CHAPTER THREE

TUNE-TYPES

In The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, Fintan Vallely defines the term tune-type as: The major forms, with specific time-signatures, are highland/ strathspey, hornpipe, jig (several forms), reel polka, waltz and mazurka. Those with various time signatures are slow airs, planxties, marches and song airs. Other dance related forms are barn dance, fling, German, schottische and two-step. Quadrilles are of historic interest, as is the minuet.1

The term – tune-type – acts as an umbrella term, under which the tunes that comprise the genre’s instrumental music can be organised. In this sense, it is a term that can be used to refer collectively to the reel, jig, polka etc. and it is in this manner that it is most likely understood and used by musicians.

Interestingly, a more specific definition of the term does not appear to exist. In Vallely’s description, it is implied that that the terms tune-type and form are synonymous. But since form is understood as ‘the constructive or organizing element in music’2 and the same tune-type can be found in multiple forms - as a two, three, or even seven-part tune – both terms cannot be said to be synonymous.3 The form of the tune’s individual parts on the other hand could be said to be a salient feature because it is a defining characteristic of tune-types such as the set dance.

I would suggest that the information required to define particular tune-types includes: metre, tempo, rhythmic characteristics and the form of individual parts. Once these are known, they can be used to enable either the composition or performance of music that

1 Vallely, Fintan: ‘Tune-types’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 699. 2 Arnold Whittall: ’Form’, Grove Music Online. http://0www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/09981 (Accessed 20 February 2013). 3 The most common form used in Irish traditional instrumental music is binary form, but in practice, the same tune-type can be found in a variety of forms depending on how its content is organised.

70 is suitable for particular dances or desired musical purposes. The traditional musician, at least implicitly understands these instructions. It is this combination of the stylistic elements from different conceptual fields that makes ‘tune-types’ a hybrid catalyst.4

As noted in Chapter One, the idea of tune-types grew from the practice of classifying tunes and this did not always necessarily require musical difference.5 Most tune-types are related to a dance-type of the same name.6 The exceptions to this are the slow air, strathspey, march, and the recently-introduced tunes in 7/8. Consequently, the tune-type is related to each of the four Irish dance traditions of step dancing, sean-nós dancing, set dancing, and céilí dancing.7 This relationship is complex in that each style of dance may require different variations of the same tune-type. For example, a jig is played significantly slower for a step dancer than it is for a sean-nós dancer. These potential differences are considered when defining each tune-type in its relevant section below.

3.1 Historiography As noted by Aloys Fleischmann, since the criteria for categorising tune-types ‘did not emerge until they were named by the dancing masters towards the end of the eighteenth century, it seems unwarranted to define such terms before the time they were established in the tradition, c.1775’.8 While there are a number of exceptions to this rule,9 material from before the nineteenth century would require a great deal of research in order to apply the tune-type categorisation in any meaningful way. Consequently, this study begins with material from the nineteenth century.

4 See Chapter Two, 64. 5 See Chapter One, 3, 7, 8. 6 See: Joyce, Patrick Weston: Old Irish Folk Music and Songs, (London; New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.; [etc.,], 1909), xix. As stated by P.W. Joyce: ‘All these dance tunes, except the last, took their names from the manner in which they were danced. Besides these, there were ‘Set Dance’ tunes, i.e. tunes with some peculiarity of time, measure, or length, which required a special sort of dance, that had to be learned and practiced for each particular tune’. 7 Definitions for the dance-types can be found in: Vallely, Fintan: The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011). See: ‘Step Dancing’, 182; ‘Sean-Nós Dancing’, 189-191; ‘Set Dancing’, 193-200; ‘Céilí Dancing’, 185-189. 8 Fleischmann, Aloys: Sources of Irish Traditional Music, (New York; London: Garland, 1998), xxviii. Exceptions to this are discussed on a case-by-case basis in Section 3.3 below. 9 Such as the slow air and the various types of march and jig.

71 It is not unusual to find a mixture of vocal and instrumental music in the early collections. While the classes of vocal music can often be distinguished by a theme, a musical difference may or may not be discernible.10 Despite the narrative air serving as an example of a type of song that is also distinguished by its musical features, it would require a study in its own right to determine what other vocal music could be defined as a tune-type. Consequently, this aspect is also set aside, pending further study.

Published in 1805, 1806, 1808 and 1810 respectively, O’Farrell’s four Pocket Companions are probably the earliest collections that contain tunes which approximate to Irish traditional instrumental music as it is known today.11 In addition to containing jigs and reels, his second volume is notable for some of the more unusual tune-types such as the quick step, gavotte, maggott, ‘minuet, march, planxty, and what is thought to be the most accurate transcription of one of the few extant descriptive pieces, the ‘Irish Fox Hunt’.12 Of this list, the gavotte and minuet have not survived into popular practice, the quick step, also known as the two-step appears to have only persisted in a small number of regions such as west Co. Clare,13 the march has survived through ensemble playing, while the maggott and planxty do not have characteristics that are sufficient for definition in musical terms alone.

Petrie’s collections appear to have favoured vocal music but of the instrumental music listed, examples include: a military air or chorus, a quick march, a hop jig, a single jig, a double jig, a Munster double jig, a Munster single jig and a march.14 Petrie’s Munster double jig and Munster single jig appear to be derivatives of the typical double jig and single jig but in both instances, Petrie notes that their origin most likely lies in the older

10 As is the case with the spinning songs and plough tunes collected by George Petrie. See: Petrie, George: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 2, (Dublin: Society for the Preservation and Publication of the Melodies of Ireland, 1882), xxiv. 11 Sky, Patrick: ‘O’Farrell, Patrick [?]’ The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 511-512. 12 O’Farrell, Patrick [?]: O’Farrell’s Pocket Companion for the Irish or Union Pipes, Vol. IV, (London: John Gow, 1810), where the quick step can be found on pages 23, 144, for a gavotte see page 116, for a maggott see 115, a minuet can be found on page 64 and 87, marches on 30, 44, 49, 72, and the ‘Irish Foxhunt’ on page 57. Also see: See: Brennan, Helen: The Story of Irish Dance, (Dingle, Co. Kerry: Brandon, 1999), 21 where she describes the minuet as being popular at the time. 13 It appears on The Kilfenora Céilí Band, Chapter 8, (Kilfenora Céílí Band, 2012), track 5. 14 Petrie, George: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, (Dublin: M.H. Gill, 1855), xxi-xxiv.

72 march type tunes.15 On further inspection, I would venture to add that both examples approximate to what is known today in the step dancing tradition as the ‘heavy jig’ and so what will be termed the heavy double jig and heavy single jig will be discussed below.16

A small number of reels can also be found in Petrie’s collection17 and while he mentions the ‘galop or polka’ he does not provide an example of either.18 The set dance is mentioned in Volume Two as is the ‘Petticotee Jig’, which is described as ‘a species of lively dance, once fashionable in Ireland, and usually performed immediately after the minuet’.19 While Petrie does include one example of this type of a jig, it would require a number of such tunes in order to discern any distinguishing compositional features. On the other hand, neither of his collections contains a minuet.

R.M. Levey is credited with having published the first collection devoted exclusively to dance music. Published by C. Jefferys, London in 1858, the first volume of The Dance Music of Ireland was followed by a second volume in 1873, which, from correspondence with the archivist Maeve Gebruers of the ITMA, would appear to have also been published by Jefferys.20 Both volumes contain reels, single jigs, slip jigs, double jigs and hornpipes.

Patrick Weston Joyce is the first collector to attempt to define various tune-types by describing their metre and occasionally, their tempo and other salient characteristics. It would appear that his definition of tune-types had first been printed in Petrie’s Ancient Music of Ireland (1855) but here it is quoted from Joyce’s own 1873 publication Ancient Irish Music where he states that:

15 See: Ibid., 163 for the Munster Double Jig and p.167 for the Munster Single Jig 16 See Section 3.3.19. 17 Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, 133. Also see: Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 2, 11-12. 18 Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, xx. 19 Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 2, 18-19. 20 For the first collection, see: Levey, Richard Michael: A Collection of the Dance Music of Ireland, consisting of upwards of one hundreds national jigs, reels, hornpipes, &c. (London: C. Jefferys, 1858). According to Gebruers, the only known reference to the publishing details of the second collection is noted in a document listed by the ITMA as ‘Feis Ceoil, 1899. Catalogue of the Musical Loan Exhibition’. Compiled by D.J. O’Donoghue, this item may be found in the National Library of Ireland and as a source, its content is assumed to be correct.

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The dance tunes that prevailed in the Munster counties, twenty-five or thirty years ago [i.e. about 1845], were chiefly the Reel, the Double Jig, the Single Jig, the Hop Jig, and the Hornpipe. The Reel was in common, or two-four, time. The Double Jig was a six-eight time tune, the bars of which usually consisted of six quavers in two triplets. The Single jig was also six-eight time; but here the triplet of the Double Jig was generally, though not invariably, represented by a crotchet followed by a quaver. The Hop Jig, or, as it was also called, Slip Jig, or Slip Time, was a nine-eight time tune (almost peculiar to Ireland). The Hornpipe was in common, or two-four, time; it was played not quite so quickly as the Reel, and was always danced by a man unaccompanied by a partner. All these dance tunes, except the last, took their names from the manner in which they were danced. Besides these, there were ‘Set Dance’ tunes, i.e. tunes with some peculiarity of time, measure, or length, which required a special sort of dance, that had to be learned and practiced for each particular tune. A set dance was always danced by a man without a partner.21

By the late nineteenth century, the idea of a ‘class of tunes’ was gathering force and is described by, amongst others, Frederick St. John Lacy in his 1894 paper for the Royal Musical Association entitled ‘Notes on Irish Music’.22 Of the variety of tune-types noted thus far, the most popular examples appear to have been established in the printed discourse by the early twentieth century and are reflected in Francis O’Neill’s Dance Music of Ireland (1907).23 These include the double jig, single jig, hop or slip jig, reel, hornpipe, long dance and set dance. As will be seen, there is a case for considering the hop and slip jig to be separate tune-types, as indeed there is for differentiating single jigs from slides – a term that would most likely not have been known in O’Neill’s time. Conversely, while the terms long dance and set dance seems to imply two different tune-types, there is no known difference and now, the term set dance is used as standard. It is possible that in using the term long dance, also known by its Irish translation Rinceadh Fada, that O’Neill may have been attempting to imply an ancient lineage to this particular tune-type.24 Rather, the set dance is a solo dance that was ‘composed or arranged by a dancing master to accompany a specific, set choreography […]’ and is very often characterised by a B-part that is longer than eight bars in

21 He also mentions tempo but really only in the sense that the songs are too slow and the dance tunes too fast. See: Joyce, Patrick Weston: Ancient Irish Music, (Dublin: McGlashan and Gill, 1873), v. 22 Although as will be seen later, the reel had been established from the late-eighteenth century. See: Lacy, Frederick St. John: ‘Notes on Irish Music’, Proceedings of the Musical Association, 16th Session (1889–1890), (Dublin: Taylor & Francis, and the Royal Musical Association), 194. 23 O’Neill, Francis: The Dance Music of Ireland, (Chicago: Lyon & Healy, 1907). 24 In a latter publication, O’Neill states that goes on to say that the Rinceadh Fada or Long Dance ‘is being revived in Ireland and America again’. See: O’Neill, Francis: Irish Folk Music: a fascinating hobby, (Chicago, The Regan Printing Room, 1910), 302-303.

74 length.25 Of those that exist, the time signatures used include 2/4, 4/4, 6/8 and 9/8 meaning that several varieties of set dance should be acknowledged.

In any case, O’Neill’s collection is the first work to address dance music on a large scale and firmly establishes the tune-type concept. Indeed, it was received with such favour that musicians often refer to it as ‘the bible’.26 While traditionally it is likely that with regard to instrumental music dance tunes have always been more popular than airs, it is only from this time onwards that the literature begins to reflect this convention.27

Just as some of the tune-types that were common in the eighteenth century were considered traditional enough to be accepted by the time of O’Neill’s Dance Music of Ireland, not all of the tune-types that were popular in the nineteenth century are still current. In this regard, the Frank Roche Collection, consisting of two volumes that were published in 1912 with a third that appeared in 1927, provides a detailed picture of what would have been popular in the nineteenth century.28 As noted by Mícheál Ó Súilleabháin in the preface to the subsequent publication of all three volumes (1982), the collection contains ‘airs, double jigs, reels, hornpipes, single jigs, hop jigs, set dances, flings, set-tunes, marches, schottisches, and even some of the waltzes once popular with traditional players in certain areas [...]’.29 Further to this it includes long dances, (which are in this case noted to be synonymous with ‘contre dances’, an alternative spelling for country dances),30 quadrilles, marches, the cotillion, polka, versavianna, redowa, barndance, two-step, and the mazurka.

In most cases it is unclear as to what defines these tune-types. The quadrille (like the lancer) for instance is a medley, which usually contains five or six tunes and therefore

25 Vallely, Fintan: ‘Set Dance’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 612. 26 This aesthetic shift in the collection tradition is duly noted in the preface to: O’Neill, Francis: O’Neill’s Music of Ireland, (Chicago : Lyon & Healy, 1903). 27 See: Ó Canainn, Tomás: ‘back cover’ Traditional Slow Airs of Ireland: more than 100 of the most beautiful Irish airs, suitable for all instruments, (Cork: Ossian Publications, 1995) where the author writes that: ‘Dance music has been well catered for in many collections, but what many regard as the real jewel in the Irish tradition – the slow air- has been largely neglected’. 28 It should be noted that the publishers of this work in both 1912 and 1927 have not yet been identified. 29 Roche, Frank: The Frank Roche Collection, 2nd ed., (Cork: Ossian Publications, 1993), vii. 30 Roche, Frank: ‘Volume Three’, The Frank Roche Collection, 2nd ed., (Cork: Ossian Publications, 1993).

75 cannot be thought of as being a tune-type. However, one needs to keep in mind that quadrilles which appear as single tunes are printed in the Roche collection, while the same can be said for lancers in the Donegal tradition.31 These have probably acquired this association by virtue of the fact that they may have been played as part of quadrille or lancer sets. Other tune-types for which insufficient information exists include the cotillion, versavianna, redowa or two-step. It is most likely that they are distinguished by their dance-types and this would require further study.

One of the more detailed explanations of tune-types for the time can be found in the sleeve notes to the album Irish Jigs, Reels and Hornpipes, where a section ‘Notes on the recordings: more Irish dances’ written by Esther Brown details the history, and characteristics of ‘the slip jig (or hop jig), more hornpipes, a set dance, and single jigs and double jigs, along with more jigs and reels of ancient origin’.32

In Chapter Four of his Folk Music and Dances of Ireland (1971), Breathnach provides definitions of the ‘traditional’ tune-types: the single jig, double jig, slip jig or hop jig, and reel whilst highlighting their relationship to their respective dance-types.33 Furthermore, he also mentions the quadrille sets and hornpipe but as dance-types rather than tune-types.34 Because of their foreign heritage, he is dismissive of ‘the waltzes, valetas, flings, mazurkas, barndances and polkas [...]’, and even goes as far as suggesting that they are a passing fashion.35 Interestingly, with the benefit of hindsight, aside from the valeta, all of these previously neglected tune-types are now well- established and are particularly associated with regional styles.36

Some ten years earlier, in his Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1 (1963), Breathnach appears to be the first collector to give what he considers to be authentic metronome markings in

31 See Frank Roche, The Roche Collection. 32 See: Clancy, Willie; Gorman, Michael: Irish Jigs, Reels and Hornpipes, (New York: Folkways Records & Service Corp, 1956). 33 Breathnach, Breandán: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, Revised Ed. 1977, (Dublin; Cork: Mercier Press, 1993), 43-46. 34 Ibid.,45-47. 35 Ibid., 85. 36 This is particularly true of the Donegal style, which is associated with the mazurka, highland and barndance tune-types. The Cork and Kerry styles are associated with polkas.

76 beats per minute (BPM) for particular tune-types.37 Breathnach’s tempi were intended only as indications, however, and the use of precise tempi is usually only reserved for performances relating to competitive dancing.38 Rather, it is more common for traditional musicians to use verbal instructions like slow, medium or fast and so there is a degree of variability in relation to any metronome marking found. In many cases, what is considered to be correct is dependent on the context.39

To date, the most detailed classification of tunes is that undertaken by Aloys Fleischmann in his Sources of Irish Traditional Music (1998), which contains material from c.1600–c.1855.40 As stated earlier, the concept of tune-types does not properly apply to this period and indeed, Flesichmann uses what he terms ‘categorisation and subdivision’ to organise the material in his collection. It is an invaluable source in attempting to determine the oldest entry points of tune-types into the Irish tradition. Indeed, owing to its size (it contains some 6,841 melodies),41 there is sufficient consistency to identify the salient characteristics of at least two tune-types that are no longer extant in the practice: early jigs and early slip jigs. These will be discussed later in this chapter and are situated somewhere between their modern cousins and set-dance structures.

Moving to audio sources, old recordings of Donegal fiddle music tend to feature tune- types that probably originated as nineteenth-century dances. On The Brass Fiddle two unusual tune-types, the ‘marine’ and the ‘lancer’ are found.42 However, only one example of each can be identified and so there is not enough detail to reliably abstract their musical features. Similarly, on the DVD The Couple Dances of Donegal, individual dances are included such as the ‘Corn Rigs’, ‘Peeler & the Goat’, ‘Palais

37 Breathnach, Breandán: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, (Dublin: An Gúm, 1963), vii. 38 For example, the North American Irish Dancing Championships specify ‘officially recognised speeds as set forth by An Comisiún le Rincí Gaelacha’. See: http://www.idtana.org/NANS2011%20Syllabus%20Final4.pdf (Accessed 18 March 2012). 39 Some musicians may either not like, or are not technically able for faster tempi. This is underpinned by the recent phenomenon of ‘slow sessions’. For an online forum discussion, see: http://www.thesession.org/discussions/display/8127 (Accessed 18 March 2012). 40 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music. 41 It is worth noting that an unknown portion of this number comprises versions of the same melody. 42 Various Artists: The Brass Fiddle, (Dublin: Claddagh Records, 1987).

77 Glide’, ‘Father O’Flynn’, ‘Éire Ó’, ‘Shoe the Donkey’ and the ‘Military Two-Step’.43 Aside from ‘Father O’Flynn’s’ and ‘Shoe the Donkey’ which are well-known tunes, there is no evidence that these dances have made the leap to being tune-types. It is also noted on the DVD that some of the dance tunes include the ‘Allamande’ and the ‘Cotillion’, but despite the fact that, historically, a small number of these tune-types can be found, there is not enough examples of such to confidently identify their characteristics. An early tune-type found on the much-loved album Meitheal by Séamus Begley (1949– ) and Stephen Cooney is ‘My Lady Hudson’s Galliard’.44 Despite this particular tune having proliferated, other examples of the tune-type are no longer found in common practice.

While the tune collections focused on older music, recordings often include newly- composed material. Consequently, it is not unusual to find tunes for which there is not any obvious tune-type. This is most likely to be the case on albums containing new compositions where artists, such as the accordionist Máirtín Ó Connor (1955– ), have effectively created new sets of characteristics that could become new tune-types if further, similar examples were to be composed. However, perhaps due to the slow uptake of new compositions in the tradition, a greater passage of time may be required to see results, if any, on this level. Most often, these new tunes are not connected to dances but do contain enough stylistic information to qualify for their inclusion as a tune-type. One case in point concerns the release of Andy Irvine’s (1942– ) Eastwind album in 1992.45 This album, produced by Bill Whelan (1950– ) demonstrates the seeds of the Riverdance sound and brought for the first time a range of unusual time signatures such as 7/8 and even 26/16 to the ears of traditional musicians. Bands such as Mozaik and artists such as the flute-player and composer Michael McGoldrick (1971– ) have since experimented and composed under these influences. Although 7/8 appears to be the most commonly adopted of these metres, compositions in 7/8 have made it into the tradition in varying degrees, generally, it would seem, in relation to a younger demographic: their longevity remains to be seen.46

43 Ó Maonaigh, Ciarán: The Couple Dances of Donegal, DVD, (Donegal: Cairdeas na bhFidléirí in conjunction with Scoil Gheimhridh Frankie Kennedy, 2008). 44 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Stephen: Meitheal, (Hummingbird Records, 1996), track 4. 45 Irvine, Andy; Spillane, Davey: East Wind, (Dublin: Tara Music, 1992). 46 Michael McGoldrick’s composition, ‘Watermans’ is a well known example. See: McGoldrick,

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Mixed metres, although rare, are also a feature of Irish traditional music. As noted by Fleischmann, examples can be found in songs where the melody must fit a particular set of lyrics.47 In instrumental music, it can be found in the odd case of individual experimentation. In one example, a reel in 4/4 entitled ‘John Doherty’s’, the A-part begins with a bar of 6/4.48 In a similar fashion, Con Cassidy’s (1909–1904) version of the reel ‘My Love is in America’ also uses a bar of 6/4 as can be seen in Ex. 3.1.49 In practice it is rare to find tunes that use more than one metre and since the possible combinations of two or more metres is quite extensive, this aspect is not explored here. Nevertheless, it is certainly an area that would merit further study.

Ex. 3.1 Transcription of ‘My Love is in America’.

Michael: ‘Watermans’, Fused, (Glasgow: Vertical Records, 2000), track 1. 47 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music, xxiv. 48 See: Glackin, Paddy: Rabharta Ceoil/ In Full Spate, (Dublin: Gael Linn, 1991), track 1. 49 This transcription is my own version of the tune and was learned from Dermot Byrne who in turn learned it from Con Cassidy himself. Also see: Flynn, Dave: Traditional Irish Music: a path to new music, (PhD Diss., Dublin Institute of Technology, 2010), 91-98. In this study, Flynn conducts an analysis of Con Cassidy’s version and compares it with other settings by Francis O’Neill, Martin Hayes and Tommie Potts (1912–1988).

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From the above study it is possible to select tune-types that are viable for further exploration. The aim of such an investigation is to establish reliable information in terms of metre, tempo, rhythmic characteristics and the form of tune parts. As will be seen, there are cases where there is sufficient variation in this information to acknowledge a new tune-type. The results of this process are presented in the table below. Note that in Section 3.3, the individual tune-types are dealt with as stylistic elements rather than conceptual fields. This is because a conceptual field must contain more than one option.50

Table 3.1 Tune-types dealt with in this study. Conceptual Field Tune-types

Conceptual Resolution Full tune 1. Slow Air (trad) 17. 6/8 Set Dance 2. Slow Air (Romantic) 18. Single Polka 3. (Double) Reel 19. Double Polka 4. Single Reel 20. Early Jig 5. Slow Reel 21. Early Slip Jig 6. Dancer’s Hornpipe 22. Single Jig 7. Instrumentalist’s Hornpipe 23. Double Jig 8. Barndance 24. Heavy Double Jig 9. Strathspey 25. Heavy Single Jig 10. Highland 26. Slide 11. 2/4 March 27. Slip Jig 12. 4/4 March 28. Hop Jig 13. 6/8 March 29. Waltz 14. 3/4 March 30. Mazurka 15. Narrative Air 31. 7/8 tunes 16. 4/4 Set Dance

50 It would have been possible to consider both the jig and the march as conceptual fields in their own right and to include within them as stylistic elements their related forms. However, since the list in Table 3.1 is not overly lengthy, the form of organisation adopted here was deemed to be the simplest.

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Following the approach adopted in my undergraduate thesis on The James Tourish Collection, each tune-type in Section 3.3 is explored using the same basic melody, ‘Welcome Home Gráinne’.51 As discussed in Chapter Two, this tune is traditionally played as a March, Jig and Reel and so while the main identifying features of the melody is independent of the tune-type, the largely crotchet rhythm of the march version (see Ex. 3.14) may be taken as the archetype. This approach is intended to highlight the characteristics of each of the tune-types that might otherwise be lost by using different melodies and will give an indication of the changes to a basic melody that results from the imposition of each consecutive tune-type.

3.2 Tempo In this section, the language of metronome markings in BPM is used to convey the stylistic data. Since the idea of a precise tempo for a particular tune-type is an alien concept to traditional musicians, is rarely found in practice and contains a high degree of subjectivity, a margin of error of ± 10 BPM is used here. Notwithstanding the subjectivity and variability that comes with tempo markings in Irish traditional instrumental music, here a tempo is understood to be appropriate when it is sourced from recordings of highly regarded musicians, in addition to one printed source, namely that of Breandán Breathnach.52

The slowest tune-type found is the heavy jig which requires a tempo of a dotted crotchet = ±73 BPM or a dotted minim = ±36 BPM so this is taken as a starting point. At the faster end of the spectrum, well-respected virtuosi such as the fiddler Séan Maguire (1927–2005) have been heard playing reels at a minim = ±150 BPM and so this is considered to be the uppermost tempo that is covered in this study.53 The option of ‘no discernable tempo’ is also included because this applies to tune-types such as the slow air.

51 As discussed in Chapter Two, 52-53. 52 Tempo directions are taken from: Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1. 53 See: Maguire, Seán: Ireland’s Champion Fiddler, (Irish Music Licensing, 2009). This tempo was taken from Maguire’s playing of the reel ‘The Mason’s Apron’ which is regarded as a virtuoso piece in the tradition.

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Very often, tunes can be played at wildly different tempi. In the case of the hornpipe, for example, the dancer requires it to be played at a crotchet = ±113 BPM so they can dance at twice the tempo whilst it is not unusual for a virtuoso performer to play it at a crotchet = ±150 BPM. Where it is felt that a difference such as this needs to be drawn, as in Section 3.3.5 below, the tune-type term is followed with the dance term.

Tune-type terms will be given beside their associated tempi and to retain uniformity, the tempo in BPM will be given relative to either a minim or dotted minim. Outside of the tune-type concept, the aim is to be able to recognise and utilise various tempi using the BPM language. Since the tempo at which tunes are played has long been a bone of contention among traditional musicians, the ability to use the BPM language should have an effect regarding how the tune is interpreted and allow a more detailed conversation on the differences created from this process.

Table 3.2 Table of tempi relevant to Irish Traditional Instrumental Music. Conceptual Field Tempo

Conceptual Resolution Based upon the tune-types

1. No discernable tempo 7. 81 – 90 BPM 2. 30 – 40 BPM (Heavy Jig) 8. 91 – 100 BPM (Strathspey) 3. 40 – 50 BPM (Hornpipe Dance) 9. 101 – 110 BPM 4. 51 – 60 BPM (Common Set Dance) 10. 111 – 120 BPM (Double Reel) 5. 61 – 70 BPM 11. 121 – 130 BPM (Single Reel) 6. 71 – 80 BPM (Barndance) 12. 131 – 140 BPM 13. 141 – 150 BPM

3.3.1 Slow Air The term ‘air’ appears frequently in the collections of Bunting, Petrie, Joyce, and Roche where it might simply be regarded as a synonym for the melody of either a tune or a song. In publications such as the Roche Collection, its section on airs also contains

82 performance directions, which include ‘lively’, ‘andante’, ‘plaintively’ or in most cases, ‘slow’.54 As the collectors later began to categorise the lively airs as jigs, marches or waltzes etc., the term slow air might well be understood as a literal description that simply signifies a slow tune.

For the most part, slow airs are the instrumental versions of songs from the sean-nós tradition,55 but there are also cases of slow airs that have not originated from songs, of which ‘Paddy’s Rambles through the Park’ is a well-known example.56 In collections, slow airs appear in metres such as 3/4 and 4/4, whereas when they are performed, the feeling of a pulse is most often absent or quite weak, blurred by a heavy use of rubato. Although a variety of slow tempi is used, there is often a considerable degree of variation within the performance and so for the purposes of communication, in this case it is inappropriate to attempt to note the tempo in BPM.

Stylistically, the slow air is characterised by a reserved and spacious feel that could be described as song-like. This may be understood in contrast to a nineteenth century- associated style of playing airs that is often typified by an abundant use of fast passages or ‘runs’ that are sometimes felt to convey more virtuosity than sentiment.57

Consequently, it would appear that there are two styles of slow air: what is now the traditionally accepted slow air and what here is described as the ‘Romantic’ slow air. The following two tables detail the salient stylistic data and below each of these, an example is given to demonstrate how it might be realised in practice. As will be seen in Chapter Ten, there are many ways to realise these composite catalysts.58

54 See: Roche: The Frank Roche Collection, 7-36. 55 See: O’Flynn, Liam: The Piper’s Call, (Dublin: Tara Records, 1998), track 8 where the slow air ‘Bean Dubh an Ghleanna’, which is a well-known example, can be heard. The original sean-nós version can be heard in a piece of archival footage from Come West Along the Road. See: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2MeaOZKY80o (Accessed 1 March 2013). 56 One of the easier to access recordings is: Byrne, Dermot: Dermot Byrne, (Hummingbird Records, 1995), track 9. 57 See: Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 97 where Breathnach felt that these runs made their way into the piping style from the harping style. Also see Chapter Nine, Section 9.3.52 for a description of runs. From an aesthetic point of view, the musician is expected to convey the feeling of the slow air rather than their technical prowess. 58 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.1, 490-509.

83 Table 3.3 Stylistic Element: The Slow Air. Stylistic Element The Slow Air

Metre: 4/4 or 3/4 Tempo: Slow Rhythmic characteristics: use of rubato.

Ex. 3.2 Example of how the Slow Air might be realised.

Table 3.4 Stylistic Element: The Slow Air (Romantic). Stylistic Element The Slow Air (Romantic)

Metre: 4/4 or 3/4 Tempo: Slow Rhythmic characteristics: a heavy use of rubato.

Ex. 3.3 Example of how the ‘Romantic’ Slow Air might be realised.

84 3.3.2 Narrative Air The term ‘narrative air’ was coined by George Petrie in the Preface to the first volume of his Ancient Music of Ireland.59 Later in the same volume, a more detailed definition may be found in respect of ‘An Cailín Bán’ where he states that:

These melodies are all in triplet or three-four time, and consist of two parts, or strains, of eight bars each, and the same number of phrases, divided into two sections. Of these sections the second of the first part is, generally, a repetition—sometimes, however, slightly modified—of the section preceding; and the second section of the second part is usually a repetition of the second section of the first part-sometimes also modified in the first, or even the first and second phrases—but, as usual in all Irish melodies, always agreeing with its closing cadence.60

With regard to its rhythm, James Travis notes that the narrative air is characterised by its use of a three-quaver anacrusis and a crotchet on the second beat of the bar in a rhythm that is otherwise comprised of quavers.61 In surveying the examples given by Petrie, it would appear that this crotchet can also be substituted by a dotted quaver. While Petrie gives the tempo as andantino, he also explains that narrative airs are of an

[…] excited discoursing character, —animated and energetic in their movement, yet marked with earnest tenderness and impassioned sentiment, —more or less tinged with sadness, yet rarely, if ever, as in the Caoines, sinking into tones of extreme or despairing melancholy.62

They would also have been played rubato given the individuality that is associated with the performance of airs. Using this information, the following example was constructed.

59 Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, xvii. See Chapter One, 7-8 where his description is quoted and discussed. 60 Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, 45. 61 Travis, James: ‘Irish National Music’, The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 24, (Oxford: The Oxford University Press, 1938), 464-465. Also see: Petrie: The Ancient Music of Ireland, Vol. 1, xvii. 62 Ibid., 45.

85 Table 3.5 Stylistic Element: The Narrative Air. Stylistic Element The Narrative Air

Metre: 3/4 Tempo: Slow (yet animated) Rhythmic characteristics: Begins with an anacrusis of three quavers. It follows a quaver rhythm that is broken at the second beat of the bar by a longer rhythmic value, usually a crotchet or dotted crotchet. Heavy rubato is utilised.

Ex. 3.4 Example of how the Narrative Air might be realised.

3.3.3 Reel The earliest published reel contained in Fleischmann’s Sources of Irish Traditional Music is entitled ‘A New Reill [sic]’, and can be found in George Skene’s Music Book: containing pipe music, minuets, a gavotte by Handel, and other tunes, mostly Scottish, for violin which was published sometime between 1715 and 1717.63 Another source, The Gairdyn Manuscript: A Collection of Songs, Marches, Minuets, Sarabands, Country Dances, etc. was published some time between 1710 and 1735 and contains a reel entitled ‘The Taill Todle’ which is described as a type of posterior waggle!64 Interestingly, the English geographer Arthur Young is noted for not having mentioned reels in his Tour in Ireland, with General Observations on the Present State of that Kingdom in 1776–78 (1780) and so despite the early examples mentioned, it is likely

63 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music, 56. 64 Ibid., 51.

86 that they did not become popular until the later eighteenth century.65

According to John Purser, the earliest mention of the reel can be found in a 1591 publication called the Newes of Scotland where it is stated that ‘at the famous North Berwick witch trial of 1590, Agnes Thompson was accused with others that they ‘took hands on the land, and daunced [sic] this reill [sic] or short dance […]’.66 The author goes on to note that ‘it was poor Agnes’s last dance for she was strangled and burnt for her part in the meeting’.67

Although it appears to be taken as a fact that the reel is in 4/4, and it is certainly represented as such in most of the collections, as will be argued, there are actually two main types: the double reel and the single reel, which differ in relation to both metre and tempo.

The double reel has a metre of 4/4 and this can be heard in the recordings of the renowned Sligo fiddler, Michael Coleman (1891–1295).68 As was stated, Breandán Breathnach provides the only known tempo information where the crotchet = ±224 BPM (minim = ±112 BPM) but this can vary significantly in practice.69

When there is no anacrusis, the reel is categorised by a predominantly motoric quaver rhythm that is generally broken by a crotchet/ dotted crotchet – quaver motif at phrase endings or cadences.70 Crotchets found in other positions are, in practice, most likely to be ornamented. More recently, the ‘slow reel’ has emerged as a tune-type and will be discussed in Section 3.3.4.

65 Ó hAllmhuráin, Gearóid: A Pocket History to Irish Traditional Music, (Dublin: O’Brien Press, 2004), 47. 66 Purser, John: Scotland’s Music: A History of the Traditional and Classical Music of Scotland from Early Times to the Present Day, (Edinburgh and London: Mainstream Publishing, 1992), 123-126. 67 Ibid. 68 See: Coleman, Michael: Michael Coleman 1891–1945, (Dublin: Gael Linn/ Viva Voce, 1992) 69 Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, vii. 70 See: Ó Súilleabháin, Mícheál: Innovation and Tradition in the Music of Tommie Potts, (PhD Diss., Queen’s University Belfast, 1987), 41. The term ‘motor rhythm’ is used by Ó Súilleabháin and hence, here it is adapted to motoric rhythm to describe the constant quaver rhythm that is idiomatic of the genre.

87

Table 3.6 Stylistic Element: The Double Reel. Stylistic Element The Double Reel

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: a minim = ±112 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: motoric quaver rhythm occasionally broken by crotchets and longer values.

Ex. 3.5 Example of how the Double Reel might be realised.

While musicians rarely use the term single reel, it is familiar to dancers. In The Story of Irish Dance, Helen Brennan states that:

The single reel, usually written in 2/4 time, is faster and has the simpler steps, and is used to teach the basics to beginners. Many older musicians had tunes in their repertoires which they referred to as ‘old dancing master reels’ and these all have the characteristic structure and tempo of the single reel.71

My experience suggests that the single reel is probably more popular than the double reel, particularly amongst younger musicians who often prefer to play at a faster tempo. Whereas the double reel is played with a clear feeling of four beats per bar, the single

71 Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 66. In relation to the above quotation, Brennan refers the reader to: Breathnach, Breandán: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 2, (Dublin: An Gúm, 1976), 33-79.

88 reel is characterised by a strong feel of two beats per bar. Indeed, older collections have used 2/4 as a time signature where the motoric rhythm is represented in semiquavers rather than quavers and this gives the feeling of two pulses per bar rather than four.72 Similarly, The Roche Collection and even Breathnach’s Ceol Rince na hÉireann present reels in ‘cut common time’ or 2/2.73 An example can be heard in the ‘Eb Reels’ as played by the band Flook on their album Flatfish.74 Taken in 2/2, the tempo is usually set at about a minim = ±122 BPM and would generally be played at a faster pace than 75 the double reel.

Table 3.7 Stylistic Element: The Single Reel.

Stylistic Element The Single Reel

Metre: 2/2 Tempo: Minim = ±122 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: motoric quaver rhythm occasionally broken by crotchets and longer values, with a strong feeling of two pulses per bar.

Ex. 3.6 Example of how the Single Reel might be realised.

72 See: Roche: The Frank Roche Collection, 22-26. The Roche Collection uses a mixture of 2/4 and cut common time. 73 See any of the reels in Roche: The Frank Roche Collection. Also in: Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, 33-79. 74 Flook: Flatfish, (England: Flatfish Records, 1999), track 2. 75 This tempo reading was taken from Altan’s playing of ‘The Glory Reel’. See: Altan: Island Angel, (Danbury, CT.: Green Linnet, 1993), track 10.

89

3.3.4 Slow Reel Only recently has the ‘slow reel’ emerged as an identifiable tune-type. Undoubtedly, the reel has been played at slow tempi in the past but as a distinct class, its emergence probably results from bands that play to concert audiences rather than for dancers. Its codification into an explicit tune-type is most likely a result of the recording-era practice of tune-type classification on album liner notes. An early example of a slow reel is ‘The Maids of Mitchelstown’ as played by the Bothy Band on their 1977 album Out of the Wind into the Sun.76 It is worth noting that CCÉ have not yet accepted this as a tune-type in their competition rules and it does not appear as if this tune-type has been defined in any literature to date.77 If the flowing nature of the Bothy Band’s recording of ‘The Maids of Mitchelstown’ were to be taken as an archetype, 2/2 appears to be the most suitable time signature whilst a representative tempo would be a minim = ±70 BPM.

Table 3.8 Stylistic Element: The Slow Reel. Stylistic Element The Slow Reel

Metre: 2/2 Tempo: minim = ±70 Rhythmic characteristics: motoric quaver rhythm occasionally broken by crotchets and longer values, very mildly swung.

76 The Bothy Band: Out of the Wind into the Sun, (Dublin: Mulligan Music, 1977), track 2. 77 http://comhaltas.ie/images/press_room/Rialacha_Fleadhanna_Ceoil_Web_2010.pdf (Accessed 18 March 2012). Notably, it is not described in The Companion to Irish Traditional Music.

90

Ex. 3.7 Example of how the Slow Reel might be realised.

3.3.5 Hornpipe Like the reel, the hornpipe’s first Irish connections began to appear in the early eighteenth century. Similarly to the reel, it is significant that Arthur Young makes no mention of the hornpipe in his Tour in Ireland (1780).78 Helen Brennan writes:

A sole reference in 1718 to the hornpipe is contained in a dancing master’s contract between William Bailey, gentleman, and Charles Staunton dancing master, in which the employer directs that his children be taught ‘jigs, minuets, hornpipe and country dance’. The hornpipe referred to here is not necessarily a solo dance, as the hornpipe measure was also used in some country dances.79

While the hornpipe was current in Ireland in the nineteenth century, it was popular in England at least two centuries before this, albeit in a different form: The term was initially used to denote a piece in triple time as was featured by Handel in ‘alla hornpipe’ from his Water Music. The earlier hornpipe was played in 3/2 and ‘was performed between the acts of plays, usually by professional dancers’,80 from which the term ‘stage hornpipe’ was possibly derived. While it is conceivable that this type of

78 See: http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22387/pg22387.txt (Accessed 20 Sept 2013) where an online copy of this publication, made available by Project Gutenberg, may be found. 79 Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 21. 80 Doherty, Liz: ‘Hornpipe’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 351-352.

91 hornpipe was also played in Ireland, examples that might support this idea could not be found.

The common-time hornpipe, known as the ‘stage hornpipe’ or ‘sailor’s hornpipe’, was also developed in England and became popular around the 1760s and is likely to have entered the Irish tradition shortly after this time.81 In Irish traditional music, the hornpipe is played in 4/4 where each beat is clearly heard.82 Rhythmically, in some collections it is written using dotted rhythms and in others, it is set using straight quavers. In reality however, the gentle swing with which it is played lies somewhere between a dotted and straight rhythm and in performance, it is rarely played at either extreme.83 The hornpipe moves in a quaver rhythm and is usually defined by the accentuation of beats one, two and three at the end of a tune part. Sometimes these accented points are marked by crotchets for added emphasis and are very often played either on the same pitch or using the motif doh - mi - doh.

As reflected upon earlier,84 in considering the hornpipe’s tempo, the question of its definition becomes more complex in that the tempo used for dancers is drastically different from that used in a solely instrumental performance. For step dancers, the hornpipe is played at a modest pace so that they can demonstrate complex footwork that is usually at twice the pace of the tune. This being the case, it is likely that Breathnach did not have dancers in mind when he considered a crotchet = ±180 BPM to be appropriate. Recordings for the Feis competitions tend to be the most accurate source for tempi and if the tempo used by Michael O’Donoghue for Feis 1 is taken as reliable, what is termed here as the ‘dancer’s hornpipe’ is more likely to be a crotchet = ±113 BPM.85

81 Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 22. 82 See: Ryan, William Bradbury: Ryan’s Mammoth Collection, ed. Patrick Sky, (Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications, Inc., 1995), 118-154. Here the hornpipes are written exclusively in 2/2 and 2/4 but particularly the latter. 83 For instance, Frank Roche uses the dotted rhythm while Breandán Breathnach opts for straight quavers. See Chapter Four, 131, Ex. 4.1 for further discussion. 84 See page 82. 85 O’Donoghue, Michael: Irish Dancing – Feis 1, (Owl Records, 2010), track 16.

92

Table 3.9 Stylistic Element: The Dancer’s Hornpipe.

Stylistic Element The Dancer’s Hornpipe

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±113 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: Motoric rhythm punctuated by two or three accented beats usually on the same pitch and typically at the end of eight-bar phrases. It can contain anything from a mild to substantial use of triplets.

Ex. 3.8 Example of how the Dancer’s Hornpipe might be realised.

For an instrumental performance, Breathnach’s tempo is here considered to be too fast. When a tempo reading is taken from the playing of the accordionist Dermot Byrne (1969 – ), it appears that a crotchet = ±150 BPM is used, and this certainly ‘sounds’ correct.86

86 See: Byrne, Dermot: Dermot Byrne, (Dublin: Hummingbird Records, 1995), track 11.

93

Table 3.10 Stylistic Element: The Instrumentalist’s Hornpipe.

Stylistic Element The Instrumentalist’s Hornpipe

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±150 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: Motoric rhythm punctuated by two or three accented beats usually on the same pitch and typically at the end of eight-bar phrases. It can contain anything from a mild to substantial use of triplets.

Ex. 3.9 Example of how the Instrumentalist’s Hornpipe might be realised.

3.3.6 Barndance The barndance in Irish traditional music is particularly associated with recordings dating from the 1920s to the 1940s. This said, it is likely that barndances had originally ‘come into Ireland […] through commercial sheet music and the activities of professional dance teachers’ sometime during the late nineteenth century.87 At present, the barndance is on the periphery of popularity, maintaining an association with Co. Donegal where

87 The ITMA have put together a compilation of these recordings on their website. See: http://www.itma.ie/digitallibrary/playlist/barndance-selections/ (Accessed 1 March 2013).

94 the alternative term ‘The German’ is preferred.88 Grove Music Online provides an overview of its historical development prior to its entry into Irish traditional music:

Known in the USA in association with celebrations to mark the building of a new barn and derived from the schottische, it became popular in England around the late 1880s originally in conjunction with the tune Dancing in the Barn and later with the Pas de Quatre by Meyer Lutz, and by the 1920s had become a progressive dance. By the 1960s the term had been adopted as a general description of social country dancing which, by this stage, also included elements of the ‘old time’ dance repertory.89

The Irish Traditional Music Archive offers further information stating that:

Its ancestors were the European polka and schottische social dances and their distinctive music of the mid-century. Like them, the barn dance changed over time and space and exists in a number of varieties. Its early music was composed by professionals or consisted of existing melodies adapted by them to the new fashion.90

It is generally played in 4/4 and using ‘Mrs Kenney’s Barndance’ as played by Michael Coleman as an example,91 it is played around the tempo of a crotchet = ±158 BPM (minim = ±80 BPM) although as with all indications, this is subject to variation. Rhythmically, there tends to be a strong accent on the first and third beats, a weaker upbeat and gentle swing to give a lift for dancing. Like the hornpipe, it also features the three accents on beats one, two and three at the end of parts and as with the hornpipe, these accents are often characterised by crotchets played at the same pitch or on the pitches doh - me - doh. Sometimes also, one or two of these crotchets are filled in by two quavers; a typical example of which is the use of a crotchet, two quavers and another crotchet. The barndance differs from the hornpipe in that unlike the latter, it tends to use the three-accent motif or variant thereof at the end of some phrases giving a ‘strongly marked [...] rhythm, with an emphatic ending to each section’.92 This is evident in the example below where typical phrase endings have been placed in bars 2, 4, 6 and 8 of each of the tune’s two parts. Given the fact that outside of specific

88 See: Altan: Runaway Sunday, (Virgin Records, 1997), track 4. 89 Ed. Sadie, Stanley: ‘Barn dance’, Grove Music Online. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/02086 (Accessed 18 March 2012). 90 http://www.itma.ie/digitallibrary/playlist/barndance-selections/ (Accessed 18 March 2012). 91 http://www.itma.ie/digitallibrary/sound/mrs-kennys-coleman/ (Accessed 18 March 2012). 92 Ibid.

95 geographical areas their associated dances are extremely rare,93 their presence in the instrumental tradition is largely due to their melodically interesting nature.94

Table 3.11 Stylistic Element: The Barndance.

Stylistic Element Barndance

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: minim = ±80 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: A motoric quaver rhythm making use of the three accents on beats one, two and three of the bar, typically occurring at the ends of phrases.

Ex. 3.10 Example of how the Barndance might be realised.

3.3.7 Strathspey The earliest strathspey with an Irish connection in the Fleischmann collection is entitled ‘Smirking Mary’ and originally appeared in A Choice Collection of 200 Favourite

93 However, they are still both played and danced in Co. Donegal. See: Ó Maonaigh, Ciarán: The Couple Dances of Donegal. 94 As commented upon by Nicholas Carolan: http://www.itma.ie/digitallibrary/playlist/barndance- selections/ (Accessed 18 March 2012).

96 Country Dances Vol. V (1750).95 This old tune-type is thought to have derived from the reel, often appearing in early collections as the ‘strathspey reel’. The term itself appears to be a reference to the valley (Strath) in which the river Spey rises in Kincardineshire in Scotland where as noted by Francis Collinson, ‘Thomas Newte in 1785 ascribed the composition of early strathspey tunes to the strathspey families of fiddlers, the Browns and Cummings’.96 It is very possible that their interpretation of the reel in a relatively isolated area had become so stylised as to become modified into a distinctive tune-type. Collinson describes its earliest appearance in print:

The strathspey made its appearance in about the mid-18th century. Two tunes, each labelled ‘A New Strathspey Reel’, appeared in Oswald’s Caledonian Pocket Companion (c1745). Robert Bremner’s A Collection of Scots Reels (1759–61) contains about ten tunes marked as strathspeys, of which the first bears the note, ‘The Strathspey Reels are play’d much slower than the others’.97

Interestingly, according to John Purser, the earliest reference in print was in 1653 where the following passage is found: "To please the King the Morris dance I will; Stravetspy 98 [sic], and after, last of all, The Drunken Dance I’ll Dance within that hall".

Unlike the other tune-types, the strathspey is not connected with any particular dance but rather, is understood as an instrumental showpiece. Owing to its exhibitionist nature, its tempo is quite quick: indeed, one of its best-known practitioners, Tommy Peoples, was recorded playing ‘The Laird of Drumblair’ at a minim = ±95 BPM.99 Its metre is a pronounced 4/4 and rhythmically, it is well known for its dotted rhythms and particularly the Scotch Snap. The Scotch Snap refers to a sharp semiquaver to dotted quaver rhythm and its inverse.100 While both forms of the Scotch Snap are relatively uncommon in Irish traditional music, they are found in Co. Donegal and as implied, are

95 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music. 96 Collinson, Francis: ‘Strathspey’, Grove Music Online. http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/26909 (Accessed 18 March 2012). 97 Ibid. 98 Purser: Scotland’s Music: A History of the Traditional and Classical Music of Scotland from Early Times to the Present Day, 152-153. 99 Taken from a television series shot in 1981, See: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ls_UI9Z0Yz0 (Accessed 23 July 2012). 100 This is particularly found in Scottish playing and Cape Breton styles of playing.

97 particularly associated with the playing of Tommy Peoples (1948– ).101 While the example below is written using dotted rhythms, as will be discussed in Chapter Four, these when played are somewhat less pronounced. In this case, it is worthwhile to listen to a recording of a musician such as Peoples in order to find a more appropriate rhythmic feel.

Table 3.12 Stylistic Element: The Strathspey.

Stylistic Element Strathspey

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: minim = ±95 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a highly swung motoric quaver rhythm featuring the Scotch Snap and its inverse. It also features a considerable use of triplet rhythms, usually towards the end of a phrase.

Ex. 3.11 Example of how the Strathspey might be realised.

101 Peoples, Tommy: The Quiet Glen, (Ennis, Co. Clare: T. Peoples Publishing, 1998).

98

3.3.8 Highland Through the early recordings of Donegal fiddle music, the Highland has become most associated with the northwest of Ireland.102 The term ‘highland’ is a colloquialism and it would appear to be synonymous with the ‘fling’; a term used in the southern counties, including Limerick, Kerry and Cork. It can also be observed in the Roche Collection, which contains six pieces using this name. However, these terms appear to have been derived from the ‘highland schottische’ or ‘schottische’, which is now a somewhat archaic descriptor.103

Lalage Cochrane defines the Schottische as ‘a social dance that became popular in American ballrooms during the 1840s. Many nineteenth-century dance writers considered it to have originated in Germany’.104 Lalage Cochrane adds that:

The Schottische was called the ‘German polka’ when it first appeared in England in the mid-19th century. A version known as the Schottische bohème or polka tremblante was 105 introduced in Paris in the 1840s.

It is possible that the schottische is a German pastiche of the strathspey since it contains some of its features, generally played in a milder character, and in Irish traditional music the two are often confused. However, in performance, its rhythmic feel could be regarded as being somewhere between the hornpipe and strathspey. It makes occasional use of dotted rhythms but in a much less pronounced way - enough to give a very gentle, almost buoyant swing often ending on a crotchet. It some cases, triplets or runs of triplets are used but this feature is more sparsely used than is the case with the strathspey. As demonstrated in The Couple Dances of Donegal it sounds in 2/2, with

102 A fine compilation of these early recordings is available on: Various Artists: The Donegal Fiddle, (Dublin: RTÉ, 1996). 103 The term schottische can be found in the sleeve notes to Doherty, John: John Doherty: The Celebrated Recordings, (Dublin: Gael-Linn, 1974). 104 Norton, Pauline; Aldrich, Elizabeth: ‘Schottische’, Grove Music Online. http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2103589 (Accessed 4 March 2012). 105 Cochrane, Lalage: ‘Schottische’, The Oxford Companion to Music, ed., Alison Latham, Oxford Music Online. See: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e5990 (Accessed 4 March 2012).

99 accents on the first and third crotchets of the bar.106 This accent placement is sometimes contingent on the tune and there are cases where the highland will begin on two pronounced crotchets.107 The tempo of the highland is often played around a minim = ±90 BPM.108

Table 3.13 Stylistic Element: The Highland.

Stylistic Element Highland

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: minim = ±90 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: A gently swung motoric rhythm punctuated by the presence of crotchets. It occasionally features runs of triplets.

Ex. 3.12 Example of how the Highland might be realised.

3.3.9 March Colette Moloney’s research shows that Bunting’s collections contain marches and other

106 Ó Maonaigh, Ciarán: The Couple Dances of Donegal. 107 See the highlands; ‘Bó Mhin na Toitean’ on Altan: Local Ground, (Narada Records, 2005) and ‘The Low Highland’ on Altan: The Blue Idol, (USA: Narada Records, 2005). http://www.donegalfiddlemusic.ie/dvd-1.htm (Accessed 4 March 2012). 108 The tempo here is taken from ‘The Fermanagh Highland’ set from: Altan: Island Angel, (Danbury, CT., Green Linnet, 1993).

100 military-associated music.109 Given Ireland’s history, it is not surprising that marches have found their way into the traditional repertoire. Erich Schwandt and Andrew Lamb define the march as:

Music with strong repetitive rhythms and an uncomplicated style usually used to accompany orderly military movements and processions. Since the 16th century, functional march music has existed alongside stylized representations of the march, which were often incorporated for programmatic purposes into art music. The distinction between the functional and the stylized march is often blurred, however: in the 18th century, functional marches were frequently imported virtually unchanged into wind-band music, often forming integral movements of serenades or divertimentos.110

In Irish traditional music, the march can be found in 2/4, 4/4, 6/8 or much less commonly, in 3/4. From a perusal of the march section in the Roche Collection, it is evident that marches are often written in 2/4, possibly to emphasise a faster tempo.111 Of the marches in common time, an example from the Goodman Collection is ‘Marsáil an Fhiadh’, which translates as ‘The Deer’s March’.112 ‘Clare’s Dragoons’ was originally composed as a song in 4/4 but is often played as an instrumental march and is associated with events surrounding the Treaty of Limerick in 1691.113 A well-known 6/8 example, ‘Alasdruim’s March’ was composed in memory of Alasdair Mac Colla, a ‘hero of the Wars of Montrose in Scotland, who was killed at the Battle of Cnoc na nDos, Co. Cork, in November 1647’.114 Another example is ‘O’Sullivan’s March’, which has been made popular by The Chieftains.115 It is stated by Fintan Vallely in The Companion to Irish Traditional Music that marches also exist in 9/8 but no examples are provided and I have not been able to locate any tunes of this kind.116 ‘O’Donovan’s March’ is a rare

109 Moloney, Colette: The Irish Music Manuscripts of Edward Bunting (1773–1843): an introduction and catalogue, (Dublin: Irish Traditional Music Archive, 2000), 141-144. 110 Schwandt, Erich; Lamb, Andrew: ‘March’, Grove Music Online. See: http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/40080 (Accessed 4 March 2012). 111 Roche: The Frank Roche Collection, 77-82. 112 Sheilds, Hugh: Tunes of the Munster Pipers: Irish Traditional Music from the James Goodman Manuscripts, (Dublin: Irish Traditional Music Archive, 1998), 46. 113 For more music associated with this event, see: Na Casaidigh: 1691, (Sliced Bread Records, 1992). 114 See: Ó hAllmhuráin: A Pocket History of Irish Traditional Music, 28. This spelling comes from the Pocket History, it is otherwise spelled as ‘Allistrum’s March’. The jig referred to here is also a part of a larger ‘descriptive piece’. 115 The Chieftains: 7, (Dublin: Claddagh Records, 1977). 116 Vallely, Fintan: ‘March’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 427-429.

101 example of a march in 3/4.117

Therefore, it can be understood that there are three types of march, in 6/8, 4/4 and 3/4 respectively. If Dermot Byrne’s recording of ‘Welcome Home Gráinne’ is taken as a model, the 4/4 march is played around a minim = ±75 BPM.118 Taking The Chieftain’s version of ‘O’Sullivan’s March’ as an archetype for the 6/8 march, a dotted crotchet = ±85 BPM is found.119 For the purposes of comparison, when the minim of the 4/4 march is made equal to the crotchet of the 2/4 march, it is evident that the 2/4 march is played much faster at a crotchet = ±117 BPM.120 The 3/4 march appears to suit a crotchet = ±113 BPM.121

Table 3.14 Stylistic Element: The 2/4 March.

Stylistic Element The 2/4 March

Metre: 2/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±117 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a predominantly quaver rhythm broken by dotted quaver to semiquaver duplets.

Ex. 3.13 Example of how the 2/4 March might be realised.

117 Ibid. 118 Byrne, Dermot: Dermot Byrne, (Hummingbird Records, 1995). 119 The Chieftains: 7, (Dublin: Claddagh Records, 1977). 120 This tempo is used on: The Kilfenora Céilí Band: Chapter 8, (Self published, 2012), track 13. 121 See: Pat Mitchell: Uilleann Pipes, (Topic Records, 2013), track 12

102

Table 3.15 Stylistic Element: The 4/4 March.

Stylistic Element The 4/4 March

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±75 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a predominantly crotchet rhythm broken by quaver runs. Strong accented feel.

Ex. 3.14 Example of how the 4/4 March might be realised.

Table 3.16 Stylistic Element: The 6/8 March.

Stylistic Element The 6/8 March

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±85 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a predominantly motoric quaver rhythm broken by both longer and shorter rhythmic values. Strong accented feel.

103

Ex. 3.15 Example of how the 6/8 March might be realised.

Table 3.17 Stylistic Element: The 3/4 March. Stylistic Element The 3/4 March

Metre: 3/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±113 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a motoric quaver rhythm broken by longer rhythmic values. Strong accented feel.

Ex. 3.16 Example of how the 3/4 March might be realised.

104

3.3.10 Set Dance The term ‘set dance’ is used to describe tunes ‘which [were] composed or arranged by a dancing master to accompany a specific, set choreography, the better to display their own or their finest pupils’ footwork skills’.122 According to Gearóid Ó hAllmhurain, the set dances ‘were all created by dancing masters from the end of the eighteenth century’.123

Although mentioned by Petrie in the mid-nineteenth century, set dances are more notably featured in the early twentieth-century collections of Francis O’Neill and Frank Roche.124 Because they are built around purposely-composed (hence ‘set’) dances, they often exhibit structural irregularities in that the B-part is usually longer than the A-part. In O’Neill’s The Dance Music of Ireland, examples can be found that follow a regular structure, but in an instrumental context, it is difficult to differentiate these from more popular tune-types without a prior knowledge of the particular tune’s history or intended function. Consequently and for the sake of clarity, the irregular structure – usually where the B-part is longer than the A-part – is taken as a defining factor. Given that the function of the set dance is of an exhibitionist nature, the tempi used are similar to that of the hornpipe.

A perusal of the literature reveals that time signatures such as 2/4, 4/4, 6/8, and 9/8 are used. However, unlike the march, since the tempo is relatively fixed, writing a set dance in 2/4 or 4/4 does not appear to make much difference. While 9/8 is mentioned, it is found only in the A-part of the tune ‘Is the Big Man Within?’ of which its B-part is in 6/8. This type of bi-metrical tune is found in The James Tourish Collection also and would appear to be a residual influence from the era in which the quadrille and lancer sets were popular. The James Tourish Collection contains tunes that use 6/8 and 4/4 but given that there are so few examples, coupled with their lack of diffusion within the

122 Vallely, Fintan: ‘Set Dance’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 612. 123 Ó hAllmhuráin: A Pocket History of Irish Traditional Music, 49. 124 See: O’Neill, Francis: The Dance Music of Ireland, (Chicago: Lyon & Healy, 1907) and Roche: The Roche Collection of Traditional Irish Music.

105 genre, they are not examined here.

‘Madame Bonaparte’ is a common set dance and contains an A-part of eight bars and a B-part of twelve bars, after which both parts are then repeated. The tempo for the common set dance is around a minim = ±52 BPM.125 Rhythmically, both common and compound versions are swung and make use of dotted rhythms.

Table 3.18 Stylistic Element: The 4/4 Set Dance.

Stylistic Element The 4/4 Set Dance

Metre: 4/4 Tempo: minim = ±52 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a motoric quaver rhythm occasionally broken by longer and shorter rhythmic values. The B-part tends to be longer, usually twelve bars in length, than the typically eight-bar A-part.

Ex. 3.17 Example of how the 4/4 Set Dance might be realised.

125 Taken from a recording of the fiddle player Eugene O’Donnell (1932– ). See: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1aF1ttydXg (Accessed 25 July 2012).

106 ‘St. Patrick’s Day’ is a well-known example of a set dance that is in 6/8. This tune contains an A-part of eight bars and a B-part of fourteen bars, and both parts are generally repeated. Its tempo is set at around a dotted crotchet = ±95 BPM.126 The first quaver of each three-note group is usually dotted and followed by a semiquaver – quaver motif. Overall, the tempo is lightly swung.

Table 3.19 Stylistic Element: The 6/8 Set Dance.

Stylistic Element 6/8 Set Dance

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: minim = a dotted crotchet = ±95 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a dotted quaver – semiquaver – quaver rhythm occasionally broken by longer and shorter rhythmic values. The B-part tends to be longer, usually twelve bars in length, than the typically eight-bar A-part.

Ex. 3.18 Example of how the 6/8 Set Dance might be realised.

3.3.11 Polka In the mid-nineteenth century, George Petrie observed the polka’s introduction into Ireland. According to Gracian Černušák, its country of origin would appear to be the

126 This tempo is taken from Lavin, Kathleen; Lavin, Dom: Step in Time, Vol. 2, (Reynam Records: 2006).

107 Czech Republic. Černušák states that:

The earliest reference to the dance, [may be found in an 1835 article that describes] the dancing of the krakowiak in Bohemia, mentions the admixture of local Czech dances such as the strašák and břitva and states that it was danced differently in Hradec Králové (eastern Bohemia), where they called it the ‘polka’.127

Its introduction into Ireland may be related to the nineteenth-century fashion for dancing quadrille sets, a number of sections of which correspond to the version of the polka that is played today.128 In fact, many such examples can be found in The James Tourish Collection. Indeed, in 1929, Parlophone released a recording of the accordionist Sam Madden playing what was termed ‘The Clonlara Quadrilles’, which is in actual fact, a polka.129 While it is occasionally possible to find single tunes classified as ‘quadrilles’, it is important to note that this does not correspond to the popular nineteenth-century conception of the quadrille.130 Rather, when it is a single tune, it is most likely to be a polka or slide.

This association of the polka with the quadrille and lancer sets, or ‘figure dances’ as they were also known, was not always viewed favourably. This is evident in the following correspondence, published in The Western People in 1904, in which an anonymous writer thought the work of the Gaelic League to be ‘perfectly wrong’ in its efforts to establish ‘authentic’ Irish dancing.

The apostles of the Figure dances urge them as substitutes and antidotes for the round and square dances. But in this way they are perfectly wrong. Their Figure dances are jumbles of the quadrilles, the polka, the lancers - the very ones they want to avoid.131

127 Černušák, Gracian; et al: ‘Polka’, Grove Music Online, http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/grove/music/22020 (Accessed 4 March 2012). 128 The Quadrille Sets often have five or six sections of contrasting metre. See: Tourish, Martin: The James Tourish Collection, (BMus Diss., Dublin Institute of Technology, 2008). 129 http://www.itma.ie/digitallibrary/playlist/parlophone-irish-78s-1929/ (Accessed 18 March 2012). 130 The Quadrilles found in The James Tourish Collection are more representative of those found in print in the nineteenth century. These quadrilles are actually sets of a number of up to six tunes, which are characterised by alterations of metre, usually from common to compound time. 131 See: Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 32. This is quoted from an individual writing under the pseudonym of ‘Gaedeal’ writing in the Mayo newspaper The Western People, on 4 September 1904.

108 Whatever its origin, the emergence of recordings of polkas by musicians from areas such as Sliabh Luachra, where this type of music was played, effectively won the tune- type its place in the popular canon of material. Although the term polka is generally used in Irish traditional music, it is perhaps best understood as consisting of two distinct types. As noted by Fintan Vallely, these two types are: ‘the simple [or single] polka of Sliabh Luachra music,132 and the “double” polka [which is] associated with the playing of [musicians] such as [the Leitrim flute player] John Mc Kenna’ (1880–1947).133 As the second of the two descriptions is termed the double polka, I prefer to use the term ‘single polka’ in place of Vallely’s ‘simple’ polka.

The single polka is the more common of the two and is often simply referred to as the polka. Rhythmically, it moves predominantly in quavers and is associated with the south of Ireland, particularly the Kerry and Cork regions. It has a metre of 2/4 and is played roughly at a tempo of a crotchet = ±160 BPM (minim = ±80 BPM).134

Table 3.20 Stylistic Element: The Single Polka.

Stylistic Element The Single Polka

Metre: 2/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±160 Rhythmic characteristics: motoric quaver rhythm with occasional dotted quaver to semiquaver rhythms and use of crotchets at cadence points.

132 Sliabh Luachra is an indefinite geographical region straddling the County Cork and Kerry Borders. It is an area rich in traditional Irish music. Most notably, the tune-types are the polka and the slide. 133 See: Vallely, Fintan: ‘Polka’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 548. In my earlier work on The James Tourish Collection, I used the terms ‘Northern Polka’ in place of the double polka and ‘Southern Polka’ in place of the single polka. See: Long, Harry: The Walton’s Guide to Irish Music: A comprehensive guide to Irish and Celtic music in all its forms, (Dublin: Walton’s Publications, 2005). 134 This tempo was taken from Séamus Begley’s playing of ‘Polca Eoin’ in: Begley, Séamus; Murray, Jim: Ragairne, (Dublin: Dara Records; Torc Music, 2001), track 9.

109

Ex. 3.19 Example of how the Single Polka might be realised.

In the north of Ireland, a more unusual type of polka is played which differs from the single polka in its considerable use of semiquavers. It is associated with flute music, particularly the historic recordings of John McKenna and presently, the playing of the Belfast-born flute player, Harry Bradley (1974– ). The metre is the same as that of the single polka while the tempo is generally slower and often set around a crotchet = ±114 BPM (minim =57 BPM), perhaps to accommodate the busier rhythm.135

Table 3.21 Stylistic Element: The Double Polka.

Stylistic Element Double Polka

Metre: 2/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±114 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: a rhythm based on semiquavers broken by quavers, and occasionally featuring dotted quavers to semiquavers.

135 This metre is taken from Harry Bradley’s playing of ‘John McKenna’s Polka’ on: Various Artists: The North Wind, (Gaoth Dobhair: The Frankie Kennedy Winter School, 2004), track 1.

110

Ex. 3.20 Example of how the Double Polka might be realised.

3.3.12 Early Jig The jig has had an association with Irish music for approximately four hundred years. In his article ‘Tús an Poirt in Éireann’ [trans. The Beginning of the Jig in Ireland] Breandán Breathnach states:

The jig most probably came to Ireland from England, perhaps as early as the 16th century. Native marches were adapted for dancing, some tunes borrowed from England and a start made on composing those tunes which constituted the greatest single division of dance music until reels began to catch up on them in the second half of the last century.136

In Sources of Irish Traditional Music, Fleischmann created a category that he called the ‘eighteenth-century jig’. This umbrella term included the double jig, slip jig and single jig,137 but notably also included what he termed the ‘early’ jig. Having originally appeared in John Playford’s Dancing Master first published in London in 1652, ‘Solomon’s Jigg’ is the earliest example of what Fleischmann classes as an ‘early jig’.138 This is a very general categorisation and it includes metres of 6/4 and 9/4 amongst others. In this study, a distinction is drawn between the early jig and early slip jig with the latter being discussed in the following section.

136 Breathnach, Breandán: ‘Tús an phoirt in Éireann’, Éigse Cheol Tíre / Irish Music Studies, eds. Hugh Shields, Seóirse Bodley, Breandán Breathnach, (Dublin: Folk Music Society of Ireland, 1973), 43. 137 The slide had not yet appeared at this point. 138 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music, 9, 15.

111

A notable characteristic of the early jig is that its metre is consistently set as 6/4. Rhythmically, it is much like the modern double jig if the values are halved but unlike the modern double jig where two beats are felt per bar, in this case each of the six beats can be felt. The rhythm moves predominantly in crotchets, often using the pattern of a dotted crotchet – quaver – crotchet, which is broken occasionally by the minim – crotchet pattern. Its idiosyncrasies of metre and rhythm imply a much slower tempo than the modern double jig and something around a dotted minim = ±60 BPM seems appropriate.139 Structurally however, it is closer to the set dance in 6/8 in that most often, the B-part is longer than the A-part. In the case of ‘Solomon’s Jigg’, the A-part consists of six bars repeated and the B-part of eight bars repeated. Structurally, there appears to be no set practice but it is more unusual to find a uniform example.

Table 3.22 Stylistic Element: The Early Jig.

Stylistic Element The Early Jig

Metre: 6/4 Tempo: a dotted minim = ±60 Rhythmic characteristics: It is based on a crotchet rhythm and phrases tend to open on a minim value.

Ex. 3.21 Example of how the Early Jig might be realised.

139 Tempo taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rfYQD4CLHo (Accessed 24 March 2012).

112

What I have termed the early slip jig can be seen to embody many of the same characteristics as the early jig, the primary difference being that the early slip jig is in 9/4. The earliest example to be found in the Fleischmann collection is ‘The Miller’s Jigg’, which originally appeared in Playford’s Dancing Master (1686). As is a defining feature of the early jig and consequently, the early slip jig, the structure is irregular with the A-part being four bars long and the B-part being six bars in length. In terms of rhythmic features, it is quite similar to the early jig for which the same tempo of a dotted minim = ±60 BPM is imagined.

Table 3.23 Stylistic Element: The Early Slip Jig.

Stylistic Element The Early Slip Jig

Metre: 9/4 Tempo: dotted minim = ±60 Rhythmic characteristics: a crotchet based rhythm occasionally broken by minims.

Ex. 3.22 Example of how the Early Slip Jig might be realised.

113 3.3.13 Single Jig By the eighteenth century, the jig was well established with one account testifying to its popularity in ‘every cabin’.140 Its characteristic crotchet – quaver rhythm appears to be more common in the earlier collections than the motoric quaver rhythm of the double jig. Breathnach sheds light on how the single jig derived both its name and musical characteristics:

[…] in grinding, the floor is struck only four times instead of six (as in the double jig), and in battering only twice – by the hop on the first foot and a tap on the forward movement on of the other foot. It is this single battering which gives the tune its name.141

The single jig is in 6/8 and in Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, Breathnach suggests that it is best performed at a dotted crotchet = ±137 BPM (dotted minim = ±68 BPM).142 In her article on the ‘Jig’ in The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, Liz Doherty cites Terry Moylan who in turn had stated that ‘Breandán Breathnach’s rule of thumb was to identify the tune-end: “a three-quaver group followed by a crotchet or dotted crotchet marked a tune as a jig, while an ending of two dotted crotchets indicated that it was a slide”.143

Table 3.24 Stylistic Element: The Single Jig.

Stylistic Element The Single Jig

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±137 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: primarily but not exclusively features the crotchet – quaver rhythm.

140 Ó hAllmhuráin: A Pocket History of Irish Traditional Music, 47. 141 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 44. 142 Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, viii. 143 Doherty, Liz: ‘Jig’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 369.

114 Ex. 3.23 Example of how the Single Jig might be realised.

3.3.14 Double Jig By the end of the nineteenth century, the predominantly quaver rhythm that now defines much of the dance music of the genre was becoming manifest in jigs, leading to the double jig that is familiar today. It is the most popular of the jig family and in collections dating from the early twentieth century onwards it outnumbers any of its relatives.144

The double jig is in 6/8 and Breathnach gives its tempo as a dotted crotchet = ±127 BPM (dotted minim = ±64 BPM).145 Rhythmically, the double jig is characterised by a quaver rhythm that is occasionally, if at all, broken by a crotchet – quaver rhythm. An important point to note is that the dancer and musician have different understandings of the double jig: In dancing, the double jig is seen as being synonymous with the treble jig or heavy jig because its rhythm moves at double the time of the tune or in semiquavers against the tune’s quavers. In practice, this implies a relatively slow tempo from the musicians in order to accommodate the dancer’s busy rhythm.

However, usually, musicians are not playing for dancers and so the understanding of the double jig as held by the majority of instrumentalists is that it is a lively piece played at a fast tempo. Due to this tempo difference and the rhythmic features associated with it, in musical terms, there is enough contrast to warrant a new tune-type and so the heavy jig has been assigned a category of its own, which is explored in the following section.

144 This can be clearly seen on the contents page of: O’Neill: The Dance Music of Ireland. 145 Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, viii.

115

The double jig as it is defined here is actually closer to the step dancer’s term the ‘light jig’ where the dancing rhythm is not ‘doubled’ and consequently, it is closer to the quaver rhythm of the melody. In set dancing, céilí dancing and sean-nós dancing, the jig follows the characteristics as described here.

Table 3.25 Stylistic Element: The Double Jig.

Stylistic Element The Double Jig

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±127 Rhythmic characteristics: based on a motoric quaver rhythm that is occasionally broken by the crotchet – quaver rhythm and sometimes marked at phrase endings by three quavers followed by a dotted crotchet.

Ex. 3.24 Example of how the Double Jig might be realised.

3.3.15 Heavy Jig As stated above, a distinction is drawn between the lively double jig known by musicians and the much slower version known by dancers. Although the term double jig, treble jig or heavy jig can be used, the last of these terms seems to be most reflective of the tune-type.

116

Owing to the ‘double’ rhythm, the tempo of the heavy jig is noticeably slower, set at a dotted crotchet = ±73 BPM (minim = ±36 BPM).146 Possibly due to the strictness surrounding the tempo that is associated with competitive dancing, the rhythm is played quite straight, with minimal swing; contrasting the lively swung rhythm associated with the double jig. This slow pace also allows for an interesting characteristic feature where in mirroring the dancer’s rhythm, occasionally the fourth quaver is replaced by a triplet of semiquavers. While this could possibly be taken as an ornament, it appears to hold a compositional status in respect of this particular dance/ tune-type.

As noted earlier in this chapter, Petrie’s idea of the Munster double jig and the Munster single jig appears to approximate the idea of the heavy jig.147 Naturally however, this requires a subdivision into two separate versions that will here be termed the heavy double jig and the heavy single jig, respectively. The tempi can be presumed to be the same.

Table 3.26 Stylistic Element: The Heavy Double Jig.

Stylistic Element The Heavy Double Jig

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±64 Rhythmic characteristics: based on the motoric quaver and crotchet – quaver rhythms, punctuated by semiquaver triplets on the fourth quaver.

146 The names of these performers is unknown. Anton; Sully: Anton & Sully: The Feis Album, Vol. 1. (Anton & Sully, 2012), track 7. 147 See pages 72-73.

117 Ex. 3.25 Example of how the Heavy Double Jig might be realised.

Table 3.27 Stylistic Element: The Heavy Single Jig.

Stylistic Element The Heavy Single Jig

Metre: 6/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±64s Rhythmic characteristics: uses the quaver and crotchet – quaver rhythms and punctuated by semiquaver triplets on the fourth quaver.

Ex. 3.26 Example of how the Heavy Single might be realised.

3.3.16 Slide The slide appears to be the newest, or at least the most recently acknowledged member of the jig tune-type family. It is particularly associated with Counties

118 Cork and Kerry and specifically, the Sliabh Luachra area.148 It is difficult to find much information on the origin of this term and it is possibly a colloquialism from its place of origin.149

There is an argument that the slide is merely a synonym for the single jig, and indeed, authors and musicians alike appear to have struggled in making this distinction.150 In fact, the slide is notably absent from many collections, particularly from before the twentieth century. For example, it is not found in O’Neill’s collections nor is it mentioned in Breathnach’s Folk Music and Dances of Ireland or in his Ceol Rince na hEireann 1. Between the 1940s and 1950s, Séamus Ennis recorded the famous Sliabh Luachra fiddlers Padraig O’Keefe (1887–1963), Julia Clifford (1914–1997) and Denis Murphy (1910–1974) for the 1977 album Kerry Fiddles. In the liner notes of this album, a section detailing the tune-types played features the term slide in quotation marks and single jig in brackets beside it, clearly not accepting a difference and pointing towards the idea that it may be a colloquial term.151

As stated earlier, Breathnach’s rule of thumb regarding the differentiation between double jigs and slides was that ‘a three-quaver group followed by a crotchet or dotted crotchet marked a tune as a jig, while an ending of two dotted crotchets indicated that it was a slide’.152 However, to compound the difficulty in making a distinction between the slide and single jig, Breathnach notes the same ending for the single jig. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that this is not always the case.

Like the single jig, there is a strong preference for the crotchet – quaver rhythm over the more double-jig associated quaver triplets. In terms of tempo, if the Co. Kerry accordionist Séamus Begley’s playing of the ‘Lisheen Slide’ is taken as a reference

148 See: Kearney, David: ‘Locating Sliabh Luachra’, Towards a Regional Understanding of Irish Traditional Music, (PhD Diss., UCC, 2009), 364-386 which contains the most comprehensive answer to the question of defining Sliabh Luachra. 149 Having spoken to authorities such as the Kerry accordionist Séamus Begley, who is famous for his playing of slides, he said that he was unaware of the origins of the term. 150 As demonstrated in the lengthy discussion found at: http://www.thesession.org/tunes/display/19 (Accessed 18 July 2012). 151 O’Keefe, Pádraig; Murphy, Denis; Clifford, Julia: Kerry Fiddles, (Cork: Ossian Publications, 1989). 152 Doherty, Liz: ‘Jig’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 369.

119 point, the tempo is a dotted crotchet = ±165 BPM (dotted minim = ±82 BPM).153 Hence, it is about 30 BPM faster than the tempo Breathnach had suggested for the single jig.154 A result of this relatively high tempo is that the swing associated with the single jig is missing, and the notes are instead played much straighter. There is a greater concentration of longer note values at the end of phrases than is found in the single jig and this is perhaps an implicit action to avoid a muddy melodic line at the faster tempo.

Its metre is generally notated as being 12/8, although 6/8 is said to be used interchangeably. However, it would seem that 12/8 is more appropriate in that from listening to Séamus Begley’s performance, a very clear downbeat and four beats in the bar can be heard as opposed to the groups of two beats that 6/8 would imply. It has also been noted that in some cases, the slide sounds like a very fast strathspey or a tune that is in 4/4 and is comprised of dotted quaver to semi quaver rhythms.155 In a sense, the difference is largely in the performance with the main characteristics probably resulting from its increased tempo.

Table 3.28 Stylistic Element: The Slide.

Stylistic Element Slide

Metre: 12/8 Tempo: dotted crotchet = ±165 Rhythmic characteristics: primarily but not exclusively features the crotchet – quaver rhythm, has a strong feel of four beats in the bar and feels closer to 4/4 than 12/8 and is most likely to end on two dotted crotchets.

153 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Steve: Meitheal, (Dublin: Hummingbird Productions, 1996). 154 Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, viii. 155 Doherty, Liz: ‘Jig’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 369.

120 Ex. 3.27 Example of how the Slide might be realised.

3.3.17 Slip Jig The slip jig is generally regarded as being quite old. The earliest example to be found in Fleischmann’s collection is a four-part tune entitled ‘Old Simon the King’, which had originally appeared in Playford’s The Dancing Master (1679).156 Fleischmann references Nicholas Carolan who stated that it was a ‘convivial song sung in Dublin, c.1720’.157

In early publications, such as those that have been replicated in Fleischmann’s collection, slip jigs were transcribed in 9/4 but are now consistently written in 9/8. Its rhythm is generally organised into three groups of three quavers, which are occasionally broken by the crotchet – quaver and dotted crotchet motifs. Described by Breathnach as ‘the most graceful of dances’, the rhythm is generally played quite straight and usually without heavy accentuation.158 The tempo given by Breathnach is a dotted crotchet = ±144 BPM.159

156 Fleischmann: Sources of Irish Traditional Music, 18. 157 Neal, John; Neal, William: A Collection of the Most Celebrated Irish Tunes: Proper for the Violin, German Flute or Hautboy, ed. Nicholas Carolan, (Dublin: Irish Traditional Music Archive in association with The Folk Music Society of Ireland, 2010), xv. 158 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 45. 159 Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, vii.

121 Table 3.29 Stylistic Element: The Slip Jig.

Stylistic Element Slip Jig

Metre: 9/8 Tempo: dotted-crotchet = ±144 Rhythmic characteristics: based on a motoric quaver rhythm, occasionally broken by the crotchet – quaver rhythm but may also end on dotted crotchets.

Ex. 3.28 Example of how the Slip Jig might be realised.

3.3.18 Hop Jig The classification of the hop jig as an independent tune-type is a point of contention. As previously noted, collections like O’Neill’s Dance Music of Ireland contain slip jigs and hop jigs and do not differentiate between the two. Similarly, other authors including Breandán Breathnach would consider them to be synonymous terms.160 This argument is supported in Helen Brennan’s The Story of Irish Dance where she states,

[...] between steps the dancers travelled around the floor using a characteristic slipping and hopping step, hence the name. It was also called the hop jig and in some areas of the north it was known as the sling.161

The usual requirement for a tune-type designation, a dance, is not present in the case of

160 See: O’Neill, Francis: The Dance Music of Ireland. Also see: Breathnach: Ceol Rince na hÉireann 1, 45. 161 Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 66.

122 the hop jig. Yet, some musicians such as the flute player Harry Bradley argue for the consideration of the hop jig as an independent tune-type.162 Despite the lack of historical differentiation, it appears that there are two distinct approaches in terms of the compositional and performance styles relating to jigs in 9/8.

As the double jig is differentiated from the single jig largely on the basis of the former’s predominantly quaver rhythm versus the latter’s more usual crotchet – quaver rhythm; the slip jig/ hop jig differentiation could be said to operate on the same rhythmic basis. Like the difference between single and double jigs, it can be noted that of the body of material that is in 9/8, tunes with a predominance of the quaver rhythm, or crotchet – quaver rhythmic patterns can be found. For example, ‘Gusty’s Frolics’ uses the quaver-based slip jig rhythm whilst ‘The Rocky Road to Dublin’, which is also a song, uses the crotchet – quaver or hop jig rhythm.163

While both are written in 9/8 and the slip jig is played with a feel of three groups of three quavers, the hop jig is characterised by a pulse of three, punchy dotted crotchets in a bar and a rhythm that moves using the crotchet – quaver pattern. A well-known example is the fiddler Michael Coleman’s recording of ‘The Foxhunter’ in which the gracefulness associated with the slip jig is notably absent and is replaced by a livelier feel. A consequence of this different character is that it is played faster than the slip jig. To take Coleman’s recording as an archetype, the tempo would be a dotted minim tied to dotted crotchet = ±73 BPM.164 This perhaps contributes to the different rhythmic feel which is characterised by an accentuation of the three beats in the bar with a particular emphasis on the downbeat, sometimes feeling more like a 3/4 rhythm moving in triplets.

162 For his argument, see: http://errantelbows.podbean.com/category/hop-jigs/ (Accessed 24 July 2012). 163 See ‘Gusty’s Frolics’ on: Altan: Another Sky, (London: Virgin, 2000), track 7; and the ‘Rocky Road to Dublin’ on: The Dubliners: The Dubliners Collection, (Dublin: K-tel, 1991), track 5. 164 This example is used, despite it being termed a slip jig. See: Coleman, Michael: Michael Coleman 1891–1945, (Dublin: Gael Linn/ Viva Voce, 1992).

123 Table 3.30 Stylistic Element: The Hop Jig.

Stylistic Element The Hop Jig

Metre: 9/8 Tempo: a dotted-minim tied to dotted crotchet = ±73 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: A strong feel of three beats in the bar and largely crotchet – quaver rhythmic feel.

Ex. 3.29 Example of how the Hop Jig might be realised.

3.3.19 Waltz

Although what is possibly the earliest ‘Irish’ waltz, entitled ‘The Waterford Waltz’ is found as early as O’Farrell’s Pocket Companion IV (1810),165 aside from the Irish place name in its title, there is little evidence of any stylistic characteristics, which would make this tune ‘Irish’. As is the case with most of the other tune-types, its origins lie outside of Ireland. Peter Gammond and Peter Lamb state that:

165 O’Farrell, Patrick [?]: O’Farrell’s Pocket Companion for the Irish or Union Pipes, Vol. IV, (Unknown publisher, 1810), 138.

124 There is little doubt that the dance form of the waltz, with its heavy accent on the first beat of the bar, came about through the influence of the Ländler [:] A dance basic to the folk music of Austria, southern Germany, and the Alpine regions [...] After invading European music about 1770 the waltz gradually replaced the stately and artificial minuet.166

Presently, it is relatively rare to hear the waltz being performed but it is still performed in places like Co. Donegal or indeed played by the occasional céilí band.167 Its 3/4 metre is punctuated by an emphasis on the downbeat and while the rhythm tends to move in crotchets, some tunes may feature faster-moving rhythms.168 It is typically played at a tempo of a crotchet = ±174 BPM.169

Table 3.31 Stylistic Element: The Waltz.

Stylistic Element The Waltz

Metre: 3/4 Tempo: a crotchet = ±175 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: chiefly moves in crotchets.

166 Gammond, Peter; Lamb, Andrew: ‘Waltz’, The Oxford Companion to Music, ed., Alison Latham. Oxford Music Online. http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e7260 (Accessed March 5 2012). 167 See: Various Artists: The Donegal Fiddle, (Dublin: RTÉ, 1996). Also see: The Kilfenora Céilí Band: Set On Stone, (Ennis: Torc Music, 1998). 168 See: Chapter Ten, 482, ‘Tommy Betty’s Waltz’. 169 The Kilfenora Céilí Band: Set On Stone, (Ennis: Torc Music, 1998), track 12.

125 Ex. 3.30 Example of how the Waltz might be realised.

3.3.20 Mazurka In his book, From Mazovia to Meenbanad, Dr Caoimhín MacAoidh (1952– ) charts the origin of the mazurka in Poland and its possible route into Ireland.170 In The History of Irish Dance, Helen Brennan notes that:

Amongst the most universally popular of the sets were the lancers and the mazurka. The mazurka emerged as the mazolka in Monaghan, the mazourka in Donegal, the myserks in Clare and the mesarts in Kerry. Originally the mazurka set had its own music but eventually it came to be danced to reels.171

Of these locations, the mazurka is now primarily associated with County Donegal.172 The mazurka is in 3/4 and moves in a quaver rhythm. Unlike the waltz however, the accent is placed on the second beat of the bar, rather than the downbeat. While recording artists often play the melody at a medium tempo, when it is played for dancing, a lively tempo is adopted. Using a home recording I made of a dancer and fiddler from Donegal, Paddy McMenamin (1946– ), the tempo of a crotchet = ±175

170 Mac Aoidh, Caoimhín: From Mazovia to Meenbanad, (Donegal: Ceo Teo., 2008). 171 Brennan: The Story of Irish Dance, 27. 172 See: Mac Aoidh, Caoimhín: ‘Mazurka’, The Companion to Irish Traditional Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 2nd ed., (Cork: Cork University Press, 2011), 432-433.

126 BPM is found.173

Table 3.32 Stylistic Element: The Mazurka.

Stylistic Element The Mazurka

Metre: 3/4 Tempo: crotchet = ±175 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: moves in a motoric quaver rhythm. The accent is on the second beat of the bar.

Ex. 3.31 Example of how the Mazurka might be realised.

3.3.21 7/8 Tunes As stated earlier in the historiography of tune categorisation, the 1990s saw the influence of eastern European folk music on some traditional musicians. Over time, tunes written in 7/8 began to enter the tradition. While this is not a tune-type in the traditional sense, aside from the time-signature, these compositions are idiomatic in every other way. Of this new type of tune, the flute player Michael McGoldrick’s piece ‘Waterman’s’ is possibly the most widely played example and is used here as an archetype. The tempo in this case is a crotchet = ±190 BPM, and while these tunes use a mixture of crotchets and quavers (in this instance a predominantly two crotchet – three quaver rhythm), there are really too few examples to begin to draw conclusions. There

173 Altan’s recording of an untitled mazurka on their Runnaway Sunday album is much slower. See: Altan: Runaway Sunday, (London: Virgin Records, 1997).

127 is no tune-type classification for tunes in 7/8 and since they are simply termed ‘7/8 tunes’, there is no reason to change this.

Table 3.33 Stylistic Element: 7/8 Tune.

Stylistic Element 7/8 Tune

Metre: 7/8 Tempo: minim plus dotted crotchet = ±59 BPM Rhythmic characteristics: at the moment it seems to be based on the two crotchets and three quavers rhythm where the first beat of the bar is accented.

Ex. 3.32 Example of how the 7/8 Tune-type might be realised.

In conclusion, a range of tempi can be found within the genre although in practice, only a narrow range of the faster tempi appear to be used. A major characteristic of tempo in Irish traditional instrumental music is its variability within the performance of each tune and this would certainly benefit from a detailed study in the future. Thirteen options in all were identified in this study.

Sufficient criteria have been found to define thirty-one tune-types. This study relied heavily on literary sources and while sound recordings were not widely consulted, evidently a more in-depth study of this media would result in many more examples. In

128 particular, further study on what Nicholas Carolan terms ‘Early Modern Irish Music’ would undoubtedly give rise to a greater number of tune-types and facilitate a better understanding of the earlier music and its wider European heritage.

Furthermore, it is noted that there are many tunes for which there is no suitable tune- type but too few examples from which to form an archetype. There are many more examples not detailed here that can be found on old recordings, particularly those of céilí bands and of older Donegal fiddle music. Moreover, bi-metrical tunes such as ‘Is the Big Man Within?’ and those found in The James Tourish Collection would be interesting specimens for further study. With the inclusion of the thirteen tempo-options that were identified, this chapter contains forty-four stylistic elements across two conceptual fields.

129 CHAPTER FOUR

RHYTHM

[...] the incomparable swing and rhythm of a reel is co-ordinated to our natural desire for the sense of hurrying motion, and the recurrent thud or accent beat of the measure imperatively demands a powerful and wholly inexplicable response from us.1

From the quotation above, it can be seen that there are a number of conceptual fields at play in the discussion of rhythm in Irish traditional music. The four that have been identified and selected to form the content of this chapter are: swing, the tune’s natural rhythm, the rhythm resulting from the accents used and accompaniment rhythm. Another author, James Travis, states that:

The diversity of its forms escaped the editors of collections from which this diversity has been demonstrated. The significance of its modes eluded theorists wrecked either on the Scylla of rhythm or the Charybdis of harmony.2

As might be implied by Travis’s words, the key issue is that there is little in the way of terminology to serve the discussion and sharing of ideas with regard to aspects of rhythm. It is the aim of this chapter therefore to attempt to codify some of this knowledge so that it might be transmitted as explicit stylistic data.

The term ‘swing’ is synonymous with the colloquial term lift. Yet, as is the case with ‘swing’, this term refers more to the qualities created by rhythmic styles rather than to any quantitative rhythmic trait in itself. Swing might be understood to encapsulate aspects of accent placement, rubato and note duration.3 As established in the previous

1 Henebry, Richard: Handbook of Irish Music, (Dublin; Cork; London: Cork University Press; Educational Co. Of Ireland; Longmans, Green, 1928), 4. From informal discussion with Mícheál Ó Súilleabháin, he points out that this quotation contains the earliest recorded use of the term ‘swing’ with regard to Irish traditional music. He also notes that the first recorded use of the term in relation to Jazz music dates to the beginning of the ‘swing’ era in 1933 but can be traced back to 1888. 2 Travis, James: ‘Irish National Music’, The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 24, (Oxford: The Oxford University Press, 1938), 479. The analogy used by Travis refers to a story from Greek mythology where Scylla is a female sea monster that is said to devour sailors when they try to navigate the narrow area between her cave and the whirlpool Charybdis. 3 See: Jeffrey, Dean; Gammond, Peter: ‘Swing’, Oxford Music Online http://0- www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ditlib.dit.ie/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e6582 (Accessed 12 June 2013).

130 chapter,4 various collectors appear to have struggled with regard to how this stylistic feature should be communicated. Some have opted to present their tunes in ‘straight’ quavers whilst others use dotted quaver – semiquaver duplets.5 This difference is indicated in Ex. 4.1 below.

Ex. 4.1 Straight Quaver-rhythm versus Dotted Quaver-rhythm.

In practice, neither of these rhythms is played strictly as written but rather, if both are viewed as opposite ends of a spectrum, it is the various shades in between that are employed. Different performers have contrasting types of swing and additionally, there can be a degree of variation within the style of an individual musician. This conceptual field will be dealt with in Section 4.3.

More tangibly, and as was discussed at length in Chapter Three, dance music is characterised by its ‘motoric’ quaver rhythm. This motoric rhythm is broken using crotchets, dotted crotchets or occasionally a minim. However, some contemporary musicians and composers often use longer values, syncopation and notes that are tied over the bar line. Although variation in a tune’s rhythm is both employed by and expected from the skilful performer, at present, there is no explicit means for conceptualising various aspects of rhythm.6

The same can be said regarding the placement of accents, of which there are many types.7 These may be created as an intentional choice by the performer or may result from the technical challenge of having to negotiate a melodic feature such as a change

Despite these qualities, it is generally agreed that the term is indefinable. While the types of parameters required differ, and this is probably a reflection on the genre being described, those listed above are presented as a reflection of my own understanding of Irish traditional music. 4 See Chapter Three, 92. 5 These approaches are discussed in: Ó Súilleabháin, Mícheál: The Bodhrán, (Dublin: Walton’s Musical Instrument Galleries Ltd., 1984), 8. 6 McCullough, Lawrence E.: ‘Style in Traditional Irish Music’, Ethnomusicology, Vol. 21, No.1, (University of Illinois Press, 1977), 85, 87. McCullough includes rhythmic variation as one of his ‘four main variables’. 7 See Chapter Eight, Section 8.4.5, 401-403 for further details.

131 in the range of the melody.

Accompaniment rhythms can be created by instruments such as the bodhrán, bouzouki, guitar, piano, harp, uilleann pipe regulators, accordion bass, and even a dancer’s feet. An accompaniment rhythm that is commonly employed by both musicians and dancers is the accentuation of the off-beat and many variants of this can be found. These rhythms have grown progressively complex as the instruments used to create them have proliferated and evolved over time.

Some instruments such as the accordion, uilleann pipes, piano, guitar and harp can employ all four of these conceptual fields at one time. Moreover, it is standard practice that all four are actively used in ensemble playing. The following example (Ex. 4.2) represents how these layers of rhythmic subtlety may occur. Here, the uppermost stave demonstrates the rhythm created by the points of accentuation over the melody below. The bottom two staves demonstrate a typical accompaniment rhythm, with the bass and mid-range lines being conceptualised separately.

Ex. 4.2 Various types of rhythm possible in performance.

While this information can be expressed through analysis, it is the aim of this chapter to investigate how it can be captured in a manner that enables rhythmic information to be communicated and shared in a practical way. To begin with, I review a range of sources, following which, I present the methodology along with the resultant stylistic data.

132 4.1 Historiography While P.W. Joyce had provided an accurate description of the rhythmic features of various tune-types,8 one of the first general observations of rhythmic style can be found in James Travis’s 1938 paper Irish National Music where he states that:

The broad outlines of rhythm, such as beat patterns, are quite simple in Irish music. Tunes of all types open almost invariably on the up-beat. Accents in dance and march tunes are stylized. Slow airs are likely to be broken in rhythm at the jointure of phrases and sections, and at other places where the harmony changes pronouncedly.9

This type of description of the basic rhythmic features of Irish traditional music may be found well into the twentieth century with Breathnach articulating the basic or motoric rhythms of both the jig and the reel in his Folk Music and Dances of Ireland (1971).10 Breathnach’s notation is represented below in Ex. 4.3.

Ex. 4.3 A reproduction of Breandán Breathnach’s basic or ‘motoric’ rhythm.

By the mid-twentieth century the discussion grew more nuanced and attempts were made to understand the process of variation. It seems likely that this idea first appeared in the 1960s when Seán Ó Riada discussed what he termed the ‘variation principle’.11 While this calls for variation on the part of the performer,12 Ó Riada also very often characterises the differences between regional fiddle styles in terms of their rhythmic idiosyncrasies.13

8 See: Joyce, Patrick Weston: Ancient Irish Music, (Dublin: McGlashan and Gill, 1873), vi. He also mentions tempo but really only in the sense that the songs are too slow and the dance tunes too fast. 9 Travis: ‘Irish National Music’, 464. 10 Breathnach, Breandán: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, Revised Ed. 1977, (Dublin; Cork: Mercier Press, 1993), 88. 11 Ó Riada, Seán: Our Musical Heritage, eds. Tomás Ó Canainn; Thomas Kinsella, (Mountrath: Dolmen Press, 1982), 24, 31. Also see page 50 where he says that ‘Pipers, in common with singers and players of other instruments, must make proper use of variation – the underlying principle of all traditional Irish music’. See Chapter One, Section 1.1 for discussion of variation in the more general sense. 12 This comment was made initially in relation to sean-nós singing but it equally applies to the dance music. 13 See: Ó Riada: Our Musical Heritage, 53-60.

133 While Richard Henebry’s description of ‘swing’ from his 1928 Handbook of Irish Music was referenced in the opening quotation of this chapter,14 Breathnach’s explanation is notably more detailed. In it, he places particular focus on the inequality of the note lengths and the characteristics of accent placement. It reads:

Looking at the transcription of a jig (6/8) or a reel (4/4) one sees in each bar two groups of quavers: in the jig, groups of three quavers, in the reel groups of four quavers. These little heads and tails are not arithmetical symbols. If they were, they would all have equal stress and the same length or duration. They are musical symbols which have a particular meaning for the reader, depending on the system of music in which he has been trained. Broadly speaking, the traditional musician will read these symbols in the following manner. The first accented note of the phrase will be the longest in duration and will bear the heaviest accent. The odd beats (3rd, 5th, etc.) will be more heavily accented than the even beats (2nd, 4th, etc.), and all will be fractionally longer than notes without accent.15

In the same work, Breathnach conceptualises rhythmic variation as one of three types of ornamentation.16 Rather than it being ornamentation in the manner in which it is typically understood,17 his discussion centres on the options for replacing typical rhythms with other idiomatic possibilities. For instance, he notes that a triplet of quavers may be replaced by a crotchet – quaver motif or by a dotted crotchet. He then discusses how articulation can be used to modify these examples.18

By the later twentieth century, rhythmic variation is regarded as being of fundamental aesthetic value. This is clear from McCullough’s opinion that ‘variation in melodic and rhythmic patterns’ is one of the ‘four main variables’ in the genre.19 Indeed, Ó Súilleabháin’s choice to concentrate his study of Tommie Potts’s fiddle playing only on ‘phrasing, rhythm, melody and structure’ might be regarded as a further reflection of this aesthetic.20

The stylistic evolution of the 1970s and 1980s saw a steep development in performance

14 Henebry: A Handbook of Irish Music, 4. 15 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 88. 16 The first two types are what he terms embellishment, which is ornamentation in its proper sense. The second is melodic variation. While I do not agree that rhythmic variation is a type of ornamentation, this aspect will be further discussed in Chapter Nine. 17 See Chapter Nine, 404 for the definition used in this thesis. 18 Breathnach: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland, 99. 19 McCullough: ‘Style in Traditional Irish Music’, 69, 85. 20 Ó Súilleabháin: Innovation and Tradition in the Music of Tommie Potts, 33.

134 style that was in part characterised by the evolution of rhythmic accompaniment.21 In tandem with this was a consequent rise from the 1980s in the demand for tutor books for instruments that are capable of accompaniment.22 However, these tutors tend to be more concerned with harmony and technique rather than rhythmic characteristics and appear to be aimed more towards the novice. While guitar tutors tend to focus on aspects other than rhythm,23 what would seem to be the only bouzouki tutor, The Irish Bouzouki gives two-bar examples for the ‘reel beat’, ‘jig beat’, ‘slip jig beat’ and ‘hornpipe beat’.24

While there does not appear to be a tutor for the keyboard or piano, in 1984, Mícheál Ó Súilleabháin produced the first tutor for the bodhrán.25 From a rhythmic perspective, this is probably the most informative source available. As stated earlier, he deliberates over the problem of how ‘swing’ might best be represented in notation. Some of the possibilities he considers include whether a 4/4 tune should be written using either straight quavers or dotted rhythms, or indeed, if it would be helpful to write a 4/4 tune in 12/8 so that the feeling of swing is better communicated.26 Whereas the other tutors mentioned do not allocate much space to the discussion of rhythm, this work goes as far as offering transcriptions and rhythms used by bodhrán-players,27 including an extract from a bodhrán solo by Johnny McDonagh (1950– ).28 Ó Súilleabháin even describes an approach he terms ‘tune-following’ whereby the bodhrán-player tries to mirror the melodic contour employed by the tune player. In order to express this, he suggests a three-line stave on which the pitches used by the bodhrán-player can be written.29 The Bodhrán Book by Steáfán Hannigan first appeared in 1991 and although it is not explicitly stated, it appears to be aimed at young beginners.30 Its rhythms are of

21 See: Chapter One, 33 ff where this aspect is further discussed. 22 See: Chapter One, 4 where it is noted that tutors do exist from earlier, most notably: O’Farrell, Patrick [?}: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes, (London: John Gow, 1804), 56-57. 23 de Grae, Paul: Traditional Irish Guitar, (The Spa, Tralee, Co. Kerry: Paul De Grae, 1989), 26, 28, 34, 38. Sarah McQuaid specifies two styles of accompaniment, see: McQuaid, Sarah: The Irish DADGAD Guitar Book, (London: Ossian Publications, 2005), 44. 24 Ó Callanáin, Niall; Walsh, Tommy: The Irish Bouzouki, (Dublin: Walton’s Manufacturing Ltd., 1989), 17. 25 Ó Suilleabhain: The Bodhrán. 26 Ó Suilleabhain: The Bodhrán, 8. 27 Ibid., 10-15. 28 Ibid., 21. 29 Ibid., 24-25. 30 Hannigan, Steáfán: The Bodhrán Book, (London: Ossian Publications Ltd, 2005).

135 the most basic variety and are notated in a specifically-designed musical tablature. The Lambeg and the Bodhrán (2001) by Rina Schiller is more sophisticated but contains only four notated examples.31

Despite uilleann pipe tutors having been published, albeit sporadically, from the early- nineteenth century onwards,32 it is surprising that while the harmonic composition of the regulators is well described, there is little detailed discussion of their rhythmic possibilities. Similarly, any tutors for the piano-accordion or button-accordion do not describe the rhythmic characteristics or potential of the bass buttons in anything but a rudimentary sense.33

Dance tutors generally focus on the figures or movements rather than the rhythms produced by the steps. One example that breaks from this, albeit in a small way is Terry Moylan’s Irish Dances (1985) where the author notes the rhythms produced by the steps in relation to the reel, jig, hornpipe, polka and slide.34 Through indicating heel and toe movements, it is possible to determine the accent patterns but clearly, these figures were not intended for rhythmic analysis.35 Possibly the best way of accessing this rhythmic information is to analyse it directly from recorded sources such as DVDs. To this extent, the Irish-American dancer, Mary Beth Taylor (1977– ) covers beginner sean-nós steps in Sean-Nós Dancing for Everyone (2012) where if desired, the rhythms could be transcribed more easily.36

4.2 Methodology Clearly then, little exists concerning rhythmic analysis. Ultimately, this leaves audio recordings as the main source of potential data. However, not all rhythmic styles are accessible on commercial recordings. Furthermore, even if it were intended or possible

31 See: Schiller, Rina: The Lambeg and the Bodhrán, (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University Belfast, 2001), 73, 74, 76, 80-81, 99-100. 32 O’Farrell: Collection of National Irish Music for the Union Pipes. Also see: Rowsome, Leo: Leo Rowsome’s Tutor for the Uilleann Pipes, (Dublin, Walton’s Musical Instrument Galleries, 1936). 33 Ironically, one of the few studies to examine this is a chapter of Marion McAuley’s MA thesis on stylistic change. See: McAuley, Marion: Aspects of Stylistic Change in Irish Traditional Dance Music, (MA Diss., University College Cork, 1989), 124 ff. 34 Moylan, Terry: Irish Dances, (Dublin: Na Píobairí Uilleann, 1984). 35 See: Ibid., 69-72. Effectively, the heel will produce the accent whilst the toe will produce the weak beats. 36 Taylor, Mary Beth: Sean-Nós Dancing for Everyone, (Dublin: Self Published, 2011).

136 to analyse each and every rhythmic style, it would require a separate study. For the same reason, practice-based research is not viable and so this leaves variation as the only realistic approach to finding the full scope of this particular conceptual field. The disadvantage of this, however, is that it does not enable contextual information of the type that was possible in the previous chapter. Therefore, in addition to employing variation, analysis of audio recordings will be undertaken to demonstrate how contextual information might be used to augment the scope of the contents of this particular area.

Similar to melodic variation, rhythmic variation in Irish traditional instrumental music is generally subtle.37 Consequently, the codes that will be used to determine rhythmic information will be presented in one-bar lengths and this should also ensure that the code is concise enough to be manageable. As noted in the previous chapter, the main tune-types are based on the metres 4/4, 6/8, 9/8 and 2/4, but 12/8, 3/4 and 7/8 were also mentioned. Since the tune-types that require the metres 3/4 and 7/8 are so rarely found in practice, their codes are not explored in this study.38

The coding system adopted in this study is based on that used for the ABC2WIN software, which is the standard program used on the internet for creating sheet music versions of Irish or related types of tunes. It requires that the tune is written using its letter names and that the lengths of the notes are indicated by numbers. Hence, a quaver is given the value of 1, a crotchet is equal to 2, a dotted crotchet to 3, a minim to 4 and so on.39 It will be noted that the semiquaver is not represented by a particular number and this is because outside of its use in ornaments such as the treble40 and rhythmic features such as the ‘Scotch Snap’ (which is discussed below) it is rarely found in music written in 4/4, 6/8 and 9/8. The one case where the semiquaver might be required is described at Ex. 4.9 below. With regard to the 2/4 metre that is associated with the polka, the semiquaver is used, often quite a lot. In this case, it is given the value of 1 and the numbers for larger rhythmic values proceed accordingly.

37 See Chapter Seven for a discussion on melodic variation. 38 See Chapter Three, Sections 3.3.19 to 3.3.21. 39 For a concise explanation of the notation system, see: http://abcnotation.com/blog/2010/01/31/how-to- understand-abc-the-basics/ (Accessed 29 April 2012). 40 See Chapter Nine, Section 9.3.37, 446-447 for a definition of the treble and its use in this chapter.

137 These are represented in Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Codification of rhythmic lengths. 4/4, 6/8, 9/8, 2/4 Semiquaver n/a 1 Quaver 1 2 Dotted quaver - 3 Crotchet 2 4 Crotchet tied to semiquaver - 5 Dotted Crotchet 3 6

Dotted Crotchet tied to semiquaver - 7

Minim 4 8

Minim tied to quaver 5 - Dotted minim 6 - Dotted minim tied to quaver 7 - Semibreve 8 - Three tied dotted crotchets 9 -

In relation to the Scotch Snap,41 as stated above, tunes are very rarely played using either dotted rhythms or straight quavers but rather, are usually played somewhere in between both of these possibilities. Therefore, it is simpler and more accurate simply to state that a rhythm is swung or that a Scotch Snap should be played in a particular place. Finally, the three tied dotted crotchets apply to tunes in 9/8 only.

The result of giving each rhythmic value a number means that a code can be generated where each number is separated by a full stop and the bar line is represented by a vertical line. For example, the rhythm found at Ex. 4.4 below can be written as 3.1.2.2. | 2.2.1.1.1.1. Where there are consecutive repetitions of a particular value, these are

41 See Chapter Three, 97-98 for a definition.

138 represented as superscript numbers. For example, rather than write 1.1.1.1, it is clearer to write 14 given that there are four 1s, in which case, the rhythm presented at Ex. 4.4 can be abbreviated to 3.1.22 | 22.14 as can be seen below over the notated example.

Ex. 4.4 A codified typical rhythm.

While a great deal can be achieved using this information, it becomes evident that a number of other qualifiers are needed to adapt it to the characteristics of Irish traditional instrumental music. For accents and accompaniment rhythms, it is noted that in order to locate a beat anywhere in the bar, a way of denoting rests is required. Following the code used in the ABC2WIN program, the letter z represents a rest. The length of the rest can be communicated by placing the appropriate number beside it, for example z4 in 4/4 signifies a minim rest. While the use of rests enables more precise rhythms to be communicated, here they are only used at the beginning of bars so that the previous bar does not have to be written out in full as might be the case when notes are tied over the bar. Moreover, considering that they are rarely used in practice, this would only serve to enlarge the list of codes beyond what is reasonable. Two examples of how the rest qualifier might be used in practice are given in Ex. 4.5 below.

Ex. 4.5 A codified rhythm featuring rests.

Due to the trend of following the tune’s rhythm, it is not uncommon for accompanists to also play an ornament known as the treble. 42 Among traditional musicians the treble is often confused with the triplet, but as can be seen in Ex. 4.6 below, they are different in that the treble is comprised of two semiquavers and a quaver while the triplet is

42 See Chapter Nine, Sections 9.3.35 and 9.3.37 for a definition and discussion of the usage of the triplet and the treble respectively.

139 comprised of three quavers in the space of a crotchet. Since these are considered to be ornaments, a numerical value is not given and so t2 denotes a treble and T2 a triplet, or in some cases, T4 if it occurs over a minim (in 4/4). While the treble is very commonly used, the triplet appears much more in collections than in actual practice. This being the case, only the treble (t) is included in the codes here, but evidently, it could easily be imagined as a capital T to explore the triplet possibilities if so desired.

Ex. 4.6 A codified rhythm featuring (a) a treble and (b) a triplet.

Amongst contemporary accompanists, it is not unusual for beats to be ‘pushed’ in that a note begins slightly ahead of the bar to which it belongs. In this case, the letter P is used to preface a particular number and so removes the necessity of including the preceding bar. For example, P1 | 4.4 indicates a quaver tied to the minim of the bar being described. Similarly, P2 | 3.1.2.2 implies a crotchet tied over the bar to the dotted crotchet that follows. These are illustrated at Ex. 4.7.

Ex. 4.7 A codified rhythm featuring (a) a pushed quaver and (b) a pushed crotchet.

As will be seen, in the interest of space, only one-bar codes are used here. However if an example is two or more bars in length and contains notes tied across the bar line, brackets around the numbers on both sides of the bar line can be used in the following manner: 6.(2 | 4).4.

140 Ex. 4.8 A two-bar codified rhythm demonstrating the use of tied notes.

While this is clearer, some musicians may prefer to only use numbers. In a case such as this, the code 6.6.4 is its equivalent and may be found in Ex. 4.13 (No. 9) below.43 Finally, in 4/4 or 6/8 metres, outside of their use as part of the treble ornament, it is relatively rare to find semiquavers in either the tune rhythm, the accompaniment, or in relation to the accent rhythm. One exception, found in 6/8 and 12/8 metres is the guitarist Steve Cooney’s use of one to two bars of semiquavers. In his playing, these tend to occur towards the end of the B-part of a tune and are used to build excitement leading back into the tune’s A-part.44 A bar of semiquavers in 6/8 can be written as s3.s3. Since a semiquaver = 1 in the 2/4 polkas, the prefix s is not needed.

Ex. 4.9 A codified rhythm in 6/8 featuring consecutive semiquavers.

Through having a code, it becomes possible to communicate stylistic data explicitly. For example, one musician could ask another to play the guitar rhythm at the beginning of the reel ‘The Yellow Tinker’ from Altan’s The Red Crow album,45 but this necessitates that the latter has heard and memorised the rhythm and hence, has learned it using the master-apprentice model.46 Using the code however, the other musician would not need to have heard the guitar rhythm being requested as it would be possible simply to ask them to play the 3.1.2.2 rhythm. Therefore, through observation, it is now possible to analyse recordings of various artists to produce a list of stylistic elements that can be organised according to both metre and numerical order.

43 This rhythm is quite common in modern traditional music and is used by amongst others, Dervish on: Dervish: Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: Compass Records, 1997), track 11. For further details, see No. 9 in both Ex. 4.19 and Table 4.4. 44 See No. 27 in Ex 4.20 for an example and No. 27 at Table 4.6 for source information. 45 Altan: The Red Crow, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 1990). 46 See Chapter One, Section 1.3.2, 37-46.

141

In this study, the options are determined using variation.47 First, the longest value that can be contained within each metre must be found. For example, the codes used for rhythms in 9/8, 4/4 and 6/8 must add up to 9, 8 and 6, respectively. Because there are eight semiquavers in a bar of 2/4, the codes that are used for 4/4 can also be used for 2/4. The next possibility is achieved by dividing the digits of a number from right to left and to keep doing this until all of the options have been found. If the metre 4/4 is taken (see Table 4.2), the largest number is 8. This leaves the second largest number as 7, which is followed by 1 (to add up to 8), resulting in the code 7.1. Due to the fact that the 1 cannot be further divided, the next code is 6.2. Since anywhere there is a 2 a possibility exists that a treble (t2) can be played, therefore the next option is 6.t2. Then, the 2 can be further divided into two 1s or 12. Following this, the next code is 5.3, followed by 5.2.1, and so on until the lowest figure has been reached. When this process is complete, a large organised set of stylistic elements will be contained within a conceptual field that houses every possibility that is likely to occur. Within this set of stylistic elements, observed rhythms can be located and this enables their variants to be found.

As stated, the largest number or value per bar in 4/4 is 8, a semibreve. Musically, this implies that there is just one accent or beat at the beginning of the bar or, in the manner (8 | 8), it could be tied over to the next bar to form the much-used drone as is illustrated in Ex. 4.10 below.

Ex. 4.10 An illustration in 4/4 of the code (8 | 8).

The possibility containing the smallest note values is t2.t2.t2.t2, which can be abbreviated to t24, and indicates four trebles. Numerically, the code containing the

47 Unlike permutation, which is used in Chapters Six and Seven, a mathematical formula is not used here. In this case, variation is simpler to use because each code must add up to a particular number and follow an order while taking an array of symbols into consideration. In this case, the results are generated manually using a knowledge of the coded language as set out.

142 lowest numbers without rests or trebles is 1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1 or 18 indicating two bars of quavers or the basic tune-rhythm as represented by Breathnach in Ex. 4.3 above. Finally, the smallest value using rests is z7.1. These examples are represented in Ex. 4.11 below. Between these extremes, a range of possibilities exists.

Ex. 4.11 A codified rhythm featuring (a) the longest rhythmic value and (b), (c), (d) the shortest rhythms.

If this process is followed, the complete set of stylistic data within a conceptual field can be achieved. Any rhythms that are observed from performances can then be located within this set. In practice, these codes may be understood as composite catalysts in that the same code is meaningful in more than one conceptual field. In the case of this chapter, this includes tune-rhythms, accents, and accompaniment rhythms. The codes give the exact locations of beats within a bar and the musician can then realise them as chords, melodies or variations of such, counterpoint or accents. This also means that although the codes generated here give specific information about the position of a beat, all other information (articulation, tone etc.) is open to interpretation. In order to demonstrate how this coding system might be used in practice, the first two bars of ‘The Sally Gardens’ are transcribed below in what might be considered a ‘typical’ performance. In this example, each rhythmic feature is numbered for ease of reference in relation to Table 4.2 below.

Ex. 4.12 ‘The Sally Gardens’.

143 In the above example, (1) the rhythm created by the tune’s accents, (2) the tune rhythm itself, (3) the bass clef accompaniment, (4) the accents produced by the line of rhythmic accompaniment and (5) the rhythm of this line itself all have their own distinctive rhythms. Using the code, it is possible to represent this rhythmic information and locate it within the archive as follows.48 In this case, the five lines of rhythmic information in Ex. 4.12 have been numbered: these numbers will match up with those in Table 4.2 below. It should also be noted that the presence of the letter z immediately before a number (as can be seen in the tune accent rhythm as illustrated below) within a code is used to denote a rest of the length implied by that number. For example, in 4/4, 6/8 or 9/8, z2 implies a rest of a crotchet, z3 a rest of a dotted crotchet and so on. In the code demonstrating the rhythm of the accents below (as opposed to the rhythm of the melody), its first bar, z2.4.2, translates as a crotchet rest – minim – crotchet.49

Table 4.2 An annotated codified version of the transcription at Ex. 4.12, located within the archive. Function Code Location 1. Tune Accents z2.4.2 | 22.4 4/4: No.66, No.338 2. Tune-rhythm 2.16 | 18 4/4: No.153, No.290 3. Accompaniment Bass Clef 8 | 24 4/4: No.1, No.73 4. Rhythm accomp. Accents 42 | 22.3.1 4/4: No.11, No.67 5. Rhythm accomp. 2.t2.14 | 22. t2.12 4/4: No.97, No.77

In terms of finding all possible examples using variation, only one-bar variations are feasible as two-bar possibilities would run into tens of thousands of options.50 However, two-bar possibilities are also used in this study because they allow for a greater insight into recorded material by enabling the whole phrase to be presented. With this in mind, two conceptual fields for each metre are used: the first consists of

48 Since these examples are in 4/4, the individual stylistic elements may be found in Table 4.5. 49 Since this code applies to the accent pattern as written above the melody, the first crotchet is not accented, hence the code ‘z2’ means that an accent is not used within the time-value of a crotchet. 50 To achieve the two-bar possibilities, each code would be combined with itself and every other option under that particular metre.

144 transcriptions from recorded sources at a two-bar conceptual resolution.51 This should give a feel for the various types of rhythmic possibilities that have been used by musicians. As tune rhythms can easily be found in the tune collections and there is a scarcity in the literature of accompaniment rhythms, the latter is taken as the focal point. The recordings used date from the 1970s onwards. The second conceptual field then consists of the one-bar options, which are generated using variation. These allow the scope of rhythmic possibility to be addressed and for individual one-bar examples to be located within this.

As implied in Breathnach’s example at Ex. 4.3, tune rhythms are generally motoric and so rhythms that are likely to belong or to be useful in a tune contain lower numbers and longer codes. Rhythms that are likely to be used as accents and accompaniment rhythms on the other tend to feature higher numbers and shorter codes. Occasionally, musicians will use longer rhythmic values as a means of varying the tune’s melody whilst as will be demonstrated, accompanists sometimes use what are ostensibly tune rhythms.52 Therefore, it is not necessarily accurate to attempt a clear demarcation of tune rhythms from accents or accompaniment rhythms. It is hoped that this coding system will provide a concise approach for analysing, describing and discussing rhythms within Irish traditional instrumental music.

4.3 Swing As noted earlier, the type of swing used in Irish traditional instrumental music is somewhere between straight quavers and dotted rhythms.53 Despite the fact that swing results from a complex relationship involving a number of factors including accent placement, rubato, note duration and placement, rhythm and tempo, at the same time I was eager to see if by measuring each note’s onset and offset time, particular patterns might emerge with enough consistency that they could be abstracted and used as stylistic elements. As will be seen from the results below, a series of distinct patterns

51 With the exception of No. 27 in Ex. 4.20 and Table 4.6, which is a one-bar example. This was required to provide a demonstration of how the ‘runs’ of semiquavers are used in some guitar styles. 52 For example, ‘Taylor’s Bar, 4am’ and ‘Ceol na Mara’ on Lúnasa: Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 1995), track 9. 53 Ó Suilleabhain: The Bodhrán, 8.

145 did not transpire. However, what instead resulted was the observation of a general underlying dynamic that seems to permeate the traditional quaver-based rhythm. While it would require a future study to ascertain to what extent this permeates traditional styles as a whole, from the analyses undertaken, it would appear that the first of each duplet is slightly longer; and with regard to triplets, the first note is longer than the second, which is also typically shorter than the third note. This will be evident from Ex. 4.13 to 4.18 below.

In constructing this analysis, initially, eight musicians were selected. However, since an array of choices was not found, for the purposes of illustration, the analysis of three of the eight musicians is instead discussed in order to outline the process. Taking an eight-bar section of a reel and a jig from each musician, the chosen tracks were imported into the Pro Tools audio editing program from where it was possible to focus in and view a note at a one hundredth of a second resolution. A screen shot from this process can be seen in Figure 4.1 below, which represents the point at which a single note was selected. Using this approach, it was possible to both aurally and visually confirm the exact time of the note’s onset and offset and take note of this data.54

54 While software exists that can also measure note duration, it is not at a stage of development that can be relied upon at present.

146 Fig. 4.1 Screenshot demonstrating the identification of individual notes.

From this, the length of each note could be determined and was measured correct to two decimal places before its duration was inputted into a table.55 The three performers chosen for this illustration are detailed below along with the tune title and approximate tempi. In each case, the jig’s title is given before that of the reel.56

1. Con Cassidy (fiddle): Ex. 4.13: ‘The Frost is All Over’ (±145bpm); Ex. 4.14: ‘Maude Millar’ (±113bpm).57 2. Willie Clancy (pipes): Ex. 4.15: ‘Páidín Ó Raifeartaigh’ (±129bpm), Ex. 4.16: ‘Corney is Coming’ (±114bpm).58 3. Kevin Burke (fiddle): Ex. 4.17: ‘Mickey the Moulder’59 (±117bpm), Ex. 4.18: ‘The Bus Stop Reel’ (±114bpm).60

55 The relevant tables may be found in Appendix A. 56 As noted in Chapter Three, 81, tempi in Irish traditional music tend to fluctuate within each piece and so the ± sign is used to display the average tempo of each tune. 57 Con Cassidy: Traditional Music from Donegal, (Donegal: Cairdeas na bhFidileirí, 2007). 58 Clancy, Willie: The Pipering of Willie Clancy, (Dublin: Claddagh Records, c.1980–83). This album was recorded between 1958 and 1973. 59 ‘Mickey the Moulder’ is better known as ‘The Connaughtman’s Rambles’. 60 Burke, Kevin: Open House, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 1992).

147

In the following examples (Exs. 4.13–4.18), the note lengths are represented as percentages of each bar, again correct to two decimal places, and are colour-coded for greater clarity.

Ex. 4.13 ‘The Frost is all Over’, bars 1-8.

Ex. 4.14 ‘Maude Millar’s’, bars 1-8.

148 Ex. 4.15 ‘Paidín Ó Raifeartaigh’, bars 1-8.

Ex. 4.16 ‘Corney is Coming’, bars 1-8.

149

Ex. 4.17 ‘Mickey the Moulder’, bars 1-8.

Ex. 4.18 ‘The Bus-stop Reel’, bars 1-8.

150

While the general observation on note lengths proved valuable in that it led to the identification of a general rhythmic dynamic, it quickly became clear that the data represented was too complex to be used as a catalyst. Instead, it was found that the use of terms is at present the most direct means of communicating the concept of swing and so three basic types (see Table 4.3) are postulated below. Aside from ‘almost straight’ and ‘near-dotted rhythm’, which have been illustrated in Ex. 4.1, traditional swing is understood as the proverbial ‘mid-point’ between these two extremities and in terms of note duration, espouses the characteristics described in relation to Exs. 4.13 to 4.18. These three terms are best understood as three points on a continuum, the many subtleties between which will be explored in practice in Chapter Ten.61

Table 4.3 Three basic types of swing. Conceptual Field Swing

Conceptual Resolution Three basic points.

1. Almost Straight 2. Traditional Swing 3. Near-Dotted Rhythm

4.4 Tune Rhythms and Meta rhythms This section contains stylistic data on 4/4, 6/8, 9/8 and 2/4 respectively. In each case and preceded by details of their sources, the rhythms that were observed from recordings are first presented in the order of their codes, from the highest to lowest number. The complete list of one-bar rhythmic possibilities is then given. It will be noted that the codes given for 4/4 can be used for tunes in 2/4 when the 1 is deemed not to be a quaver but a semiquaver. This being the case, their tables will not be repeated since the content stays the same and only the conceptual field title changes.

61 See Chapter Ten, Section 10.4.2, 509-535.

151

Table 4.4 Sources of the rhythms in 4/4 observed. No. Artist, Album, Tune Track

1 Tourish, Martin: ‘The Missed Step’, Under a Red Sky Night, (Dublin: 11 Self Published, 2013).

2 Altan: ‘King George IV’, Island Angel, (Danbury, CT.: Green 3 Linnet, 1993).

3 Ibid. 3

4 The Bothy Band: ‘Farewell to Erin’, Old Hag you have Killed Me, 3 (Mulligan Records, 1976).

5 Hayes, Martin; Cahill, Dennis: ‘Paddy Fahey’s’, The Lonesome 1 Touch, (Danbury, CT.: Green Linnet, 1997).

6 Altan: ‘Tommy Peoples’, Island Angel, (Danbury, CT.: Green 1 Linnet, 1993).

7 Tourish, Martin; Ward, Luke: Private Recording. -

8 Tríona Marshal & Various Artists: The Midori Suite, (Dublin: Self 1 Published, 2012).

9 Dervish: ‘The World’s End’, Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: 11 Compass Records, 1997).

10 Ibid. 11

11 Altan: ‘The Merry Sisters’, Runaway Sunday, (London: Virgin 2 Records, 1997).

12 Altan: ‘Tommy Peoples’, Island Angel, (Danbury, CT.: Green 1 Linnet, 1993).

13 Altan: ‘Germans’, Runaway Sunday, (London: Virgin Records, 4 1997).

14 Altan: ‘The Gatehouse Maid’, The Blue Idol, (Narada Records, 6 Milwaukee, 2002).

152 15 Dervish: ‘John Blessings’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass Records, 1 2003).

16 Bothy Band: ‘Michael Gorman’s’, Old Hag you have Killed Me, 6 (Mulligan Records, 1976).

17 Dervish: ‘Jim Coleman’s’, Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: 16 Compass Records, 1997).

18 Ibid. 16

19 Niall Vallely: ‘The Clumsy Lover’, Beyond Words, (Beyond 1 Records, 1999).

20 Antoin Bracken, private observation. -

21 The Bothy Band: ‘The Green Groves of Erin’, Afterhours (Live in 11 Paris), (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

22 The Bothy Band: ‘The Flowers of Red Hill’, Afterhours (Live in 11 Paris), (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

23 Ibid. 11

24 Lúnasa: ‘Laura Lynn Cunningham’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: 4 Green Linnet: 1995).

25 The Bothy Band: ‘Music in the Glen’, (3rd tune in Set), Old Hag you 1 have Killed Me, (Mulligan Records, 1976).

26 Ibid. 1

27 Tourish, Martin: ‘The Evil Dr Orts Llorca’, Under a Red Sky Night, 9 (Dublin: Self Published, 2013).

28 Lúnasa: ‘Dr Gilberts’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 6 1995).

29 De Dannan: ‘Jimmy Byrnes’, Anthem, (Dara Records, 1985). 8

30 The Bothy Band: ‘The Green Groves of Erin’, Afterhours (Live in 11 Paris), (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

153 31 Altan: ‘Yellow Tinker’ (intro), The Red Crow, (Danbury, CT: Green 1 Linnet: 1990).

32 Dervish: ‘The World’s End’, Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: 11 Compass Records, 1997).

33 Ibid. 11

34 Lúnasa: ‘Autumn Child’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 7 1995).

35 Dervish: ‘The Swallow’s Tail’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass Records, 11 2003).

36 Liam O’Flynn: ‘The Humors of Carrigaholt’, The Piper’s Call, 9 (Dublin, Tara Music, 1998).

37 The Bothy Band: ‘The Flowers of Red Hill’, Afterhours (Live in 11 Paris), (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

38 Ibid. 11

154 Ex. 4.19 Two-bar rhythms in 4/4, observed from the above audio recordings. Conceptual Field Two-bar rhythms in 4/4

Conceptual Resolution Observed from audio recordings

155

Table 4.5 One-bar rhythms in 4/4 created using variation. Conceptual Field One-bar rhythms in 4/4

Conceptual Resolution Created using variation.

1. 8 145. t2.1.2.1.2 289. 12.2.12.t2 434. z2.16 2. 7.1 146. 2.1.t2.1.2 290. 12.t2.12.t2 435. z1.7 3. 6.2 147. 2.1.2.1.t2 291. 12.2.14 436. z1.6.1 4. 6.t2 148. t2.1.t2.1.2 292. 12.t2.14 437. z1.5.2 5. 6.12 149. t2.1.2.1.t2 293. 13.5 438. z1.5.t2 6. 5.3 150. 2.1.t2.1.t2 294. 13.4.1 439. z1.5.12 7. 5.2.1 151. t2.1.t2.1.t2 295. 13.3.2 440. z1.4.3 8. 5.t2.1 152. 2.1.2.13 296. 13.3.t2 441. z1.4.2.1 9. 5.1.2 153. t2.1.2.13 297. 13.3.12 442. z1.4.t2.1 10. 5.1.t2 154. 2.1.t2.13 298. 13.2.3 443. z1.4.1.2 11. 5.13 155. t2.1.t2.13 299. 13.t2.3 444. z1.4.1.t2 12. 42 156. 2.12.4 300. 13.22.1 445. z1.4.13 13. 4.3.1 157. t2.12.4 301. 13.t2.2.1 446. z1.3.4 14. 4.22 158. 2.12.3.1 302. 13.2.t2.1 447. z1.32.1 15. 4.2.t2 159. t2.12.3.1 303. 13.t22.1 448. z1.3.22 16. 4.t2.2 160. 2.12.22 304. 13.2.1.2 449. z1.3.t2.2 17. 4.t22 161. t2.12.22 305. 13.t2.1.2 450. z1.3.2.t2 18. 4.2.12 162. t2.12.t2.2 306. 13.2.1.t2 451. z1.3.t22 19. 4.t2.12 163. t2.12.2.t2 307. 13.2.13 452. z1.3.2.12 20. 4.1.3 164. t2.12.t22 308. 13.t2.13 453. z1.3.t2.12 21. 4.1.2.1 165. 2.12.2.12 309. 14.4 454. z1.3.1.3 22. 4.1.t2.1 166. 2.12.t2.12 310. 14.3.1 455. z1.3.1.2.1 23. 4.12.2 167. t2.12.2.12 311. 14.22 456. z1.3.1.t2.1 24. 4.12.t2 168. t2.12.t2.12 312. 14.t2.2 457. z1.3.12.2 25. 4.14 169. 2.13.2.1 313. 14.2.t2 458. z1.3.12.t2 26. 3.5 170. 2.13.t2.1 314. 14.t22 459. z1.3.14 27. 3.4.1 171. t2.13.2.1 315. 14.2.12 460. z1.2.5 28. 32.2 172. t2.13.t2.1 316. 14.t2.12 461. z1.t2.5 29. 32.t2 173. 2.14.2 317. 15.3 462. z1.2.4.1 30. 32.12 174. 2.14.t2 318. 15.2.1 463. z1.t2.4.1 31. 3.2.3 175. t2.14.2 319. 15.t2.1 464. z1.2.3.2 32. 3.t2.3 176. t2.14.t2 320. 16.2 465. z1.t2.3.2 33. 3.22.1 177. 2.16 321. 16.t2 466. z1.2.3.t2 34. 3.2.t2.1 178. t2.16 322. 18 467. z1.t2.3.t2

156 35. 3.t2.2.1 179. 1.7 323. z8 468. z1.2.3.12 36. 3.t22.1 180. 1.6.1 324. z7.1 469. z1.t2.3.12 37. 3.2.1.2 181. 1.5.2 325. z6.2 470. z1.22.3 38. 3.2.1.t2 182. 1.5.t2 326. z6.t2 471. z1.t2.2.3 39. 3.t2.1.2 183. 1.5.12 327. z6.12 472. z1.2.t2.3 40. 3.t2.1.t2 184. 1.4.3 328. z5.3 473. z1.t22.3 41. 3.2.13 185. 1.4.2.1 329. z5.2.1 474. z1.23.1 42. 3.t2.13 186. 1.4.t2.1 330. z5.t2.1 475. z1.t2.22.1 43. 3.1.4 187. 1.4.1.2 331. z5.1.2 476. z1.2.t2.2.1 44. 3.1.3.1 188. 1.4.1.t2 332. z5.1.t2 477. z1.22.t2.1 45. 3.1.22 189. 1.4.13 333. z5.13 478. z1.t22.2.1 46. 3.1.2.t2 190. 1.3.4 334. z42 479. z1.t2.2.t2.1 47. 3.1.t2.2 191. 1.32.1 335. z4.3.1 480. z1.2.t22.1 48. 3.1.t22 192. 1.3.22 336. z4.22 481. z1.t23.1 49. 3.1.2.12 193. 1.3.t2.2 337. z4.2.t2 482. z1.2.1.4 50. 3.1.t2.12 194. 1.3.2.t2 338. z4.t2.2 483. z1.t2.1.4 51. 3.12.3 195. 1.3.t22 339. z4.t22 484. z1.2.1.3.1 52. 3.12.2.1 196. 1.3.2.12 340. z4.2.12 485. z1.t2.1.3.1 53. 3.12.t2.1 197. 1.3.t2.12 341. z4.t2.12 486. z1.2.1.22 54. 3.15 198. 1.3.1.3 342. z4.1.3 487. z1.t2.1.22 55. 2.6 199. 1.3.1.2.1 343. z4.1.2.1 488. z1.2.1.t2.2 56. t2.6 200. 1.3.1.t2.1 344. z4.1.t2.1 489. z1.2.1.2.t2 57. 2.5.1 201. 1.3.12.2 345. z4.12.2 490. z1.t2.1.t2.2 58. t2.5.1 202. 1.3.12.t2 346. z4.12.t2 491. z1.t2.1.2.t2 59. 2.4.2 203. 1.3.14 347. z4.14 492. z1.2.1.t22 60. 2.4.t2 204. 1.2.5 348. z3.5 493. z1.t2.1.t22 61. t2.4.2 205. 1.t2.5 349. z3.4.1 494. z1.2.1.2.12 62. t2.4.t2 206. 1.2.4.1 350. z32.2 495. z1.t2.1.2.12 63. 2.4.12 207. 1.t2.4.1 351. z32.t2 496. z1.2.1.t2.12 64. t2.4.12 208. 1.2.3.2 352. z32.12 497. z1.t2.1.t2.12 65. 2.32 209. 1.t2.3.2 353. z3.2.3 498. z1.2.12.3 66. t2.32 210. 1.2.3.t2 354. z3.t2.3 499. z1.t2.12.3 67. 2.3.2.1 211. 1.t2.3.t2 355. z3.22.1 500. z1.2.12.2.1 68. t2.3.2.1 212. 1.2.3.12 356. z3.2.t2.1 501. z1.t2.12.2.1 69. 2.3.t2.1 213. 1.t2.3.12 357. z3.t2.2.1 502. z1.2.12.t2.1 70. t2.3.t2.1 214. 1.22.3 358. z3.t22.1 503. z1.t2.12.t2.1 71. 2.3.1.2 215. 1.t2.2.3 359. z3.2.1.2 504. z1.2.13.2 72. 2.3.1.t2 216. 1.2.t2.3 360. z3.2.1.t2 505. z1.t2.13.2 73. t2.3.1.2 217. 1.t22.3 361. z3.t2.1.2 506. z1.2.13.t2 74. t2.3.1.t2 218. 1.23.1 362. z3.t2.1.t2 507. z1.t2.13.t2 75. 2.3.13 219. 1.t2.22.1 363. z3.2.13 508. z1.2.15 76. t2.3.13 220. 1.2.t2.2.1 364. z3.t2.13 509. z1.t2.15 77. 22.4 221. 1.22.t2.1 365. z3.1.4 510. z12.6 78. t2.2.4 222. 1.t22.2.1 366. z3.1.3.1 511. z12.5.1 79. 2.t2.4 223. 1.t2.2.t2.1 367. z3.1.22 512. z12.4.2 80. t22.4 224. 1.2.t22.1 368. z3.1.2.t2 513. z12.4.t2 81. 22.3.1 225. 1.t23.1 369. z3.1.t2.2 514. z12.4.12 82. t2.2.3.1 226. 1.2.1.4 370. z3.1.t22 515. z12.32

157 83. 2.t2.3.1 227. 1.t2.1.4 371. z3.1.2.12 516. z12.3.2.1 84. t22.3.1 228. 1.2.1.3.1 372. z3.1.t2.12 517. z12.3.t2.1 85. 24 229. 1.t2.1.3.1 373. z3.12.3 518. z12.3.1.2 86. t2.23 230. 1.2.1.22 374. z3.12.2.1 519. z12.3.1.t2 87. 2.t2.22 231. 1.t2.1.22 375. z3.12.t2.1 520. z12.3.13 88. 22.t2.2 232. 1.2.1.t2.2 376. z3.15 521. z12.2.4 89. 22.2.t2 233. 1.2.1.2.t2 377. z2.6 522. z12.t2.4 90. t22.22 234. 1.t2.1.t2.2 378. z2.5.1 523. z12.2.3.1 91. t2.2.t2.2 235. 1.t2.1.2.t2 379. z2.4.2 524. z12.t2.3.1 92. t2.22.t2 236. 1.2.1.t22 380. z2.4.t2 525. z12.23 93. t23.2 237. 1.t2.1.t22 381. z2.4.12 526. z12.t2.22 94. t22.2.t2 238. 1.2.1.2.12 382. z2.32 527. z12.2.t2.2 95. t2.2.t22 239. 1.t2.1.2.12 383. z2.3.2.1 528. z12.22.t2 96. 2.t23 240. 1.2.1.t2.12 384. z2.3.t2.1 529. z12.t22.2 97. t24 241. 1.t2.1.t2.12 385. z2.3.1.2 530. z12.t2.2.t2 98. 23.12 242. 1.2.12.3 386. z2.3.1.t2 531. z12.2.t22 99. t2.22.12 243. 1.t2.12.3 387. z2.3.13 532. z12.t23 100. 2.t2.2.12 244. 1.2.12.2.1 388. z22.4 533. z12.22.12 101. 22t2. 12 245. 1.t2.12.2.1 389. z2.t2.4 534. z12.t2.2.12 102. t22.2.12 246. 1.2.12.t2.1 390. z22.3.1 535. z12.2.t2.12 103. t2.2.t2.12 247. 1.t2.12.t2.1 391. z2.t2.3.1 536. z12.t22.12 104. 2.t22.12 248. 1.2.13.2 392. z24 537. z12.2.1.3 105. t23.12 249. 1.t2.13.2 393. z2.t2.22 538. z12.t2.1.3 106. 22.1.3 250. 1.2.13.t2 394. z22.t2.2 539. z12.2.1.2.1 107. t2.2.1.3 251. 1.t2.13.t2 395. z22.2.t2 540. z12.t2.1.2.1 108. 2.t2.1.3 252. 1.2.15 396. z2.t23 541. z12.2.1.t2.1 109. t22.1.3 253. 1.t2.15 397. z23.12 542. z12.t2.1.t2.1 110. 22.1.2.1 254. 12.6 398. z2.t2.2.12 543. z12.2.12.2 111. t2.2.1.2.1 255. 12.5.1 399. z22t2. 12 544. z12.t2.12.2 112. 2.t2.1.2.1 256. 12.4.2 400. z2.t22.12 545. z12.2.12.t2 113. 22.1.t2.1 257. 12.4.t2 401. z22.1.3 546. z12.t2.12.t2 114. t22.1.2.1 258. 12.4.12 402. z2.t2.1.3 547. z12.2.14 115. t2.2.1.t2.1 259. 12.32 403. z22.1.2.1 548. z12.t2.14 116. t22.1.2.1 260. 12.3.2.1 404. z2.t2.1.2.1 549. z13.5 117. t22.1.t2.1 261. 12.3.t2.1 405. z22.1.t2.1 550. z13.4.1 118. 22.14 262. 12.3.1.2 406. z22.14 551. z13.3.2 119. 2.t2.14 263. 12.3.1.t2 407. z2.t2.14 552. z13.3.t2 120. t2.2.14 264. 12.3.13 408. z2.1.5 553. z13.3.12 121. t22.14 265. 12.2.4 409. z2.1.4.1 554. z13.2.3 122. 2.1.5 266. 12.t2.4 410. z2.1.3.2 555. z13.t2.3 123. t2.1.5 267. 12.2.3.1 411. z2.1.3.t2 556. z13.22.1 124. 2.1.4.1 268. 12.t2.3.1 412. z2.1.3.12 557. z13.t2.2.1 125. t2.1.4.1 269. 12.23 413. z2.1.2.3 558. z13.2.t2.1 126. 2.1.3.2 270. 12.t2.22 414. z2.1.t2.3 559. z13.t22.1 127. 2.1.3.t2 271. 12.2.t2.2 415. z2.1.22.1 560. z13.2.1.2 128. t2.1.3.2 272. 12.22.t2 416. z2.1.t2.2.1 561. z13.t2.1.2 129. t2.1.3.t2 273. 12.t22.2 417. z2.1.2.t2.1 562. z13.2.1.t2 130. 2.1.3.12 274. 12.t2.2.t2 418. z2.1.t22.1 563. z13.2.13

158 131. t2.1.3.12 275. 12.2.t22 419. z2.1.2.1.2 564. z13.t2.13 132. 2.1.2.3 276. 12.t23 420. z2.1.t2.1.2 565. z14.4 133. t2.1.2.3 277. 12.22.12 421. z2.1.2.1.t2 566. z14.3.1 134. 2.1.t2.3 278. 12.t2.2.12 422. z2.1.t2.1.t2 567. z14.22 135. t2.1.t2.3 279. 12.2.t2.12 423. z2.1.2.13 568. z14.t2.2 136. 2.1.22.1 280. 12.t22.12 424. z2.1.t2.13 569. z14.2.t2 137. t2.1.22.1 281. 12.2.1.3 425. z2.12.4 570. z14.t22 138. 2.1.t2.2.1 282. 12.t2.1.3 426. z2.12.3.1 571. z14.2.12 139. 2.1.2.t2.1 283. 12.2.1.2.1 427. z2.12.22 572. z14.t2.12 140. t2.1.t2.2.1 284. 12.t2.1.2.1 428. z2.12.2.12 573. z15.3 141. t2.1.2.t2.1 285. 12.2.1.t2.1 429. z2.12.t2.12 574. z15.2.1 142. 2.1.t22.1 286. 12.t2.1.t2.1 430. z2.13.2.1 575. z15.t2.1 143. t2.1.t22.1 287. 12.2.12.2 431. z2.13.t2.1 576. z16.2 144. 2.1.2.1.2 288. 12.t2.12.2 432. z2.14.2 577. z16.t2 433. z2.14.t2 578. z18

Table 4.6 Sources of the rhythms in 6/8 observed.

No Album Name Track

1 Dervish: ‘The Banks of Lough Gowna’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass 3 Records, 2003).

2 Ibid. 3

3 Altan: ‘Walking in Liffey Street’, Harvest Storm, (Danbury, CT.: 4 Green Linnet, 1991).

4 Ibid. 4

5 Dervish: ‘I Buried my Wife and Danced on her Grave’, Live in 7 Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: Compass Records, 1997).

6 Ibid. 7

7 Dervish: ‘Killavil Jig’, Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: Compass 21 Records, 1997).

8 The Bothy Band: ‘The Kesh Jig’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), (Dublin: 1 Mulligan Records, 1979).

9 Dervish: ‘Trounsdell’s Cross’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass Records, 13 2003).

159 10 The Bothy Band: ‘The Kesh Jig’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), (Dublin: 1 Mulligan Records, 1979).

11 Ibid. 1

12 Dermot Byrne: ‘Welome Home Grainne’, Dermot Byrne, (Dublin: 6 Hummingbird Records, 1995).

13 Dervish: ‘The Piper’s Picnic’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass Records, 3 2003).

14 Dervish: ‘Killavil Jig’, Live in Palma, Disc 2, (Nashville: Compass 21 Records, 1997).

15 The Bothy Band: ‘The Kesh Jig’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), (Dublin: 1 Mulligan Records, 1979).

16 Lúnasa: ‘The Butlers of Glen Avenue’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: 3 Green Linnet: 1995).

17 The Bothy Band: ‘The Hag at the Churn’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), 7 (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

18 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Steve: ‘Sean Coghlan’s Kesh’, Meitheal, 9 (Dublin: Hummingbird Productions, 1996).

19 Ibid. 9

20 Ibid. 9

21 Dervish: ‘The Banks of Lough Gowna’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass 3 Records, 2003).

22 Lúnasa: ‘Sliabh Russell’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 3 1995).

23 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Steve: ‘Kings of Kerry’, Meitheal, 2 (Dublin: Hummingbird Productions, 1996).

24 Dervish: ‘The Piper’s Picnic’, Spirit, (Nashville: Compass Records, 3 2003).

25 The Bothy Band: ‘The Hag at the Churn’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), 7

160 (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

26 Altan: ‘The Butcher’s March’, The Blue Idol, (Narada Records, 5 Milwaukee, 2002).

27 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Steve: ‘Sean Coghlan’s Kesh’, Meitheal, 9 (Dublin: Hummingbird Productions, 1996).

Ex. 4.20 Twenty six two-bars rhythms and one one-bar rhythm in 6/8, observed from the above audio recordings. Conceptual Field Twenty six two-bar rhythms and one one- bar rhythm in 6/8

Conceptual Resolution Observed from audio recordings.

161

Table 4.7 One-bar rhythms in 6/8 created using variation. Conceptual Field One-bar rhythms in 6/8

Conceptual Resolution Created using variation

1. 6 29. t2.1.3 57. 12.2.12 86. z2.14 2. 5.1 30. 2.1.2.1 58. 12.t2.12 87. z1.5 3. 4.2 31. 2.1.t2.1 59. 13.3 88. z1.4.1 4. 4.t2 32. t2.1.2.1 60. 13.2.1 89. z1.3.2 5. 4.12 33. t2.1.t2.1 61. 13.t2.1 90. z1.3.t2 6. 32 34. 2.14 62. 16 91. z1.3.12 7. 3.2.1 35. t2.14 63. s3.s3 92. z1.2.3 8. 3.t2.1 36. 1.5 64. z6 93. z1.t2.3 9. 3.1.2 37. 1.4.1 65. z5.1 94. z1.22.1 10. 3.1.t2 38. 1.3.2 66. z4.2 95. z1.t2.2.1 11. 3.13 39. 1.3.t2 67. z4.t2 96. z1.2.t2.1 12. 2.4 40. 1.3.12 68. z4.12 97. z1.t2.t2.1 13. t2.4 41. 1.2.3 69. z3.3 98. z1.2.1.2 14. 2.3.1 42. 1.t2.3 70. z3.2.1 99. z1.t2.1.2 15. t2.3.1 43. 1.22.1 71. z3.t2.1 100. z1.2.1.t2 16. 23 44. 1.t2.2.1 72. z3.1.2 101. z1.t2.1.t2

162 17. 22.t2 45. 1.2.t2.1 73. z3.1.t2 102. z1.2.13 18. 2.t2.2 46. 1.t2.t2.1 74. z3.13 103. z1.t2.13 19. t2.22 47. 1.2.1.2 75. z2.4 104. z12.22 20. t22.2 48. 1.t2.1.2 76. z2.3.1 105. z12.t2.2 21. t2.2.t2 49. 1.2.1.t2 77. z23 106. z12.2.t2 22. 2.t22 50. 1.t2.1.t2 78. z22.t2 107. z12.t2.t2 23. t23 51. 1.2.13 79. z2.t2.2 108. z12.2.12 24. 22.12 52. 1.t2.13 80. z2.t22 109. z12.t2.12 25. 2.t2.12 53. 12.22 81. z22.12 110. z13.3 26. t2.2.12 54. 12.t2.2 82. z2.t2.12 111. z13.2.1 27. t22.12 55. 12.2.t2 83. z2.1.3 112. z13.t2.1 28. 2.1.3 56. 12.t2.t2 84. z2.1.2.1 113. z16 85. z2.1.t2.1 114. zs3.s3

Table 4.8 Sources of the rhythms in 9/8 observed.

No. Album Name Track

1 Lúnasa: ‘Ceol na Mara’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 9 1995).

2 The Bothy Band: ‘The Butterfly’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), 2 (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

3 Ibid. 2

4 Lúnasa: ‘Cathal MacConnell’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green 3 Linnet: 1995).

5 The Bothy Band: ‘The Butterfly’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), 2 (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

6 Ibid. 2

7 Ibid. 2

8 Altan: ‘Dusty Millar’, The Red Crow, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 2 1990).

9 The Bothy Band: ‘The Butterfly’, Afterhours (Live in Paris), 2 (Dublin: Mulligan Records, 1979).

163 10 Ibid. 2

11 Ibid. 2

12 The Bothy Band: ‘The Kid on the Mountain’, Old Hag you have 10 Killed Me, (Mulligan Records, 1976).

13 Ibid. 10

14 Ibid. 10

15 Ibid. 10

16 Kennedy, Frankie; Ní Mhaonaigh, Mairéad: ‘The Fairy Jig’, Altan, 10 (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet, 1990).

17 The Bothy Band: ‘The Kid on the Mountain’, Old Hag you have 10 Killed Me, (Mulligan Records, 1976).

18 Ibid. 10

19 Ibid. 10

20 Lúnasa: ‘Ceol na Mara’, Otherworld, (Danbury, CT: Green Linnet: 9 1995).

164 Ex. 4.21 One-bar rhythms in 9/8, observed from the above audio recordings. Conceptual Field One-bar rhythms in 9/8

Conceptual Resolution Observed from audio recordings

Table 4.9 One-bar rhythms in 9/8, created using variation. Conceptual Field One-bar rhythms in 9/8

Conceptual Resolution Created using variation.

1. 9 316. 2.1.t2.3.1 631. 12.t2.13.2 946. z2.12.2.1.2 2. 8.1 317. t2.1.2.3.1 632. 12.t2.13.t2 947. z2.12.2.1.t2 3. 7.2 318. t2.1.t2.3.1 633. 12.2.15 948. z2.12.t2.1.2 4. 7.t2 319. 2.1.23 634. 12.t2.15 949. z2.12.t2.1.t2 5. 7.12 320. 2.1.22.t2 635. 13.6 950. z2.12.2.13 6. 6.3 321. 2.1.2.t2.2 636. 13.5.1 951. z2.12.t2.13 7. 6.2.1 322. 2.1.t2.22 637. 13.4.2 952. z2.13.4 8. 6.t2.1 323. 2.1.2.t22 638. 13.4.t2 953. z2.13.3.1 9. 6.1.2 324. 2.1.t2.2.t2 639. 13.4.12 954. z2.13.22 10. 6.1.t2 325. 2.1.t22.2 640. 13.32 955. z2.13.2.t2 11. 6.13 326. 2.1.t23 641. 13.3.2.1 956. z2.13.t2.2 12. 5.4 327. t2.1.23 642. 13.3.t2.1 957. z2.13.t22 13. 5.3.1 328. t2.1.22.t2 643. 13.3.1.2 958. z2.13.2.12 14. 5.22 329. t2.1.2.t2.2 644. 13.3.1.t2 959. z2.13.t2.12

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168 159. 2.3.2.12 474. 1.2.3.t2.1 789. z3.2.12.2 1104. z1.2.12.4 160. 2.3.t2.12 475. 1.t2.3.2.1 790. z3.2.12.t2 1105. z1.t2.12.4 161. t2.3.2.12 476. 1.t2.3.t2.1 791. z3.t2.12.2 1106. z1.2.12.3.1 162. t2.3.t2.12 477. 1.2.3.1.2 792. z3.t2.12.t2 1107. z1.t2.12.3.1 163. 2.3.1.3 478. 1.2.3.1.t2 793. z3.2.14 1108. z1.2.12.22 164. t2.3.1.3 479. 1.t2.3.1.2 794. z3.t2.14 1109. z1.2.12.2.t2 165. 2.3.1.2.1 480. 1.t2.3.1.t2 795. z3.1.5 1110. z1.2.12.t2.2 166. 2.3.1.t2.1 481. 1.2.3.13 796. z3.1.4.1 1111. z1.t2.12.22 167. t2.3.1.2.1 482. 1.t2.3.13 797. z3.1.3.2 1112. z1.2.12.t22 168. t2.3.1.t2.1 483. 1.22.4 798. z3.1.3.t2 1113. z1.t2.12.2.t2 169. 2.3.12.2 484. 1.2.t2.4 799. z3.1.3.12 1114. z1.t2.12.t2.2 170. 2.3.12.t2 485. 1.t2.2.4 800. z3.1.2.3 1115. z1.t2.12.t22 171. t2.3.12.2 486. 1.t22.4 801. z3.1.t2.3 1116. z1.2.12.2.12 172. t2.3.12.t2 487. 1.22.3.1 802. z3.1.22.1 1117. z1.2.12.t2.12 173. 2.3.13.1 488. 1.2.t2.3.1 803. z3.1.2.t2.1 1118. z1.t2.12.2.12 174. t2.3.14 489. 1.t2.2.3.1 804. z3.1.t2.2.1 1119. z1.t2.12.t2.12 175. 22.5 490. 1.t22.3.1 805. z3.1.t22.1 1120. z1.2.13.3 176. 2.t2.5 491. 1.24 806. z3.1.2.1.2 1121. z1.t2.13.3 177. t2.2.5 492. 1.23.t2 807. z3.1.2.1.t2 1122. z1.2.13.2.1 178. t22.5 493. 1.22.t2.2 808. z3.1.t2.1.2 1123. z1.2.13.t2.1 179. 22.4.1 494. 1.2.t2.22 809. z3.1.t2.1.t2 1124. z1.t2.13.2.1 180. 2.t2.4.1 495. 1.t2.23 810. z3.1.2.13 1125. z1.t2.13.t2.1 181. t2.2.4.1 496. 1.22.t22 811. z3.1.t2.13 1126. z1.2.14.2 182. t22.4.1 497. 1.2.t2.t22 812. z3.12.4 1127. z1.2.14.t2 183. 22.3.2 498. 1.2.t2.2.t2 813. z3.12.3.1 1128. z1.t2.14.2 184. 22.3.t2 499. 1.t2.22.t2 814. z3.12.22 1129. z1.t2.14.t2 185. 2.t2.3.2 500. 1.2.t23 815. z3.12.2.t2 1130. z1.2.16 186. 2.t2.3.t2 501. 1.t2.2.t22 816. z3.12.t2.2 1131. z1.t2.16 187. t2.2.3.2 502. 1.t22.22 817. z3.12.t22 1132. z12.7 188. t2.2.3.t2 503. 1.t23.2 818. z3.12.2.12 1133. z12.6.1 189. t22.3.2 504. 1.t24 819. z3.12.t2.12 1134. z12.5.2 190. t22.3.t2 505. 1.23.12 820. z3.13.3 1135. z12.5.t2 191. 22.3.12 506. 1.22.t2.12 821. z3.13.2.1 1136. z12.5.12 192. 2.t2.3.12 507. 1.t22.2.12 822. z3.14.2 1137. z12.4.3 193. t2.2.3.12 508. 1.t2.2.t2.12 823. z3.16 1138. z12.4.2.1 194. t22.3.12 509. 1.2.t22.12 824. z2.7 1139. z12.4.t2.1 195. 22.2.3 510. 1.t2.2.t2.12 825. z2.6.1 1140. z12.4.1.2 196. 22.t2.3 511. 1.t23.12 826. z2.5.2 1141. z12.4.1.t2 197. 2.t2.2.3 512. 1.2.1.5 827. z2.5.t2 1142. z12.4.13 198. 2.t22.3 513. 1.t2.1.5 828. z2.5.12 1143. z12.3.4 199. t2.22.3 514. 1.2.1.4.1 829. z2.4.3 1144. z12.32.1 200. t22.2.3 515. 1.t2.1.4.1 830. z2.4.2.1 1145. z12.3.22 201. t2.2.t2.3 516. 1.2.1.3.2 831. z2.4.t2.1 1146. z12.3.2.t2 202. t23.3 517. 1.2.1.3.t2 832. z2.4.1.2 1147. z12.3.t2.2 203. 24.1 518. 1.t2.1.3.2 833. z2.4.1.t2 1148. z12.3.t22 204. 23.t2.1 519. 1.t2.1.3.t2 834. z2.4.13 1149. z12.3.2.12 205. 22.t2.2.1 520. 1.2.1.3.12 835. z2.3.4 1150. z12.3.t2.12 206. 2.t2.22.1 521. 1.t2.1.3.12 836. z2.32.1 1151. z12.3.1.3

169 207. 22.t22.1 522. 1.2.1.2.3 837. z2.3.22 1152. z12.3.1.2.1 208. 2.t2.2.t2.1 523. 1.2.1.t2.3 838. z2.3.2.t2 1153. z12.3.1.t2.1 209. 2.t22.2.1 524. 1.t2.1.2.3 839. z2.3.t2.2 1154. z12.3.12.2 210. 2.t23.1 525. 1.t2.1.t2.3 840. z2.3.t22 1155. z12.3.12.t2 211. t2.22.t2.1 526. 1.2.1.22.1 841. z2.3.2.12 1156. z12.3.14 212. t22.22.1 527. 1.2.1.2.t2.1 842. z2.3.t2.12 1157. z12.2.5 213. t23.2.1 528. 1.2.1.t2.2.1 843. z2.3.1.3 1158. z12.t2.5 214. t22.2.t2.1 529. 1.t2.1.22.1 844. z2.3.1.2.1 1159. z12.2.4.1 215. t24.1 530. 1.2.1.t22.1 845. z2.3.1.t2.1 1160. z12.t2.4.1 216. 23.1.2 531. 1.t2.1.2.3 846. z2.3.12.2 1161. z12.2.3.2 217. 23.1.t2 532. 1.t2.1.t2.2.1 847. z2.3.12.t2 1162. z12.2.3.t2 218. 22.t2.1.t2 533. 1.t2.1.t22.1 848. z2.3.13.1 1163. z12.t2.3.2 219. 2.t2.2.1.t2 534. 1.2.1.2.1.2 849. z22.5 1164. z12.t2.3.t2 220. 2.t22.1.2 535. 1.2.1.2.1.t2 850. z2.t2.5 1165. z12.2.3.12 221. 2.t22.1.t2 536. 1.2.1.t2.1.2 851. z22.4.1 1166. z12.t2.3.12 222. t2.22.1.2 537. 1.t2.1.2.1.2 852. z2.t2.4.1 1167. z12.2.1.4 223. t2.22.1.t2 538. 1.2.1.t2.1.t2 853. z22.3.2 1168. z12.t2.1.4 224. t2.2.t2.1.2 539. 1.t2.1.2.1.t2 854. z22.3.t2 1169. z12.2.1.3.1 225. t22.2.1.2 540. 1.t2.1.t2.1.2 855. z2.t2.3.2 1170. z12.t2.1.3.1 226. t2.2.t2.1.t2 541. 1.2.1.t2.1.t2 856. z2.t2.3.t2 1171. z12.2.1.22 227. t23.1.2 542. 1.t2.1.2.1.t2 857. z22.3.12 1172. z12.2.1.2.t2 228. t23.1.t2 543. 1.t2.1.t2.1.t2 858. z2.t2.3.12 1173. z12.2.1.t2.2 229. 23.13 544. 1.2.12.4 859. z22.2.3 1174. z12.t2.1.22 230. 22.t2.13 545. 1.t2.12.4 860. z22.t2.3 1175. z12.2.1.t22 231. 2.t22.13 546. 1.2.12.3.1 861. z2.t2.2.3 1176. z12.t2.1.2.t2 232. t2.22.13 547. 1.t2.12.3.1 862. z2.t22.3 1177. z12.t2.1.t2.2 233. t2.2.t2.13 548. 1.2.12.22 863. z24.1 1178. z12.t2.1.t22 234. t22.2.13 549. 1.2.12.2.t2 864. z23.t2.1 1179. z12.2.1.2.12 235. t23.13 550. 1.2.12.t2.2 865. z22.t2.2.1 1180. z12.2.1.t2.12 236. 22.1.4 551. 1.t2.12.22 866. z2.t2.22.1 1181. z12.t2.1.2.12 237. 2.t2.1.4 552. 1.2.12.t22 867. z22.t22.1 1182. z12.t2.1.t2.12 238. t2.2.1.4 553. 1.t2.12.2.t2 868. z2.t2.2.t2.1 1183. z12.2.2.3 239. t22.1.4 554. 1.t2.12.t2.2 869. z2.t22.2.1 1184. z12.t2.2.3 240. 22.1.3.1 555. 1.t2.12.t22 870. z2.t23.1 1185. z12.2.2.2.1 241. 2.t2.1.3. 556. 1.2.12.2.12 871. z23.1.2 1186. z12.2.12.t2.1 242. t2.2.1.3.1 557. 1.2.12.t2.12 872. z23.1.t2 1187. z12.t2.12.2.1 243. t22.1.3.1 558. 1.t2.12.2.12 873. z22.t2.1.t2 1188. z12.t2.12.t2.1 244. 22.1.22 559. 1.t2.12.t2.12 874. z2.t2.2.1.t2 1189. z12.2.13.2 245. 22.1.2.t2 560. 1.2.13.3 875. z2.t22.1.2 1190. z12.2.13.t2 246. 22.1.t2.2 561. 1.t2.13.3 876. z2.t22.1.t2 1191. z12.t2.13.2 247. 2.t2.1.22 562. 1.2.13.2.1 877. z23.13 1192. z12.t2.13.t2 248. 221.t22 563. 1.2.13.t2.1 878. z22.t2.13 1193. z12.2.15 249. 2.t2.1.2.t2 564. 1.t2.13.2.1 879. z2.t22.13 1194. z12.t2.15 250. 2.t2.1.t22 565. 1.t2.13.t2.1 880. z22.1.4 1195. z13.6 251. t2.2.1.22 566. 1.2.14.2 881. z2.t2.1.4 1196. z13.5.1 252. t2.2.1.2.t2 567. 1.2.14.t2 882. z22.1.3.1 1197. z13.4.2 253. t2.2.1.t2.2 568. 1.t2.14.2 883. z2.t2.1.3. 1198. z13.4.t2 254. t22.1.22 569. 1.t2.14.t2 884. z22.1.22 1199. z13.4.12

170 255. t2.2.1.t22 570. 1.2.16 885. z22.1.2.t2 1200. z13.32 256. t22.1.2.t2 571. 1.t2.16 886. z22.1.t2.2 1201. z13.3.2.1 257. t22.1.t2.2 572. 12.7 887. z2.t2.1.22 1202. z13.3.t2.1 258. t22.1.t22 573. 12.6.1 888. z221.t22 1203. z13.3.1.2 259. 22.1.2.12 574. 12.5.2 889. z2.t2.1.2.t2 1204. z13.3.1.t2 260. 22.1.t2.12 575. 12.5.t2 890. z2.t2.1.t22 1205. z13.3.13 261. 2.t2.1.2.12 576. 12.5.12 891. z22.1.2.12 1206. z13.2.4 262. 2.t2.1.t2.12 577. 12.4.3 892. z22.1.t2.12 1207. z13.t2.4 263. t2.2.1.2.12 578. 12.4.2.1 893. z2.t2.1.2.12 1208. z13.2.3.1 264. t2.2.1.t2.12 579. 12.4.t2.1 894. z2.t2.1.t2.12 1209. z13.t2.3.1 265. t22.1.2.12 580. 12.4.1.2 895. z22.12.3 1210. z13.23 266. t22.1.t2.12 581. 12.4.1.t2 896. z2.t2.12.3 1211. z13.22.t2 267. 22.12.3 582. 12.4.13 897. z22.12.2.1 1212. z13.2.t2.2 268. 2.t2.12.3 583. 12.3.4 898. z22.12.t2.1 1213. z13.t2.22 269. t2.2.12.3 584. 12.32.1 899. z2.t2.12.2.1 1214. z13.2.t22 270. t22.12.3 585. 12.3.22 900. z2.t2.12.t2.1 1215. z13.t2.2.t2 271. 22.12.2.1 586. 12.3.2.t2 901. z22.13.2 1216. z13.t22.2 272. 22.12.t2.1 587. 12.3.t2.2 902. z22.13.t2 1217. z13.t23 273. 2.t2.12.2.1 588. 12.3.t22 903. z2.t2.13.t2 1218. z13.22.12 274. 2.t2.12.t2.1 589. 12.3.2.12 904. z22.15 1219. z13.2.t2.12 275. t2.2.12.2.1 590. 12.3.t2.12 905. z2.t2.15 1220. z13.t2.2.12 276. t2.2.12.t2.1 591. 12.3.1.3 906. z2.1.6 1221. z13.t22.12 277. t22.12.2.1 592. 12.3.1.2.1 907. z2.1.5.1 1222. z13.2.1.3 278. t22.12.t2.1 593. 12.3.1.t2.1 908. z2.1.4.2 1223. z13.t2.1.3 279. 22.13.2 594. 12.3.12.2 909. z2.1.4.t2 1224. z13.2.1.2.1 280. 22.13.t2 595. 12.3.12.t2 910. z2.1.4.12 1225. z13.2.1.t2.1 281. 2.t2.13.t2 596. 12.3.14 911. z2.1.32 1226. z13.t2.1.2.1 282. t2.2.13.2 597. 12.2.5 912. z2.1.3.2.1 1227. z13.t2.1.t2.1 283. t2.2.13.t2 598. 12.t2.5 913. z2.1.3.t2.1 1228. z13.2.12.2 284. t22.13.t2 599. 12.2.4.1 914. z2.1.3.1.2 1229. z13.2.12.t2 285. 22.15 600. 12.t2.4.1 915. z2.1.3.1.t2 1230. z13.t2.12.2 286. 2.t2.15 601. 12.2.3.2 916. z2.1.3.13 1231. z13.t2.12.t2 287. t2.2.15 602. 12.2.3.t2 917. z2.1.2.4 1232. z13.2.14 288. t22.15 603. 12.t2.3.2 918. z2.1.t2.4 1233. z13.t2.14 289. 2.1.6 604. 12.t2.3.t2 919. z2.1.2.3.1 1234. z14.5 290. t2.1.6 605. 12.2.3.12 920. z2.1.t2.3.1 1235. z14.4.1 291. 2.1.5.1 606. 12.t2.3.12 921. z2.1.23 1236. z14.22.1 292. t2.1.5.1 607. 12.2.1.4 922. z2.1.22.t2 1237. z14.2.t2.1 293. 2.1.4.2 608. 12.t2.1.4 923. z2.1.2.t2.2 1238. z14.t2.2.1 294. 2.1.4.t2 609. 12.2.1.3.1 924. z2.1.t2.22 1239. z14.t22.1 295. t2.1.4.2 610. 12.t2.1.3.1 925. z2.1.2.t22 1240. z14.2.1.2 296. t2.1.4.t2 611. 12.2.1.22 926. z2.1.t2.2.t2 1241. z14.2.1.t2 297. 2.1.4.12 612. 12.2.1.2.t2 927. z2.1.t22.2 1242. z14.t2.1.2 298. t2.1.4.12 613. 12.2.1.t2.2 928. z2.1.t23 1243. z14.t2.1.t2 299. 2.1.32 614. 12.t2.1.22 929. z2.1.22.12 1244. z14.2.13 300. t2.1.32 615. 12.2.1.t22 930. z2.1.2.t2.12 1245. z14.t2.13 301. 2.1.3.2.1 616. 12.t2.1.2.t2 931. z2.1.t2.2.12 1246. z15.4 302. 2.1.3.t2.1 617. 12.t2.1.t2.2 932. z2.1.t22.12 1247. z15.3.1

171 303. t2.1.3.2.1 618. 12.t2.1.t22 933. z2.1.2.12.2 1248. z15.2.2 304. t2.1.3.t2.1 619. 12.2.1.2.12 934. z2.1.2.14 1249. z15.2.t2 305. 2.1.3.1.2 620. 12.2.1.t2.12 935. z2.12.5 1250. z15.t2.2 306. 2.1.3.1.t2 621. 12.t2.1.2.12 936. z2.12.4.1 1251. z15.t22 307. t2.1.3.1.2 622. 12.t2.1.t2.12 937. z2.12.3.2 1252. z15.2.12 308. t2.1.3.1.t2 623. 12.2.2.3 938. z2.12.3.t2 1253. z15.t2.12 309. 2.1.3.13 624. 12.t2.2.3 939. z2.12.3.12 1254. z16.3 310. t2.1.3.13 625. 12.2.2.2.1 940. z2.12.2.3 1255. z16.2.1 311. 2.1.2.4 626. 12.2.12.t2.1 941. z2.12.t2.3 1256. z16.t2.1 312. 2.1.t2.4 627. 12.t2.12.2.1 942. z2.12.22.1 1257. z17.2 313. t2.1.2.4 628. 12.t2.12.t2.1 943. z2.12.2.t2.1 1258. z17.t2 314. t2.1.t2.4 629. 12.2.13.2 944. z2.12.t2.2.1 1259. z19 315. 2.1.2.3.1 630. 12.2.13.t2 945. z2.12.t22.1

Table 4.10 Sources of the rhythms in 2/4 observed. No. Album Name Track

1 Begley, Séamus; Cooney, Steve: ‘Dul go dtí Rasaí’, Meitheal, (Dublin: 6 Hummingbird Productions, 1996).

2 Ibid. ‘Donnacha Lynch’. 6

3 Ibid. 6

4 Ibid. 6

5 Ibid. ‘Saithrain’. 1

6 Ibid. ‘Tá dta Gabhairin a bhí agam’. 12

7 Ibid. 12

8 Ibid. 12

9 Ibid. 12

10 Ibid. 12

11 Ibid. 12

12 Ibid. ‘Cuz Teehan’s’. 12

13 Ibid. ‘John McKenna’s’. 6

172 14 Ibid. 6

15 Ibid. 6

16 Ibid. 6

17 Ibid. 6

18 Ibid. ‘Dul go dtí Rasaí’. 6

19 Ibid. 6

20 Ibid. 6

21 Ibid. 6

173 Ex. 4.22 Two-bar rhythms in 2/4, observed from the above audio recordings. Conceptual Field Two-bar rhythms in 2/4

Conceptual Resolution Observed from audio recordings.

Of the rhythms that were observed from audio recordings, 106 possibilities were found across four conceptual fields: eighty-six of which are two-bar examples (4/4, 6/8 and 2/4) and the remaining twenty are one-bar examples pertaining to the 9/8 metre. Aside from stylistic element No. 1 from the 9/8 options (Ex. 4.21), which contains an upbeat, the nineteen other options are already accounted for in its associated table of variations (Table 4.9). When the one stylistic element from Ex. 4.21 is added to the eighty-six two-bar options, a total of eighty-seven observed rhythms are found across four

174 conceptual fields.

As stated earlier, the codes that were printed for 4/4 can also be used for 2/4 when the value of the numbers is conceptualised differently.62 Although in the interests of space this list of variations was not reprinted, they must still be included and so the figure for the number of 4/4 rhythms (578) must be doubled. This leaves a total of 2,529 stylistic elements across four conceptual fields.

At best, it was only possible to describe three types of swing, meaning that it is likely tacit knowledge as opposed to implicit knowledge when the strict definition, as explained in Chapter One, is used.63

While there is a substantial difference between the number of rhythms that have been observed and those that have been postulated using variation, it is likely that those observed represent only a fraction of that which could be found. It is hoped that in future studies it will be possible to expand on the list of observed rhythms, the location of which on the hypothetical list could potentially provide insights into what rhythms are most or least popular or even to what extent particular performers share or create new rhythmic vocabulary.

On one level, it is hoped that through the code, it will be possible for musicians, particularly accompanists to take stock of their rhythmic repertoire and consequently find the areas that, either personally or in general, have not yet been explored. Furthermore, it is hoped that it has provided a language through which they can discuss and consciously command this form of expression. In total, 2,619 stylistic elements have been found across nine conceptual fields.

62 See pp.137-138. 63 See Chapter One, 28-29.

175