Module # 1 - Reptilia (The Reptiles)

1 – WildlifeCampus Snakes and Reptiles of the Lowveld Course

Snakes & Reptiles of the Lowveld

This course was written by renowned expert and snake handler in this field, Ian Dewsbury. It covers the identification, classification, characterisation, reproduction, description and distribution of 89 species of reptiles and snake’s endemic to the Highveld and Lowveld regions of South Africa. It has been designed for those wishing to obtain a good overview of the subject. Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Module # 1 - Reptilia (The Reptiles)

Component # 1 - Introduction Reptiles

Module # 2 - Chelonia (Shield reptiles)

Component # 1 - Introduction to Chelonia Component # 2 - Tortoise Species Component # 3 - Terrapin Species

Module # 3 - Crocodiles, Monitor Lizards & Chameleons

Component # 1 - Crocodiles, Monitors & Chameleons

Module # 4 - Serpentes (The Snakes)

Component # 1 - Introduction to Snakes Component # 2 - Blind and Thread snakes Component # 3 - Pythons Component # 4 - Burrowing snakes Component # 5 - Typical Snakes Part # 1 Component # 6 - Typical Snakes Part # 2 Component # 7 - Typical Snakes Part # 3 Component # 8 - Cobras and Mambas Component # 9 - Vipers and Adders Component # 10 - Un-resolved species

Module # 5 - First Aid for Snakebite

Component # 1 - First Aid for Snakebite

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Module # 1 - Component # 1

Introduction to Reptiles

Myths and superstitions

Despite the snake being symbolized by the medical profession in the form of the caduceus or magic wand of the Greek god Hermes, there is a huge amount of fear and misunderstanding of reptiles.

Most times a snake is encountered, the person discovering the snake becomes panicked and frightened, screams or runs away. Frequently, the snake is unnecessarily killed. Most often (statistically) the snake is totally harmless to humans and is, in fact being useful by controlling rodents in the area, particularly around human habitation.

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Certainly, they may (although seldom) inflict bites and they may be potentially life- threatening, but far fewer people die from snakebites than from bee stings, there are more people killed by lightning in a year than by venomous snakes. Many species of snakes are unfortunately restricted to the ground and cannot stay out of our way. There is a surprising similarity between a Brown House Snake (Boaedon capensis) and a Black Shouldered Kite, excluding physical appearance of course. They both hunt rodents and cannot inflict any great harm on us. The bird, however, is mostly seen in areas that we do not use, such as trees, in the air or perched on telephone lines.

Brown House Snake

What exacerbates an irrational fear of reptiles, and particularly snakes, is the wealth of commonly held beliefs, misconceptions, superstition, myths, embellished anecdotes, urban legends and blatant fabrications that surround them. Here are a few of the commonly heard examples, followed by a rational perspective.

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Are tortoises used by Sangoma's (traditional witch doctors)?

Yes. There is a belief that because the shell protects the tortoise this protection will be passed across to them. Tortoises’ feet are often used for digging, and thus some believe they solve a problem quicker by using these feet in tribal ritual.

Are all snakes venomous?

No. Of the ±140 endemic species to Southern Africa, only about 10% are venomous enough to be considered medically important from a human perspective.

Do snakes move in pairs?

No. Snakes and most reptiles are solitary animals. They will only seek out other specimens during breeding season. They do not travel together. Once mating is complete, they move off in separate directions.

Do snakes seek out revenge when you have killed one of a pair?

No. The pairing myth may stem from the phenomenon of certain species of female leaving scent trails for males to find and following as part of their reproductive activity. Those encountering the female and soon after the following male may incorrectly conclude pairing.

Are chameleons venomous?

No. They are harmless and cannot impose any real damage to anyone. The origin of this belief is not conclusively documented.

Why are some people scared of Chameleons?

One traditional belief is that when a person dies, their spirit goes to the nearest animal to go to the spirit world. If this is a chameleon, the spirit will never get there. Another is because the eyes of the chameleon can rotate independently from one another, an animal that can see into the future and the past at the same time is not to be trusted.

Do snakes crush their prey, particularly pythons?

No. Constrictors do not crush their prey at all. It would be risky during swallowing to have broken bones in the prey. They could penetrate the snake's internal organs while swallowing. All constrictors do, is to wrap their bodies around their chosen prey, and tighten their coils every time the animal exhales. This action inhibits the ability to inhale so that it cannot get in air and eventually suffocates.

Does the Puff Adder (Bitis arietans arietans) strike backwards?

No. They do not strike backwards, but rather, extremely rapidly forwards. Having one of the fastest strikes in the world. The forward strike is so rapid that it is often not seen when prey/victims are bitten.

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Does the Black Mamba run faster than a horse?

No. The size and speed of snakes are frequently over-exaggerated, probably as a result of the fright and panic situation resulting from a random encounter. Most people can outrun a snake easily, especially as reptiles can only go at full speed in short bursts.

Do snakes only die at sunset?

No. Most certainly not, they die naturally at any time or when they get killed.

Are snakes slimy?

No. They do have a shiny appearance, but unless they have just come out of water, they are dry and feel dry. Some describe the texture as being very similar to glass.

Do snakes sting with their tongue?

No. The tongue is used for olfactory (smell) functions. The tongue flickers more frequently when the animal is in a new environment, when people are around or when in search of prey. The forked tongue "catches" air particles and takes them into the mouth where a specialised organ called the Jacobson's Organ is situated. This is in the top of the mouth, which then translates the scents into smells it comprehends.

Do snakes lick their prey before swallowing it?

No. This belief probably originates from the way a snake will sometimes flick its tongue over the entire body of the prey before swallowing. This action allows the snake to accurately discern the animal body shape. This is done to ensure that swallowing of the victim headfirst, which usually guarantees that limbs and hair will fold down when swallowed.

Are all venomous snakes immune to other snake venom?

No. Some snakes seem to have an immunity to venom like the King Snake in America or the King Cobra of India. Our Cape File Snake can eat Black Mambas (our most venomous species). The same species can, to some degree, be immune to their own venom, but this is not always the situation and deaths may still occur. Venom is a protein and if ingested (swallowed) by a snake, the venom simply gets digested. It is when the venom is introduced into the bloodstream that envenomation takes place. How this results in humans (swallowing venom) is not something that should be independently tested, but the fact that snakes have fangs cannot be ignored. Balance this against the fact that when venom is introduced to eyes (spitting cobras) the envenomation effect is very serious. Inhaling snake venom is also potentially dangerous and should be avoided at all costs.

After a snake has envenomated prey or has been milked is it harmless?

No. This is most definitely not the situation. Snake venom comes from modified saliva glands and venom is often quickly replenished.

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Is there a difference between venom and poison?

Yes. The distinction comes from the mode of delivery into an organism. Snakes are venomous, not poisonous. Venom ingested as opposed to injected is not as problematic. Poison dart frogs (Dendrobatidae) (previously known as Poison – arrow frogs) are poisonous, not venomous. You may be poisoned by contact or ingesting the animal. Venom can be consumed or placed on the skin with little to no effect. It is a mix of specific proteins that have to get into the blood system to have any effect. A poison, however, cannot be safely ingested and, in some cases, even placed on the skin as it is absorbed by the body and results in poisoning or death.

Do pythons hang onto trees when killing prey? Do they have a hook attached to the tail used for anchorage?

No. Pythons do not have a hook on the end of their tails. They also do not hang onto tree trunks, however, if a tree is nearby and the prey is pulling them, they may wrap their tail around a tree or bush. There are many other beliefs and superstitions that exist which are often a problem to reptiles, as they are nearly all negative and result in the animals being persecuted or killed through ignorance.

Puff Adder

If you have enjoyed this section, then have a look at our FREE African Folklore Course.

Introduction to Reptiles © Copyright

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Classification and Taxonomy

The reasons for use, importance, methods and usefulness of classification and taxonomy are explored in great detail in the module of the same name that can be found in our Game Ranging Course.

Species example

Here is the full taxonomic classification of an individual species, in this case, the Puff adder.

Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class: Reptilia (Reptiles) Order: Squamata (Scaled reptiles) Suborder: Serpents (Snakes) Family: Viperidae (Adders and vipers) Subfamily: Viperinae (True vipers) Genus: Bitis (African Adders) Species: arietans (Puff adder) Subspecies: arietans (Typical puff adder)

Puff Adder

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Characteristics

Reptiles are masters of survival, some originating back to the dinosaur era with relatively little change over the millions of years. This is not purely by chance, but due to a couple of specialised attributes.

These are:

Ambush Ectothermy (cold-blooded)

Ambush

Many reptiles are predators/hunters. The most successful hunters attack by surprise, using a combination of camouflage, habitat and silence. For instance, Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) ambush prey from under the water, the Puff Adder (Bitis arietans arietans) lies in wait for unsuspecting prey to move within striking distance. The slow- moving chameleon with a lighting fast tongue that is accurate over a relatively long distance. A lot of the time, this method of hunting uses up low amounts of energy, particularly if you compare it to a long fruitless chase by a cheetah. This method of hunting effectiveness is aided by the most important factor of their survival, being "cold-blooded".

Nile crocodile

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Ectothermy

The term "cold-blooded" is not really 100% correct, although it is a general term that reptiles have been classified under. They vary from being "cold-blooded" to "hot- blooded". A Rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) in the middle of winter in a burrow will most certainly be "cold-blooded", but on a hot summers day basking in the sun, its body temperature will often be higher than that of most warm-blooded animals.

A more correct term would be ectothermic. There are other terms used to describe ectothermic such as exothermic and poikilothermic, but for this course, we are only using ectothermic. The term means that they are reliant on outside heat sources. The word originates from the Greek word ectos, meaning outside and therme meaning heat. The general misconception is that Ectothermy, as opposed to Endothermy (warm-blooded), represents a lower form of evolution, and thus overall inferior. Therefore, we ask, why this is of any real benefit to them? When we examine most mammals, we find that they use approximately 80-90% of their food intake to generate internal body heat. Thus, reptiles by comparison only need to eat 10-20% of the amount of food of the equivalent sized mammal. This for a reptile is adequate to "generate" the heat required for activity, which is accomplished with very little effort, other than to find a spot in the sun. Not only do they need to eat less, but they can also eat less frequently than mammals. Periods of drought or adverse climatic conditions affects them less severely than mammals, which most certainly aids in their continued and successful survival.

Nile crocodile

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A few examples are:

Hatchling egg eater snakes have been recorded to survive for a year without any food, surviving only on the food absorbed while in the egg and from the egg sac after hatching.

Pythons in captivity have been recorded not to eat for a year, or only be fed a couple of large meals. In the wild, an adult Southern African Python (Python natalensis) may only have 2-4 large meals a year.

Nile crocodiles

This applies to other snakes, crocodiles, monitors and chameleons. For some species, this is of great importance, particularly if frogs are your main diet. This includes snakes such as the Common (Rhombic) Night Adder (Causus rhombeatus) or the Red- Lip/Herald Snake (Crotophopeltis hotamboeia). Frogs are only active during the rainy season. In the winter, they will hibernate. During drought, they will keep their body temperature as low as possible, until food is available. Now, one may ask what about chelonians (Tortoises and Terrapins). They do need to feed more regularly, but in comparison to mammals of the same size, they still eat far less. This must not obscure the disadvantages of Ectothermy vs. Endothermy, after all, being able to generate your own body heat was one of the main reasons why mammals out competed reptiles to become the dominant terrestrial group. Suffice to say, cold-bloodedness in reptiles needs simply be considered within the context of their own ecology.

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Characteristics

There are six predominantly common attributes among the Class Reptilia, these are:

They are creeping and burrowing terrestrial animals. Their body is covered with scales made of keratin which help them to survive in hot and dry areas. They fertilize eggs internally and their eggs have a hard covering which helps them to survive on land. A few of them give birth to live young ones. They are cold-blooded animals and absorb heat from the environment. They have developed lungs which help them to breathe on land as the scales prevent them from absorbing oxygen through their skin. They conserve water by eliminating nitrogen waste as uric acid.

Black Mamba

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There are key differences between the various groups of reptiles as shown below, not all species within the group (e.g. snakes) conform to the characteristics listed.

Tortoises Description Snakes Lizards Monitors Chameleons and Crocodiles Turtles

Moveable No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes eyelids

Four legs No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Ovoviviparity Yes No No No No No

Egg-laying Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Retractile Yes No Yes No No No tongue

External ears No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Protective No No No No Yes No shell Single row (Ventral Yes No No No N/A No scales) Several rows (Ventral No Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes scales) Tail No Yes No No No No regeneration Operational 1 2 2 2 2 2 lungs

Notes:

Retractile tongue refers to the use of the tongue for "smelling" rather than for hunting.

Diapsid Skull – Basically, this is an old form of the skull with very few openings in it.

Anapsid Skull - These skulls have evolved and are more "lightweight" or have more openings than diapsid skulls. Excess or unnecessary bone is no longer present.

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Glossary

All science and especially the natural sciences have an affinity for terminology and jargon. To assist you with the content, we have prepared a short glossary of terms specific to reptiles. For a full glossary of scientific terms, please visit the glossary section of our website.

Anal scale Refers to the scale between the last ventral scale and first subcaudal scale. In chelonians, it refers to the last plastral scutes. Abdominal A scute or shield that is in the middle of the chelonian plastron. Anterior Towards the front/at the front. Anti-venom A serum produced to aid in the treatment of snakebites. Aquatic Living mainly in water. Arboreal Living mainly in trees. Bridge Area in a chelonian where the plastron and carapace join. Carapace Refers to the top of the shell of a chelonian. Cardiotoxin A toxin that mainly affects the heart, stops the heart muscles from working. It is a form of neurotoxin. Caudal Refers to the tail. Chelonian Refers to tortoises and terrapins. Cloaca Common urogenital opening. The sexual organs, digestive tract and urinary system all exit through the cloaca. Birds also have cloacas. Clutch Quantity of eggs laid by a female. Double-clutch will refer to two lots of eggs being laid by a female in a season. Colubridae Family of snake that in most cases has fixed teeth to both jaws or weakly developed rear fangs. The majority are harmless. Costal Scutes on a tortoise between the vertebrals and marginals. Crepuscular Active at dusk and dawn/sunrise and sunset. Cusp Referring to the hook(s) present at the tip of the upper beak of a chelonian. Cytotoxin Toxic protein that destroys cells, often leading to necrosis. Diurnal Predominantly active during the day/sunshine. Diverticulate Refers to either a division of the main lung or a secondary lungs chamber/sac off the main lung. Dorsal The upper part of the body. Dorsal scale All the scales to the upper body/all scales excluding the subcaudal and ventral scales. Dorsolateral The scales or area to either side and including the backbone or spinal region and above the lateral area. Elapidae Snake Family whose members are fixed front fanged, mainly represented by cobras. Most species are Neurotoxic. Endemic Naturally occurring in a specific region. Envenomation When venom is injected into another body by a reptile or insect. Fang Specially modified tooth to carry venom from the venom glands into the prey. Can be grooved or hollow fang. Femoral Scutes located behind the abdominals and in front of the anals. Fossorial Adapted to underground living. Gravid A pregnant reptile. Gular A scute that is on the plastron of a tortoise or terrapin below the neck.

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Haemotoxic The venom that negatively influences the circulatory/blood system and clotting. Death usually occurs through bleeding to death. Hatchling Refers to a newly born reptile. Hemipenes Paired copulatory organ, which is in male reptiles in the order Squamata. Humeral Scutes that are behind the gulars and in front of the pectorals. Intergular A scale that is between the gulars of a terrapin. Interstitial skin The skin between the scales, which in some species, is very visible like the Cape File Snake. Intramuscular Injected/envenomation into the muscles. Intravenous Injected/envenomation into a vein. Jacobson's Organ situated in the roof of the mouth, used in scent recognition. Organ Scent particles drawn in via the flickering tongue are deposited in the organ, which then translates the information to the brain. Keel A small ridge on each scale. This is most noticeable in the Viperidae/Adder species. Labial Usually refers to the upper and lower scales of the lips. Lateral Refers to the side of the snake. This is above the ventral scales and below the dorsolateral area. Loreal A scale that is between the nasal and preocular scales which is mainly missing in Elapids. Marginals Scutes around the side of a tortoise or terrapin. Montane Mountains areas. Necrosis Death of tissue in a localized area. Normally occurs after bites from Adders, cytotoxic species. Neurotoxic Venom that usually affects neuromuscular function, for example, making breathing and movement difficult. This venom is predominantly found in elapids. Nocturnal Usually active at night. Nuchal A scale in chelonians that is between the marginals just above the neck. Oviparous A reptile that lays eggs. Ovoviviparous Refers to species that incubate their eggs internally. Their offspring hatch from these internal eggs and then emerge from the cloaca, giving a false impression that they give birth to live young. Examples include Puff Adder and Rinkhals Parietal Scales that are the last head scales before the dorsal scales start. Pectoral A scute in chelonians that is located behind the Humerals by the front legs. Plastron Refers to the lower half of the shell. Posterior Refers to the rear part of the animal/reptile. Postnasal Scale situated behind the nose. Postocular Scale situated behind the eye. Prefrontal Scale on top of the head. Prenasal Scale situated to the front of the nose. Preocular Scale in front of the eye. Recurve Often refer to teeth that are curved backwards. E.g. Pythons. Rhombic A diamond-shaped (or close to) shaped marking on the body. Riverine Associated to areas near to rivers. Rostral Large scale in front of the nose. Scale Usually small, flat hard parts or structure on the surface of a reptile.

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Scute A keratin plate that covers the bone of a chelonian shell. Shedding See sloughing. Shield Often used as an alternative to scute. Sloughing When the old skin is replaced with new skin, the old skin usually coming off in bits. Subcaudal Scales that are situated under the tail, behind the anal scale. These may be singular or paired. Supracaudal Scute at the back, centre of the carapace above the tail. Usually single in tortoises but can also be divided, and usually divided in terrapins. Supraocular Scale situated above the eye. Tenting Usually refers to the carapace scutes that are raised. Terrestrial Where a specimen mainly lives on the ground. Tubercle An enlarged scale. Present in some tortoises to either side of the tail or the side of some chameleon species. Ventral Refers to scales on the underside of the reptile, which in snakes are the large scales that the specimen crawls on. Vertebral Refers to the scutes that run over the centre of a tortoise on the top. Viviparous refers to species that “give birth to live young”.

Black Mamba