33 2014 RAQ I S FORCE S UNITEDSTATE Gender in conflict by Christian Dietrich and Clodagh Quain Violent conflict benefits few and tends to exac- a society. A focus on gender enables an analysis erbate the negative consequences of inequalities not only of the different roles, but also of the dif- and marginalisation. The abduction of Nigerian ferent opportunities that women and men have girls by jihadi militia Boko Haram, the systematic in a given social setting. Inequality might well rape carried out during the Syrian civil war, and be a cause for conflict, but conflict also ampli- the scores of Yezidi girls married off against their fies inequality. Yet such instability does not neces- will by Islamic State (IS) in Iraq are some recent sarily aggravate gender inequality per se. In fact, arresting examples of violence affecting girls and its transformative impulses can provide room for women. those disadvantaged by gender roles to renegoti- ate their identities. Women, men and children experience and act dif- ferently in the context of violence and post-con- Gender inequality is a global phenomenon. For flict reconstruction. In order to understand and example, the difference in the rate of female par- address the gender-related consequences of con- liamentarians in the first and last 50 countries flict, an exclusive focus on sexual violence and the ranked in the Human Development Index (HDI) portrayal of girls and women primarily as targets is rather minor: 24.4% versus 17.1%, respectively. has to be overcome. Such a narrative not only un- However, the vast majority of key peace agree- derestimates women’s capabilities for self-help, it ments since the early 1990s were signed in rela- can also hinder their empowerment. Just as men tion to conflicts in developing countries, most of can be more than combatants, women can be more which rank considerably lower than developed than just victims. In conflict, they can be civilians, countries on the UN Development Programme’s breadwinners, peacebuilders and, at times, also (UNDP) Gender Inequality Index (GII). All of the combatants. By grasping the broad spectrum of 20 most highly-ranked countries on the GII have women’s roles, a more nuanced understanding can ‘very high’ levels of human development, whereas be gained about gender in conflict; and more suit- all of the bottom 50 rank in the ‘medium’ or ‘low’ able policy responses adopted accordingly. brackets of the HDI. The participation of women in the political arena Gender in society is often limited and, in some extreme cases, their rights as citizens are substantially curtailed. What The concept of gender refers to the socially and is more, women’s representation varies substan- culturally construed roles of women and men in tially across policy fields: according to the Inter- European Union Institute for Security Studies November 2014 1 Parliamentary Union, women are more likely to a deceased male are customarily passed on to his hold top positions in socio-cultural ministries closest male relative. At the same time, women rather than in ministries of defence, justice, inte- might also venture beyond socially assigned roles rior or foreign affairs. when providing for an extended family of surviv- ing dependants. While men tend to dominate paid labour globally, it is women in lower middle income countries in The socio-economic consequences of conflict also particular who are often confined to specific eco- often coerce civilian populations into unconven- nomic roles without remuneration. tional markets and marginal work. The combi- nation of various forms of stigma in the labour In conflict, social customs can additionally con- market and a need to substitute low household in- strict women’s economic opportunities. That being comes means that prostitution often grows rapidly, said, the hardship imposed by conflict can neces- as does organised crime or human trafficking. sitate and increase the tolerance for women tran- scending social customs and expanding their role Between 2010 and 2012, the EU’s member states beyond traditional conceptions. worked with 77 different countries on the imple- mentation of policies which are sensitive to the role of gender in security. The EU also helps countries Women as civilians... develop and implement national action plans that address awareness and reporting related to gender- While large parts of populations are affected by vi- based violence. olent conflict, they may not necessarily be victim- ised, i.e. subjected to immediate physical harm. The role of women during the two World Wars ...victims... (in what was then known as the ‘home front’) was shaped by the demands of the war industry and Violence in conflict is itself multifaceted, encom- the vast mobilisation of men to be deployed at the passing political (kidnappings, torture and dis- front. This meant that many women took up work placement), economic (robbery, ransom) or social in factories and other areas previously considered forms (honour killings). Displacement, for in- men’s domains. stance, affects women, men and children equally in statistical terms, and amplifies the sense of vul- During the prevailing intra-state conflicts of the nerability amongst those uprooted. Yet, culture past two decades, civilian women also provided and convention also have an impact: an intera- important support structures to warring fac- gency assessment carried out with Syrian refugees tions. Voluntary or forced, their assistance can in Jordan showed that 40% of women and girls range from lending support to fighters by secur- never – or rarely – leave their assigned shelter, as ing medical care, preparing food, or providing opposed to 28% of boys and 16% of men. shelter. As a result of displacement, economic insecurity, War has detrimental effects on a range of servic- and marred social networks, people’s environ- es which are often taken for granted. By disrupt- ments become more unstable, thus increasing ing food supplies as well as health and education the risk of sexual violence. Such violence against services, violence takes its toll on communities women, men and children ranges from cases of at large. Yet, on account of infant and maternal rape to forced prostitution, sexual slavery, forced health, women have particular medical and nutri- pregnancy and other forms of sexual assault. It is tional needs that are likely to be insufficiently met increasingly used as a tactic of warfare that causes during times of conflict. sustained harm to communities through psycho- logical trauma and the disintegration of social co- Moreover, armed conflict also impairs social hesion. The extent of the problem can be shock- structures. When male breadwinners are absent, ing: in the east of the Democratic Republic of the women frequently take on new responsibilities Congo (DRC), 1.3 million women and 760,000 in families and communities. At the same time, men – out of a population of 5 million in the women’s economic rights tend to be much more area – were victims of sexual violence between limited than those of their male counterparts. 1994 and 2010. Where customs curtail women’s rights to land or property ownership, widows and/or female elders This said, attempts to quantify cases of sexual vi- are left on the economic fringe or in a state of olence among women and men are challenging at dependence when, for instance, the belongings of best, with those reporting sexual violence often European Union Institute for Security Studies November 2014 2 Gender in major conflicts and peace processes 1992 – 2011 Northern Ireland Croatia Kosovo The former Yugoslav Republic 1968 - 1998 1991 -1995 1998 - 1999 2001 of Macedonia 6% 2% 1% 1% n/a n/a Guatemala Bosnia and Herzegovina Afghanistan 1960 - 1996 1992 - 1995 Iraq 2001 Philippines 2010 1996 - 2007 7% 0% 6% n/a 0% 0% Nepal Central African 1996 - 2006 1996 - 2011 Sudan Republic 1983 - 2005 2004 - 2008 Yemen 2011 0% 17% 3% 3% 0% 2003 - 2006 2004 - 2011 Papua New Guinea Honduras Somalia Kenya 1989 - 2001 2009 4% 0% 1991 - 2002 2007 - 2008 n/a n/a 3% 17% 0% 15% Democratic Republic Sierra Leone n/a 1991 - 1999 2006 - 2008 El Salvador of the Congo 1998 - 2003 Uganda 1979 -1992 1987 - 2008 5% 3% n/a 4% 8% 7% Key Liberia Côte d'Ivoire Zimbabwe Burundi 6WDUWRIFRQƮLFW 2004 - 2008 1999 - 2003 2001 - 2003 2008 1993 - 2000 Peace Agreement n/a 10,000 Battle deaths (estimate) 8% 6% 0% 0% 1% 1,000,000 Displaced persons (estimate) 30% Women in peace negotiations high Gender equality (based on GII) Sources for data: UCDP, UNHCR, UN WOMEN, UNDP running the risk of discrimination or isolation. A impact of a gender reshuffle became strikingly evi- 2014 survey of Syrian refugees by UN Women, dent. for example, found that 92% of women indicated that a woman who lost her virginity before mar- In the Second World War, women were, for ex- riage, regardless of circumstances in which this ample, deployed by the Soviet army as a tactic to occurred, would never be accepted within their encourage their more hesitant male counterparts community. First-hand accounts from victims to enlist, and an estimated 15% of the 820,000 and eyewitnesses are therefore rare and any in- women who served in the Red Army were combat- formation offered to international organisations, ants. NGOs and other actors in the field requires over- coming victims’ inhibitions to break the wall of Attempts to recruit women into terrorist groups are silence. intensifying. Between 1985 and 2006, it is estimat- ed women accounted for 15% of overall suicide In response to the occurrence of gender-based vi- bombers globally, and this figure continues to rise. olence, the EU has initiated 100 projects directly The social and cultural barriers that allow women targeting affected women and girls, worth over to evade thorough examination at many security €80 million in total.