenting the their own opinions and understanding various and complex narratives of the of the events based on dubious facts war, the American media has chosen (Collins). to stick to the viewpoint shared with Local television, which is preferred the government and widely accepted by Americans in contrast to national by American society. Due to this television reporting, presents a unique drastically different coverage, local market that forces reporters to work news that favored Israel, portrayed their with more limited coverage time, smaller actions against Lebanon as justified and budgets, and market influencers when normalized the aggressiveness. A small compared to the national television news. majority of network news defined the However, it is important to understand issue as Israeli aggressiveness, projecting that local news outlets rely on footage a slightly more balanced view (Cavari from their networks or wire services. and Gabay). SPRING 2020 | 69 However, when looking at the newspapers published in London and coverage of the same conflict through distributed throughout the Middle the eyes of a different media market, East. During their July 13 to August 16 the painted story of the conflict is coverage, 24 photographs were printed not the same. Over the last decade, on the front page relating to the war major Arab news networks have grown and all but two showed the death and their audience in the region and have destruction caused by Israeli attacks in established themselves as the big players Lebanon. This portrayed Israel as the in information distribution. Because sole aggressor and shows, in the context they operate so close to the issue in of Middle East journalism and history, comparison to American media, Arabic that Arabs have a prejudice against news outlets have offered a different Israel. By focusing their coverage on the narrative through their coverage of the destruction caused by Israel and ignoring 2006 Lebanon War, more in line with the actions of Hezbollah, Asharq Al- opinions and sentiments proper to the Awsat aligned itself with the feelings of region. Another major reason its readers who sympathized the viewpoints presented with their Arab to the Arab world were American media shapes brothers under Israeli different was that Arabs the perceptions and fire (Kalb and Saivetz no longer had to receive 43-66). This biased their information from ideas society has about coverage of the events Western media, relying the reason for events parallels the coverage instead on local networks and is but a piece in an of the same war by which were established American media – both as Arab news networks endless cycle where the entities have chosen to grew. By 2005, there majority opinion shapes tell the story that will were 150 Arab satellite those same ideas and not be questioned by its channels (Fontana). audience and that aligns By informing their limits the flow of with societal views of population through discussion. the key players in the more regional lenses, war. the content presented by The narrative given those news outlets reflects the opinions by Arabic-language news outlets is the and feelings of the local population. complete opposite of the coverage done Therefore, the influence of the Western by American news outlets, being more in narrative of Israel is reduced (Fontana). line with Arab perceptions of the facts. In this case, the growth of Arab While the latter saw the IDF attacks networks has created a new narrative as a right to self-defense, the Arab when it comes to news coverage in the population, particularly the Lebanese Middle East. Locals are getting reports population in the zone of conflict and from people in the region and are being abroad, saw the IDF attacks, which were informed by experts from their region backed and funded by the U.S., as the rather than having to accept Western Bush Administration’s final attempt at coverage as accurate and the only source abolishing Hezbollah (Fadda-Conrey of information available. 159-173). Again, the crucial role the For example, look at the coverage regional politics, dynamics, and history of the 2006 Lebanon War by Asharq play in shaping the information given Al-Awsat, one of two Arabic-language out to the mass audiences is evident. 70 | TXSTUR The coverage of the international expression in the country. The U.S. does conflicts by various media in the United not have any laws similar to this; in fact, States and the Middle East reflects the U.S. prides itself on allowing the the regional biases and history of greatest amount of speech and encourages relationships with the parties involved. healthy dialogue among the different While this is well-known, the underlying opinions of individuals. However, the consequences of the coverage of the consequences of vocalizing opinions conflict by American media go beyond that diverge from the majority are much giving out biased information. American more drastic. As Tocqueville explains media shapes the perceptions and ideas it, the “tyranny of the majority” forces society has about the reason for events those who do not align their views with and is but a piece in an endless cycle the majority to engage in self-censorship where the majority opinion shapes and self-silencing. For fear of being those same ideas and limits the flow of mislabeled or exiled by their community discussion. for voicing an opinion that challenges The misconceptions about this what the majority believes and has region of the world have even spilled dictated is correct, many Americans keep over into U.S. policies. In January 2017, their thoughts to themselves, taking away President Trump signed Executive from the healthy, democratic dialogue Order 13769, barring entry into the U.S. that is expected. Unlike the French, the for individuals from countries like Iran, U.S. does not have laws banning anti- Syria, Yemen, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, and Zionist ideas; however, those ideas are Sudan, while also suspending entry of often linked to being anti-Semitic, refugees from that part of the world forcing people to not fully share their for an indefinite amount of time. The thoughts, naturally censoring ideas and administration claims that the executive opinions without ever implementing order was signed to limit terrorists any laws. This self-censorship is a direct from the countries involved in the 9/11 example of the “tyranny of the majority.” attacks from entering. However, none The local American coverage of the of the countries on the list provided 2006 Lebanon War often aligned itself terrorists towards the World Trade with the majority responses of the U.S. Center attacks. The countries which did population. By aligning themselves with participate in the attacks (Saudi Arabia, the majority, the media outlets were, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates) and therefore, presenting an uncontested countries with which the Trump business narrative to their audience. Regardless and administration worked with or are if it’s voluntarily or involuntarily, the currently working with (the United Arab news coverage of the conflict coming Emirates, Saudi Arabia) were omitted from the U.S. followed the majority from the list (Torbati et al.). opinion on the actors in the conflict. The attitude of Americans Whether the whole U.S. agreed to it, the toward the portrayal of world events moral of the story for many viewers was in the Middle East is unique. Consider that Israel was defending itself against European censorship laws, for example. the aggression from the terrorist group In December 2019, the French Parliament Hezbollah and did not acknowledge the passed a new law declaring anti-Zionism different narratives that were taking a criminal offense on the same level as place in this complex conflict. anti-Semitism. Critiques of the bill While there was some claim it is a direct attack on freedom of condemnation toward the damage NEWS BIAS | 71 done by the IDF on Lebanese civilians, Works Cited the U.S. government’s agenda is the Alsultany, Evelyn. “Arabs and Muslims in the narrative that ended up marking the Media After 9/11: Representational Strategies targeted American audience. To this for a “Postrace” Era.” American Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 1, 2013, pp. 161-169. day, the impact of this “tyranny of the Cavari, Amnon, and Itay Gabay. “Coverage majority” in our perceptions of issues in of Foreign Events on US Local Television the Middle East and who the U.S. needs News.” Israel Studies Review, 2014. to align itself with is clear to see. Israel Chadwick, Andrew. “The 2006 Lebanon War: A is and has been a big ally to America and Short History.” Small Wars Journal. Collins, Ciara. “Newsroom Action during the many of the recent foreign policies of Lebanon War: A Look at American and Israeli the current administration reflect that Media Coverage.” 2018. (“U.S. Relations With Israel.”). De Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. The American news coverage of the Translated by Henry Reeves, Pennsylvania 2006 summer war between Lebanon’s State University, 2002. Fadda-Conrey, Carol. “Writing Memories of the Hezbollah and the state of Israel, heavily Present: Alternative Narratives about the 2006 shaped by the politics and dynamics Israeli War on Lebanon.” College Literature, between the U.S. and Israel as well as vol 37, no. 1, 2010, pp. 159-73. its societal perceptions of the regions, Fontana, Lorenza. “Conflicting Information mirrors the greater issues in U.S. society Strategies in the 2006 Lebanese War.” Arab Media & Society, 30 Mar. 2010, https:// and the impact news bias has on the www.arabmediasociety.com/conflicting- information absorbed by viewers. While information-strategies-in-the-2006- it is easy to acknowledge that all media lebanese-war/. is, in fact, biased, the American news “Hezbollah.” Counter Extremism Project. 24 networks’ far-reaching consequences Mar. 2020, https://www.counterextremism. com/threat/hezbollah. are apparent today, more than ever. The “Hezbollah | Meaning, History, & Ideology.” misperceptions perpetuated in the media Encyclopedia Britannica, 24 Mar 2020, about the region’s conflicts and culture . views of the Middle East, which then Kalb, Marvin, and Carol Saivetz. “The Israeli— Hezbollah War of 2006: The Media as a impacts the news coverage of the media, Weapon in Asymmetrical Conflict.” The pushing the U.S. into a perpetual cycle Harvard International Journal of Press/ of misinformation, where the majority Politics, vol.12, no. 3, 2007, pp. 43-66. opinion rules and all opinions against “President Bush Addresses Members of the the standard are dismissed and attacked. Knesset.” The White House Archives, 2008, https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives. gov/news/releases/2008/05/20080515-1.html. “The Arab-Israeli War of 1948.” U.S. Department of States: Office of the Historian, https:// history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/arab- israeli-war. Torbati, Yeganeh, Jeff Mason and Mica Rosenberg. “Chaos, Anger as Trump Order Halts some Muslim Immigrants.” Reuters, 30 Jan. 2017, https://www.reuters.com/ article/us-usa-trump-immigration-chaos- idUSKBN15C0LD. “U.S. Relations With Israel.” United States Department of State. 24 Mar. 2020, https:// www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-israel/.

72 | TXSTUR BORDER TOWN:

SUBVERSION OF MEXICAN-AMERICAN RACIALIZED STEREOTYPES IN THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST

BY NIKOLAS FARRELL REVIEWED BY DR. LOUIE DEAN VALENCIA-GARCIA EDITED BY KAITLYN BENACQUISTO AND KATHRYN MCDANIEL

The stigmatization of Mexican-Americans in the United States can be traced back to racism following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and is continued by many forms of media. Representation of Mexican-Americans in print me- dia through the nineteenth century to the twenty-first century has been ex- tremely stereotyped, often criminalizing Mexican-American men, hyper-sex- ualizing Mexican-American women or portraying Mexican-Americans as savage overall. While written media can only describe these stereotypes, com- ics can illustrate them, placing comics in a unique form of print media. When analyzing Eric M. Esquivel’s comic Border Town, the author along with artist Ramon Villalobos reinforce the criminalization and hyper-sexualiza- tion of Mexican-American men and women that could be seen as regressive; however, the frequent subversion of these stereotypes suggests a pro-resis- tance stance to anti-Mexican attacks. Ultimately, Border Town’s pro-resis- tance stance to anti-Mexican sentiment can be seen through the subversion and reinforcement of traditional use of Mexican-American stereotypes in this comic. In essence, this essay demonstrates how late nineteenth-century germ theory, stigmatic criminalization of Mexican-American men, and hyper-sex- ualization of Mexican-American women, transferred from social contexts to comics that Eric M. Esquivel subverts in his comic Border Town. Fundamen- tally, Border Town challenges traditional anti-Mexican stereotypes in comics by including Mexican-American characters who question the way they are stereotyped, manipulate their stereotypes to protect themselves or another, and then become socially accepted by those they protect.

SPRING 2020 | 73 Comic book characters like Wonder paper, Mexican-Americans, as defined Woman, Captain America, Batman, by the Smithsonian can be described as a Black Widow, and Wolverine are group of: common white superheroes seen in a “people [in the United States that] comic bookstore or on the big screen. have a familial link to Mexico or The absence of comic book characters of Mexican culture… [including color, in general, is not seen as a societal those] in the territory conquered by issue because comic books are perceived the United States in the M e x i c a n - as fun narratives for children. However, American War…[and] recent comics historically have been used by immigrants”. (Smithsonian 3) the dominant white culture to degrade Representation of Mexican- and stereotype individuals they perceive Americans in comics and non-fiction to be lesser. Finding Mexican-American political cartoons has been extremely protagonists like Wildcat (Yolonda stereotypical often depicting Mexican- Montez), Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes), or American men as criminals, hyper- Green Lantern (Kyle Rayner) is difficult. sexualizing Mexican-American women, Furthermore, finding research on or portraying anyone of Mexican Mexican-American characters in comics descent as savage. The ability of comics is not readily available. So, why focus on to portray these stereotypes both comparing past and present comics with visually and textually suggests Mexican- Mexican-American characters? Analysis Americans are continually stereotyped of Mexican-American stigmatization because of white American ethnocentric highlights white normative values that ideals following the Treaty of Guadalupe have foundation in racist ideology. For Hidalgo, “that [ended the]… calamities example, in the comic, Border Town, of the [Mexican-American] war”(Yale author Eric M. Esquivel emphasizes that Law School). When examining the “Human monsters. Strange invaders comic Border Town, the author Eric M. from a foreign land, consumed by Esquivel and artist Ramon Villalobos hate and compelled by depict Mexican- a curious compulsion ...comics American stereotypes in to send Aztlan’s native historically have the protagonists Frank people…back home’…” and Julietta as criminals, (Esquivel 3). The “human been used by the hyper-sexualize Aimi, monsters” Esquivel dominant white and portray Quinteh as alludes to is white culture to degrade the “dirty” or “primitive” culture, therefore, it is Mexican-American. important to analyze the and stereotype However, the author past view of Mexican- individuals they and artist then subvert Americans in comics to perceive to be the traditional use of understand how Esquivel the aforementioned both used and subverted lesser. stereotypes to underline stigma and stereotype to their continued presence subvert white racism. in society today. The struggle of Mexican- Ultimately, Border Town challenges Americans in the United States can be traditional anti-Mexican stereotypes in traced back to the Treaty of Guadalupe comics by including Mexican-American Hidalgo and continues today in many characters who question the way they are forms of media. For the purposes of this stereotyped, manipulate their stereotypes 74 | TXSTUR to protect themselves or another, and suggests ethnocentric ideals that then become socially accepted by those aided in the reinforcement of many they protect. stereotypes (Montejano 76). This section Racialized stereotypes of will focus on how the germ theory Mexican-Americans have a long run in against Mexican-Americans was used print media and increased in severity to segregate them, the criminalization following the Treaty of Guadalupe of Mexican-Americans, and the hyper- Hidalgo in 1848. This treaty ended the sexualization of Mexican-American Mexican-American War and added most women transferred from social contexts of northern Mexico to the United States. to comics, illustrating a continued form With the movement of the U.S.-Mexico of oppression. border, many once Mexican citizens Following the Treaty of Guadalupe became U.S Citizens on paper but not Hidalgo, Mexican-Americans in the in practice. According to sociologist 1850s to 1900s were criminalized and historian David Montejano, “[white and expelled from cities across the settlers] in the Southwest brought with Southwestern United States. The them a long history of dealing with criminalization of Mexican-Americans Indians and blacks” suggesting that the became so ingrained in Southwestern massive acquisition of land from Mexico white culture that it can still be seen in would bring with it years of segregation, comic book characters today, suggesting racism, and policies that would deeply a lasting form of oppression. The deep- affect Mexican-Americans (Montejano seated hatred of Mexicans following the 5). The notions of racial inferiority of Mexican-American war led to “[Mexican- Mexicans by the by culture traveled to Americans in great numbers being] driven the Southwest where Mexican-Americans from Austin in 1853 and again in 1855, were seen as “peones” (Montejano 76) from Seguin in 1854, from the counties directly translating to peons. White of Matagorda and Colorado in 1856, culture labeling an entire group as peons and Uvalde in 1857” (Montejano 28). suggests the view of Mexican-Americans Many, if not all expulsions were under as “dirty,” “inferior,” or “bestial”. the accusations of Mexican-Americans Furthermore, The Mexican-American being “horse thieves and consorters of “peones” would become the baseline for slave insurrection” (Montejano 28), the anti-Mexican sentiments (Montejano suggesting the hatred of Mexicans 76). The belief Mexican-Americans were contributed to a mass criminalization inferior eventually transferred to comics of all Mexican-Americans. Through and is expressed through stereotypes criminalizing an entire group of people, seen today. The following section white Americans laid the foundation will analyze how late nineteenth- for the Mexican-American criminal century germ theory, criminalization, stereotype still evident today. and hyper-sexualization was used to An example of this dynamic is stigmatize Mexican-Americans and will evident in the Frito-Lay company mascot review examples of the aforementioned in 1967. Frito Bandito perpetuated the stereotypes in print media. criminalization of Mexican-Americans, The History of Three therefore, continuing the stereotype Stereotypes from the mid-1800s. Brian Behnken and Gregory Smithers argue in Racism in White Americans labeling Mexican- American Popular Media this character Americans as “peones” in Spanish was often seen during the 1970s stealing “a COMIC REPRESENTATION | 75 package of corn chips and then [sneaking] “expressed the social hierarchy [of the off to lay in the sun and drink tequila” area]” (Montejano 168). Furthermore, drawing from the criminalization of the the influence of germ theory made it so 1800s and perpetuating the stereotype Mexican-Americans were only allowed of the Mexican-American criminal to shop at certain locations at certain (122). Although the Frito-Lay company hours, and “were expected to be back eventually retired the Frito Bandito in [the] Mexican [side] of town by in 1971, the prevalence of the racial sunset” (Montejano 168). The result of stereotype from the 1800s highlights the segregating Mexican-Americans denotes criminalization of Mexican-Americans white Americans did not recognize and subsequent stereotype that became their citizenship and established a social so ingrained in American society it hierarchy that created “an Anglo world was used as a revenue-generating icon and a Mexican[-American] world… (Behnken and Smithers). [where the only] point of contact [with Pop culture icons are nothing white Americans was] …. the dusty new to American media and racial fields” (Montejano 168) highlighting that stereotypes perpetuated in them are white Americans viewed both Mexican no different. Similar to the Mexican- and Mexican-Americans as “dirty” or American criminal stereotype, the “bestial” for working in the fields and “dirty” or “primitive” Mexican-American therefore felt they deserved to be isolated, stereotype permeated into the dominant underlining late-nineteenth-century culture and is still seen today. In the germ theory ideas. Germ theory acted years following the mass criminalization as a way for white Americans to justify of Mexican-Americans in the Southwest, the segregation of Mexican-Americans the segregation of Mexican-Americans which resulted in their feeling as if in the 1920s to 1940s was heavily they are temporary guests in the United influenced by the germ theory of the States. late nineteenth century. David Raney When looking at comics, the defines germ theory as “[non-white otherization of Mexican-Americans and skin] traits [thought to be] infections…. the feelings they had following their casting [non-whites] as ‘dilution[s]’ or segregation is evident today in two ways. ‘pollution[s]’” to the white gene-pool First, many Mexican-Americans feel like (Raney 3). This theory aided in the they are visitors. Through the comic “El establishment of the “dirty” or “primitive” Border Xing” published in 2018 by Jaime Mexican-American stereotype that Dana Cortez, the influence of germ theory and Berthold suggests was achieved by segregation from the 1920s to the 1940s is labeling Mexican-American behaviors: seen contributing to this feeling. On the “that fall outside of, and thereby bottom of page 113, the bold text font is threaten the most carefully guarded shaped into the American flag. By itself, categories of social classification this image could be read as just another including [the cleanliness of] races, American flag; however, the words “En classes, genders, and sexualities” la frontera, (on the border) [Mexican- making anything related to the word Americans in the United States] feel Mexican synonymous with “dirty” or less like citizens and more like tentative “primitive”. (Berthold 10) guests” (Cortez 113) making this quote The influence of germ theory a profound statement on the feelings of led to white Americans segregating Mexican-Americans in the Southwest an Mexican-Americans to parts of town that example of how the influence of germ 76 | TXSTUR theory and the segregation of Mexican- common misconceptions [of Mexico and Americans in the 1920s to the 1940s its people]” (Fajardo 123), his depictions affects them today. The flag underscores of Gordo’s large stature and Pepino’s how Mexican-Americans pledge their toiling subtly reinforce stereotypical allegiance to the United States. When views of Mexican-American men as coupled with the text saying Mexican- bestial. Together by comics highlighting Americans feel like they are visitors in the feeling of otherness Mexican- the United States, this quote suggests Americans have in the United States the presence of germ theory which has and their bestial depiction, the modern become so engrained in Southwestern allusion to germ theory demonstrated racial ideals it perpetuates the “dirty” that notions of racist ideology can Mexican-American stereotype today. permeate into a culture, causing lasting Additionally, by looking at Gus effects. Arriola’s comic Accidental Ambassador In addition to the racialization of the bestial nature of Mexican-Americans Mexican-American men in the United is suggested in a strip from May 1943. States, Mexican-American women are The main character in this strip, Gordo, hypersexualized with textual emphasis is drawn as an oversized man known as placed on their beauty and illustrative the “greatest bean farmer een Mexico” emphasis on their cleavage in comics. To with slick understand black hair hyper- even though sexuality in Gordo is comics, I from the will outline United States three (Arriola). attributes Through the Gordo, collective Arriola male gaze reinforces attributes to the view of Mexican- Mexican- American Americans women as giant and why dirty beasts Figure 1. Gordo Seeing Color. Arriola, Gus and Robert C. the third by making Harvey. Accidental Ambassador Gordo: The Comic Strip Art attribute is Gordo’s of Gus Arriola. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000. so prevalent stature too when the much for the second if donkey he is riding. Furthermore, when the most prized. Author Alicia Gaspar looking at Gordo’s nephew Pepino in de Alba underlines that the “patriarchy the same strip, the idea of Mexican- assigns three attributes to the [Mexican American bestial nature is reinforced as and Mexican-American] feminine this small child is working in the field gender: la madre [the mother], la virgin tirelessly, again reinforcing this idea and [the virgin], y la puta [the whore]” alluding to the presence of germ theory. (51). La madre represents the godly Although Arriola aimed to “introduce purity, reservation, and obedience to Mexico to his readers as to counteract the father that women should aspire to SPRING 2020 | 77 be once they are old, therefore making Analysis of Border Town’s Main women’s purity a spiritual ideal that can Characters be perverted. Whereas, la virgin is the The comic opens with the physical representation of la madre in protagonist, Frank, traveling to his new younger years that could have her purity home in Arizona. The following day at corrupted and become la puta. Although his new school, Frank is met by another there are three archetypal feminine main character, named Quinteh, and attributes applied by the patriarchy, the two quickly share a greeting before women in comics are often depicted the main antagonist of the story, Blake, as the hypersexual puta to fulfill male shoves the two apart. Later that day, sexual fantasy or desire even though Frank enters a class where he meets the men want la virgin so they are culturally final two characters, Julietta and Amy, accepted. before shouting that he is half-Mexican. The hyper-sexualization of women Following Frank’s outburst, Blake is told can be seen in Gus Arriola’s Accidental about it and challenges Frank to a fistfight Ambassador, where the women are used after school because Blake is a white to pleasure the readers and characters in supremacist. During the fight between the text (see fig. 1). For example, in a Frank and Blake, Esquivel introduces strip from May 2, 1943, Gordo and his creatures from Mexican folklore seen as nephew Pepino discover that their comic large demons that come to destroy the is now in color and are exploring their world. From this moment on, the comic new colorful world when they see three focuses on the biracial protagonists women in the distance, Gordo comments Frank, Quinteh, Julietta, and Aimi who “eet’s going to be fon” (Arriloa) while fight against the creatures from the Aztec gazing at the three women. Arriola’s underworld, avoid immigration issues, text from Gordo does not immediately overcome racism, and fight to protect sexualize women but insinuates that each other. looking at women in color will be more The stereotypes in section one fun than looking at women in black and both intentionally and unintentionally white, suggesting women are sexual reinforce anti-Mexican sentiment in creatures for Gordo and the larger comics and printed cartoons. In Eric male audience to conquer and gawk M. Esquivel’s comic Border Town, the at. Furthermore, when looking at the author and his artist Ramon Villalobos drawn image of these women from the reinforce the criminalization, hyper- 1943 comic strip, their hyper-sexualized sexualization, and “dirty” or “primitive” caricature is emphasized by Arriola. Mexican-American stereotypes; however, Each of the women has the same face these stereotypes are subsequently with form-fitting clothes that emphasize subverted through the main characters the women’s breasts suggesting their embracing them to then win victory over innate sexual nature. Overall, Arriola’s an attacker, highlighting the complexity comic strips underline the lasting la of stereotyped race in comics. The puta stereotype and hyper-sexuality of following subsections will analyze each women with Gordo viewing women as of the main characters individually to objects to conquer and drawing their highlight the nuanced nature of the breasts as the main aspect of their body stereotypes’ subversion. to be viewed. “Dirty” or “Primitive” Mexican- American Stereotype

78 | TXSTUR The usage of germ theory otherizes the 1920s to the 1940s. Additionally, Mexican-Americans based on the the depiction of Quinteh as inferior is perception of them as “dirty” or “bestial.” enhanced though the artist Villalobos’ When looking at Esquivel’s comic drawing him as an oversized man, with a Border Town, he uses racially insulting large barreling chest, and dark slick hair. language that stems from germ theory, This depiction is similar to the image of which reinforces the racialized idea of Gordo seen in Gus Arriola’s Accidental Mexican-American’s bestial nature. In Ambassador that racialized Mexican- conjunction with the artist Villalobos’ American men as oversized with slick racialized drawings, the aspects of germ black hair, and dumb. Together the theory are carried forward to racialize racialization of Quinteh and insult the character Quinteh; however, the towards his intelligence emphasizes that acceptance of his strength as a virtue this character is designed to be perceived later in the comic subverts the “dirty” as inferior to the white student, Blake. or “primitive” Mexican-American Although Quinteh is stereotyped, stereotype. near the end of issue one, writer Esquivel Analysis of Quinteh’s biracial subverts the racialized depiction of background demonstrates how Quinteh by having him save Frank. Villalobos’ drawing of him reinforces During an encounter with Blake, Frank the “dirty” or “primitive” Mexican- is about to be shot before a supernatural American stereotype that evolved out demon police officer arrives to break up of the 1920s to the 1940s segregation of the fight by attacking Blake and moving Mexican-Americans in the Southwest. In to attack Frank. Before Frank is mauled the second issue of Border Town, there by a demon, Quinteh steps in and places is a flashback to a conversation between the demon in a headlock, giving Frank Quinteh and his mother in which she tells enough time to begin his escape. The him that “[his] Kiowa ancestors…would racialization of Quinteh in this scene dance to push their own souls aside, and is still the same as before, and the germ make room inside their hearts for spirits theory idea that would see Quinteh’s who didn’t know fear” (Esquivel 3). bestial nature as “primitive” and useless Through his mother’s encouragement, is subverted through Quinteh embracing he puts on a luchador mask that fulfills this strength to stop the demon briefly the same purpose the Kiowa dance to allow his “new friend Frank” an would. Years later in the first issue of opportunity to escape (Esquivel 20). Border Town, Quinteh still wears his Quinteh’s bestial characterization mask when he is separated from Frank could continue to be emphasized by by the white supremacist, Blake. During more derogatory remarks after he helps the separation, Blake glares menacingly Frank; however, at the beginning of the at Quinteh and asks Frank if “[the] second issue of Border Town, Frank incredibly retarded hulk” (Esquivel comes to Quinteh’s rescue, underlining 9) hurt him. This scene reinforces the the acceptance and acknowledgment of bestial nature of Mexican-Americans Quinteh’s strength, therefore, subverting in two ways. The derogatory remark of the traditional primitive brute stereotype calling Quinteh an “incredibly retarded that evolved out of late-nineteenth- hulk” (Esquivel 9) directly insults his century germ theory. The artist and bestial size and nature, mirroring the author’s awareness that Mexican- idea of Mexican-Americans as “dirty” Americans are often stereotyped as that grew out of the segregation of from brutes in conjunction with Quinteh’s COMIC REPRESENTATION | 79 awareness of his strength allows the and reinforcing the Mexican-American stereotype of the brutish Mexican- criminal stereotype. Furthermore, American to be subverted, transforming Esquivel subverts the stereotype during Quinteh from a stereotypical brute to a the fight after school, when Blake stalwart defender. throws the first punch and Frank Criminalization of Mexican- retaliates afterward, again making the Americans white supremacist the aggressor and the The second major stereotype Mexican-American the defender. During in Border Town is the criminalized his retaliation, Frank kicks Blake and view of Mexican-Americans by white exclaims he knows “what happens if [he culture. Esquivel reinforces the criminal bashed Blake’s] brains out in the hallway action through Frank’s fight with on [his] first day of class…[because he Blake and Julietta’s criminal actions knows] this from experience” before he and undocumented status. Although stops the fight and turns to head home these characters are criminalized, the (Esquivel 17). Additionally, Esquivel author subverts the stereotype by solidifies the subversion by having Blake having both characters comment on pull out a gun and threaten to shoot Frank, their criminalization suggesting that to delineating that the true criminal is the subvert and change a stereotype it must white supremacist and making a social be noted. commentary that the criminalization of Esquivel subverts the criminalized Mexican-Americans is a stereotype that Mexican-American stereotype against has been perpetuated by racist bigots. Frank during his fight with Blake In addition to Frank subverting the because Frank knows when to stop the Mexican-American criminal stereotype, fight and is not the aggressor, suggesting the character Julietta could reinforce that white racists are the true criminals. the criminal stereotype because of her Upon arriving at his new school, Frank undocumented status; however, Julietta interacts with the racist student Blake avoids attention because she is aware who thinks Frank is white due to his of this criminalization and does not skin tone. However, later in issue one of want any trouble. Some may say that Border Town, Esquivel illustrates Frank her undocumented status reinforces yelling he is half-Mexican (Esquivel 12). the criminal stereotype because she Upon hearing this, Blake punches Frank is disobeying American law, but her because “[he] misrepresented [himself existence in the story is primarily to which] embarrassed [him] in front of underline the undocumented immigrant [his] boys” (Esquivel 13). This attack on experience not to perpetuate the Frank reinforces the idea of the Mexican- Mexican-American criminal stereotype. American criminal as Frank charges When Julietta is first introduced, she is a Blake, getting only inches away from his reserved and jaded teenager making her face and then agreeing to fight him after way through school. She is often seen school. Frank’s willingness to fight and making comments towards Frank trying making that known suggests the idea of to discover who he is and she could be the violent Mexican-American criminal seen as a secondary character; however, in the United States. Esquivel continues after Quinteh is hurt by the demon police the stereotype during the fight after officer that is going to attack Frank, school when Frank calls Blake’s friends Julietta picks up a gun on the ground and a “little gang of white-powerpuff girls” shoots the demon police officer. By firing (Esquivel 16), illustrating a verbal attack a gun while undocumented, she commits 80 | TXSTUR “a felony that could get [her] and [her] Mexican-Americans are criminals who do entire family arrested and deported” not know anything better than crime and (Esquivel 21). This demonstration of her the commentary that the criminalization breaking the law could be read as another of Mexican-Americans perpetuates Mexican-American in the United States their otherization by white Americans. engaging in criminal activity reinforcing It could be argued that Julietta reifies the criminal stereotype. Furthermore, the criminal stereotype because of her Julietta’s criminalization is enhanced in actions. However, Rubén G. Rumbaut, issue two when she pulls the gun from notes that “[undocumented] immigration her backpack to shoot a demon that is associated with lower crime rates and is attacking her friends. This action lower incarceration rates” underscoring ultimately reinforces the stereotype that that the perceived stereotype is not Mexican-Americans in the United States reflected in the real world (Rumbaut will commit crimes and suggests that 2). Therefore, this statistic reinforces white Americans will criminalize her Esquivel’s subversion allowing the and other Mexican-Americans regardless depiction of Julietta’s undocumented of any defensive circumstances present Mexican-American experience to make because of white ethnocentric views of a larger statement than the perceived Mexican-Americans. criminal stereotype. Although Julietta is criminalized in Hyper-sexualization of Mexican- issue four, when giving her back story, American Women Esquivel highlights the stereotyped view The third and final stereotype I of undocumented Mexican-Americans analyze in Esquivel’s comic Border Town by emphasizing Julietta’s undocumented is the hyper-sexualization of Mexican- immigrant experience. For example, American women. Using text, Esquivel in issue four of Border Town when creates a scene that sexualizes Aimi, Julietta discovers she is undocumented and Villalobos draws her with the she withdraws from society reader’s view looking up because she realizes that ...white Americans her skirt. The hyper- as a “Latina. Black. sexualization of And undocumented” will criminalize her and other Aimi can be read (Esquivel 5) Mexican-Americans regardless of as stereotyped; woman she will any defensive circumstances pres- however, be stereotyped ent because of white ethnocentric Esquivel has her as a criminal or carve an ancient inferior. Julietta views of Mexican-Americans. Aztec symbol into further subverts her face subverting the the stereotype as after stereotype as she destroys committing her crime she yells her beauty. Additionally, at Frank who says no one will “give a fuck after she carves the mark into her face, about [her] shady immigration status” Villalobos moves from drawing Aimi in (Esquivel 5) to which Julietta responds a skintight skirt to a baggy sweatshirt with “to [Americans, undocumented and jeans, underlining the subversion immigrants] already are [seen as a] ‘alien of the hyper-sexualized Mexican- species’” (Esquivel 5). Through Julietta’s American stereotype by desexualizing comment about her immigration status the exoticness that is desired. Some could and the knowledge of her past, Esquivel’s argue that the change in her clothing to subversion of the traditional idea that jeans and a baggy sweatshirt is sexist, SPRING 2020 | 81 the principal who, while carving an apple, tells Aimi she is “exotic [and] to tell [him] anything” (Esquivel 19). The first part of this encounter underlines the principal’s racism and sexual desire for young women and emphasizes the sexualization of this young Mexican- American woman. Esquivel continues to reinforce the sexualization of Aimi when she seductively takes the knife from the principal. Esquivel’s decision to have Aimi seductively disarm the principal by suggestively grabbing his knife underscores the stereotyping of Aimi and the perpetuation of stereotyping Mexican-American women. Furthermore, when looking at Aimi on page 20 of the same issue, we see she is sitting with her skirt pulled up, only covering her genitalia with her crossed leg. The artist’s depiction of her covering her genitalia sexualizes her for the audience, principal, and readers, underlining her hyper-sexualized depiction and perpetuating the hyper- sexualization of Mexican-American women. Although Aimi is initially hyper-sexualized and perpetuates the stereotype of hypersexualized Mexican-American women, Esquivel Figure 2. Image of Aimi Carving into Her and Villalobos subvert the stereotype Face. Border Town, Esquivel, Eric M., by illustrating Aimi carving protective Ramon Villalobos and Tamra Bonvillain, designs into her face and changing what Vertigo, 2018, https://readcomicsonline.ru/ she wears. At the end of issue three, comic/border-town-2018/3/21. Aimi takes the knife the principal was using and comments that “creepy old however, Aimi is sexualized because she men like [the principal] have told [her looks “exotic”, not her clothing, so by she is] exotic” (Esquivel 20) underlining covering up what is sexualized, Esquivel a sexualization unique to women of color subverts the hyper-sexualized stereotype denoting the sexualization is based on of Mexican-American women. Aimi’s outward racial identity. Aimi’s When looking at the character comment on the stereotype emphasizes Aimi, her sexualization is seen through that she is aware of the powerful effect it Esquivel’s sexually suggestive text and has on herself, women of color, and men. Villalobos’ suggestive drawings. In the After Aimi acknowledges the stereotype, third issue, Aimi is called into the principal’s she carves “an ancient Aztec glyph for office where sexualization begins with warding off monsters” (Esquivel 21) 82 | TXSTUR into her face causing the principal to Mexican-American women, and bestial writhe back in pain (see fig. 2). Aimi’s nature of Mexican-American men in action symbolizes the subversion of the their comic Border Town by having hyper-sexualized stereotype through the characters vocalize their awareness the literal destruction of an example of of their stereotype before embracing it that stereotype. Furthermore, after Aimi to defend themselves from an attacker. carves the glyph into her face, her outfit The reinforcement and subversion of changes to represent the subversion of criminalized Mexican-American men, the stereotype. In issue four, when we see hyper-sexualized Mexican-American Aimi again, Villalobos draws her to have woman, and bestial depiction of long jean shorts and a loose hooded jacket Mexican-American men emphasizes how illustrating that since she has subverted prevalent stereotypes are of Mexican- the stereotype her sexualization will end. Americans in the Southwestern United Together with her symbolic destruction States today. of the stereotype and change in clothing, Although the subversion of the Esquivel underscores the subversion of stereotypes in this comic effectively the hyper-sexualized Mexican-American makes social commentary about woman stereotype. Mexican-American experiences in the The Future Southwestern United States, we will The United States has a long never know if this subversion is continued history of anti-immigrant sentiment in later issues of the comic due to its ranging from the “era of [immigration cancellation after Eric M. Esquivel was quotas] and regulation of 1882-1924” to accused of sexual misconduct. According twenty-first century anti-Muslim and to Graeme McMillan of the Hollywood anti-Mexican sentiment (Behdad 155). Reporter, “Cynthia Naugle…. wrote Regardless of the time period, Mexican- about being ‘sexually, mentally, and Americans become targets for racist emotionally abused’ by…. Border Town stereotypes and immigration policies like writer and co-creator Eric M. Esquivel. those mentioned following the “Treaty The cancellation of Border Town and its of Guadalupe Hidalgo.” Writer Eric M. last two issues is problematic as the only Esquivel and artist Ramon Villalobos examples of subverting the stereotypes break down the aforementioned anti- are in the scenes described, and the Mexican sentiment by subverting the accusations against Esquivel only leave traditional view of criminalized Mexican- a representational gap of Mexican- American men, hyper-sexualized American protagonist representation in comics. For now, we wait as only time will tell if subversive works like For now, we wait as only time Esquivel’s will comment on Mexican- Americans in the Southwest United will tell if subversive works States or if this population will continue like Esquivel’s will comment to be racially stereotyped as a form of on Mexican-Americans in the oppression. Southwest United States or if this population will continue to be racially stereotyped as a form of oppression.

COMIC REPRESENTATION | 83 Works Cited Aldama, Frederick L., and Jaime Cortez. “El Border Xing.” Tales from la vida: a Latinx comics anthology, Columbus: Mad Creek Books, 2018, pp.12–113. Behnken, Brian D., and Gregory D. Smithers. Racism in American Popular Media: from Aunt Jemima to the Frito Bandito. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2015. Berthold, Dana. “Tidy Whiteness: A Genealogy of Race, Purity, and Hygiene.” Ethics and the Environment, vol. 15, no.1, 2010, pp.1–27. Esquivel, Eric M., et al. Border Town. vol. 1 Vertigo, 2018. Esquivel, Eric M., et al. Border Town. vol. 2, Vertigo, 2018. Esquivel, Eric M., et al. Border Town. vol. 3, Vertigo, 2018. Esquivel, Eric M., et al. Border Town. vol. 4, Vertigo, 2018. Fajardo, Salvador J., et al. “Accidental Ambassador Gordo: The Comic Strip Art of Gus Arriola by Robert C. Harvey, Gus Arriola.”South Atlantic Review, vol. 66, no.3, 2001, pp.122–124. Gaspar de Alba, Alicia. “Malinche’s Revenge.” Feminism, Nation and Myth La Malinche, edited by Romero, Rolando., and Amanda N. Harris. Houston: Arte Público Press, 2005, pp. 44-59. Harvey, R. C., and Gus Arriola. Accidental Ambassador Gordo: the Comic Strip Art of Gus Arriola. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000. McMillan, Graeme. “DC Cancels Hit Comic Book Series ‘Border Town’ After Abuse Claims.” 2008, https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat- vision/dc-cancels-border-town-comic- abuse- claims-1169513 “Mexican America: Glossary.” Smithsonian Institution, www.si.edu/spotlight/mexican- america/mexican-america-glossary. Montejano, David. Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas,1836-1986. Austin, TX Univ. of Texas Press, 1999. Raney, David. “Encroaching Dark: Germs and Race in Twentieth-Century American Literature and Culture.” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, 2005, pp. 1–23, www.jstor.org/ stable/41207551. Rumbaut, Rubén G. “Undocumented Immigration and Rates of Crime and Imprisonment: Popular Myths and Empirical Realities.” 2008, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=1877365 “Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; February 2, 1848.” The Avalon Project - Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Yale Law School, https://avalon. law.yale.edu/19th_century/guadhida.asp