Black Church Culture and Community Action Sandra L. Barnes, Purdue University Abstract Cultural theory posits that social groups possess a cultural repertoire or "tool kit" that reflects beliefs, ritual practices, stories and symbols that provide meaning and impetus for resource mobilization. However, little research based on quantitative techniques has been Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sf/article/84/2/967/2235468 by guest on 27 September 2021 forwarded relative to the relationship between longstanding Black Church cultural components — specifically, scripture, songs, prayers and sermons — and activism among Black churches. Using a large national sample of Black congregations across seven denominations, I test aspects of cultural theory. Findings support the consistent, direct relationship between prayer groups and gospel music and various forms of community action and less influence by spirituals and the general usage of sacred scripture. The Black Church has long been considered a bulwark in the Black community. Research supports its' religious, economic, socio-cultural and political dimensions (Billingsley 1999; Drake and Cayton 1962; Dubois 1953[1996], 1903[2003]; Ellison and Sherkat 2000; Frazier 1964; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990; Mays and Nicholson 1933; Morris 1984; Nelsen and Nelsen 1975). More contemporary studies tend to contradict some of these claims (Gregory 1998; McRoberts 2003). An ethnographic study by Pattillo-McCoy (1998) details aspects of Black Church cultural transference to Black community members in the Chicago neighborhood of Groveland. An important point of departure for her seminal analysis presupposes a relationship between cultural "tools" such as prayer, songs and other religious symbols, and community action among Black congregations. Although this correlation has been suggested based on theoretical, anecdotal or qualitative findings, to my knowledge, scholars have not tested this relationship using quantitative techniques.' To address this limitation, I assess whether key claims, derived largely from ethnographic studies, are evident for a national sample of 1,863 Black congregations in order to test aspects of cultural theory. This study investigates whether cultural symbols such as gospel music, spirituals, prayer and social justice sermons endemic to the Black Church engender community action. Although not an exhaustive test, this study examines existing literature on the role of the Black Church as a change agent as well as possible correlates between common cultural patterns and specific strategies to address social problems in the Black community. Research also suggests variability in community action based on denomination, with less hierarchical denominations generally encouraging civic and social engagement (Harris 1995; Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1993) and greater community support among the Methodists and Baptists than Church of God in Christ due to the historic differences in community Earlier versions of this article were presented at the 2004 Association for the Study of Religion and American Sociological Association conferences. I would like to thank Clara Brown-Smith, Ken Ferraro, Nancy Ammerman, James Davidson, Stephen Rasor and Social Forces' anonymous reviewers for their assistance. This research was funded by a 2001 Purdue University Incentive Grant and a 2002 Purdue University Research Foundation Grant and with support from the ITC Faith Factor 2000 Project sponsored by the Lilly Endowment and the Interdenominational Theological Center. Direct correspondence to Sandra L. Barnes, Department of Sociology & Anthropology and the African American Studies Research Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2059. E-mail: [email protected]. © The University of North Carolina Press Social Forces, Volume 84, Number 2, December 2005 968 • Social Forces Volume 84, Number 2 • December 2005 involvement, denominational polity, socioeconomic status of the membership, infrastructure of local congregations, and theological tenure of the church culture (Billingsley 1999; Calhoun- Brown 1998; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990; McRoberts 1999; Park and Smith 2000). In addition to less tangible factors associated with church culture, clergy education and their personal theology as well as church size and economic stability also have been shown to influence community action (Billingsley 1992, 1999; Calhoun-Brown 1999; Cavendish 2001; Chaves 1999; Chaves and Higgins 1992; Day 2001; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990; McRoberts 1999; Reese and Shields 2000; Sawyer 2001; Wilmore 1994). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sf/article/84/2/967/2235468 by guest on 27 September 2021 Cultural Theory Swidler (1986) defines culture as "symbolic vehicles of meaning, including beliefs, ritual practices, art forms and ceremonies, as well as informal cultural practices such as language, gossip, stories and rituals of daily life." (p. 273) Her definition is a departure from an understanding of culture that emphasizes how ideas shape group worldviews and behavior (Weber 1930, 1946) or one in which a collective consciousness helps establish group dynamics (Durkheim 1964). The previous, more rudimentary definition of culture as a "shared way of life" has also been supplanted by conceptualizations that position culture as the mediator between social symbols, meaning and experience. According to Swidler (1986), culture consists of socially-constructed symbols and activities that provide meaning and establish and reinforce expected behavior among group members. Based on cultural theory, a cultural repertoire or "tool kit" reflects rituals, stories, symbols and beliefs used to negotiate a place in society. Swidler (1986) posits that the components of culture are not the mechanisms by which we explain end results, but more appropriately are the means to processes that bring about desired results. Furthermore, culture is expected to provide the impetus and meaning for such processes and undergird resource mobilization. Via culture, persons are able to identify issues and challenges, make sense out of them, and formulate strategies to address them. If, as she contends, "culture provides the materials from which individuals and groups construct strategies of action" (p. 280), one should be able, not only to identify those cultural components most effective in developing strategies, but ideally, quantify them. Findings could enable social actors to emphasize those cultural elements most effective in meeting desired objectives. Although terminology may differ, Swidler's argument parallels other scholars who have established linkages between cultural components and behavioral patterns in general (Bellah et al 1996; Bourdieu 1977, 1984; Goffman 1974; Hannerz 1969) and for the Black Church in particular (Drake and Cayton 1940; McRoberts 2003; West 1982; Wilmore 1994). Another important aspect of cultural analysis centers on how culture is framed (i.e., purposely arranged, produced and presented) to effect community action (Goffman 1974; Snow, Rochford Jr., Worden, and Benford 1986). Applying Benford (1993) specifically to Black Church dynamics, framing can be implemented to encourage advocates regarding the severity and urgency of social problems that affect the Black community as well as their individual efficacy and propriety as potential change agents. He contends: Vocabularies of motive and framing activities, as well as the actions they stimulate, facilitate the construction of shared identities within groups. These shared definitions, or collective identities, in turn affect subsequent framing and vocabulary of motive construction processes in a never-ending, recursive chain. (p. 210) Black Church Culture and Community Action • 969 In this way, songs, prayer and scripture in the Black Church tradition move beyond our original understanding as mere cognitive templates and fortify social actors to meet ends. Similarly, Bolman and Deal (1991) appropriate the concept of framing in their theoretical assessment of organizational dynamics by arguing the necessity for varied framing approaches to foster adaptability and resilience. For them, frames are: images or maps representing different vantage points, influenced by the social world, and models by which this same world can be evaluated, explained and acted upon. Thus using what they term Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sf/article/84/2/967/2235468 by guest on 27 September 2021 "symbolic framing: " 3 Organizations are cultures that are propelled more by rituals, ceremonies, stories, heroes and myths than by rules, policies and managerial authority. The symbolic frame seeks to interpret and illuminate the basic issues of meaning and faith that make symbols so powerful in every aspect of the human experience, including life in organizations... [and] religious orders. (Bolman and Deal 1991:15, 244-45) The authors further suggest that, for a given event, what is most crucial is not what happened, but rather what it means to the human actors involved. Such organizations may contend with conflict due to varied intra-group meanings for the same event, ambiguous events and difficulty assessing productivity and reconciling problems. In addition, challenges arise when cultural stories, rituals and ceremonies lose their meaning and ability to influence. These tenets of symbolically-framed organizations can be applied to our understanding of the Black Church. For example, Black Church members have been shown to develop symbols such as rituals, songs, sayings, sacred