MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Bachelor's Diploma Thesis

Brno 2015

Veronika Soldánová Masaryk University

Faculty of Education

Department of English Language and Literature

On the Issue of Abortions in John Irving's The Cider House Rules in the Context of American Society

Bachelor's Diploma Thesis

2015

Supervisor: Written by: Mgr. Lucie Podroužková, Ph.D. Veronika Soldánová Anotace

Bakalářská práce se zabývá tématikou potratů v knize Johna Irvinga Pravidla moštárny z pohledu americké společnosti. Rozebírá jednotlivé postavy novely, klade důraz na jejich vztahy k tématice interrupce a rozebírá je na pozadí americké kultury. Cílem této závěrečné práce je poukázat na fakt, že John Irving využívá jak mužské, tak ženské postavy k reprezentaci doby kdy byly potraty ve Spojených Státech Amerických ilegální; každá postava reprezentuje jinou stránku problému rozebíraného v této knize. Cílem bylo také ukázat, že kniha jako celek má i dnes svoje využití při řešení problematiky potratů.

Abstract

The bachelor thesis deals with the issue of abortions in John Irving's The Cider House Rules in the context of American society. It analyses individual novel characters, emphasises their attitudes on the topic of abortions and examines these attitudes on the background of American culture. The aim of the work is to point to the fact that John Irving uses both male and female characters to represent a time period in which abortions in the United States of America were illegal; every single character represents a different point of view of the issue analysed in the book. The objective was also to show that the book has its utilization even when dealing with the issue of abortions in the society of nowadays.

Klíčová slova John Irving, Pravidla moštárny, Americká kultura, Potraty, Interrupce, Těhotenství, Ženy, Homosexualita, Znásilnění, Incest, Sirotek, Zdraví, Lékař

Key words John Irving, The Cider House Rules, American Culture, Abortions, Pregnancy, Women, Homosexuality, Rape, Incest, Orphan, Health, Physician, Pro-choice, Pro-life Declaration: Hereby, I declare that I have compiled this thesis on my own and all the sources of information used in the thesis are listed in the references.

Brno, March 30, 2015 ...... Veronika Soldánová Acknowledgement I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor Mgr. Lucie Podroužková, Ph.D. for her helpful and patient guidance, support and professional advice. Table of Contents 1 Introduction...... 7 2 Chapter I – Abortions in American Society...... 10 2.1 19th Century: History of Abortions v. History of Larch...... 10 2.2 20th Century: Pro-choice and Pro-life...... 15 2.3 21th Century: The Impact on Women...... 21 3 Chapter II – The Cider House Rules: Different Points of View...... 26 3.1 The Lord's Work and the Devil's Work...... 26 3.2 Decision-making...... 29 3.2.1 Like Mother, Like Daughter: Mrs and Ms Eames...... 30 3.2.2 The Importance of Having a Partner: Candy Kendall...... 33 3.2.3 No Rose Without a Thorn: Rose Rose...... 37 3.2.4 The Troublemaker: Melony...... 39 4 Conclusion...... 43 5 Bibliography...... 46 5.1 Works Cited...... 46 5.2 Works Consulted...... 50 1 Introduction The main objective of the thesis is to clarify the issue of abortions as illustrated in John Irving's book The Cider House Rules in the wider context of American society. The aim is to access to what extent the novel documents attitudes of American society of the nineteenth, twenty and twenty-first century and corresponds with the history of the issue of abortions in United States by combining the textual analysis of the novel with sociological and historical data. Both male and female characters are taken into consideration as they are being used as an image of American society in the novel. The claim of the thesis is to evaluate how their lives and experiences mirror the real lives of American women and their families. John Irving is a contemporary American author born in 1942 in New Hampshire. He is a man of strict ideas and opinions which play a significant role in lives of his characters and are represented in all of his novels. He is a writer dealing with controversial issues such as abortions, homosexuality and incest. Apart from The Cider House Rules which deals with abortions, other tabooed topics such as gay rights, feminism and also rape are covered in the book as well as in other novels of his such as The World According To Garp, In One Person and A Prayer For Owen Meany. Irving considers abortions and rape the worst crimes against women. During an interview with Ron Hansen he says that “if men could get pregnant, don't imagine for a moment that anyone would be complaining about legalized abortion” (qtd. in Hansen). He uses these thoughts in his stories so that readers can experience some of the crucial situations along with the characters. He lifts his intentions on a different level and provides experiences that give the readers sense of understanding and comprehension. When giving interviews John Irving reveals other details about his characters and the process behind his work. Since he considers The Cider House Rules to be a historical novel he says that “[he] had to learn so much before [he] could begin [The Cider House Rules]; [he] had to gather so much information, take so many notes, see, witness, observe, study – whatever – that when [he] finally was able to begin writing, [he] knew everything that was going to happen, in advance” (gtd. in Hansen). Discussions about the issue of abortions in both John Irving's The Cider House Rules novel, which was first published in 1985, and the film adaptation released in 1999 have been made by people since the book and the film were first released. Especially nowadays when technology and internet provides many possibilities for readers and viewers to have

7 conversations about the story, people have space to share their ideas and stories about the influence that The Cider House Rules have had on them. As Dr Larch would say, The Cider House Rules has been of use. RoseAnn, one of the readers, admits on one of the internet forums that the novel helped her form her own independent opinion on the issue of abortions. She says that “stories like Cider House Rules, both fiction and non-fiction, opened [her] eyes to the historical significance of a women's individual right to choose whether or no to continue a pregnancy” (“The Cider House Rules Question”). By this she confirms that it is important to consider all the facts before judging someone's decision which is something that books like The Cider House Rules provide. The historical background of the novel is also very important as RoseAnn mentions. It gives the readers the necessary knowledge about the issue from the perspective of American society. The impact that John Irving's work has had on people is massive; though, not always positive. According to an article in the Idependent magazine from 1992, The Cider House Rules was one of the books which were banned at the Johnstone High School in Renfrewshire for being 'obscene'. One of the teachers said that “'it is not a question of censorship. It is just a question of selecting what is appropriate for children'” (Macleod). Themes that are being talked through in The Cider House Rules – not only abortions but also prostitution, rape and masturbation – are controversial. But Irving applies them on the life of his characters which is the crucial point. The Cider House Rules is not an encyclopedia describing what abortion, prostitution, rape and masturbation means, it is a novel with heroes that are very close to teenagers for their age. Benjamin DeMott in his review for New York Times says that “the book is, to be sure, a novel (the author's sixth), not a tract; it follows several human lives from youth to maturity, gripping our attention as chronicle rather than argument”. The part of his review focusing on the fact that the story follows several individuals from their youth to maturity is very important. When children read the book they grow with the characters and form their points of view. Getting rid of the books at schools and disable students from reading them takes a huge opportunity to build their characters and form their personalities away. Reactions on the film for which John Irving wrote the screenplay also included protests even though the film came out long after his book. And although the film dealt with the same issues as the novel, there were people criticizing it more than the book itself. As an

8 example we can consider John Prizer and his review. He mentions that the film-makers made Homer Wells a very predictable character. He says that „the assumption is that he will grow up to be a moral man only if he agrees to become an abortionist“ (Prizer). Even though the film misses many points from the novel itself and even some important characters are gone, Homer stays the main hero and events happening to him through his life form him and also form his point of view. Being a predictable character is nothing wrong as long as the character is developing while the story goes on. Another author, Jeff Koloze, in his text called Cinematic Treatment of Abortions compares the film with the novel when criticizing it for the fact that the „moral musings are reduced to quick one-word and one-line ruminations, poorly expressed and even more poorly dramatized“ (474). In this essay he alludes to the fact that the screenplay that was written by Irving does not uncover as many information as the book itself. On the other hand, other reviews that understand the need to shorten the screenplay in order to make the scenes more believable and accurate can be found. Carolyn Stine wrote that „in The Cider House Rules, we witness how John Irving has taken his own, pro-choice beliefs that were imparted to him throughout his life and woven them info a film that wholly encompasses these beliefs and succeeds in creating an indelible image about the issue of abortion on the mind of the viewer”. She emphasizes the fact that Irving's intention was to focus mostly on the issue of abortions and in short time and through simple conversations give the audience time to understand the problem deeply and make their own opinion on the issue itself. The Cider House Rules is a complex story, a testimony of the issue of abortions that focuses on the lives of ordinary people. It starts as a story of young Dr Larch who decides to become an obstetrician in order to help women deliver their babies and also to become an abortionist in order to provide help for desperate women seeking a different kind of solution. His life changes once he is sent to a small place called St. Cloud's which serves as an orphanage. There he meets Homer Wells, one of the orphans who has been adopted several times but every time found his way back. St. Cloud's, under the leadership of Larch, becomes a secret abortion clinic and as Homer grows up he is supposed to be of use and help Larch with his job. Homer agrees to help Larch but only with Lord's work which is by doctors known as delivering babies; however, the Devil's work – known among physicians as performing abortions – is something

9 that he refuses to do since he believes that the fetus has got a soul. Larch becomes a fatherly figure for Homer who soon leaves the orphanage with Candy and Wally – a couple that visits St. Cloud's to have an abortion. He meets new people, falls in love with Candy and protects her while Wally attends war. Candy and Homer's love gives life to a baby – Angel. When being away from St. Cloud's Larch fakes Homer's records and plans on him being a new doctor in St. Cloud's believing that Homer will change his mind about the Devil's work. Homer's point of view stays the same until he figures out that one of his co-workers got pregnant with her father. He decides to help her and performs his first abortion. Meanwhile Dr Larch dies and under these circumstances Homer decides to return to St. Cloud's to perform both the Lord's and the Devil's work.

2 Chapter I – Abortions in American Society

2.1 19th Century: History of Abortions v. History of Larch At the beginning of nineteenth century, James C. Mohr states, the borderline which determined whether an abortion was considered a crime or not was quickening. It is a phase of woman's pregnancy in which the fetus starts moving. Having an abortion after the quickening was, unlike interrupting the pregnancy before quickening, considered a crime. Even though women were not tried or punished for having abortions before quickening, it was really difficult for them and their physicians to decide whether they were pregnant or not. Since there were many diseases causing damage to female body, women started to take drugs in order to have a regular menses. These drugs, though, had side effects such as sickness and swollen belly which did unable their doctors to determine if they were gravid. They had to wait to see if the possible fetus would move or not. Therefore women had no chance to have an abortion before quickening because the intervention would seriously hurt them if they were not pregnant. In The Cider House Rules, John Irving demonstrates that quickening is very important even in the late nineteenth century as he presents the early life of Wilbur Larch – one of the main characters of the novel – who started his medical career as an obstetrician. Larch simply wanted to be of use and “bring more children into the world” (Irving 40). One of his early patient Mrs Eames was a prostitute. She knew Dr Larch and needing help, she visited him in a hospital. Even though Larch tried, he could not save her. Mrs Eames' daughter also knew Dr Larch and having the same job as her mother, she felt into the same trouble – she got

10 pregnant and she needed a solution. Because of the way her mother had died she did not want to experience the same and Wilbur Larch was her only hope. She introduced herself by saying: “I ain't so far along as [my mother] was, I ain't quick“ (Irving 47). According to Irving „[i]f a fetus was quick it meant the mother had felt it move, it meant the mother was about half through her gestation period“ (47). Ms Eames is a great example that Irving's female characters were aware of quickening and its importance when it came to abortions. She knew that being quick was what killed her mother. According to James C. Mohr, women thought about their early pregnancies as about a potential life. They did not considered the fetus being a living human so it was easier for them to undergo the abortion. Leslie J. Reagan in her book When Abortion Was a Crime mentions that even Catholic Church did not consider pregnancies before quickening a crime because they believed that life started after the fetus had begun to move. Mohr also adds that home medical manuals contained information about abortions and showed women how to get rid of the fetus. These manuals were used mostly by women in rural areas because there were no physicians and by women who did not have enough money to pay for the abortion. The brochures included methods such as jumping, aloe baths or drinking abortifacients made from different herbs which were supposed to help women to miscarry. The medicines were not only used by women who sought a miscarriage but according to both Mohr and Reagan they were sometimes suggested by physicians as well. Most of the abortifacients did not only cause miscarriage but they also caused serious health problems and could even kill women who took them. For that reason these abortifacients were prohibited and stated under poisons. New laws passed in 1820s and 1830s mentioning the prohibition of certain abortifacients and their advertising but they did not covered the whole issue. Reagan says that “[the laws] did no punish women for inducing abortions, and they did not eliminate the concept of quickening. Even as poison control measures, they said nothing about growing the plants needed in one's own garden or mixing together one's own home remedy in order to induce an abortion” (10). Leaving out important information about the regulations of abortion, the laws also retained the right for women to decide about their pregnancies before the quickening. But even though these laws concentrated on abortions they limited them just slightly when declaring using the abortion medicines a crime. As a reaction to the new laws, the early 1840s brought a new stage of dealing with

11 abortions. American citizens were surrounded by and had to face the immediate interest of the press towards the issue. Stories covered in journals along with advertisements started to appear, offering help, privacy and gentle treatment. The press started to focus on commercials provided by private doctors and physicians proffering aid. One of the adverts published in the Boston Daily Times “contained the advertisements of a Dr. Carswell: 'particular attention given to all Female complaints, such as Suppressions. … Dr. Carswell's method of treating these diseases, is such as to remove the difficulty in a few days. … Strict secrecy observed, and no pay taken unless a cure is performed'” (Mohr 48). Even though abortions began to be more visible and accessible, abortionists still used phrases such as “[f]emale complaints” (ibid.), “diseases” (ibid.) and “difficulty” (ibid.) instead of the word abortions. Reagan also says that in the early nineteenth century the term abortion was used only for miscarriages after quickening. “If an early pregnancy ended, it had 'slipp[ed] away', or the menses had been 'restored'” (Reagan, 8). The press also focused on trials and processes from all around the United States in which people performing abortions were tried. This effort to alert people to the problems of abortions increased the attention of the public. The awareness of the issue that Americans had was the reason why abortions stopped being an issue just for low-classed people. Mohr explains that in the early nineteenth century women sought abortions because of their illegitimate pregnancies or because they were afraid to be disgraced when having no husband and being pregnant. In rural parts, where poor families and low-classed women lived, abortions stopped the exceeded birthrates. But in 1840s, “white, married, Protestant, native- born women of the middle and upper classes who either wished to delay their childbearing or already had all the children they wanted” (Mohr 46) willed to undergo abortions as well. Reagan says that the use of abortions by middle-class women was now very visible. Cases of married women getting abortions were not publicly accepted, having husband and having an abortion was intolerable and irresponsible. Besides married women in need of an abortion, there were also upper class females willing to pay for their actual needs. What used to be a problem for lower class women suddenly became a solution for middle and upper class wives. John Irving's character – Dr Larch – after his two patients died, decided to help women and perform proper abortions without any possibility of infection and taking proper care of his patients, making sure that they were safe after the surgery. Even he had a chance to visit an upper class family in need of his help, experience and thoughtfulness. His patient was

12 Missy Channing-Peabody. “That was why he'd been invited: Missy Channing-Peabody suffering from morning sickness, needed an abortion. Rich people needed them, too. Even rich people, who, in Wilbur Larche's opinion, were the last to learn about anything, even rich people knew about him” (Irving 64). What they did not know was that Wilbur Larch did not charge any money for his interventions. When he was given an envelope full of money he simply gave it to the servants in Channing-Peabody's house and quite mad left the house. With the increasing power and visibility of abortions and abortionists, the abortifacient pills and medicines were provided noticeably more. Abortion medicaments which were known to women since the beginning of the nineteenth century and were considered deathly in some cases were now produced by medical companies. Even these products had their place in journals and newspapers and according to the Boston Daily Times they were “certain to produce miscarriage” (qtd. in Mohr 53). Not only were these commercials available to adults, they were also obtainable to children and teenage girls which some argued had bad influence and impact on them since the advertisements were displayed as a clear solution for their possible troubles. The abortificient drugs as well as their advertisements continued to emerge throughout 1840s and 1880s. These pills and medicines that were supposed to help women with their “[f]emale complaints” (ibid.) were not hundred percent successful and sometimes – when being dosed more than it was required – could even hurt them. And as Mohr says, the pills could be considered a dangerous weapon in hands of a desperate women who tries to miscarry and takes more pills than is prescribed. Irving's Mrs Eames was quick and so she tried to get rid of the fetus by using an abortion medicine called “FRENCH LUNAR SOLUTION” (Irving 47) but instead of helping her, it caused the collapse of her organs and subsequently her passing. Wilbur Larch got the bottle with the medicine inside from Mrs Eames' daughter. The bottle said “Stops Suppression!” (Irving 47) and “Almost Certainly Causes Miscarriages!” (Irving 48). “Almost Certainly” (ibid.) were the most significant words. The medicament did not almost certainly cause a miscarriage but it certainly caused death of a pregnant woman who was desperate and swallowed more liquid that she was supposed to. What “Mrs Eames had tried was oil of tansy; she had taken it for such a long time and in such amounts, that her intestines had lost their ability to absorb Vitamin C” (Irving 48). Mohr mentions that the research about these aborticides showed that “the active

13 ingredient in one seemed to be ergot, in another a mixture of ergot with oil of tansy and oil of savin” (58). That corresponds with the case of Mrs Eames from John Irving's novel. Apart from abortion pills and medicaments, the advertisements in newspapers lured women to have a proper abortion done by one of the abortionists who opened their businesses on the suffering of pregnant women. “Pre-eminent among the new abortion specialists was Madame Restell of New York City” (Mohr 48). She was arrested but “although Restell's prosecutor warned about 'lust, licentiousness, seduction and abortion would be the inevitable occurrences of every day' if her activities were not stopped quickly and completely, she was convinced only of two infractions of the law” (Mohr 48). This brought her into the centre of attention and she could effort opening two new branch agencies in Philadelphia and Boston. Wilbur Larch had to deal with one of these abortionists himself. When Mrs Eames' daughter came to Dr Larch all she wanted was an abortion. By the time Larch was young and not fully convinced that abortions were the right thing. Even though he had time and right tools to perform the abortion he hesitated for he did not know what he would say to the nurses and his fellow doctors if they found out about it. At the end he decided not to perform the intervention. This caused that Ms Eames decided to visit a place called “Off Harrison” (Irving 50), a place that offered women a solution to their troubles if women gave them enough money. Ms Eames had undergone an abortion there but unfortunately ended up in Dr Larch's hospital. “No one was sure how she got there; she appeared to have been flung against the door. She also appeared to have been beaten about the face and neck, perhaps for failing to pay the usual abortion fee. She had a very hight fever – her swollen face was as hot and dry to the touch as bread fresh from the oven” (Irving 50). When Ms Eames died Larch realized that what he had done, or rather had not done was a mistake. “He needed to see for himself what happened there; he wanted to know where women went when doctors turned them down” (Irving 51). John Irving describes “Off Harrison” (ibid.) from the point of view of Wilbur Larch. Women who wanted abortions needed to pay the abortion fee before the medical intervention itself. They were seated in front of the surgery room, so that they could hear the screams of women undergoing the abortion. They did not use Ether or anything else to ease the pain women went through, the only thing that could help them was German music played to the patients, their mothers and husbands. “The abortionist was known in the neighbourhood 'Off Harrison' as Mrs. Santa Claus” (Irving 56).

14 Mrs Santa Claus as well as Madame Restell – the abortionist offering women help throughout American history – made this business their sustenance. But methods used in “Off Harrison” (ibid.) were not hundred percent safe. “There was a primitive suction system, simply an airtight cup from which all the air could be sucked by a foot-operated pump; it had the power to abort, but it also had the power to draw blood through the pores of the skin. It could do a lot of damage to soft tissue” (Irving 51). Irving uses “Off Harrison” (ibid.) as a representation of a dangerous place that was created due to the fact that women had nowhere else to go. In the film adaptation of The Cider House Rules, no “Off Harrison” (ibid.) is mentioned but one of Larch's patients is a young girl who visited a similar place but instead of help they destroyed her uterus by putting an unidentified object inside. Larch tried to help her but similarly to the novel's Mrs Eames, his young patient died.

2.2 20th Century: Pro-choice and Pro-life The beginning of twentieth century brought a whole new wave of criticism “led by physicians such as Dr. Johnson [and were] developed in reaction to the obvious availability and popular acceptance of abortion” (Reagan 80). Many physicians refused performing abortions on women no matter if it was before or after quickening. Wilbur Larch had to face these opposing opinions as well. When he arrived to St. Cloud's he was confirmed to do both the Lord's and Devil's work which meant that he was dedicated to his work no matter if it was Lord's or Devil's. He knew that he was a doctor taking care of women and their born or unborn children. But during the First World War he went to France and a new physician was sent to St. Cloud's to replace Larch. But “the replacement physician at the orphanage would not perform abortions; the birth rate would climb, the number of orphans would double, but the replacement physician said to Nurse Edna and to Nurse Angela [nurses taking care of the orphans] that he was put on this earth to do the Lord's work, not the Devil's” (Irving 68). The new physician was dedicated to his work as well as Larch but unlike Larch he distinguished Lord's from Devil's work. He willed to delivered babies, nothing more. The physicians with the same points of view as the replacement doctor in St. Cloud's had to face the public. “They had to convince both the general population and the medical profession that abortion was wrong” (Reagan 80). Wilbur Larch, even though he is a fictional character, represents the minority of doctors who “sympathized with women sought abortions, and some [of them even] performed abortions” (Reagan 81). Larch thought that he was the only one who could save women from the black market and having their abortions done by

15 unprofessional doctors but according to Reagan, there were more doctors willing to help women the same way as Dr Larch. Irving, though, chose Larch as the representative doctor who acted on the pro-abortion physicians' behalf. In twentieth century, there was no federal law in the United States which would control abortions in general. For that reason many states regulated the laws themselves, most of them banned abortions completely and allowed them only if women's lives were in danger. James C. Mohr states in his book that Connecticut was the first state where abortions were considered a crime. North Carolina made a decision that abortions after quickening were taken as felony. Colorado also adjusted their laws when proclaiming that “abortion-related deaths [were not] manslaughter [but] murder [...]” (Mohr 229). And also Pennsylvania came out with so-called “Comstock” law regulating the advertising abortion business which progresses nineteenth century and resulted in many women's deceases (Mohr). The laws and steps against abortions made in nineteenth and early twentieth century, though, were unthinkable and meant obstacles for some women. “Early-twentieth-century women's use of abortion was part of a long tradition among women to control and limit their childbearing” (Reagan 20). Working-class women as well as married women needed to regulate the number of children they had. Since most of the physicians refused to perform abortions and the abotificients were considered poison, these women became desperate and their desperate decisions brought them to the black market. Guttmacher Institute states that “[b]ecause the procedure was illegal under most circumstances in most states, women had few options aside from a dangerous, clandestine procedure. As late as 1965, illegal abortions accounted for an estimated 201 deaths in the United States – 17% of all officially reported pregnancy-related deaths that year” (“Are You IN THE KNOW?”). The black market, which appeared to be one of the options they had, did not always offer safe abortions and in some cases could even cause death. John Irving's St. Cloud's, on the other hand, was a well-know place not only for women from Maine. Grace Lynch is a character from The Cider House Rules that represents the working-class women who need to control their pregnancies. She is a wife who is being beaten and abused by her own husband Vernon. She does not want to bring a child to the environment in which it would only see violence. Therefore, when she got pregnant she was looking for help, for someone who would interrupt her gravidity and to whom she would not have to pay any money. St. Cloud's was a perfect place for her. When Wally Worthington, her

16 employer, was looking for a place where his pregnant girlfriend Candy could go, Grace advised him to visit St. Cloud's. She also described Larch when saying that “the doctor's good – he's kinda gentle, he makes it okay” (Irving 158). She explained Wally that there was nothing to worry about, she described Dr Larch as a good doctor, not as one of the abortionists with no practice. The fact that she could continue working with no pain or complications supports the fact that Larch knew what he was doing and treated his patients very well. Even though his clinic in the orphanage was also part of the black market and was not legally opened, St. Cloud's represents a safe place which were not common in the twentieth century for ordinary women. Black market was not the only solution for desperate women. Another choice for those who needed to interrupt their pregnancies was to lie about their conditions in order to convince the state that abortion should be legal in their case. Roe v. Wade is a case that brought these facts and lies out. Norma McCorvey, also known as Jane Roe, representing the case, had a troubled childhood. When she was thirteen years old her parents divorced and she was dropped out from school. She was also abused and claimed to be raped. When she was sixteen she decided to move to California but immediately came back to Texas, pregnant for the first time. She gave birth to a baby-girl who was later adopted by McCorvey's mother. Some time after, Norma gave birth to another child. In the age of 21, Norma McCorvey became pregnant for the third time. Initially, she claimed that the third pregnancy was caused by rape. Later, though, she admitted that it had not been true. She created this lie with a help of her friends who advised her to make the story up to be able to obtain a legal abortion. “The battle began in Texas, which outlawed any type of abortion unless a doctor determined that the mother's life was in danger [or in case of rape and incest]. The anonymous Jane Roe [now known as Norma McCorvey] challenged the Texas law, and the case slowly made its way to the highest court in the land” (“57d. Roe v. Wade and Its Impact”). Since rape is a serious crime, Norma needed documents which would support her assertion. At this point her plan failed because there were no police reports supporting her version. Having no other choice she decided to have an illegal abortion but later found that the police closed down the place and she had nowhere else to go. At this time she was introduced to Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington, two attorneys who later represented Norma as Jane Roe in the court. Henry Wade, an attorney representing the state of Texas, became the

17 defendant in the case of Roe v. Wade. The case reached the Supreme Court in 1970. Roe v. Wade had two rounds of arguments. The first one started in 1971 and was truck down because all seven Justices agreed on the law being abolished. The second round started in 1972 changing its strategy and focusing on the deficiencies in Texas laws. The result of this round was a suggestion to strike down the Texas law on privacy grounds. The Supreme Court released its decision in 1973 in the favour of Roe. “The Court deemed abortion a fundamental right under the United States Constitution, thereby subjecting all laws attempting to restrict it to the standard of strict scrutiny” (“Roe v. Wade”). The case resulted in the statement that states no longer had rights to change the law concerning abortions. The Court also decided that it was up to women and their physicians to decide whether or not to have an abortion during the first trimester. States were allowed to adjust their laws only during the second trimester and only in cases when mother's health was in danger or in cases of maternal morbidity. Abortions in the third semester remained under the laws of certain state (“Roe v. Wade”). The question of the age of the fetus was discussed as well. There were two opinions uttered concerning whether the states should consider the first trimester of woman's pregnancy as the turning point when they can interfere or if they should be talking about the viability and quickening, instead. At the end, it was proposed leaving the topic based on the age of the fetus and focus on mother's health and her safety in the first place. The case divided people into two categories with opposite opinions: pro-choice and pro-life. Where pro-choice category contains people who agree with the legalization of abortions, support the idea that mothers should be able to decide without being tried and punished for their decision under any circumstances. Pro-life activists are people against abortions who believe that fetus is alive human being and nobody has got the right to kill it. According to Helena Wahlström “[The Cider House Rules] rejects a 'pro-life' stance in favour of a women's rights perspective, and clearly illustrates that abortion does not preclude or negate motherhood” (251). Both pro-choice and pro-life attitudes are represented in the novel but pro-life stance is not completely buried and overruled by the “women's right perspective” (ibid.) as Wahlström states. It is hidden in certain parts of the book and in certain characters. Young Homer Wells is an example of a person with pro-life opinion, though it is not being clearly and evidently shown. Homer emphasises that being a doctor, an abortionist in concrete, is not an option for him. He declares his pro-life choice. It might not be clear to

18 the readers but Larch understands him very well. In 1973, ABC News aired a report in which a law professor Robert Burns explains his pro-life belief that fetus is a human being and therefore an abortion should be considered a murder. Thomas Dillon, an attorney, who agreed to give an interview instead of Burns, says that “[o]nce you allow the taking of innocent human life at the earliest stage of its development […] how do you protect that human life at any other point?” (PatriotReview). In his point of view, allowing interruption might cause more serious consequences. Simply said, he admits that killing a fetus can escalate to murders. He also adds that fetus as a human being has got the same rights as his mother and father. He understands that mothers should have the right to decide about the future of their children but he also claims that the father and the child should be heard as well. Pro-choice activists react to this statement by saying that women should have control over their own bodies and reproductive lives in order to function equally in every day life. While in nineteenth century it was believed that life began after quickening, twentieth century is a period of different opinions. Many opponents share Dillon's opinion and bring out the question about when the life begins. It is a crucial question that both pro-choice and pro-life activists cannot agree on. Pro-life activists hold Dillon's opinion that fetus is a form of live. Pro-choice activists, on the other hand, believe that life begins with birth. As a proof they state that fetus is not able to feel pain while abortion is being performed. Stuart W. G. Derbyshire, a lecturer from University of Birmingham says that “[n]ot only has the biological development not yet occurred to support pain experience, but the environment after birth so necessary to the development of pain experience, is also yet to occur” (qtd. in “Should Abortion Be Legal?”). While pro-choice activists use the pain experience as a proof that life starts after birth, scientists can prove that life starts with conception. “Furthermore, the science of embryology has proven that the genetic composition of humans is formed during fertilization, and as the textbook Molecular Biology explains, this genetic material is 'the very basis of life itself'” says James D. Agresti in his article The Science of Abortion: When Does Life Begin in which he uses scientific dictionaries and notes to show that life begins with conception. The Roman Catholic Church started to be more involved in the issue of abortions right after the case of Roe v. Wade. Their belief is that fetus is alive human being and abortion is considered a murder, therefore a sin. Though, pro-choice activists claim that The Bible treats

19 abortion differently than a murder. “In Exodus 21:22-25, the crime of causing a woman to miscarry is treated as a property crime, whereas killing the woman is considered murder and is punished with the death penalty” (“Should Abortion Be Legal?”). Although the Roman Catholic Church along with Lutheran Church oppose abortions, many other religions such as United Methodist Church or the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations support it. But the Catholic Church treats abortions more as a moral issue. In a book called Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies it is said that “[f]or Catholic leaders and many others, the decision, with its talk of trimesters and its discovery of a right to privacy, put a scientific and legalistic gloss on a moral problem” (Berkowitz). The substance of this idea is that political and scientific aspects of this issue completely covered the moral point which Catholic Church has always stood for. William Saunders in his article for an online Catholic news agency says that “[i]n principle, Catholic Christians believe that all life is sacred from conception until natural death, and the taking of innocent human life, whether born or unborn, is morally wrong”. This conforms that moral aspect plays very important part when analysing the issue of abortions in the twentieth century. Looking back at the decision of Supreme Court, no moral aspects were taken into consideration. According to Wahlström “moral issues are continuously discussed by the central male characters in [The Cider House Rules]” (260). By central male characters Wahlström means Homer Wells and Wilbur Larch. They both discuss the moral aspects even though they both share different points of view. Homer who is more pro-life oriented, even though he decides to perform an abortion, at the end of the novel, feels that it is morally bad to kill an unborn baby. Larch, on the other hand, talks about moral issues such as rape, abuse and incest, that some of the women seeking help have to deal with. And in the end, it is incest that changes Homer Wells' opinion and convince him to follow Larch's steps. Irving gives his characters a certain responsibility for their decisions and use the moral issues to influence their opinions. Norma McCarvey alias Jane Roe who started the whole case completely changed her point of view. Even though, during her youth, she wanted to have an abortion herself and stood at the beginning of an argument that divided people into two completely different groups, she changed her mind and now is actively working for a pro-life organizations. She changed her opinion when meeting a preacher who expressed his beliefs and opinions about abortions to her. Norma and the preacher became friends and she decided to be baptised. Not

20 only did her new found faith changed her opinion about abortions, it also changed her as a human being. When McCarvey was younger she spend several years in a lesbian relationship. Becoming a Christian, though, changed her opinion and now she denounces lesbianism. She also regrets her decision about having an abortion and states that it was the biggest mistake of her life. In an advertisement which she decided to record she says that: Back in 1973, I was a very confused twenty-one year old with one child and facing an unplanned pregnancy. At the time I fought to obtain a legal abortion, but the truth be told, I have three daughters and never had an abortion. However, upon knowing God, I realized that my case which legalized abortion on demand was the biggest mistake of my life. You see, abortion has eliminated 50 million innocent babies in the U.S. alone since 1973. […] You read about me in history books but now I am dedicated to spread the truth about preserving the dignity of all human life from natural conception to natural death. (VirtueMediaAds) This confession of Norma McCarvey points out that faith is very important and sometimes mothers who do not decide to have an abortion do not regret it at the end. Not only is she considered a person who gave the impulse to the United States to study the issue of abortions much deeply, a person who opened the whole abortion discussion. She is also a female representing the pro-life movement, giving women herself as an example and showing them that abortion is not always the right solution. As Jane Roe she was a representative of a pro-choice movement, now she is a pro-life activist herself.

2.3 21th Century: The Impact on Women As Helena Wahlström mentions in her study called Reproduction, Politics, and John Irving's The Cider House Rules: Women' Rights or “Fetal Rights?” from 2013, even though John Irving's novel “will soon be thirty years old, it can still function as an important voice in the ongoing discussion about abortion/reproduction in terms of rights [and] responsibilities [...]” (252). What she says is that The Cider House Rules covers the time in American history, in which abortions were illegal, it summarizes different points of view and gives the readers a chance to decide for themselves if they are pro-choice or pro-life oriented but yet it still corresponds with the society of nowadays. According to the statistics done at the beginning of twenty-first century women are more likely to agree with legalization of abortions in the United States (“Abortion in the

21 United States.“). In 2007 and 2008 when the poll was done fifty-five percent of women agreed with the legalization of abortions and thirty-nine per cent of them disagreed, the rest did not know how to decide (“Abortion in the United States.“). Although the difference is not that big, it is visible that more women in the United States are pro-choice oriented. Women play an important role in The Cider House Rules as well. Dr Wilbur Larch deals with those who come to St. Cloud's to deliver an orphan or to stop their pregnancy. In both cases St. Cloud's is a place that helps women in their oppressive situations; however the behaviour of women who come there to deliver an orphan is different from those who visit Dr Larch to let him do the Devil's work. Larch explains that women who need an abortion react to babies and their crying more sensitively than women who give birth to a new member of St. Cloud's. Irving describes that: It was a simple enough observation to make: the women having abortions were not comforted to hear the cries and prattle of the newborn. You could not plan the exact hour for a delivery but Larch tried to plan the abortions for the early morning, which gave the women the whole day to recover and allow them to be gone by evening. (Irving 79) Crying of newborn babies instigated sorrow and grief. It increased the difference between life and death, between a newborn baby and a fetus no longer living inside of a woman's body, the difference between birth giving and abortion. Even though Irving does not give us any opportunity to hear the thoughts of women having their pregnancies stopped in St. Cloud's, his description of their stay confirms that having an abortion was one of the moments in their lives that they will never forget. It is mentioned that “[i]f one of those women spent the night, it was never in the room with the expectant or delivered mothers” (Irving 79). Women do not have to travel to any orphanage and look for any Dr Larch nowadays. The Devil's work became a routine work for some doctors and women have more possibilities than in the past. In 2009 Guttmacher Institute published a collection of articles written by several authors called Abortion Worldwide: A Decade of Uneven Progress. This document deals with the issue of abortions, its changing throughout the past few decades, it is about the quality of care that women get all around the world, about safe and unsafe abortion rates and about abortion laws. In a part that discusses whether the situation about abortions has been changing or not and if there has been any progress done in the ways that abortions are being

22 viewed, it is said that “international and regional organizations have continued to draw attention to the importance of making safe abortion services widely accessible where they are legal, and of reducing the prevalence of unsafe abortion and its contribution to maternal morality and morbidity” (Singh S et al. 6). It is pointed out that in countries when abortions are legal, women are to get sufficient care and safe treatment. Also, the organizations are focused on the decrease in the unsafe abortion procedures so as to prevent women from maternal morbidity. More than 50 000 women in the United States suffer from maternal morbidity which are physical or psychological conditions that are aggravated and may badly effect woman's health during her pregnancy (“Severe Maternal Morbidity in the United States.”). In The Cider Houser Rules the only organization which cares about women and gives them proper care when having abortion is the orphanage in St. Cloud's. Young Dr Larch was sent to St. Cloud's on a demand of a prostitute who sent a letter to “WHICHEVER OFFICIAL OF THE STATE OF MAIN WHO IS CONCERNED WITH ORPHANS” (Irving 6). The letter found its receiver and lately found its way to Wilbur Larch who agreed to become an obstetrician in the orphanage in St. Cloud's. He sacrificed his own life for the women who needed help and created another face of St. Cloud's that nobody apart from Nurses Edna and Angela – former nurses working with Dr Larch – and Homer knew about. He created a secret abortion clinic inside of a small but crowded orphanage. Similarly to the women visiting St. Cloud's, women who decide to undergo an abortion in the twenty-first century are affected till the end of their lives. Sometimes they are tormented and have nobody to share their pain with so they look for help, sometimes they even seek forgiveness. Websites were created to help women share their stories and ease their hearts, they can sign under the stories or leave them anonymously for everyone to read. On one of the internet forums a woman shared her experience about a pregnancy and an immediate abortion. After the abortion she plainly announced her husband what happened and they have not talked about the event since. Now she regrets her decision. She says: All I can tell you at this point is I weep many tears of sorrow when I think of our baby being ripped from my body and laid aside – nameless. Nobody was there to say a prayer or think about how precious and worthy they were – while they were thrown out like a piece of trash. I am so sorry, so very sorry. I hope I am forgiven someday. I would give my life for

23 that child. (“Abortion Story: December 15, 2014.”) Although it seemed reasonable for this woman to have an abortion back when she was younger, her heart says something else now. Hardly do people reading The Cider House Rules know if women leaving St. Cloud's feel the same sadness and regret their decisions. The stationmaster who meets the troubled souls every morning getting off the train describes them as “women in the loose clothes, always asking where the orphanage was – some of them back the same evening, their faces like ash, the color of so many of the faces in the [my] night terrors” (qtd. in Irving 165). Not knowing about the women's thoughts, readers can only imagine what pain they had to feel when leaving their children or pregnancies behind. No matter how strong they were, their faces could not conceal that they had gone through a hard time. One of the main female characters of The Cider House Rules – Candy Kendall – belongs to the category of women who visited St. Cloud's to have an abortion. She got pregnant with a boy that she loved – Wally Worthington – but came out to a conclusion that they were both too young to have a child. “'It's just that we're not ready,' Candy said to Wally” (Irving 148). They had no idea how to deal with a situation like this but Grace Lynch – one of the women working for Worthington family – knew exactly where to send them – to St. Cloud's. Since it was not common for women to visit St. Cloud's with a company when they needed an abortion, Wally and Candy's arrival caused confusion and a chaos amongst the orphans. Candy, though, was treated with generosity like other patients have always been, she came through the same procedure and got what she came for. At this point John Irving gives his readers an opportunity to meet a character that represents the issue of abortion a bit differently than other nameless women who visited St. Cloud's before and even after Candy. Unlike with the other women, readers can follow Candy, Wally and their new accompany Homer on their way back home. They can see Candy's behaviour after having the abortion. Although she was tired after the intervention, when talking to Dr Larch Irving says that “Candy seemed to forget she'd just had an abortion [...]” (207). An interesting fact is that she actually never mentions whether she regrets the abortion or not. Although she almost lost one of her beloved friends and partners – Wally – in war, and although her visit of St. Cloud's brought her to Homer, she never comes back to the day when she had to make the crucial

24 decision which changed her life. Secular Woman – a corporation situated in Georgia – published an article on their websites which contained a story of a woman who underwent an abortion and have no regrets about it. She declares that it is her own body and she can do whatever she wants with it (“Why I Don't Regret My Abortion.”). In her opinion it would not be good to give life to an unwanted child. In her proclamation she goes through the alternatives that she could have made instead of interrupting her pregnancy, evaluates them and clarifies why she did not use them as other options. She criticizes the foster system when saying that it is overburdened adding that “there were already far too many children who needed loving homes stranded in the system” (“Why I Don't Regret My Abortion.”). Candy has never said anything similar to this but when she arrived to St. Cloud's she was overwhelmed by the children who surrounded her and Wally. The orphanage was full of young boys, girls and babies, all of them wanted to be adopted. Small Curly, one of the orphans, even persuades Homer to praise him in front of Wally and Candy so that the couple would adopt him. “'Tell her I'm the best one,' Curly said to Homer” (Irving 193). If Candy decided to have Wally's baby, if she made the decision not to have an abortion and leave another orphan in St. Cloud's instead, it would just add another kid seeking for a perfect family which would correspond with what was said in the Secular Woman article – there already are too many kids looking for a loving family. In 2003 a poll was done and Americans decided that abortions could be legal under certain circumstances (“Abortion in the United States.“). Seventy-eight percent of people voted that abortions should be legalized when woman's life is in danger, sixty-five percent of American people agreed to legalize abortions in case that the pregnancy was caused by rape or incest (“Abortion in the United States.“). Fifty-four per cent then voted to legalize abortions in situations when the child would be born with a life-threatening illness, it was followed by forty-four percent for the situation in which the baby would be born with a mental illness and only thirty-two percent would allow abortions for women who do not want to have the kid for any reason (“Abortion in the United States.“). Some of these reasons are also represented in The Cider House Rules. First, we have Mrs and Ms Eames and their reason for having an abortion is simple, they cannot afford to have kids and it would not be good for their profession; therefore, their reasons belong to the last category – women who do not want to give birth to the kids for any

25 reason. Then we have Candy, a young girl who, without saying anything about her situation to her dad, visits St. Cloud's because together with her boyfriend Wally, they are too young to have a baby. Even her reasons would belong to the last category from the poll done in 2003. The last major female character is Rose Rose, her reason for getting an abortion is somehow different. Her pregnancy was caused by a person who is supposed to love and take care of her, a person who should be protective and give her different kind of love. She got pregnant with her own father. This would belong to the second category – women whose pregnancies were caused by rape or incest. It is clear that Irving's female characters present different situations and correspond with the society of nowadays.

3 Chapter II – The Cider House Rules: Different Points of View

3.1 The Lord's Work and the Devil's Work In a review for The New York Times Benjamin DeMott says that “what is felt in the grain of 'The Cider House Rules' – in its study of rule-givers and rule-breakers – is that the history of compassion have a stop and must perpetually demand larger generosities than those hitherto conceived. By responding to that demand we may, tomorrow, invent ways to abolish nightmare choices between born and unborn”. What he says brings out questions about the rule-givers and rule-breakers. Both of the main male characters – Dr Larch and Homer Wells – could be taken as the rule-givers and rule-breakers when it comes to the question whether to perform abortions or not. Larch is not described by Irving as a person who gives rules, on the contrary, he is a man who understands that people have choices. In a scene where Larch announces Homer that one of the orphans – Fussy Stone – died, he let Homer to decide whether to tell the other orphans the truth or to lie to them in order not to make them sad. And although he was a bit disappointed by Homer's early decision to not perform abortions, he understood him. Homer is a boy who has been following rules his whole life, as an orphan he does not feel any need to break them. He listens to Larch and tries to “be of use” (Irving 7) but as he grows up he realises that he has got choices to make. When asked to decide to either lie to the orphans about the passing of Fussy Stone or to tell them the truth, he decided to tell them that Fussy had been adopted. “It was Homer's first decision as an adult. He thought about it very carefully. In 193_ he was almost sixteen” (Irving 111). And as a sixteen-year-old boy he was no rule-breaker, he was a decision-maker.

26 DeMott also mentions the “nightmare choices between born and unborn” (ibid.). The Cider House Rules serves a bowl full of the nightmare choices. Larch's and Homer's lives are full of them. While Dr Larch was convinced to become both an obstetrician and abortionist, Homer's role in the story is a bit different and he had to experience many things before he could make his final decision. Irving's usage of the character of Homer Wells was discussed by Wahlström: In this way, Irving places the categorical anti-abortion stance with a protagonist whose change of opinion comes at the same time as his decision to be honest about his parenthood and also his decision to return to the orphanage from the flawed Eden of Ocean View – in other words, Irving shifts Homer over to the pro-choice stance as a part of his growth into responsible adulthood. (259) The fact that central character – Homer Wells – is able to change his opinion, looks through all the pros and cons and decides to “be of use” (ibid.) by performing abortions and coming back to St. Cloud's shows that everybody can change their opinion about abortions. John Irving also uses Homer Wells to summarize all the opinions about abortions and offers the readers an over-view on the issue. Wahlström says that Homer is shifted towards the pro-choice decision even though he clearly expresses his pro-life beliefs. “'It's alive,' said Homer Wells. 'That's the only thing' (Irving 188). Rose Rose is actually the one who makes Homer Wells think about his decisions about abortions. Initially he does not think about the miracle in females' abdomen as about a fetus, it is a baby, it has a soul but the case of Rose Rose makes him change his opinion. “We see in this event how Homer is faced with a difficult decision about performing an abortion and does not have Dr. Larch there to do his dirty work for him, and he ultimately chooses to be of use to Rose […]” says Carolyn Stine. It is visible that being of use is very important for Homer. Although Dr Larch had given him responsibility when Homer was still in St. Cloud's, the amount of responsibility that Homer was facing in the situation with Rose Rose was much bigger. But he decided to do the, according to him, right thing. Young Homer formed his early anti-abortion point of view because he was influenced by the environment of the orphanage. “Sometimes,' said Dr. Larch, 'when a woman is very strong and knows that no one will care for this baby if she has it, and she doesn't want to bring a child into the world and try to find it a home – she comes to me and I stop it'” (Irving 73). This is how Homer realized that Larch did not only deliver babies but also performed

27 abortions. Even though Larch described that the women needing abortions were strong and that there would probably be no one to take care of the unwanted babies, Homer made his own decision. When he was young, he believed that having an orphan over an abortion was a good thing. He saw himself as the proof. Even though he had been adopted several times, he always ended up back in St. Cloud's and so he was trying to “be of use” (ibid.). In a correspondence with Larch he passionately expressed his refusal to perform abortions when saying ”I'm NOT going into the business!” (qtd in Irving 478). Homer opposed Larch and argued that he was not a doctor since he had never attended any medical school. What he did not see, though, were the reasons why women visited St. Cloud's and needed Dr Larch's help. His point of view changed once he met Rose Rose. Her story of getting pregnant several times made him think. When he realised that the father of Rose Rose's babies is Mr Rose – Rose's father – he immediately wanted Rose to Visit St. Cloud's. There was no time to think it through, Homer did not try to come up with an excuse. This case of a wrong fatherly love was a reason good enough for him to change his mind. Homer's shift towards the pro-choice direction was also supported by Larch who tried to pursue Homer that he was a doctor and as a doctor he needed to help women with their nightmare choices. Larch did not make any differences between rich or poor women, he knew who he was: “He was an obstetrician; he delivered babies into the world. His colleagues called this 'the Lord's work.' And he was an abortionist; he delivered mothers, too. His colleagues called this 'the Devil's work,' but it was all the Lord's work to Wilbur Larch” (Irving 67). Larch as a character supports neither pro-choice not pro-life points of view. Solomon Posen says that “Dr Wilbur Larch in Irving's Cider House Rules expresses […] unorthodox views concerning good and evil. […] [H]e evidently has his tong in his cheek, and believes that both activities are necessary” (122). For Larch, being a physician and willing to help women meant to do both – delivering babies and performing abortions. In an interview for The Paris Review done by Ron Hansen Irving mentions that “Wilbur Larch is too much of a saint to be the main character of The Cider House Rules” (qtd. in Hansen). Even though Irving represents Larch as a saint character, his description of the doctor reveals something else. Larch's conviction that abortionists were needed and that there were many women seeking help of a professional physician made him write a letter to president Roosevelt: “I saw a picture of you and your wife – you were attending a church service. […] I don't know what they tell you in that church about abortion, but here is

28 something you should know. Thirty-five to forty-five percent of our country's population growth can be attributed to unplanned, unwanted births” (Irving 399-400). In the nineteenth century the unwanted pregnancies could not always end with interruption since the abortions were illegal. For that reason women were looking for other options and ended up abandoning their new born babies. (Fuchs) “[I]nstitutions for abandoned children were established in colonial settings and in the United States” (Fuchs). One of the institutions is, in The Cider House Rules, presented by St. Cloud's. But Larch saw that orphans whose mothers abandoned them were not completely happy. Not all of them were lucky enough as to be adopted immediately. Homer Wells was an example. Writing the letter to Mr Roosevelt seemed like the only solution for Dr Larch. Irving portrays Larch as a real abortionist, he wants to show that Larch wanted women to have more possibilities when it came to unwanted pregnancies. Larch plays a role of a hero who wants to conjoin Lord's and Devil's work. Franklin D. Roosevelt once said: “If civilization is to survive, we must cultivate the science of human relationships – the ability of all peoples, of all kinds, to live together, in the same world at peace” (qtd. in Spielman). Living at peace means committing no crimes. But it is hard to define the boarders. Larch did not consider abortions to be crimes. He though of them as about a solution which would definitely “cultivate the science of human relationships” (ibid.). Young Homer, on the other hand, would disagree with the cultivation of relationships since he believed that abortion was murder and therefore it would not correspond with the world peace.

3.2 Decision-making Although majority of the main characters of The Cider House Rules are men, women play a significant role in the novel as well. Most of the story takes place in the orphanage of St. Cloud's which is a place run initially by Dr Larch then by his apprentice Homer Wells, a place in which women find shelter and understanding. Women come here either to deliver a baby or to have an abortion. In both ways, they play a central role in the story and introduce the readers to the problems of abortions, having unwanted babies and decision-making. The novel gives women the right of choice, it does not judge them and gives different points of view on the issue of abortions. Several characters have to deal with their unexpected pregnancies. At the beginning of all of these troubles, there is always a man; but at the end, these are the women who have

29 to make the choices with or without the help of the fathers of their unborn babies. Each of the female characters have their own stories and reasons for having an abortion and all of them somehow find their ways to St. Cloud's, Dr Larch and Homer Wells.

3.2.1 Like Mother, Like Daughter: Mrs and Ms Eames Mrs Eames and her daughter Ms Eames are crucial characters of Wilbur Larch's early life. They both make their money by selling their bodies – they are prostitutes. Their job is actually the link between them and Dr Larch who was given Mrs Eames' services as a present from his father when he was younger. Apart from giving Wilbur Larch her body, Mrs Eames also caused that Larch started to suffer from gonorhrea. “At medical school, Wilbur learned that gonorrhea could live in the Fallopian tubes of females for years. Only the appearance of an abscess in the pelvis might allow the woman to know that she carried the disease” (Irving 39). Despite the fact that Mrs Eames, irrespective of her knowing or not, was the cause of Wilbur Larch's suffering, he never took against her and he always remembered her. Her name imprinted itself to Larch's mind very deeply. When creating Homer Wells' files, renaming him to Fussy Stone, he used name Eames as a name of the family that supposedly adopted Fussy. Mrs Eames was also the one who appeared out of nowhere in the hospital where Dr Larch worked. “Although she had lost a lot of weight and all of her youthfulness since Larch had last seen her, he had no trouble recognizing Mrs. Eames. She was so frightened, and in such intense pain, that she had difficulty catching her breath, and more trouble telling the nurse-receptionist her name” (Irving 44). Mrs Eames looked different from the last time Larch saw her. The fact that she lost some weight and did not look as fresh and vivid as she used to exposed that something was wrong. At this point Mrs Eamed was expecting a child, except the child was showing no more signs of life. “Larch could detect no signs of labor, and he couldn't hear the heartbeats of the fetus” (Irving 44). She was diagnosed with hemorrhage within the abdomen. Dr Larch had to perform a surgery and delivered a stillborn baby. After the intervention Wilbur Larch realized that Mrs Eames' tissue was very soft, almost deformed – which as we learn later was caused by the medical preparation she had taken to get rid of the fetus. “He had no choice then; he had to remove the uterus” (Irving 45). If he did not perform the surgery immediately, Mrs Eames would die at the very moment. She was grateful for Larch and seemingly healthy she conversed with him about Larch's family.

30 Later, though, she started to bleed again and Larch was forced to perform another surgery to see what was wrong. Irving describes the surgery: On the third day after the removal of her strange uterus, Mrs. Eames filled up with blood again, and Wilbur Larch reopened her wound; this time he was quite afraid of what he'd find. At first, he was relieved; there was not as much blood in her abdomen as before. But when he sponged the blood away, he perforated the intestine, which he had hardly touched, and when he lifted up the injured loop to close the hole, his fingers passed as easily through the intestine as through gelatin. If all her organs were this same fragile jelly, larch knew Mrs. Eames wouldn't live very long. (46) Wilbur Larch was right. Mrs Eames lived for three more days and then she passed away. John Irving's detailed and realistic description of the surgery clearly shows a negative side of abortions which are also described by pro-life activists. BBC brought up an article summarizing the arguments against abortions in which it was said that “[s]ome people oppose abortion because it can damage the long-term physical and emotional health of women who have an abortion” (“Arguments against Aborton”). Since Mrs Eames needed an abortion, she was convinced that performing it herself would help. Her body condition also revealed that this probably was not her first attempt. Her life is a story of a desperate women who had to sell her body for living, to make money, to survive in the nineteenth century society. She put herself to the risk of getting pregnant. She did not have enough money to pay for an abortion, so she could not visit the famous “Off Harrison” (ibid.) clinic and she was forced to look for an alternative. She found it in an abortion medicine called “FRENCH LUNAR SOLUTION” (ibid.). Although this medicine might have helped her before, the more she used it the more it damaged her body and at the end even caused her death. Along with her daughter, she definitely was not the only woman in this situation. Prostitution started to grow at the end of nineteenth century in the United States and for some people it became a business. In an excerpt from a book called A Renegade History of the United States it is said that in the nineteenth century “women were barred from most jobs and wives had no legal right to own property, [but] madams in the West owned large tracts of land and prized real estate” (Russell). In his book Russell also mentions that women working for madams – women in charge of the prostitution business – were protected because there were

31 police officers working for them. They also had a free health care. Mrs and Ms Eames are never said to be wealthy, though. From the book we never know if Ms Eames gathered the money needed for the abortion. She was beaten and Wilbur Larch thought that she got hit because of the inability of paying for the intervention. The fact that they needed abortions and had to find Larch in order to get one also does not support the fact that they would have a free health care either. Irving does not mention anything about the background of their job. But he uses them as two representatives of poor prostitutes who decided to get abortion. During the middle of nineteenth century there were contraceptive means that women could use. At that time there were rubbers nowadays known as condoms, douching syringes, vaginal sponges, so called womb veils known also as cervical caps and also men caps which were similar to condoms but were put only on the tip of male genitalia (“19th Century Artifacts.”). The problem was that they were not always hundred percent reliable. And with the advertisements in newspapers showing that there were both people willing to help women in need, which was rather expensive in some cases, and certain medicaments that could help females to have miscarriage, they probably did not even bother with buying the contraceptions. Mrs Eames decided to use one of the medicines and she paid with her life. It was her daughter Ms Eames who introduce Dr Larch to the “FRENCH LUNAR SOLUTION” (ibid.). She had the same job as her mother, she was younger and more aware of the consequences of this profession; yet she got pregnant and having no intentions in keeping the baby, she needed an abortion. “She greeted Wilbur Larch by roughly handing him a bottle of brown liquid – its pungent odor escaping through a leaky cork stopper” (Irving 47). She met Wilbur Larch earlier when she was younger, after the night he had spent with her mother. Now she seemed to be much older, visiting Dr Larch to tell him that she was not quick. There was nobody who could help her. The baby's father was probably one of her clients, so she had no chance that he – whoever it was – would support her. She was pregnant for two or three months and desperately needed an abortion. Giving the bottle with brown liquid inside to Dr Larch she asked for one thing – she wanted Larch to perform an abortion because she did not want to end up the same way as her mother. “'That's what did her in,” the girl said with a growl. 'I ain't having any. There's other ways'” (Irving 47). She was young but not silly, she knew that the abortion medicaments were not helping and she also did not have enough money to pay for an abortion in “Off Harrison” (ibid.).

32 At that point Dr Larch, under a little influence of Ether, was not convinced that abortions were necessary, he thought a lot about that and at the end he decided not to perform an abortion and leave Ms Eames with her problem. The result of this decision was that Ms Eames visited “Off Harrison” (ibid.) even though she did not have money to pay the abortion fee. Later she got back to the hospital where Dr Larch worked. “Wilbur Larch didn't need to examine Mrs. Eames's daughter very thoroughly in order to discover that the abortion attempt had failed. A fetus with no heartbeat was imprisoned in her uterus, which had suffered some haywire contraction and was in a state of spasm” (Irving, 50). The way the abortion was performed showed Larch that the clinic she visited was not safe which corresponds with the fact that nineteenth century clinics were in some cases dangerous. Ms Eames then died before having a surgery.

3.2.2 The Importance of Having a Partner: Candy Kendall Candy Kendall is an intelligent, strong, independent, young lady who is fully enjoying her life. Apart from helping her father Raymond Kendall with lobstering, she spends her time in Ocean View with her boyfriend Wally Worthington. Being in love with Wally, she gives him everything and he gives everything to her which leads to Candy being pregnant. Despite the fact that Wally would keep the baby and would eventually even marry her, Candy persuades him to wait because it is not the right time for them to become parents. Candy is the first main female character from The Cider House Rules who brings out to light the questions about reasons why women decide to interrupt their pregnancies. Her reasons are clear. Candy and Wally are young and it is too early for them to have a baby. As simple as it might sound, it is not an easy decision at all. When discussing whether to keep the baby or to find a doctor in order to have an abortion, they both get very emotional and confess their love for each other. “'I love you,' Wally said. He was a brave boy, and true, and Candy – who had not cried a single tear at the surprising discovery that she was with child – loved him, too” (Irving 148). Irving uses this couple to show that St. Cloud's is not just a place for poor women seeking for help but also for couples who have their own reason for an abortion and refers to Dr Larch as to a doctor willing to help anyone in need. Candy is generally very different from other characters from The Cider House Rules. She does not need the abortion because of her health condition, financial problems or no family support.

33 According to Guttmacher Institute, there are four main reasons why women prefer having an abortion than keeping the child. First reason is that they have a responsibility for other individuals, including children (“Are You IN THE KNOW?”). Applying this reason on Candy and Wally, we may see that neither of them have any responsibility for other people nor they have to take care of any other children. Second reason that women cite is that they cannot afford a child (“Are You IN THE KNOW?”) which is also not a condition that Wally and Candy would be in. Wally's family owns the Ocean View orchards and even though Wally's father does not know much about apples, “he knew almost everything about money and had hired the right foremen to run Ocean View (men who did know apples)” (Irving 120) which made his family well-known and quite wealthy. Third reason is that women do not want to be single parents or they are having troubles with their partners, boyfriends or husbands (“Are You IN THE KNOW?”). Since Candy has Wally standing by her side and following her every step, there is no connection between this reason and Candy either. Wally is a real gentleman who would never leave Candy, especially with a child. The last reason mentioned by women is that having a baby would disrupt their education or job (“Are You IN THE KNOW?”). This is an interesting point but also not one that would correspond with Candy and Wally's situation. Irving shows that neither Wally nor Candy need an education in order to work, simply because of Wally's kind family. Irving asks questions and answers them himself: Did Wally Worthington need a college degree to inherit the parents' apple orchard? Of course not. Did Candy Kendall need to go to college at all? She didn't. Wouldn't she refine herself, and educate herself, if left to her own means? Of course she would! And Wally wasn't much of a student anyway, was he? Of course he wasn't.” (148) This description again refers to the fact that Wally's family would always take care of him and his girlfriend Candy. He needs no education in order to inherit the apple plantations and so to come into the family money and Candy is an intelligent young girl who would always find her way out of misery by educating herself. BBC came up with a list of circumstances under which abortions have been allowed in certain countries and societies. The article includes “abortion for the sake of mother's health”

34 (“Reasons for Abortion”) including both her physical and mental health, “abortion when a pregnancy is the result of a crime” (“Reasons for Abortion”) such as rape, incest or child abuse, “abortion where the child of the pregnancy would have an 'unacceptable quality life' such as cases where the child would have serious physical handicaps, serious genetic problems or serious mental defects” (“Reasons for Abortion”), “abortion for social reasons” (“Reasons for Abortion”) like poverty or in cases when the mother is not able to or is too young to take care of her child, and “abortion as a matter of government policy” (“Reasons for Abortion”) which might mean the regulated population size or any other population control. None of these circumstances describe the situation that Candy and Wally are in, though. Which brings us to the fact that John Irving created a character whose simple decision does not find its acceptance in the American society. The poll from 2003 uncovers that only thirty-two percent of people in the United States approve abortions when a woman simply does not want to have a child (“Abortion in the United States.“). These thirty-two percent of people would not judge Candy for her decision and would understand her need for the abortion. When Candy and Wally decided that having an abortion was the best option for them, at this point readers are being shown a pro-choice decision, they were looking for a place to go. But the only person performing abortions that Wally heard of was “a butcher in Cape Kenneth who did you for five hundred dollars” (Irving 149). And even though all he heard were mostly rumours and the description of this abortionist was more or less exaggerated, he would never allow Candy to visit such a person. Which is another proof of how lucky Candy is to have such a supportive man by her side. Arriving to St. Cloud's, seeing the orphanage and being surrounded by all the children, Candy realizes that she would like to become a mother in the future. “'I would like to have a baby, one day,' Candy said. 'I really would.'” (Irving 200). Candy's dream to have a child became true after a night she spent with Homer in the cider house. As if history repeated itself, Candy and the father of her unborn baby had to make a decision about their further actions. This time, the father was Homer Wells, another boy who fell in love with her and admired her. Although Candy wanted to become a mother, it again was not the right time. She started to think about another abortion. Not only did she mention St. Cloud's as a solution, she also pondered having a miscarriage. “'If I work as hard as I can,' Candy told [Homer], 'it's possible that I'll miscarry.'” (Irving 405). This idea did not fit to

35 Homer's vision of their future. His plans were to marry Candy and he would do it if they knew that Wally was really dead. But knowing that Wally might be alive, they did fear to tell Wally's mother the truth about their relationship. Olive Worthington – Wally's mother, though, “would never have considered Candy unfaithful [to her son] – even if Candy had announced to everyone that she was giving Wally up and marrying Homer Wells” (Irving 396). However, this side of Olive Worthington was completely unknown to the couple. Similarly to Candy's previous pregnancy, she simply did not want to have the baby. Her company – Homer – had bigger influence on her, though. He knew that the baby was his, too. He did not see another abortion as a solution and he decided to intervene. Candy, then, agreed to keep their baby, to visit St. Cloud's and stay there for a while and deliver the baby. And so it happened, Candy gave life to a baby-boy. “'It's an Angel!' Nurse Edna announced to Candy [...]” (Irving 428). Here a pro-life decision is represented. Irving uses Candy to combine both points of view – pro-choice and pro-life. It is not Candy who makes the decisions, though. It is always Candy and her partner. The influence of boyfriends and husbands is very important. “Men are usually invisible in abortion studies and hardly ever considered as a target group in the effort to prevent legal abortions in Western countries” (Lalos 2673). Irving, on the other hand, apart from Dr Larch as a physician, uses Candy's partners – Homer Wells and Wally Worthington – as representatives of men who share the decision-making with their girlfriends or wives. Women want their partners to stand by them and support them. (“Coping with a Pregnancy Decision”) and Candy is no exception. Candy was also put in the middle of a problem of one of the workers from the plantation – Rose Rose. When Rose got pregnant, Candy is curious about the father of the baby and when she finally realized that Rose got pregnant with her own father, Candy was the one who tried to protect her. Together with Homer they were trying to find a solution and help Rose as much as they could. “'You're coming with me. Your baby, too,' Candy told [Rose]. Yes, ma'am,' Rose Rose said. Candy took the bathing suit from her and used the suit to wipe the tears from Rose Rose's face. 'You're fine, you're just fine,' Candy said to the girl. 'And you're going to feel better. No one's going to hurt you.'” (Irving 565). This reaction shows how protective Candy is. She realizes the seriousness of the situation. Rose is not in a position when abortion is just a thing she wants to do, she does not want to make this huge step because of the same reasons that Candy, she is in a situation when

36 an abortion is a necessity and Candy supports her. When Candy needed help, she always had somebody standing by her; however Rose's situation is different. She is young with no education and totally dependant on her father who keeps repeating that what he does to her is meant to be love and that it is nothing bad. Candy has to step in and take the position of a protector, of a real friend. She takes care of Rose with a motherly patience and does not want Rose to get closer to her father again. Irving uses different life situations requiring decision-makings that are forming Candy's character. Throughout the story she is becoming more independent and grown-up. The once young girl willing to undergo an abortion just because it was too early for her to become a mother, ends up being a mum of a healthy son, matured woman taking care of Rose Rose, and a wife of a paralysed man – the one that started it all.

3.2.3 No Rose Without a Thorn: Rose Rose Probably the most serious case in which a woman is facing the difficult decision whether to have a baby or undergo an abortion is mirrored in the story and life of Rose Rose. Her character represents a life of a young African-American girl whose only protector betrayed her trust. Her father gave her a different kind of love and she had to face the consequences. The “incidence of abortion has resulted in a tremendous loss of life. It has been estimated that since 1973 Black women have had about 16 million abortions” (Blackgenocide.org). Rose is a representative character of the society of Black women who faced their pregnancies in the twentieth century. She got pregnant once and decided to have the baby and take care of it but when she got pregnant for the second time she needed help. Being an African-American girl with no education and being financially dependent on her father, she could not effort to have another kid. When talking with Angel – Homer and Candy's son who fell in love with Rose – she confessed that “[she didn't] want this other one” (Irving 557), meaning that she wanted to keep the first baby but she did not want to keep the one in her belly. According to Zoe Dutton, African-American girls are more likely to get pregnant than white women. Especially when they are in their teenage years (Dutton). In her article Dutton discusses a story of a young Renee Bracey Sherman who had to face a similar situation as Rose Rose. She got pregnant very young and decided to have an abortion. Renee says that “[t]here's that pressure that society puts on you, and the way society treats people who get

37 pregnant young or unintended, especially if you're of color” (qtd. in Dutton). Irving describes the society that Rose lives in as well. He highlights the community of workers who are also African-American and also the Worthington family. Although nobody blames Rose for being irresponsible young girl, the white people – represented by Wally, Candy, Homer and Angel – are more curious about her pregnancy than the Black pickers. Homer once said to Mr Rose that he was worried about Rose. “She looks unhappy, sometimes” (qtd. in Irving 552) said Homer. But Mr Rose simply replied: “Don't worry about her” (qtd. in Irving 552). Mr Rose plays a big role in the community of pickers in Ocean View, he is the leader the rule-giver. He treats people with respect and if he sees that they do what they are supposed to, he rewards them. Even though he is such a strong character, his personal life and attitude towards his own daughter is different. He claims to love her. The way that Irving describes him shows that Mr Rose would never hurt his daughter. But he never realized that he had actually hurt her when causing her pregnancy. Francis J. Beckwith says that “[a] woman who becomes pregnant due to an act of either rape or incest is the victim of a horribly violent and morally reprehensible crime”. It is morally inadmissible for father to get her daughter pregnant. Society does consider it being a crime. Rose's life had been full of these crimes. Her father never promised to stop. All he ever said was that he “just love[s] her, was all” (qtd. in Irving 574). “When early social workers uncovered cases of incest, they frequently described the girls as seducers rather than victims” (Evans). On the other hand, men were considered innocent, and promising not to do it again was a reason sufficient enough as to let them go without a punishment (Evans). Rose, though, is not described as a seducer. Irving portrays her more like an innocent character. If she was a seducer, she would try to tempt even Angel since she spent a lot of time with him. It is clear from the conversations between Rose and Angel, that this girl does not even know the difference between making love and being loved. As much as she does not want to have her father's baby, she still stays an obedient daughter. Since abortion was her only option, she asked Angel for help. “'Just get me an abortion,” Rose Rose said. 'I don't live 'round here, I don't know nobody to ask, and I got no money'” (Irving 557). Her father did not know about the baby. She could not even ask him to help her, even though he was the only family she had. The first one to know who the father of Rose's baby was was Candy. She walked in on

38 Rose and her father in the cider house. The fact that the cause of Rose's pregnancy was incest even increased Candy's decision to help Rose. Homer's role in the story is also very important. Even though he still believed that abortion was not a necessary intervention, he changed his mind as he heard about the cause of Rose's pregnancy. First he tried to send her to St. Cloud's so that Dr Larch could look at her and help her by performing the Devil's work. But realizing that Dr Larch died, he had to take control over the situation himself. At the end, he decided to perform the abortion in the cider house. The last chapter of Rose's life portrayed in the story of The Cider House Rules is about her escape from Ocean View. As much as she loved her father, she needed to deal with her sudden situation on her own. She sought for revenge and leaving her father without letting him know would be a perfect plan. But Mr Rose did not want to let her go that easily and so she used a knife and stabbed him. The abortion changed her. The new Rose did not care about her bleeding father and simply left him and her past behind.

3.2.4 The Troublemaker: Melony Melony portrays an important character with strong opinions and impact on Homer's life. The development of her personality uncovers her representation of homosexuality and pro-choice decision. Although she is not mentioned in the film based on Irving's novel; which was explained by Irving in an interview for The Guardian when he said that “[s]he is just too overbearing for [Homer Wells]” (“'Melony Was Great but Had to Go'”), in the book itself she plays an important role. Irving's characters describe her as an angry and vicious young lady. She was not originally born in St. Cloud's, as a new born baby she was left in front of a hospital and initially ended up in the orphanage. Nobody knew who her parents were and so it was hard to say where the anger and agony was coming from. Larch explains Homer that “[they] don't know about [Melony's] origins, or her early years, and she may not know herself what all the sources of the anger are” (Irving 82). With this observations Larch clears out that her behaviour is not her fault since she never realized where the anger was coming from and what to do to stop it. When growing up in the orphanage, Melony was one of the biggest and toughest girls.

39 At the beginning she did not have any friends but decided to spend her time with Homer instead. The more time she spent with him, the more fixated to him she became. Her pride would never allow her to tell the truth but she needed Homer in her life as well as Homer needed her. Not only did she use him to implement her vandalism visions, she also used him to experiment with her sexuality. Melony was a promiscuous young girl trying to find herself. Being adopted several times, she always returned back to St. Cloud's claiming that either her adoptive father or step-brother tried to seduce her. For Homer the sexual experiments and talks he had with Melony meant something completely new, something that he would never experience as a young boy if it was not for Melony. She nicknamed Homer Wells with a name Sunshine. It all started when Homer was reading from Jane Eyre to the orphan girls and continued till the very last encounter between Melony and Homer. She always used the nickname when she wanted to notify Homer of something important. Once she said: “Sunshine, we've got nobody. If you tell me we've got each other, I'll kill you” (Irving, 98). This statement of hers confirms her fixation to Homer. She did not know what Homer would reply but she automatically wanted to stop him from pointing out that they had each other. She knew it was true. But being in a position of the stronger of the two of them and being known for showing no feelings, she hid the truth by trying to pursue Homer that it was his idea. Melony's hidden feelings and obsession with Homer made her compel Homer to swear that they would always stay together. Homer was forced to promise not to leave St. Cloud's without Melony and to never leave her alone. However, he broke the promise when leaving St. Cloud's with Candy and Wally and that made Melony seeking for a revenge. She then decided to run away from the orphanage in order to find Homer. The new phase of her life made her change her habits and personality. She needed to learn how to live in the outside world where there were no nurses to take care of her. Her sexual experiments continued and eventually she found a soul mate, a partner, a woman named Lorna. Melony and Lorna started to live together and built their relationship while Melony was still complaining about Homer Wells. Melony became Irving's presentation of homosexuality in The Cider House Rules. But not only did she represented the issue of lesbianism, she also had her point of view when it came to abortions which turned up to be the pro-choice decision. “Larch once wrote in A Brief History of St. Cloud's. 'An orphan, or an abortion?' 'An abortion, definitely,' Melony had said

40 once, when Homer Wells had asked her” (Irving 407). She did not mention any reason why she would choose abortion over an orphan. She did not even think that once she would have to deal with this issue. For fifteen years she was living with Lorna and for fifteen years she was a faithful partner. Loyalty was very important for Melony in general. She expected Homer to be loyal but he betrayed her when leaving her in St. Cloud's. She also expected Lorna to be faithful and since they were living as a couple for fifteen years, she did not expect any betrayal coming. However, Lorna shocked her when she got pregnant. Even though Melony's character changed and she learned how to live in a relationship and share things with her partner, she did not learn how to deal with a treachery. The point of view that she expressed Homer in the orphanage did not modify. Abortion was the first thing on her mind when she heard her lover saying that she was pregnant. “'You take the train to St. Cloud's. When you get there, you ask for the orphanage,' Melony said to her friend” (Irving 450). Even though Melony left St. Cloud's long ago, she never forgot that place and she thought of if as of the only solution for Lorna. There never was a conversation about whether Lorna wanted to have the abortion or not. It was Melony who decided for her. Unlike in the case of Candy's pregnancies, there was no debate. Melony and Lorna were a couple as well as Candy and Wally and Candy and Homer but betrayal was a reason good enough for Melony to choose an abortion over a child. Candy always had somebody to lean on. First it was Wally, the it was Homer. Lorna had Melony but Melony was neither Homer not Wally. She supported Lorna as much as she could but anticipated the same from her. Even though Melony hinted at breaking up with her partner, Lorna still believed that after the abortion Melony would accept her back. Linda Franck says that it is highly possible that relationships of young people break up after or before the abortion. Melony and Lorna support this argument. When Lorna came back from St. Cloud's, Melody did not want to live together anymore and eventually broke up with Lorna. Next phase of Melony's life started right after the break up. Her obsession with Homer Wells and her wish to find him again stroke her even more. After some time, she finally found her way to Ocean View when she met with Homer, Angel and Candy. All the years she imagined how the meeting with Homer would look like and how much hatred she would feel but the reality was different. In her own words Homer changed, more than she thought. “'I somehow thought you'd end up doin' something better than ballin' a poor cripple's wife and

41 pretendin' your own child ain't your own,' Melony said to Homer Wells. 'You of all people – you, an orphan,' she reminded him” (Irving 497). She always considered him a hero, somebody with principles but his actions took her by surprise. Several times in her life, Melony threatened to kill Homer if he does not do what she wanted or if he runs away from St. Cloud's without her. She wanted to hurt him for the betrayal and she fulfilled her wishes. She did not hurt him physically but she slightly killed him inside when showing him the mirror image of his inner Homer, the boy who used to be an orphan but became a father denying his own son.

42 4 Conclusion The main objective of the thesis was to discuss The Cider House Rules, its main male and female characters and show that their correspondence with the attitudes to abortions bespeak American society of nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-first century. The first part defines the issue of abortions in the context of American society and uses John Irving's characters and the novel itself as a supporting aspect when describing the points of view and historical the background on the issue. The first chapter also consists of three sections. Each one is dealing with different time period. The first subsection deals with the nineteenth century and its policies and milestones concerning abortions in the United States of America using the character of Dr Larch as a supportive feature. The subsection demonstrates that John Irving followed historical facts and let the social issues mirror themselves into his characters. The life of Dr Wilbur Larch shows the conditions of abortion clinics of the nineteenth century. He builds an illegal but safe abortion clinic which is the only place for women to get abortions in. He creates a sanctuary that faces the real abortion locations of the nineteenth century United States which were built only for business purposes. Larch's life also provides information about the real abortionists which did not cared about their patients similarly to those rendering abortion interventions during the nineteenth century in the United States. As John Irving claimed – The Cider House Rules is a historical novel that corresponds with real conditions and milestones of the issue of abortions in American history of the nineteenth century. The second subsection analyses the twentieth century with a special focus on pro- choice and pro-life decisions. In the twentieth century the perspective on the issue of abortions in American society changed. The most important milestone came out with the case of Roe v Wade that brought out questions about legalization of abortions. The verdict established that abortions were legal and women had rights to control their bodies and decisions when it came to abortions in the first trimester of their pregnancies. The case divided American society into two categories – pro-life and pro-choice. The novel provides several life stories that correspond either with pro-choice or with pro-life decision. Candy Kendall is one of the characters whose decisions correspond with the pro-choice movement. She is a strong women who takes control over her body and decides to undergo an abortion herself. Apart from that she also seeks help for her friend Rose Rose who got in trouble and abortion is her only solution. Candy never judges Rose and fully supports her pro-choice

43 decision. The third section focuses on the female characters of the novel and real life testimonies of the twenty-first century women living in the United States. The twenty-first century is a period of technology which brought up a lot of ways for communication. Many women use different websites and forums to share their confessions and post articles about their experiences with abortions. Even though the novel itself is thirty years old, it still functions as a mirror of the lives of women who had to or wanted to undergo abortion. Their regrets, emotions and the circumstances under which they had to decide are revealed and so are those of female characters of The Cider House Rules. The next part focuses specially on the novel itself. It dissects the main issues discussed in the book and deals with the heroes of the novel. The first subsection focuses on the part of the novel that describes the Lord's and the Devil's work also known as delivering babies and performing abortions. Apart from that, the subsection shows that the story of The Cider House Rules, especially its characters of Wilbur Larch and Homer Wells, look at the issue from a different perspective. Their discussions about the issue upgrade it to the level where there is no pro-life or pro-choice decision but only pro- human point of view. For Wilbur Larch, the most important factor is whether his patients are healthy and get a proper health care. Homer Wells, on the other hand, realizes that his early belief that fetus is a human being is not the only factor when deciding whether to perform an abortion or not. He comes to a conclusion that the circumstances under which the women are forced to make a decision about their pregnancies are more important and sometimes there is no other solution which does not necessarily mean that the women should be punished or judged by other people for her decision. The second subsection then brings us to the female world of The Cider House Rules. Each woman is represented with a special attribute used in the analysis. Mrs and Ms Eames' lives display the role of prostitution in the nineteenth century. They represent the low-class women and the fact that abortion was their only choice since they owed their livelihood to their bodies and could not effort to bring up children with no fathers and no money. Rose Rose's destiny shows that fatherly love should be different from how it is described in The Cider House Rules. Rose is an obedient daughter who accepts her father to love her. He does. But his concept of love grows into incest. These are tabooed issues such as incest that are also connected to abortions since they are the circumstances that force women

44 to make the uneasy decisions. In conclusion, the thesis not only proved that John Irving created a realistic historical novel corresponding with the attitudes to abortions of American society of nineteenth century but it also showed that the story of The Cider House Rules connects pro-life and pro-choice movements to such a level that these two sides of a coin disappear and what stays is pro - human movement focusing on women and their decisions from the perspective of love, friendship and understanding. Even though John Irving is a man of pro - choice decisions, his characters present the issue in a gentle way and provide a complex overview which enables people to comprehend the decisions and analyse them in a wider perspective.

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