Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena

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Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena This Handbook is dedicated to all the participants of the Michigan State University’s International IPM Short Course and to the faculty members who have provided support to this course. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena

Edited by

K.M. Maredia

Professor Institute of International Agriculture and Department of Entomology Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA

D. Dakouo

Senior Research Scientist INERA Bobo-Dioulasso Burkina Faso

and

D. Mota-Sanchez

Research Associate Department of Entomology Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA

CABI Publishing CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Integrated pest management in the global arena /edited by K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo, D. Mota-Sanchez p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-85199-652-3 1. Pests--Integrated control. I. Maredia, Karim M. II. Dakouo, D. (Dona), 1951- III. Mota-Sanchez, D. (David), 1960- SB950.I4575 2003 632′.9--dc21 2002154965

ISBN 0 85199 652 3

Typeset by AMA DataSet, UK Printed and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge Contents

Contributors ix

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Foreword xix

Acronyms and Abbreviations xxi

1Introduction and Overview 1 K.M. Maredia

PART I: EMERGING ISSUES IN INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 2 Online Resources for Integrated Pest Management Information Delivery and Exchange 9 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

3 Biological Control and Integrated Pest Management 19 R.J. O’Neil, J.S. Yaninek, D.A. Landis and D.B. Orr

4 The Influence of Biotechnology on Integrated Pest Management in Developing Countries 31 K.V. Raman, E. Grafius and K.M. Maredia

5 Pesticide Policy and Integrated Pest Management 49 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

6 Industrial Perspective on Integrated Pest Management 65 G. Head and J. Duan

7 Role of Integrated Pest Management and Sustainable Development 73 G.W. Bird

v vi Contents

8 Social and Economic Considerations in the Design and Implementation of Integrated Pest Management in Developing Countries 87 B. Maumbe, R. Bernsten and G. Norton

9 Integrated Pest Management Adoption by the Global Community 97 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

PART II: COUNTRY EXPERIENCES EXPERIENCES FROM AFRICA 10 Integrated Pest Management in Burkina Faso 109 D. Dakouo, M.S. Bonzi, A. Sawadogo, C.L. Dabiré, S. Nacro and B. Thio

11 Ghana National Integrated Pest Management Program 119 K. Afreh-Nuamah

12 Development and Implementation of Integrated Pest Management in the Sudan 131 Y.G.A. Bashir, Elamin M. Elamin and Eltigani M. Elamin

13 Integrated Pest Management in Tanzania 145 B.T. Nyambo, A.M. Varela, Z. Seguni and G. Kirenga

14 Integration of Integrated Pest Management in Integrated Crop Management: Experiences from Malawi 157 S. Snapp and E. Minja

15 Integrated Pest Management in South Africa 169 D.S. Charleston, R. Kfir, N.J. van Rensburg, B.N. Barnes, V. Hattingh, D.E. Conlong, D.Visser and G.J. Prinsloo

EXPERIENCES FROM ASIA 16 Integrated Pest Management in China 197 Z.-Y. Wang, K.-L. He, J.-Z. Zhao and D.-R. Zhou

17 Integrated Pest Management in India 209 A. Singh, S. Singh and S.N. Rao

18 Integrated Pest Management in Indonesia: IPM by Farmers 223 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

19 Integrated Pest Management in the Philippines 239 P.A. Javier, M.L.Q. Sison and R.V. Ebora

EXPERIENCES FROM NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 20 Integrated Pest Management in the USA 249 L. Olsen, F. Zalom and P. Adkisson

21Integrated Pest Management in Mexico 273 D. Mota-Sanchez, F.S. Gonzalez, B. Alvardo-Rodriguez, O. Diaz-Gomez, H.B. Mojica, G.S. Martinez and R. Bujanos Contents vii

22 Integrated Pest Management in Brazil 285 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo, L.J. Oliveira, F. Moscardi, D.L. Gazzoni, B.S. Corrêa-Ferreira, I.A. Lorini, M. Borges, A.R. Panizzi, D.R. Sosa-Gomez and I.C. Corso

23 Integrated Pest Management in Peru 301 M.P. Lazo, A.L. Travaglini, R.V. Ochoa, E.C. Hernández and I. Segovia

24 Integrated Pest Management in Argentina 313 D. Carmona, M. Huarte, G. Arias, A. López, A.M. Vincini, H.A. Alvarez Castillo, P. Manetti, E. Chávez, M. Torres, J. Eyherabide, J. Mantecón, L. Cichón and D. Fernández

EXPERIENCES FROM EUROPE, AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 25 Integrated Pest Management in Greenhouses: Experiences in European Countries 327 J.C. van Lenteren

26 Integrated Pest Management in the Mediterranean Region: the Case of Catalonia, Spain 341 R. Albajes, M.J. Sarasúa, J. Avilla, J. Arnó and R. Gabarra

27 Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 357 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

28 Integrated Pest Management in Australia 371 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

29 Integrated Pest Management in New Zealand Horticulture 385 D.M. Suckling, C. McKenna and J.T.S. Walker

PART III: REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES 30 FAO Integrated Pest Management Programs: Experiences of Participatory IPM in West Africa 397 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

31 Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (USAID – IPM CRSP): Highlights of its Global Experience 407 B. Gebrekidan

32 Bridging the Gap with the CGIAR Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management 419 B. James, P. Neuenschwander, R. Markham, P. Anderson, A. Braun, W.A. Overholt, Z.R. Khan, K. Makkouk and A. Emechebe

33 The World Bank and Pest Management 435 T.W. Schillhorn van Veen

34 Integrated Pest Management Case Studies from ICIPE 441 Z.R. Khan, W.A. Overholt and A. Ng’eny-Mengech viii Contents

35 Integrated Pest Management Experiences of CIRAD-France in Developing Countries 453 A. Ratnadass, X. Mourichon, M. Vaissayre, S. Quilici and J.-P. Deguine

36 IPMEurope, the European Group for Integrated Pest Management in Development Cooperation: Adding Value to Research Effort 467 M. Iles

37 Building IPM Programs in Central America: Experiences of CATIE 477 C. Staver and F. Guharay

38 Integrated Pest Management at CAB International 493 D.R. Dent, M. Holderness and J.G.M. Vos

PART IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 39 Making IPM Successful Globally: Research, Policy, Management and Networking Recommendations 501 K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo, D. Mota-Sanchez and K.V. Raman

Index 507 Contributors

P. Adkisson, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA. K. Afreh-Nuamah, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, PO Box 25, Legon, Accra, Ghana. R. Albajes, Universitat de Lleida, Centre UdL-Institute de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 177, Lleida 25006, Spain. B. Alvarado-Rodriguez, Corregidora No. 529-2, Guasave, Sinaloa, México. H.A. Alvarez Castillo, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. P. Anderson, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), AA 6713, Cali, Colombia. G. Arias, INTA Saenz Peña, CC 64, Presidencia Saenz Peña (3700), Chaco, Argentina. J. Arnó, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries, Centre de Cabrils, Cabrils, Catolonia, Spain. J. Avilla, Universitat de Lleida, Centre UdL-Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 177 Lleida 25006, Spain. W.I. Bajwa, Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC), Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA. B.N. Barnes, ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, Private Bag X5013, Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa. Y.G.A. Bashir, ElObeid Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 429, ElObeid, Sudan. R. Bernsten, Department of Agricultural Economics, 205 Agriculture Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. G.W. Bird, Department of Entomology, 243Natural Science Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. M.S. Bonzi, INERA, Direction 01 BP 7192 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. M. Borges, Embrapa Recursos Geneticos e Biotechnologia, Brazilia, DF. A. Braun, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), AA 6713, Cali, Colombia. R. Bujanos, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (INIFAP), Guanajuato, Mexico. S. Capezio, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. D. Carmona, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

ix x Contributors

D.S. Charleston, ARC–Plant Protection Research Institute, Rietondale Research Station, 600 Soutpansberg Road, Private Bag X134, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. E. Chávez, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. L. Cichón, INTA Alto Valle, CC 872, (8332) General Roca, Río Negro, Argentina. D.E. Conlong, South African Sugar Association Experiment Station, Private Bag X02, Mount Edgecombe, 4300, South Africa. B.S. Corrêa-Ferreira, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. I.C. Corso, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. C.L. Dabiré, INERA, Station de Kamboinsé, BP 476 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. D. Dakouo, INERA, Station de Farako-ba, 01 BP 910 Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkino Faso. J.-P. Deguine, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Centre de Recherches de Montpellier, Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France. D.R. Dent, CABI Bioscience UK Centre, CAB International, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK. O. Diaz-Gomez, Alvaro Obregon 64, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis, San Luis Potosi, CP 78000, México. J. Duan, Monsanto Company V2C, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St Louis, MO 63167, USA. R.V. Ebora, National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Philippines, Los Baños College, Laguna 4031, Philippines. Elamin M. Elamin, ElObeid Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 429, ElObeid, Sudan. Eltigani M. Elamin, ElObeid Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 429, ElObeid, Sudan. A. Emechebe, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Kano, Nigeria. J. Eyherabide, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. D. Fernández, INTA Alto Valle, CC 872, (8332) General Roca, Río Negro, Argentina. G. Fleischer, Rural Development Division, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), OE 45, PO Box 5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany. R. Gabarra, Institut de Recerca i Technologia Agroalimentaries, Centre de Cabrils, Cabrils, Catalonia, Spain. D.L. Gazzoni, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. B. Gebrekidan, IPM CRSP, Office of International Research and Development, Virginia Tech, 1060 Litton Reaves Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0334, USA. F.S. Gonzalez, Department of Entomology, 243Natural Science Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. F. Guharay, Regional Program CATIE/IPM-AF (NORAD), Apartado Postal P-116, Managua, Nicaragua. E. Grafius, Department of Entomology, 245 Natural Science Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. V. Hattingh, Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, South Africa. K.-L. He, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100094, China. G. Head, Monsanto Company, 700 Chesterfield Parkway, GG3A, St Louis, MO 63198, USA. E.C. Hernández, Psje. Francisco de Zela s/n., Piso 10 – Edificio del Ministerio de Trabajo, Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agraria (SENASA), Lima 11, Perú. C.B. Hoffmann-Campo, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. M. Holderness, CABI Bioscience UK Centre, CAB International, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK. M. Huarte, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Contributors xi

A.L. Il’ichev, Present address: Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture (ISIA), Tatura Centre, Private Bag 1, Ferguson Road, Tatura, Victoria, 3616, Australia. M. Iles, IPMEurope, Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. B. James, The SP-IPM Secretariat, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Benin, 08 BP 0932 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Benin. P.A. Javier, National Crop Protection Center (NCPC), University of the Philippines, Los Baños College, Laguna 4031, Philippines. R. Kfir, ARC–Plant Protection Research Institute, Rietondale Research Station, 600 Soutpansberg Road, Private Bag X134, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. Z.R. Khan, International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 30772 Nairobi, Kenya. G. Kirenga, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Plant Protection Services, PO Box 1519, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. M. Kogan, Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC), Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA. D.A. Landis, Department of Entomology, 204 Center for Integrated Plant Systems, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. M.P. Lazo, Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), PO Box 1558, Lima, Perú. J.C. van Lenteren, Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, The Netherlands. A. López, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. I.A. Lorini, Embrapa Trigo, Caixa Postal 451, 99001-970 Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil. K. Makkouk, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), PO Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. P. Manetti, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. J. Mantecón, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. K.M. Maredia, Institute of International Agriculture and Department of Entomology, 416 Plant and Soil Science Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. R. Markham, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), PMB 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria. G.S. Martinez, Direccion General de Sanidad Vegetal, Guillermo Perez Valenzuela 127, Col. El Carmen-Coyoacan, Mexico, DF, CP 04100, México. B. Maumbe, Department of Agricultural Economics, 205 Agriculture Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. C. McKenna, Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, RD2, 412 No 1 Road, Te Puke, New Zealand. E. Minja, International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Nairobi, Kenya. H.B. Mojica, Instituto de Fitosanidad, Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agricolas Km 36.5 Carretera Mexico-Texcoco, Montecillo, Estado de Mexico, CP 56230, México. F. Moscardi, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. D. Mota-Sanchez, Center for Integrated Plant Systems, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. X. Mourichon, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Centre de Recherches de Montpellier, Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France. S. Nacro, INERA, Station de Farako-ba, BP 910 Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. xii Contributors

P. Neuenschwander, Biological Control Center for Africa, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture-Benin, 08 BP 0932 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Benin. A. Ng’eny-Mengech, International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 30772 Nairobi, Kenya. G. Norton, Department of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 205-B Hutcheson Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA. B.T. Nyambo, Integrated Crop Management Practitioner, PO Box 90, Village Market-, Nairobi, Kenya. R.V. Ochoa, Carretera Huaral,Chancay Km 5.8, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agraria (INIA), Lima, Perú. I.P.G.N.J. Oka, c/o Dr Mahyuddin Syam, IRRI Liaison Office, Jalan Merdeka 147, Bogor 16111, Indonesia. L.J. Oliveira, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. L. Olsen, Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. R.J. O’Neil, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA. D.B. Orr, Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA. W.A. Overholt, International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), PO Box 30772 Nairobi, Kenya. A.R. Panizzi, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001-970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. G.J. Prinsloo, ARC–Small Grain Institute, Private Bag X29, Bethlehem, 9700, South Africa. S. Quilici, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Centre de Recherches de Montpellier, Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France. K.V. Raman, Department of Plant Breeding, 313 Bradfield Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-1901, USA. S.N. Rao, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra Pradesh, India. A. Ratnadass, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Centre de Recherches de Montpellier, Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France. N. J. van Rensburg, ARC–Plant Protection Research Institute, Rietondale Research Station, 600 Soutpansberg Road, Private Bag X134, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. M.J. Sarasúa, Universitat de Lleida, Centre UdL-Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 177, Lleida 25006, Spain. A. Sawadogo, INERA, Station de Farako-ba, BP 910 Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. T.W. Schillhorn van Veen, Natural Resources Unit, Europe and Central Asia Region, ECSSD, H5-503, The World Bank, 1818 H St NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA. I. Segovia, Esteban Camere No 182, Urb. San Roque, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima 33, Perú. Z. Seguni, Agricultural Research Institute, Mikocheni, PO Box 6226, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. A. Singh, National Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India. S. Singh, National Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India. M.L.Q. Sison, National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (BIOTECH), University of the Philippines, Los Baños College, Laguna 4031, Philippines. S. Snapp, Department of Horticulture, 440 Plant and Soil Sciences Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. D.R. Sosa-Gomez, Embrapa Soja, Caixa Postal 231, 86001–970 Londrina, PR, Brazil. Contributors xiii

C. Staver, Programa Regional CATIE/IPM-AF (NORAD), Apartado Postal P-116, Managua, Nicaragua. P. Stemerding, Global IPM Facility, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. D.M. Suckling, Pipfruit Sustainability/Market Access, HortResearch, PO Box 51, Lincoln Canterbury, New Zealand. B. Thio, INERA, Station de Farako-ba, 01 BP 910 Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. A.L. Travaglini, Julio Rodavero 682, Urb. Las Brisas, Red de Acción en Alternativas al Uso de Agroquímicos (RAAA) and Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, Lima 1, Perú. M. Torres, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. M. Vaissayre, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Centre de Recherches de Montpellier, Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France. A.M. Varela, PO Box 41607, Nairobi, Kenya. A.M. Vincini, FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Ruta Nac. 226 Km. 73,5 CC 276, 7620 Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina. D. Visser, ARC–Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute (VOPI), Private Bag X293, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. J.G.M. Vos, CABI Bioscience UK Centre, CAB International, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK. H. Waibel, Faculty of Economics, University of Hannover, Postfach 6009, D-30060 Hannover, Germany. J.T.S. Walker, Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, Private Bag 1401, Havelock North, New Zealand. Z.-Y. Wang, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100094, China. D.G. Williams, Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture (ISIA), Tatura Centre, Private Bag 1, Ferguson Road, Tatura, Victoria, 3616, Australia. J.S. Yaninek, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA. V.A. Zakharenko, Department of Plant Protection, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Krzhizhanovsky str.,15/2, Moscow 172189, Russia. F. Zalom, Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. J.-Z. Zhao, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, NY 14456, USA. D.-R. Zhou, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100094, China.

Preface

Michigan State University (MSU), a premier land grant university in the USA, is recognized as a center of excellence in international development. MSU has been organizing international short courses in Integrated Pest Management since 1995. Over 100 participants from more than 25 countries have attended these courses. In addition, MSU hosts visiting scientists, students and interns from around the world. MSU, through the IPM short course and other international collaborative projects, has established an excellent global IPM network. The participants of MSU International IPM short course have always requested for references for IPM experiences of different countries. To our knowledge, there is no book that brings together IPM experiences of the global community. Both developing and developed countries have accumulated a wealth of information and experience based in IPM. This book brings together the unique case studies of IPM from developed and developing countries, and international centers and programs. Many of the chapters in this book have been contributed by MSU’s IPM short course participants and collaborating scientists from the national and international community. It was impossible to include IPM experiences of all countries in one book. However, efforts were made to include IPM experiences of several countries and key international programs around the world. The chapters included, illustrate the development stage of IPM programs in different geographic regions. It is hoped that this book will serve as a useful reference in international courses, seminars and workshops around the world. International cooperation and collaboration is a hallmark of MSU. This handbook is one way of sharing information with the global community.

Karim M. Maredia Michigan State University, USA

Dona Dakouo INERA, Burkina Faso

and

David Mota-Sanchez Michigan State University, USA

Acknowledgments

The editors would like to first thank CABI Publishing for publishing this book. The Michigan State University IPM ProgramOffice, the Institute of International Agriculture, and the Department of Entomology and their faculty and staff members were very helpful in the publication of this book. Many thanks to all the international and US contributors for providing insight into the current status of IPM in their countries, regions or international programs. The financial support fromthe USDA National IPM Programis greatly appreciated. Many thanks to Dr Larry Olsen and Dr Edward Grafius fromMichigan State University for their encouragement and support. We sincerely appreciate the assistance of Ms Kirsten Fondren and Mr Bernard Gwekwerere, Ms Cathy Pisano and Mr Ken Fittig for their assistance in the editing process. Finally, help fromMs Patricia Sutherland in formattingall the chapters is greatly appreciated. Both Cathy and Patricia helped in keeping everything together. It is difficult to describe the monumental efforts required to develop this book, so we must also thank our families for their understanding and support. We are grateful to Dr Jack Schwille and his wife Sharon for hosting Dr Dona Dakouo during the book editing process. Thanks to Mr Mahyuddin Syam, International Rice Research Institute’s representative for Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei Darussalamfor facilitating contacts with the author of the Indonesia IPM chapter.

KarimM. Maredia Michigan State University, USA

Dona Dakouo INERA, Burkina Faso

and

David Mota-Sanchez Michigan State University, USA

xvii

Foreword

As in most research areas, major advances have been made in integrated pest management (IPM) since it was developed some 60 years ago, in particular with the application of computational-, information- and biotechnologies. However, this does not mean that what has been there before has lost its relevance or should be disposed of; on the contrary, I believe that what is most important is to learn from the past and integrate experience with new knowledge, i.e. learn from the past and build on it. This book on IPM in the global arena is attempting to address not only the new science that will undoubtedly influence pest management in the future, but also practical experiences from six continents with a national and international angle as presented in Parts II and III. It also looks critically, but with optimism, at the future with recommendations for the scientists and the practitioners. The first part considers the emerging issues in pest management at many levels, from the latest developments and expectations from biotechnology to policy issues. One of the main constraints in gaining broad support for IPM from the national and international support agencies, as well as from the implementers, lies in the fact that IPM has been widely ‘undersold’. This lies in the fact that IPM has not, generally, been well evaluated and documented for its deliverables. This is unlike the case in other disciplines that have contributed to the Green Revolution and also to the general agricultural productivity increase, such as plant breeding, which has been credited for much or even most of the productivity increases. When we look at the sustainability contribution of IPM and also some of its main components like biological control (both classical and through better use of the endemic natural enemies), there is no doubt that IPM has had a major role in the recorded productivity increase. It is now up to the social scientists to get to the task and place some figures on the table of the government agencies responsible for the promotion and support of IPM. New research, based not only on entomological parameters but now also on meteorological, agronomic and economic ones, using the new power of information and communication technologies, needs to address the development of increasingly important decision-support tools. The farmers and health officials need these new tools to assist in the prevention of outbreaks, which should remain the keystone of any IPM strategy. ‘Effective prevention and smart cures’ is and should remain the bottom line for IPM. This book will serve a broad readership, with its many examples from the four corners of the world, as well as the experiences from international organizations in IPM

xix xx Foreword

implementation. Although we live in the information age, it is refreshing and useful to have so much information in one place.

Hans R. Herren World Food Prize Laureate (1995) Director General International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Nairobi, Kenya Acronyms and Abbreviations

AAACU: Asian Association of Agricultural Colleges and Universities AAIS: African Association of Insect Scientists ABSP: Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project (Michigan State University, USA) ACIAR: Australian Center for International Agricultural Research AESA: agroecosystem analysis AFFI: African Fruit Fly Initiative AIL: Africa Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Link AMEWG: Africa–Middle East Working Group APCPA: Asia–Pacific Crop Protection Association APHIS: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USA) APO: Asian Productivity Organization APRTC: Asian–Pacific Regional Technology Center ARC: Agricultural Research Corporation (Sudan) ARC: Agricultural Research Council (South Africa) ARC–SGI: Agricultural Research Council – Small Grain Institute (South Africa) ARMCANZ: Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and NewZealand ARPPIS: African Regional Postgraduate Programme in Insect Science ARS: Agricultural Research Service (USA) ASSINSEL: International Association of Plant Breeders for the Protection of Plant Varieties AVRDC: Asian Vegetables Research and Development Center (Taiwan) BAPPENAS: National Agency for Planning and Development (Indonesia) BBSRC: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council BBTs: biologically based technologies BC: biological control BINAS: Biotechnology Information Network and Advisory Service (UNIDO-Italy) BIOTECH: National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (Philippines) Bt: Bacillus thuringiensis CAAS: Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences CABI: CAB International CAMBIA: Center for the Application of Molecular Biology to International Agriculture (Australia) CASAFE: Agricultural Protection Chamber and Fertilizers (Argentina) CATIE: Tropical Agriculture Research and Higher Education Center (Costa Rica) CBD: Convention of Biological Diversity CDPR: California Department of Pesticide Regulation

xxi xxii Acronyms and Abbreviations

CGIAR: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAT: International Center for Tropical Agriculture (Colombia) CIBC: Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control CICP: Consortium for International Crop Protection (USA) CID: Compendium of IPM definitions CILSS: Comité Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel CILSS: Inter-States Committee for Drought Management in the Sahel CIMMYT: International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Mexico) CIP: International Potato Center (Peru) CIRAD: Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (France) CNESOLER: Centre National de l’Energie Solaire et des Energies Renouvelables (Mali) CNRST: Centre National de Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (Burkina Faso) CPI/OUA: Conseil phytosanitaire Inter-Africain/Organisation Unité Africaine CPITT: Centre for Pest Information Technology and Transfer (Australia)* CRIs: Crown Research Institutes (New Zealand) CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (Ghana) CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia) CSREES: Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service CTA: Center for Technical Cooperation in Agriculture (The Netherlands) DANIDA: Danish International Development Assistance DEAT: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (South Africa) DFID: Department For International Development (UK) EBPM: Ecological Based Pest Management EC: European Commission ECASARD: Ecumenical Association of Sustainable Agriculture and Relief Development EDWIP: ecological database of the world’s insect pathogens EMATER-PR: Extension Service of the Paraná State EMBRAPA: Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (USA) EQIP: Environmental Quality Incentive Program ESA: Entomological Society of America ETL: economic threshold level FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FCA: College of Agricultural Sciences (Argentina) FDA: Food and Drug Administration (USA) FECOTRIGO: an agricultural cooperative (Brazil) FFS: farmers’ field schools FPA: Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (The Philippines) FPR: Farmer Participatory Research FQPA: Food Quality Protection Act (USA) FSIPM: Farming Systems Integrated Pest Management FTP: file transfer protocols GAO: US General Accounting Office GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GCPF: Global Crop Protection Federation GIS: geographic information systems GMOs: genetically modified organisms GOAN: Ghana Organic Agricultural Network

* Name change in 2003 to Centre for Biological Information Technology (CBIT). Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii

GPS: global positioning systems GREEEN: generating research and education to meet economic and environmental needs GTZ: Deustche Gesellschaft für Technishe Zusammenarbeit (German Agency) HACCP: hazard analysis critical control point IAPAR: Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (Brazil) IARC: International Agricultural Research Center IASCAV: Argentinean Institute of Animal and Vegetal Health and Quality IBS: ISNAR Biotechnology Service ICAR: Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICARDA: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (Syria) ICEAPS: Southern Africa Pigeonpea Improvement Program ICGEB: International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology ICIPE: International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (Kenya) ICM: Integrated Crop Management ICPM: Integrated Crop and Pest Management ICRAF: International Center for Research in Agroforestry (Kenya) ICRISAT: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (India) IDEA: Investment in Developing Export Agriculture (USAID) IDRC: International Development Research Center (Canada) IER: Institut d’Economie Rurale (Mali) IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development (Italy) IFPRI: International Food Policy Research Institute (USA) IGO: inter-governmental organization IGRs: insect growth regulators IIBC: International Institute of Biological Control IICA: Interamerican Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture IITA: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria) INASE: National Seed Institute (Argentina) INERA: Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles (Burkina Faso) INGEBI: Institute of Genetic and Molecular Biology of Buenos Aires (Argentina) INIA: National Institute for Agricultural Research (Peru) INIAA: National Institute for Plant and Animal Husbandry Research (Peru) INIBAP: International Network for Improvement of Banana and Plantain INIFAP: National Institute of Research in Forestry, Agriculture and Animal Sciences (Mexico) INTA: National Institute of Agricultural Research (Argentina) IOBC: International Organisation for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants IOPRM: International Organization for Resistance Pest Management IPC: Integrated Pest Control IPM: Integrated Pest Management IPM-CRSP: Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (USAID) IPPC: International Plant Protection Congress IPPC: Integrated Plant Protection Center (Oregon State University, USA) IPPM: Integrated Plant Protection Management IPR: intellectual property rights IPVM: Integrated Pest and Vector Management IRAC: Insecticide Resistance Action Committee IRD: Institut de Reserche pour le Développement (France) IRM: Insect Resistance Management IRRI: International Rice Research Institute (Philippines) ISAAA: International Service for Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications xxiv Acronyms and Abbreviations

ISDMS: Inter-States Committee for Drought Management in the Sahel ISNAR: International Service for National Agricultural Research ISTA: International Seed Testing Association ITESM: Tecnologico of Monterrey (Mexico) ITL: injury threshold levels KARI: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KZN: Kwazulu Natal (South Africa) LACPA: Latin American Crop Protection Association LDCs: less developed countries LISA: Low Input Sustainable Agriculture Program (USA) LMOs: living modified organisms LUBILOSA: Lutte Biologique contre les Locustes et Sautériaux (IITA) MARDI: Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute MFAT: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (New Zealand) NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement NARO: National Agricultural Research Organization (Uganda) NARS: National Agricultural Research Systems NATESC: National Agriculture Technology Extension and Service Center (China). NBCC: National Biological Control Committee (Ghana) NCIPM: National Center for Integrated Pest Management (India) NCPC: National Crop Protection Center (Philippines) NDA: National Department of Agriculture (South Africa) NGEBI: Institute of Genetic and Molecular Biology (Argentina) NGOs: non-governmental organizations NORAD: Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NPVs: nuclear polyhedrosis viruses NRC: National Research Council (USA) NRI: Natural Resources Institute (UK) NSESD: National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (Australia) NSF: National Science Foundation (USA) NZKMB: New Zealand Kiwi fruit Marketing Board OBEPAP: Organisation Bénoise pour la Promotion de l’Agriculture Biologique, Benin OCLALAV: Organisation Commune de Lutte Anti-acridienne et de Lutte Antiaviaire. OECD: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (France) OPMP: Office of Pest Management Policy PAN: Pesticide Action Network (FAO) PCARRD: Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources and Development PEDUNE: Protection Ecologiquement Durable du Niebé (IITA) PLRV: Potato Leaf Roll Virus PPRI: Plant Protection Research Institute (South Africa) PROINPA: Foundation for the Promotion and Investigation of Andean products PRONAF: Cowpea Project for Africa PRONAMACHCS: National Program for the Management of Soils and Watersheds (Peru) PTD: participatory technology development PVX: Potato Virus X PVY: Potato Virus Y QTL: quantitative trait loci RAAA: Action Network for Alternatives to Agrochemicals (Peru) REDBIO: Technical Co-operation Network on Plant Biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO) RENACO: West and Central Africa Cowpea Research Network Acronyms and Abbreviations xxv

SADCC: Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference SAGARPA: Secretary of Agriculture, Animal, Rural Development, Fish and Food (Mexico) SARE: Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (USA) SAUs: State agricultural universities (India) SCARM: Standing Committee on Agriculture and Resource Management (Australia) SCRI: Scottish Crop Research Institute SEARCA: Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (Philippines) SENASA: National Service for Plant and Animal Health (Peru) SENASICA: National Service for Agricultural and Food Health, Safety and Quality (Mexico) SIDA: Swedish International Development Agency SPFS: Special Program for Food Security (FAO) SP-IPM: Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management (CGIAR) TGPPP: Thai–German Plant Protection Program TSWV: Tomato Spotted Wild Virus TYLCV: Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus UCIPM: University of California Statewide IPM Project UNALM: Universidad National Agraria, La Molina (Peru) UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP: United Nations Development Programme UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme UNPCB: Union Nationale des Paysans Producteurs de Coton du Burkina UPLB : University of the Philippines Los Baños UPOV: International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants UPWARD: Users Perspectives with Agricultural Research and Development USAID: United States Agency for International Development USDA: United States Department of Agriculture USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VIZR A: Russian Institute of Plant Protection VIZR A11: Scientific Research Institute of Plant Protection (Russia) VNIIBZR: Scientific Research Institute of Biological Plant Protection (Russia) VNIIF: Scientific Research Institute of Phytopathology (Russia) VOPI: Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute (South Africa) WARDA: West Africa Rice Development Association (Côte d’Ivoire) WCASRN: West and Central African Sorghum Research Network WHO: World Health Organization WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization WPRS: West Palaeartic Regional Section (of IOBC) WRI: World Resources Institute WTO: World Trade Organization

Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview

Karim M. Maredia Institute of International Agriculture and Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Chemical control of agricultural pests has to the global society and environment. dominated the scene, but its overuse has Many cultures use insects as a food source adverse effects on farm budgets, human (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993; ESA health and the environment, as well as on Newsletter, 1994). Development of sus- international trade. New pest problems con- tainable agricultural systems depends on tinue to develop. Integrated pest manage- discovering means of managing pests in ment, which combines biological control, host plant resistance and appropriate an environmentally friendly manner while farming practices, and minimizes the use of conserving natural resources and protecting pesticides, is the best option for the future, biodiversity, human and animal health. as it guarantees yields, reduces costs, is Overuse, misuse and improper use of environmentally friendly and contributes pesticides endanger health of farm workers to the sustainability of agriculture. and consumers of agricultural products Agenda 21 UNCED worldwide (Goodell, 1984). Many examples exist that document the environmental and health risks from the indiscriminate use Background on IPM of pesticides. The global community has expressed a willingness to reduce its Globally, approximately half of all food and reliance on chemical pesticides and to fiber produced is lost to field and storage move towards a more balanced approach pests (insects, pathogens, nematodes, to pest management that relies on cultural, weeds, and vertebrate pests) (Pimentel, biological and biorational control measures. 1997). These losses threaten global food The shift is driven by the high cost of pesti- security and are a serious economic and cides, increased pest resistance to pesticides nutritional burden to the farmers and and the negative impacts of pesticides on consumers around the world. The national biodiversity, food and water quality, human governments, private industry, universities, and animal health (Rola and Pingali, 1993), NGOs, and international centers/programs and the environment. Also as the global have all been working to manage pest economy moves towards a free market problems to improve the agricultural pro- economy and free trade, strict pesticide ductivity on a sustainable basis to feed the residue regulations in European and North growing populations. Not all organisms are American markets are forcing many pests and a majority of them are beneficial exporting countries to redesign their pest

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 1 2 K.M. Maredia

management strategies to remain globally (ASSINSEL, 1997). Different strategies used competitive (Schillhorn van Veen et al., under IPM and salient features of IPM 1997; Henson and Loader, 2000). The forces are listed in Tables 1.2 and 1.3. Historical driving the shift from chemical-based pest perspective and contemporary development management paradigm to ecologically/ in IPM have been presented in an excellent biologically based pest management reviewby Kogan (1998). Radcliffe’s IPM paradigm are listed in Table 1.1. World Textbook (http://ipmworld.umn. IPM has emerged as a science-based edu/textbook.htm) and Kennedy and approach to minimize the risks associated Sutton’s book (2000) also serve as additional with the use of pesticides (Nagrajan, 1990; resources for IPM related information. NRI, 1992). IPM is gaining increased Rapid changes in the implementation attention as a potential means of reducing of IPM are anticipated in the future. During food and fiber losses to pests, reducing the last decade many newdevelopments reliance on chemical pest control, and there- have taken place to reduce chemical input fore fostering the long-term sustainability in agriculture. Newknowledge,policies, of agricultural systems (World Bank, 1994). technologies and strategies have emerged to IPM is a knowledge-intensive, farmer-based improve/reduce pesticide usage or develop approach that encourages natural control alternative strategies to manage pests in of pest populations by anticipating pest an environmentally friendly way. The problems and preventing pests from following section discusses some of the reaching economically damaging levels new developments. (Indonesian IPM Secretariat, 1997). Control of pest populations is achieved using Table 1.2. Different strategies used under IPM. techniques such as enhancing natural enemies, planting pest resistant crops, • Behavioral control cultural management and using pesticides • Biological control • as a last resort (Leslie and Cuperus, 1993; Biopesticides • Botanical pesticides Maredia and Mihm, 1994; Maredia, 1997; • Chemical pesticides Schillhorn van Veen et al., 1997). • Cultural control IPM is a systems approach to the • Host plant resistance design, use, and continued evaluation of • Mechanical control pest management procedures that result in • Transgenic plants (GMOs) favorable socioeconomic and environmental • Quarantine and regulations consequences (Isley, 1957; Ruesink, 1976; Bird et al., 1990). The fundamental impor- Table 1.3. Salient features of IPM. tance of IPM is evidenced in its recent adoption as a basic tenet of the sustainable • Multi-disciplinary approach agriculture movement around the world • Integration of multiple strategies • Knowledge and information intensive • Systems approach Table 1.1. Forces driving the shift from • Risk minimization (safety, profitability and chemical-based pest management paradigm to durability) biologically/ecologically based pest management • Links agriculture with environment, biodiversity, paradigm. human health and sustainability • Combines sophisticated high technologies and • Environmental concerns low conventional technologies • Sustainability • Useful environmental educational tool for • Human and animal health extension workers, farmers and general public • Food safety • Integral part of an overall ICM program • Biodiversity • Pest resistance IPM – Most sustainable solution to pest problems • Global trade worldwide Introduction and Overview 3

New Developments in IPM used to give species identification of pest organisms. Policy framework In many countries, government- supported extension services have provided National and regional pesticide use policies scouting, monitoring and forecasting of are rapidly changing worldwide to reduce pest outbreaks. They also have provided the reliance and availability of chemical pest management education and training of pesticides. Treaties and conferences, such pest management personnel and consultants. as GATT/WTO, NAFTA, CBD, and UNCED Many private companies nowhave emerged are driving such policy changes in both that provide these goods and services developed and developing countries directly to farmers and, in some cases, (Henson and Loader, 2001). For example, groups of farmers hire a consultant to advise IPM is the preferred strategy for pest man- them on pest management matters. Private agement under Agenda 21 of the United companies and independent consultants Nations Conference on Environment and will play a more important role in the Development (UNCED, 1992). In the USA, transfer and synthesis of information, and an the Food Quality Protection Act passed increase in automated information sources in 1996 will pressure many growers to will facilitate diagnostic and monitoring implement IPM practices to cope with information transfer at all levels (NRC, fewer pesticides available for use. Similar 1996). legislation to reduce dependence on chemical pesticides is under consideration in many countries that export agricultural Biotechnology and biopesticides products to the European Union, the USA, and Canada – this is a major shift from the former policies which subsidized the use Biotechnology offers opportunities to of agricultural chemicals (Schillhorn van enhance agricultural productivity world- Veen et al., 1997). wide. During the last decade, large investments have been made by both the private and public sector in biotechnology research and development. Biotechnology involves Pest diagnostic and monitoring tools/ the use of living organisms, or parts of techniques and services organisms to improve plant and animal production (DaSilva et al., 1992; Altman and Timely and efficient monitoring of pests Wantabe, 1995; Persley, 2001). is the foundation of sound IPM programs. In agricultural biotechnology, efforts Success in pest management operations have been made to insert desired genes depends on accurate timing of the occur- from one organism into another to produce rence of stages susceptible to control (Isely, genetically engineered transgenic plants 1957). Poor decisions can lead to the resistant to specific insects, pathogens and overuse of pesticides when ‘insurance’ herbicides (Whalon and Norris, 1996; Roush applications are made to control potential and Shelton, 1997). Examples include pests. Newtools and techniques for cotton transformed with genes of the bacte- monitoring and pest identification are rium Bt, resistant to attack by bollworms; nowavailable to assist in making appropri - maize (corn) resistant to stem borers; soy- ate pest management decisions. Computer beans resistant to the herbicide glyphosate; modeling software helps to identify critical tomatoes resistant to viral disease; and control times in pest lifecycles and to cold- and salinity-tolerant plants; some of predict pest outbreaks. Pheromone baited these genetically engineered crop varieties traps allowefficient monitoring of selected are nowcommercially grownin developed pests. Immunoassay and DNA tests can be countries. Emerging countries are acquiring 4 K.M. Maredia

these newtechnologies to enhance their surrounding crops plays an important role agricultural productivity. in supporting and sustaining important Bioprospecting and bacterial fermen- natural enemies (Maredia et al., 1992; tation processes have allowed many Landis et al., 2000). The factors that influ- newbiopesticides to be developed. ence habitat and landscape structure or the Environmentally-friendly biopesticides ecology and behavior of the pest and the including Bt derivatives, neem trees, new natural enemy populations must be taken IGRs, and NPVs with insecticidal properties into account. Key components of the system are nowused in many countries around are biological control, cover crops and the world. In addition, biotechnology is mixed cropping to provide an alternate employed to develop newdiagnostic tools resource base for the pest controlling that enable development of newpest/ organisms, crop rotation and sanitation of disease resistant varieties, determination of crop residues. evolutionary status and population dynamics, prediction of pest outbreaks, accurate identification of plant diseases, assessment of control strategies, and production of Information, communication and education disease-free planting materials. Information is an integral part of successful IPM adoption and implementation world- Precision agriculture technology and GIS wide. Information sharing will require cooperation among the global community. International organizations such as CABI, Precision agriculture is moving IPM into FAO, UNDP, CGIAR, CICP, IPM-CRSP and the 21st century by combining computer IPMEurope are developing and/or dis- and satellite technology into agricultural seminating IPM information. Much of equipment. GPS and GIS are combined to this information is available on the Internet, allowmanipulation and analysis of large which also connects IPM practitioners to amounts of field-specific data. Maps of pest each other worldwide (see Chapter 2 in this infestations, pest movements and plant book). nutritional needs can be generated using In various parts of the world, IPM soil, crop, pest scouting, and yield data. The education is being given in government site specificity of the map allows the farmer farmer schools, e.g. in Ghana (Afreh- to only treat nutrient-deficient or pest- Nuamah et al., 1996) and in Indonesia infested areas of the field. Precision agri- (Indonesian National IPM Program, 1993). culture technology, although potentially IPM specialists, classes and policies are valuable, is currently a very expensive tool becoming a standard part of many institu- to add to IPM systems. tions. IPM short courses, with topics ranging from IPM research and extension to pest resistance are offered worldwide by such Biological pest management institutions as Michigan State University, USA, University of Illinois, Urbana– Pests and their natural enemies are living Champaign, USA, and the Centre for Pest organisms which move between habitats Information Technology and Transfer at searching for the resources in order to the University of Queensland, Australia. survive, growand reproduce. Many farmers Emerging information and communication apply pesticides without considering the technologies, including digital television, pest’s lifecycle or their impact on other increasingly powerful computers, new organisms. In the search for alternatives software concepts and distance learning to chemical pesticides, more emphasis is via satellite promise to revolutionize the placed on the natural control of pests using practice of IPM and information exchange cultural and biological means. The habitat even more in the coming years. Introduction and Overview 5

Farmer empowerment through IPM facility serves as a coordinating, consulting, advising and promoting entity for the Farmers participation in IPM through FFS advancement of IPM worldwide. More has significantly contributed in the empow- information about the Global IPM Facility erment of farmers in Indonesia and other can be found at: www.fao.org/ag/AGP/ countries in Asia (Indonesian IPM Secretar- AGPP/IPM/gipmf/default.htm iat, 1997; Van Huis and Meerman, 1997; Nelson et al., 2001). This success of IPM through farmer empowerment programs has USAID IPM Collaborative Research now been spreading in other countries and Support Program (CRSP) continents (e.g. Ghana, Burkina Faso and Sudan in Africa). The United States Agency for International Development has established a CRSP on IPM. The program includes a consortium of sev- International Initiatives in IPM eral public and private institutions, NGOs, and national programs of selected countries During the last two decades, there have in Asia, Africa and Latin America. This is a been many scientific, policy and techno- research, education/training, and informa- logical developments that have tremendous tion exchange collaborative partnership potential for implementing IPM throughout among US and developing country institu- the world. Today, IPM is the prevailing tions. More information on this program can paradigm for crop protection worldwide. be obtained at: www.ag.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/ Many national, regional and international initiatives have contributed significantly in building capacity and a favorable environ- CGIAR SP-IPM ment for IPM. A few examples are as follow.

The SP-IPM is an inter-Center initiative of UN–FAO Plant Protection Service the CGIAR. More information about this program can be found at: www.cgiar.org/ spipm/ TheroleofFAOinthedevelopmentanddif- fusion of IPM has been well documented. The rice IPM program implemented by national governments of Indonesia and the IPMEurope/IPMForum Philippines serves as an excellent example of FAO’s contributions in IPM (known as IPMForum is an initiative of the Natural FAO Inter-country IPM Program in Rice). Resources Institute in UK. The aim of The latest development in the support of the IPMForum is to help poor farmers in IPM at FAO has been the establishment of developing-countries by strengthening the the global IPM facility. More information capacity of NGOs to promote and imple- about plant protection services of FAO can ment appropriate IPM approaches and be found on FAO’s website at: www.fao. techniques, as a component of sustainable org/WAICENT/faoinfo/agricult/agp/agpp/ agricultural development at the farm level. ipm/ More information can be found at: www. nri.org/IPMForum/index.htm

Global IPM facility CABI Bioscience The global IPM facility was established in mid-1990s with co-sponsorship of FAO, CABI Bioscience is an international organi- UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank. This zation with expertise in biological pest 6 K.M. Maredia

management. There are CABI Bioscience NSF Center for IPM Centers in a number of countries, including Malaysia and Pakistan. More information This virtual Center for IPM is an Internet- on CABI Bioscience can be found at: based information source from and about www.cabi.org/bioscience/index.htm the NSF sponsored Industry/University Cooperative Research Center for Integrated Pest Management located at North Carolina CICP State University, Raleigh. More information about NSF Center for IPM can be found at: The CICP, a non-profit organization, was www.ncsu.edu:8150/cipm/ formed in 1978 by a group of US universities. Its principal purpose was to assist developing nations reduce food crop losses ICIPE and Africa IPM Forum caused by pests while also safeguarding the environment. CICP’s basic goal is to The ICIPE located in Kenya coordinates the advance economically efficient and Africa IPM Forum. The primary mandate of environmentally sound protection practices ICIPE is research, capacity and institution in developing countries and to ensure the building in integrated arthropod manage- health of rural and urban communities. ment. The Africa IPM Forum is a web-based For more information, see their website: forum for online IPM information sharing www.orst.edu/Dept/IPPC/ippcbroc.html or and discussion. More information about www.ipmnet.org/countries/international. ICIPE’s programs and activities can be html found at: www.icipe.org

CPITT at the University of Queensland Goal and Purpose of the Global (Australia) IPM Book

The mission of this center is to develop IPM programs have been developed and high quality, innovative software products implemented worldwide. The purpose of to inform, educate and train students, this book is to present the experiences and practitioners and others involved in agri- successful case studies of IPM from devel- cultural and natural resource management, oped and developing countries and inter- particularly pest management. More infor- national centers/programs. The developed mation on this center is available at: www. and developing countries have accumulated cpitt.uq.edu.au/ a wealth of information and experience- base in IPM. This book brings together these unique case studies. The unique features National IPM Centers/Programs and successful case studies of IPM are presented in different chapters. The chapters are organized in three sections with an Many national programs have initiated additional section on recommendations. IPM programs. Many countries have set-up national IPM centers for coordinating • Section I focuses on the emerging IPM activities. For example, the USDA issues of IPM encompassing the role of in the USA has a US National IPM information technology, biotechnology, Network (www.reeusda.gov/agsys/nipmn/ biological control, pesticide policy, index.htm). India has also set-up an private sector, socioeconomic issues. In NCIPM in NewDelhi (see Chapter 17). addition, IPM adoption by the global Indonesia has a National IPM Secretariat community and integration of IPM into in Jakarta. sustainable agriculture are discussed. Introduction and Overview 7

Table 1.4. Implications for IPM implementation Field Schools in Ghana. Paper Presented in in the future. All Africa Crop Science Congress, University of Pretoria, South Africa, 13–17 January • Priority setting, favorable IPM policies 1996. • Research, teaching and extension capacity Altman, D.W. and Watanbe, K.N. (1995) Plant Bio- building technology Transfer to Developing Countries. • Public perception and communication Academic Press, New York, 300 pp. • Private sector cooperation [ASSINSEL] International Association of Plant • Structural changes in the institutions, and food Breeders (1997) Feeding the 8 Billion and systems Preserving the Planet. ASSINSEL Secretariat, • Global networking and information exchange NYON, Switzerland, 11 pp. • Sustainable financing of IPM programs Bird, G.W., Edens, T., Drummond, F. and Groden, • National, regional and global cooperation E. (1990) Design of pest management systems for sustainable agricultural systems. In: Francis, C.A., Flora, C.B. and King, L.D. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Zones. • Section II presents country case studies John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 55–109. DaSilva, E.J., Rutledge, C. and Sasson, A. (1992) from 20 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin Biotechnology: Economic and Social America, Europe, North America, Aspects: Issues for Developing Countries. Australia and New Zealand. • Cambridge University Press, 388 pp. Section III reports experiences of inter- ESA Newsletter (1994) Insects: international food. national organizations and programs in Bees Wax. The Newsletter for ESA’s youth IPM. members, Entomological Society of America (ESA), 17(2), 2. Many factors will have implications for Fasoranti, J.O. and Ajiboye, D.O. (1993) Some the successful implementation of IPM in edible insects of Kwara state, Nigeria. Ameri- the future (Table 1.4). These factors are dis- can Entomologist, Summer 1993, 113–116. cussed in Chapter 39. This section discusses Goodell, G. (1984) Challenges to international pest research, policy, management, education management research and extension in the and networking recommendations for Third World: do we really want IPM to making IPM a successful strategy globally. work? Bulletin of the Entomological Society The book is a true collaboration between of America, 30(3), 18–26. developing and developed countries. The Henson, S. and Loader, R. (2001) Barriers to agricultural exports from developing co-editors come from Asia, Africa and Latin countries: the role of sanitary and phyto- America, with various chapters written by sanitary requirements. World Development authors from all over the world. Owing to 29, 85–102. limited space, we could not include experi- Indonesian IPM Secretariat (1997) IPM By Farm- ences of some countries. However, efforts ers: the Indonesian Integrated Pest Manage- were made to include information from as ment Program. Published by Republic of many IPM programs as possible. We hope Indonesia, IPM Secretariat, Jakarta, 20 pp. this book will serve as a useful resource for Indonesian National IPM Program (1993) IPM the IPM community around the world and farmer training: the Indonesian case. foster cooperation/collaboration within the FAO-IPM Secretariat. Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 94 pp. global IPM community. Isely, D. (1957) Methods of Insect Control: Part I and II, revised, Braun-Brumfield, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 208 pp. References Kennedy, G.G. and Sutton, T.B. (2000) Emerging Technologies for Integrated Pest Manage- Afreh-Nuamah, K., Boob, S.M., Korang-Amoakoh, ment: Concepts, Research and Implementa- S., Dixon, G., Poku, J.A., Poku-Mensah, E.O. tion. Proceedings of an IPM Conference held and Anamoah, C.H. (1996) Institutional Inno- at Raleigh, North Carolina, USA (March 8–10, vations in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 1999). American Phytopathological Society Technology Transfer and Adoption: Farmers (APS) Press, St Paul Minnesota, 526 pp. 8 K.M. Maredia

Kogan, M. (1998) Integrated pest management: Countries: Experience and Prospects. Natural historical perspectives and contemporary Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. developments. Annual Review of Ento- Rola, A.C. and Pingali, P.A. (1993) Pesticides, mology 43, 243–270. Rice Productivity, and Farmers’ Health: an Landis, D., Wratten, S.D. and Gurr, G. (2000) Economic Assessment. International Rice Habitat manipulation to conserve natural Research Institute, Manila, Philippines, enemies of arthropod pest in agriculture. 100 pp. Annual Review of Entomology 45, 173–199. Persley, G. (2001) Science and environmental Leslie, A.R. and Cuperus, G.W. (1993) Successful effects of GM crops. Agrolinks September, Implementation of Integrated Pest Manage- 4–6, published by the Asia-Pacific Crop ment for Agricultural Crops. CRC Press, Protection Association. Boca Raton, Florida, 193 pp. Pimentel, D. (ed.) (1997) Techniques for Reducing Maredia, K.M. (1997) Sustaining host plant Pesticide Use: Economic and Environmental resistance derived through conventional Benefits. John Wiley & Sons, NewYork, 444 and biotechnological means. In: Mihm, J.A. pp. (ed.) Proceedings of an International Sympo- Roush, R.T. and Shelton, A.M. (1997) Assessing sium on Insect Resistant Maize: Recent the odds: the emergence of resistance to Bt Advances and Utilization, held at CIMMYT, transgenic plants. Nature Biotechnology 15, Mexico (27 November to 3 December 1994), 816–817. pp. 175–179. Ruesink, W.G. (1976) Status of systems approach Maredia, K.M. and Mihm, J.A. (1994) Integrated to pest management. Annual Review of management of stored grain insect pests Entomology 21, 27–46. in developing countries. In: Jewell, D.C., Schillhorn van Veen, T.W., Forno, D., Joffe, S., Waddington, S.R., Ransom, J.K. and Umali-Deininger, D.L. and Cooke, S. (1997) Pixley, K.V. (eds) Proceedings of Fourth Integrated pest management: strategies Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize and policies for effective implementation. Conference, held in Harare, Zimbabwe Environmentally Sustainable Development (March 28 to April 1, 1994). CIMMYT, Studies and Monograph Series No. 13. The Mexico, pp. 205–210. World Bank, Washington, DC. Maredia, K.M., Gage, S.H., Landis, D.A. and UNCED (1992) Promoting sustainable agriculture Wirth, T.M. (1992) Ecological observations and rural development. Agenda 21, on predatory Coccinellidae in southwestern Chapter 14. United Nations Conference on Michigan. The Great Lakes Entomologist 25, Environment and Development (UNCED), 265–270. Switzerland. Nagarajan, S.N. (1990) Pest Management: Van Huis, A. and Meerman, F. (1997) Can we make Integrated Approach Vital. The Hindu IPM work for the resource-poor farmers in Survey of Indian Agriculture. sub-Saharan Africa? International Journal of [NRC] National Research Council (1996) Ecologi- Pest Management 43, 313–320. cally Based Pest Management: New Solutions Whalon, M.E. and Norris, D.L. (1996) Resistance for a New Century. National Academy Press, management for transgenic Bacillus Washington, DC, 144 pp. thuringiensis plants. Biotechnology and Nelson, R., Orrego, R., Ortiz, O., Tenorio, J., Development Monitor 29, 8–12. Mundt, C., Fredrix, M. and Vien, N.V. (2001) World Bank (1994) Integrated pest management Working with Resource-Poor Farmers to (IPM): an environmentally sustainable Manage Plant Diseases. The American approach to crop protection. Agriculture Phytopathological Society. Plant Diseases Technology Notes No. 2. The Agricultural 85, 684–695. Technology and Services Division, The [NRI] Natural Resources Institute (1992) Inte- World Bank, Washington, DC. (Table 1. IPM grated Pest Management in Developing resources on the Internet.) Chapter 2 Online Resources for Integrated Pest Management Information Delivery and Exchange

Waheed I. Bajwa and Marcos Kogan Integrated Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

Introduction Additionally, it is critical to strengthen the communication links between researchers The Internet is a network system that ties and extension professionals and their computers together using existing phone- clientele to expedite multi-way exchange lines, Ethernet, and Fiber Optic networks. of information and technology transfer. In The most popular Internet tools namely addition, researchers and extension special- electronic mail (e-mail), Telnet, File ists need the most up-to-date information to Transfer Protocol (FTP), and the World design newprojects and set future research Wide Web (WWW), operate as client/server goals and directions. There is already a large systems. All these tools are basically volume of useful IPM information available interactive. In an interactive program, a on the Internet, however, the information user interacts with a client program (e.g. is scattered all across the globe. These browser), which manages the details of how resources range from topics such as pest data are presented to the user. The client identification, biology, control tactics, IPM program interacts with one or more servers definitions and basic concepts, to modeling (e.g. web server). The server receives a and systems analysis. As awareness of the request, processes it, and sends a result Internet increases worldwide, more people back to the client. The advantage of the are participating not only as users of the client/server model lies in distributing the information but also as creators of new work so that each component focuses on a information; as a consequence, the number specialized task: the server distributes of both IPM Internet servers and clients is information to many clients while the increasing rapidly, perhaps slightly lagging client software for each user handles the but generally accompanying the exponential individual user’s interface and other details growth of the Internet itself. of the requests and results. The Internet enables collaboration and Knowledge and information are key to information sharing on an unprecedented correct pest management decisions. IPM is scale. It is becoming a prime medium for information intensive and depends heavily research and extension communication. on accurate and timely information for The WWW – the Internet’s hypertext, field implementation by practitioners. multimedia publishing protocol – makes it ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 9 10 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

possible to combine information from many world. The web provides a cost-effective different sites in a seamless fashion. The (Channin and Chang, 1997), multimedia potential for using the web to integrate all means of delivering and exchanging quanti- types of static and interactive (dynamic) tative and qualitative information via its information is unique and unprecedented. user-friendly interactive interface. It makes The web provides excellent interfaces for information accessible globally to any all kinds of interactive network databases, person at any time (Jensen et al., 1996a). and many kinds of online analyses and data The web provides a collaborative environ- processing. Web-based models and decision ment for the development and maintenance support systems (DSS) are becoming of electronic information that can occur popular because little or no client soft- among distant and dispersed developers ware is required, thus reducing software and institutions (Gilman and Green, 1997). management and distribution costs. No Since personal computers can be used and other medium offers such ability as simul- the browser software is low cost or free, the taneous real-time weather information, only requisite is an Internet connection. In multimedia, analytical processing and academia and most research communities, multi-way discussion and feedback. the Internet connections are provided at This chapter focuses on the Internet no or lowcost, and in the private sector as an information delivery and exchange Internet server providers (ISP) are reducing tool, and describes howto retrieve IPM access charges to build up their clientele. information online. The web is advancing quickly toward mass-media status in the world. It has sustained double- and triple-digit annual growth in the USA and throughout the The Internet as an Information world. Having started with a small number Delivery and Exchange Tool of users with less than 1% of the USA population and less than 0.1% of the An efficient information system requires world population in 1990 (Gardner, 1999), rapid and accurate transmission of informa- the WWW currently has approximately tion at a minimal cost. Currently, different 163 million users around the world (NUA scientific communication media are being Surveys, 1999). In the USA, 28.3% of the used such as printed materials, electronic population used the Internet in January archives on CD-ROM, and websites on the 1999, and the number is expected to growto Internet. Printed paper in the form of books, 48.6% in 2000 and 72.1% in 2005 (Gardner, scholarly journals, and newsletters are 1999). The current share of different regions bulky, make delivery to remote locations is as follow: North America 55.5%, Western expensive, and can quickly become out- Europe 23.3%, Asia Pacific 15.5%, Eastern dated after finally reaching the user. Europe/Russia 2%, Latin America 1.8%, Electronic publishing provides several and Middle East/Africa 1.9% (Gardner, advantages including the ability to search 1999). The Internet is projected to be four and index text, quick access to reference times bigger by 2005 with a total of 716 materials, and interactive multimedia million users: 32.1% in North America, capabilities. Information on CD-ROM has 28.2% in Western Europe, 23.8% in Asia the advantage of being randomly accessed Pacific, 6.1% in Russia, 6.1% in Latin and is easy to store and ship, but is America, and 3.7% in the Middle East/ inherently static and unchanging (Bajwa Africa (Gardner, 1999). In July 1999, it was and Kogan, 2000). Using the Internet as estimated that, of their total hours using an information exchange tool has a number PCs, US households spent 53% of the time of advantages over both paper or CD-ROM on the web; thus indicating increased reli- media. Among various Internet tools, the ance on Internet information (Strassmann, WWW is the most rapidly growing medium 2000). In fact, the Web and Internet provide a for information exchange throughout the common platform that connects information Online Resources for IPM Information Delivery 11

servers in all geographic areas into a global weather data. For example, the phenology information base. The Web may soon model database of the University of Califor- become a primary medium for exchange nia Statewide IPM Project (UCIPM, 1998) of scientific information replacing hardcopy contains information about, and models of, books and serials. The libraries of the more than 100 plants, pests, and beneficial future will serve as electronic repositories organisms (predators and parasitoids). This of information (Lineberger, 1998). information can be utilized for developing web-based pest management DSS. The Inte- grated Plant Protection Center (IPPC) http:// ippc.orst.edu of Oregon State University The Internet and DSS developed several online interactive resources including near real-time daily Web-based models and DSS are becoming weather data, various degree-day products popular because little or no client software (calculators, phenology models, maps, is required, thus reducing software manage- and map calculator), and weather-based ment and distribution costs (Power and phenology models for pest management Kaparthi, 1998). Several internet-based decision making in the four northwestern DSS have been developed for industry, US states (Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and medicine, business, meteorology, and Montana) (Coop, 2000). Forecasting pest agriculture. DSS have emerged as essential and disease incidence and development is tools to bridge the gap between science- highly valuable in planning and adjusting based technology and end-users who make control measures. Another example is the day-to-day management decisions. A DSS Codling Moth Information Support System integrates a user-friendly front end to (CMISS) http://ippc.orst.edu/codlingmoth often complex models, knowledgebases, This site contains various knowledgebases, expert systems, and database technologies databases, phenology models, and links (Coulson et al., 1987; Jones 1989). A general to worldwide resources on codling moth. DSS website is ‘DSS Resources’ http:// Currently, there is an evolution of pest www.dssresources.com (Power, 2000). This control recommendation resources towards site provides information on basic concepts, online interactive, more comprehensive development, deployment, and evaluation decision support tools. Examples include of DSSs. Also, it links to university and Cornell University vegetable IPM recom- research DSS sites and case studies, various mendations at http://www.nysaes.cornell. web-based DSSs and DSS related articles, edu/recommends and Pacific Northwest websites of DSS companies, etc. Plant disease control guidelines at http:// As a general rule, an IPM-DSS should plant-disease.orst.edu provide users all necessary information including pest identification/disease diagnosis, pest/pathogen life histories (cycles), sampling and decision-making criteria, sam- The Internet and Extension Services pling threshold calculators, pest/disease developmental models linked to weather Information exchange by electronic means networks, biorational pest control methods, has revitalized the role of extension plus currently available pesticides, and their services in providing information, educa- safety issues and environmental impacts. tion, and decision-making assistance to There are no true IPM-DSS online at agricultural producers. Cooperative exten- this time, but many of the resources are sion services in many countries have available and waiting for proper integration. developed electronic information systems. For example, various weather-based disease For example, the states of Florida and insect pest models are available online (http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/) and Colorado for local forecasting of pest situations based (http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/CoopExt/ on real time, near-real time, and/or historical index.html) (USA) offer the majority of 12 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

their publications through the web or decision support in IPM) increase the ability on CD-ROM. Now, it is possible to use an of an extension professional to provide electronic mail or ‘Ask an Expert’ web page the latest information to the local public. In for requesting information from extension addition, they enable extension profession- professionals on a specific topic. The web- als to keep in touch with the technological based systems rely on e-mail servers/clients advancements in areas inside and outside for responding to the queries; however, a their personal expertise. Also, research and record of each question and its answer is information needs may be identified by kept in a searchable database. Clients have gaps in databases. The scope of web-based access to these services 24 h a day to iden- information delivery is not just limited to tify and contact an expert for answering a particular (local) area/community. It is questions. With these systems, extension readily available to broader areas resulting professionals may respond in a more in less duplication of effort by local experts. thoughtful manner by completing any nec- If appropriately coordinated, it can essary research before responding. These encourage collaborative efforts among pro- systems are better than using telephone to fessionals in the neighboring areas/states/ call a professional who may not have infor- countries, thus greatly enhancing the quality mation readily available thus requiring of information. With the Internet, specialists additional phone calls and time delays. can participate cooperatively in a wide-area/ Many extension services offer searchable national project with minimum travel and AAE databases. Examples include ‘Ask an other expense involved. Electronic net- Expert’ http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/staff/ working may ease and enhance extension ate.nsf of Alberta Agriculture, Food and specialists–researchers interactivity and Rural Development (Canada), and ‘Ask cooperative development of comprehensive Our Experts!’ http://www.ppdl.purdue. national and international databases. It may edu/ppdl/Ask_Expert.html of Virtual Plant reduce overhead costs such as telephone, & Pest Diagnostic Laboratory, Purdue mail, printing, and storage costs. University (USA). A wealth of online, extension IPM A digital photograph of a plant problem resources exists including identification can be sent to a crop consultant for proper keys, diagnostic guides, predictive models, advice and treatment recommendations. in-season pest alerts, pest and disease These services are readily accepted and management guidelines, pest management greatly appreciated by the public (Gilman alternatives, etc. Examples of some out- and Green, 1998). It seems that using standing resources are given in Table 2.1. electronic means of information exchange enhances the image of the extension services as a modern and effective source of information, education, and decision support for its The Internet and Research clientele, thus strengthening its leadership role. One example is the Distance Diagnostic Internet tools like e-mail and the Web are Identification System (DDIS) (http://edis. frequently used in the academic/scientific ifas.ufl.edu/MENU_DDIS) from the communities. Some research activity like University of Florida, USA. literature search and acquisition, and Web-based information systems and research collaboration is the most impacted databases are freely accessible by users, by the Internet (Leung, 1998). However, whether a producer, a professional consul- other uses are emerging. Most informational tant, or an extension worker. These systems databases, previously available in the provide a solid base for exchanging informa- academic libraries or university’s local area tion between experts and their clientele. networks (LAN), are now online. The same They have proved to be efficient and is true for most journals and magazines. cost-effective means of decision-support in Some online databases provide information agriculture. Online databases (e.g. for directly, but most are bibliographic, Online Resources for IPM Information Delivery 13

Table 2.1. Some outstanding online IPM resources from different regions and perspectives.

Theme Address

1. Information Retrieval and Referral Systems • Database of IPM Resources (DIR) http://www.IPMnet.org/DIR/ • Acarology WWW Home Page http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/acarology/ • AgNIC – a guide to online agricultural http://www.agnic.org/ information • Agricultural Genome Information Server http://ars-genome.cornell.edu/ • All the Virology on the WWW http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/garryfavweb.html • Arachnology Page (spiders and their http://www.ufsia.ac.be/Arachnology/Arachnology. relatives) html • Compendium of IPM Definitions (CID) http://www.ippc.orst.edu/IPMdefinitions/home.html • Entomology Index of Internet Resources http://www.ent.iastate.edu/list/ • Internet Resources on Weeds & Their Control http://www.ippc.orst.edu/cicp/gateway/weed.htm • Internet Resources on Vertebrate Pests http://www.ippc.orst.edu/cicp/pests/vertpest.htm • IPMnet NEWS http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/cicp/IPMnet_NEWS/ archives.html • Nematology Sites on the Web http://nematode.unl.edu/wormsite.htm • Pesticide & Agrichemical Industry Information http://www.bmckay.com/ • Pesticide Information Profiles (PIPs) http://ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/pips/pips.html • Plant Pathology Internet Guide Book http://www.ifgb.uni-hannover.de/extern/ppigb/ ppigb.htm • US National Pesticide Information Retrieval http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/npirs/npirs.html System

2. Phenology, Models, and Pest Forecasting and Alert Systems • Blue Mold Forecast Website (USA) http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/pp/bluemold/ • Disease Model Database (USA) http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/DISEASE/DATABASE/ • Models of Plants, Pests, and Beneficials http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PHENOLOGY/models. Using Degree-Days (USA) html • Near Real-time Pest Alert Systems http://ippc.orst.edu/pestalert/ • Online Weather Data and Degree-Days (USA) http://www.orst.edu/Dept/IPPC/wea/

3. North America • Biocontrol of Plant Diseases http://www.barc.usda.gov/psi/bpdl/bpdl.html • BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) Toxin Resources http://www.nalusda.gov/bic/BTTOX/bttoxin.htm • Cornell University’s Guide to Natural Enemies http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/ in North America • Clemson Entomology – Insect Information http://entweb.clemson.edu/cuentres/ • Crop Protection Guide (insects, disease and http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca/Docs/crops/cropguide00. weeds) asp • Diagnostic Key to Major Tree Fruit Diseases in http://www.caf.wvu.edu/kearneysville/wvufarm6.html the Mid-Atlantic Region • Electronic Resources on Lepidoptera http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Environment/NHR/ lepidoptera.html • Fungal Databases http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ databaseframe.cfm • Gypsy Moth Server http://www.gypsymoth.ento.vt.edu/vagm/index.html • Insect Notes (North Carolina State University) http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/ • Northwest Berry & Grape InfoNet http://www.orst.edu/dept/infonet/ • Overview of Organic Fruit Production http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/fruitover.html • Pest/Biocontrol Information http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/index.html • Pesticide Handling and Storage Tutorial http://danpatch.ecn.purdue.edu/~epados/farmstead/ pest/src/main.htm continued 14 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

Table 2.1. Continued.

Theme Address

• Photo Gallery of Insects and Mites http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/current_ipm/otimages.html • Plant and Insect Parasitic Nematodes http://nematode.unl.edu/wormhome.htm Homepage • University of California Pest Management http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/ Guidelines • Urban Integrated Pest Management http://hammock.ifas.ufl.edu/en/en.html • Weed Images and Descriptions http://www.rce.rutgers.edu/weeddocuments/index. htm

4. Australasia • Insect and Allied Pests of Extensive Farming http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/ento/allied1.htm in Western Australia • Plant Viruses Online http://biology.anu.edu.au/Groups/MES/vide/refs.htm

5. Asia • Japan’s Pesticide Database http://chrom.tutms.tut.ac.jp/JINNO/PESDATA/ 00database.html • Malaysia’s Crop Technology http://agrolink.moa.my/doa/english/croptech/crop. html

6. Africa • Biological control of Cereal Stemborers in http://nbo.icipe.org/agriculture/stemborers/default. East and Southern Africa html

7. South America • Brazilian National Fungal Catalogue http://www.bdt.org.br

8. Europe • A Guide to the Use of Terms in Plant Pathology http://www.bspp.org.uk/fbpp.htm • Cereal Pathology at Scottish Crop Research http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/mbn/cerpath/cerpath.htm Institute (SCRI), UK • Chemical Ecology (Sweden) http://www.vsv.slu.se/cec/h.htm • ExPASy – Molecular Biology Server http://www.expasy.ch/ (Switzerland) • IPM Europe (UK) http://www.nri.org/IPMEurope/homepage.htm • The Pherolist (Sweden) http://www-pherolist.slu.se/

9. International • FAO: Pesticide Management http://www.fao.org/waicent/FaoInfo/Agricult/AGP/ AGPP/Pesticid/ • Global Plant Protection Information System http://pppis.fao.org/ • IMPnet http://www.IPMnet.org/ • International Survey of Herbicide-Resistant http://www.weedscience.com/ Weeds • The Universal Virus Database http://life.anu.edu.au/viruses/canintro1.htm

10. Industry • American Crop Protection Association’s IPM: http://www.acpa.org/public/pubs/quiteevol.html The Quiet Evolution • Cyanamid’s Weed Identification Guide http://www.cyanamid.com/tools/weedguide/index. shtml • Integrated Pest Management (IPM) from http://www.apcpa.org/ipm.htm Asia-Pacific Crop Protection Association Online Resources for IPM Information Delivery 15

Table 2.1. Continued.

Theme Address

11. Growers • Grape Grower’s Notebook http://users.erols.com/gmead/ • North American Fruit Explorers Website http://www.nafex.org/

12. Books/Literature • AGRICOLA – The bibliographic database http://www.nal.usda.gov/ag98/ • Florida Entomologist (Online Journal, USA) http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/ • Quantitative Population Ecology (A. Sharov, http://www.gypsymoth.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/ Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, USA) PopEcol/popecol.html • Radcliffe’s IPM World Textbook http://ipmworld.umn.edu/ • World Textbook of Ecotoxicology http://ecotox.orst.edu/ • Texas Plant Disease Handbook (USA) http://cygnus.tamu.edu/Texlab/tpdh.html

providing only references to the literature information needs by exploring the gaps in where information can be found; abstracts knowledge. Graduate students may use are sometimes given as an option. However, these resources to find new thesis topics. online searching has recently been A few examples of these resources include undergoing a shift in focus, with full-text genome databases for several plant, fungal, databases appearing. These databases offer and other organisms available at: http:// access to primary sources through the com- ars-genome.cornell.edu The site is a user plete text of articles and books, bypassing friendly system with a variety of information the bibliographic stage. Most online on cotton, maize, wheat, barley, rye, beans resources are free except for the most recent (Glycine, Phaseolus, Vigna), pearl millet, issues of journals/serials and commercial rice, Solanaceae, Rosaceae, rice blast fungus database services. Corporate subscriptions (Magnaporthe grisea), and fungal pathogens to these services and resources (online jour- of small-grain cereals. This site also hosts nals and other serials) permit employees/ various botanical databases on plant eco- students/users to read, download or print logical ranges, native American food plants, the whole article using their own computer. medicinal plants of native America, phyto- Several publishers have already made, or chemicals, plant variety protection, and are in a process of making, issues published worldwide plant uses. The site is very useful more than 2 years ago available free of for finding information on a plant species charge. The Internet is also being used by and its associative organisms such as arthro- researchers in data collection, analysis, and pod fauna and microbial flora. Another as a tool for publishing scholarly journals resource, NEMABASE (http://ucdnema. (Oblinger and Maruyama, 1996). Electronic ucdavis.edu/imagemap/nemmap/nemabase surveys (both http://www- and e-mail- .htm), is a database on the host status of plant based) have proved to be cost effective and species for plant-parasitic nematodes. This a convenient method of collecting data database contains information (for each for extension and agricultural specialists host–parasite interaction) on nematode (Bajwa and Kogan, 2000). WWW provides species, nematode subspecific designation, a cost-effective conduit to disseminate host species and cultivar, susceptibility to research-based information. Research results damage, damage functions and thresholds, can be published on the Web rapidly. geographic location, and fungal, bacterial or Authentic online databases provide viral interactions. The ‘Ecological Database up-to-date information on a given topic. of the World’s Insect Pathogens (EDWIP)’ They can be used to identify research and (http://insectweb.inhs.uiuc.edu/pathogens/ 16 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

EDWIP/) provides information on fungi, over the world. The future of IPM delivery viruses, protozoa, mollicutes, nematodes, systems through the Internet is promising; and bacteria (other than Bacillus thuringien- internet-based information exchange is sis) infectious to insects, mites, and other quickly becoming an absolute requirement arthropods. This source provides informa- for local, regional/areawide, and inter- tion on host range, countries, and habitats national implementation of IPM systems. where host–pathogen association can be The Internet is a repository of all kinds observed. This database can be used for risk of information. In fact, the amount of this analysis and environmental impact assess- information has overwhelmed its current ment of the use of entomopathogens as con- information management and search tech- trol agents for insect and mite pests. Plant nology. According to Lawrence and Giles Viruses Online (http://biology.anu.edu.au/ (1998), the best search agents (e.g. Yahoo, Groups/MES/vide/refs.htm) contains infor- HotBot, Alta Vista, Excite, Northern Light, mation on most species of virus known to Magellan, etc.) index only one-third of the infect plants including viruses with virions total web pages which are expected to grow and those (e.g. umbraviruses) that have no exponentially over the next fewyears. virion protein genes of their own, and use General search engines are typically of the virion proteins of their symbiotic helper two types: evaluative or non-evaluative. viruses instead. Resources such as Interna- Evaluative search engines include sites tional Survey of Herbicide-Resistant Weeds evaluated for quality by a person (generally (http://www.weedscience.com), and Insec- a database manager, not a subject specialist). ticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) Generally, these search tools return fewer (http://PlantProtection.org/IRAC), contain ‘hits’ as their databases are usually smaller general and specific information about because of the time necessary for evaluation. respective pesticide insecticide resistance, An example of an evaluative search engine is latest facts, and results of worldwide Magellan. It includes a summary, a link to surveys. the review, and a link to the site itself for each document retrieved. Non-evaluative search engines usually rely on automation. Now, search engines increasingly include The Retrieval of Internet-based a hierarchical directory structure for cate- IPM Information gorizing their web pages. Advanced search features are often available from most gen- IPM is an information-intensive system for eral search engines. These features includes the control of pest populations whenever Boolean searching, duplication detection, they impinge on human activity and well limiting retrieval by field (e.g. by specifying being (or welfare). Its research and imple- a keyword search in title words or heading mentation depend on the reliable supply words), proximity and/or phrase searching, of timely information. IPM researchers, like retrieval display options, truncation, and other scientists, must rely on access to data wildcards (automatic or user-defined, e.g. from extant studies (Jensen et al., 1996b). entering ‘behavio*’ searches for ‘behavior’, The Internet (particularly the Web) has ‘behavioral’, and ‘behaviour’, etc.). opened a vast array of data resources for It is a challenge to find the required IPM research, extension, teaching, and information on a specific topic. The best learning that was not readily available known (and largest) search engine, Yahoo, before. The Web is fast becoming a critical searches its category words first rather than component of IPM information exchange. the text of its web pages. This search engine Search tools on the Web, called search receives 56% of search referrals, yet it engines and directories, which index indexes only 10% of total Internet resources Internet sites, offer keyword searching and (Strassmann, 2000). Most popular engines subject browsing of information. There are normally turn up thousands of links, only a nowthousands of IPM sites online from all few(or none) of whichmay fit the user’s Online Resources for IPM Information Delivery 17

needs. These search engine sites, at times of is promising that after only about 8 years peak traffic, may be overloaded and attempts since the Internet was first used for agri- to connect may be refused. A good strategy culture, that so many excellent resources is, however, to narrow the search by their are available, and that improvement and advanced utilities using logical operators further adoption are seen on a daily basis AND, OR, NEAR and NOT. Subject guides/ during the newera of the Internet’s directories and specialty search engines are exponential growth. preferred because they are more specific and quite easy to use. Subject guides can be used as a reference point for information retrieval References on a given topic. Examples of some of the best IPM related guides are Plant Pathology Internet Guide Book (PPIGB) (http://www. Bajwa, W.I. and Kogan, M. (1997) Online IPM informatics. Electronic Knowledgebase. ifgb.uni-hannover.de/extern/ppigb/ppigb. Oregon State University. http://ippc.orst. htm), Entomology Index of Internet edu/ipminformatics Resources (http://www.ent.iastate.edu/ Bajwa, W.I. and Kogan, M. (2000) Database list/) and Insects WWW (http://www.isis. management system for Internet IPM vt.edu/~fanjun/text/ Links.html). Specialty information. In: Shenk, M. and Kogan, M. Search Engines are subject specific search- (eds) IPM in Oregon: Achievements and ing utilities. Among them is DIR (http:// Future Directions. Oregon State University, www.IPMnet.org/DIR/; ippc.orst.edu/DIR), Corvallis, Oregon, pp. 216–220. which is like the Yahoo of online IPM Channin, D.S. and Chang, P.J. (1997) Primer information. Infomine (a scholarly resource on computers and information technology. Part two: an introduction to computer guide for biological, agricultural, and medi- networking. Radiographics 17(4), 988–992. cal sciences) of the University of California Coop, L. (2000) Online IPM weather data and designates DIR as ‘a well organized, anno- degree-days for pest management decisions tated Web virtual library of IPM informa- making in Oregon. Integrated Plant Protec- tion’. (Infomine is available at: http:// tion Center, Oregon State University. http:// infomine.ucr.edu/search/bioagsearch. osu.orst.edu/Dept/IPPC/wea phtml). Several other examples of specialty Coulson, R.N., Folse, L.J. and Loh, D.K. (1987) search engines are available from the IPM Artificial intelligence and natural resource Informatics website (http://ippc.orst.edu/ management. Science 237, 262–267. ipminformatics/) (Bajwa and Kogan, 1997). Gardner, E. (1999) Net is advancing quickly toward mass-media status in United States. Internet World 5(15), 13–14. Gilman, E.F. and Green, J.L. (1998) Efficient, collaborative, inquiry-driven electronic Conclusion information systems. HortTechnology 8(3), 297–300. Like the concept of a decision support sys- Jensen, A.L., Thysen, I., Hansen, J.G., Jensen, T., tem, the Internet’s potential is an integra- Secher, B.J.M. and Juhl, O. (1996a) An tive system of static, dynamic, and real-time information system for crop production on multi-way communications and informa- World Wide Web, 6th International Congress tion. To date, the examples of Internet- for Computer Technology in Agriculture (ICCTA ’96), Wageningen, The Netherlands, based IPM resources often represent pp. 604–609. extraordinary effort and creativity in Jensen, A.L., Thysen, I. and Secher, B.J.M. (1996b) exploiting this newmedium. At present, Decision support in crop production via the most IPM information accessible via the Internet. In: Secher, B.J.M. and Frahm, J. (eds) Internet is static, such as electronic versions Proceedings of the Workshop on Decision of informational brochures, fact sheets, Support Systems in Crop Protection, extension guides and papers. Nevertheless, Münster, Germany, 4–8 November 1996. the number of online interactive (database- SP-Report, Danish Institute for Plant and Soil driven) resources is growing with time. It Science 15, 39–47. 18 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

Jones, J.W. (1989) Integrating models with expert Oblinger, D.G. and Maruyama, M.K. (1996) systems and data bases for decision making. Distributed learning. CAUSE Professional In: Weiss, A. (ed.) Climate and Agriculture Paper Series, No. 14. New York, 39 pp. – System Approaches to Decision Power, D.J. (2000) Decision Support Systems Making. Charleston, SC, 5–7 March 1989, Web Tour. World Wide Web, dssresources. pp. 194–211. com/tour, Version 3.1, 4 February Lawrence, S. and Giles, C.L. (1998) Searching the 2000. world wide web. Science 280, 98–100. Power, D.J. and Kaparthi, S. (1998) The changing Leung, Y. (1998) Using the Internet for natural technological context of decision support resource research: results from an online user systems. In: Berkeley, D., Widmeyer, G., survey. Journal of Natural Resources and Life Brezillion, P. and Rajkovic, V. (eds) Science Education 27, 8–12. Context-Sensitive Decision Support Lineberger, R.D. (1998) Integrating the World Systems. Chapman and Hall, London, Wide Web into existing extension and pp. 41–54. educational technology. Hort Technology Strassmann, P.A. (2000) Knowledge metrics. 8(3), 313–315. Knowledge Management 3(4), 16. NUA Surveys (1999) Nua Internet survey. UCIPM (1998) UC IPM online (electronic http://www.nua.ie/ publication). http://axp.ipm.ucdavis.edu Chapter 3 Biological Control and Integrated Pest Management

Robert J. O’Neil1, J. Stephen Yaninek1, Douglas A. Landis2 and David B. Orr3 1Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; 2Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 3Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

Introduction and Rosen, 1991), and thus for most crop– pest systems, biological control remains Biological control of insects1 is the use of an under-utilized option (DeBach and natural enemies (parasitoids, predators and Rosen, 1991; Van Driesche and Bellows, pathogens) to reduce or maintain insect 1996; Huffaker and Dahlsten, 1999). pest populations belowan economic, action Because biological control options or aesthetic threshold (DeBach and Rosen, differ depending on the ecological, agro- 1991; Bellows and Fischer, 1999). The prac- nomic and socioeconomic conditions of the tice of biological control includes methods pest situation, it is important to understand that reunite pests with their natural ene- the principal practices of biological control mies, or recommend modifications of the to see howthey can be applied to any given environment (or the natural enemy itself) to system. In this chapter we will review the favor natural enemy population growth and major approaches to implement biological impact on pest dynamics. Biological control control and use case studies to illustrate is practiced worldwide in almost every their application. We use examples from natural and human modified habitat. both subsistence and production agriculture Because natural enemies are often key to highlight howbiological control can be factors in the dynamics of pests, biological used in both systems. While we focus on control should be the cornerstone of IPM agronomic and horticultural crops, we pro- (integrated pest management) practices. vide information on examples, institutions However, the resources dedicated to the and programs working outside these pro- study and implementation of biological duction systems (Tables 3.1–3.3). Finally, by control are frequently insufficient (DeBach illustrating that biological control can be

1 Biological control methods are also used against weeds and plant pathogens. While there are similarities of approach, the interested reader is referred to Harley and Forno (1992) for an introduction to weed biological control, and Cook and Baker (1983) for biological control in plant pathology. ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 19 20 R.J. O’Neil et al.

Table 3.1. Government, university, commercial Table 3.1. Continued. and non-profit websites on biological control. • Centro de Control Biologico de Plagas y United States Enfermedades • National Biological Control Institute www.usfq.edu.ec/1AGROEMPR/HOME.HTML www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/nbci/ • CPL Worldwide Directory of Agrobiologicals • USDA Insect Biological Control Laboratory www.cplscientific.co.uk/press/wda-features. www.barc.usda.gov/psi/ibl/iblhome.htm html • Cornell University Biological Control Guide • Institute of Arable Crops Research (Great www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/ Britain) • Purdue Entomology Biological Control www.iacr.bbsrc.ac.uk/iacr/tiacrhome.html www.entm.purdue.edu/Entomology/research/ • Embrapa (Brazil) bclab/BCMAC.HTML www.embrapa.br/ • Biological Control at Michigan State University • FAO – Community Integrated Pest www.cips.msu.edu/biocontrol/ Management • UC Berkeley Center for Biological Control www.communityipm.org/ www.CNR.Berkeley.EDU/biocon/ • The Consortium for International Crop • University of California Statewide IPM Project Protection (CICP) www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/ www.ipmnet.org/ • Midwest Institute for Biological Control • IPM Europe: IPM Working for Development www.inhs.uiuc.edu/cee/biocontrol/home.html Newsletter • Biological Virtual Information Center www.nri.org/IPMForum/ipmwd.htm ipmwww.ncsu.edu/biocontrol/ • CIAT – Integrated Pest and Disease • Biological Control News Management (IPDM) www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/mbcn.html www.ciat.cgiar.org/ipm/index.htm • Insect Parasitic Nematodes • European and Mediterranean Plant Protection www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/nematodes/ Organization (EPPO) • The Association of Natural Bio-control www.eppo.org/index.html Producers • The Center for Agroecology and Sustainable www.anbp.org/ Food Systems • List of Suppliers of Beneficial Insects in North www.agroecology.org/index.html America cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/bensuppl.htm

International • The Biotechnology and Biological Control Agency used in areas once thought to be outside its www.e-bbca.net/main.htm purview, we hope to show that what limits • International Organisation for Biological Control its application are not agronomic, ecological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and or economic constraints, but a willingness to Plants (IOBC) invest in biological control as a management www.iobc-wprs.org/ option. • CAB International www.cabi.org/ • Centre de Recherche de l’Est sur les cereals et Methods of Biological Control oleagineux res2.agr.ca/ecorc/isbi/biocont/libhomf.htm • Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Biological control is practiced using impor- 2 (INRA) tation, augmentation and conservation inra.fr/Internet/Hebergement/OPIE-Insectes/ methods. Each method is most appropriate luttebio.htm for a particular crop–pest system, however,

2 ‘Habitat management’ is another commonly used term to describe methods to alter the environment to favor natural enemies. Because it is considered a subset of conservation biological control (Landis et al., 2000), we will use the term conservation biological control as it is more inclusive of practices that enhance the control effectiveness of natural enemies through manipulation of the environment or the characteristics of natural enemies themselves. Also, the important method is sometimes referred to as ‘classical biological control’. Biological Control and IPM 21

there are commonalities among methods, The goals and approaches of conserva- and the same crop–pest system can be tion biological control closely match those of targeted using more than one approach. IPM. In both, a fundamental understanding of the ecological mechanisms driving pest dynamics is key to success (Huffaker, 1980). Conservation biological control Conserving natural enemies often requires modification of production practices that The goal of conservation biological control are similar to changes in practices recom- is to modify the environmental factor(s) that mended by IPM principles (e.g. increase may limit the control effectiveness of natu- diversification of crops, reduction in ral enemies (Table 3.2). In general, conser- pesticide use, etc.). The use of thresholds to vation of natural enemies involves reducing make decisions, common to IPM systems, is factors that interfere with natural enemies closely tied to the impact of natural enemies or providing resources that natural enemies whose density, composition and impact on need in their environment (Rabb et al., 1976; pest dynamics (and damage) are dependent Barbosa, 1998). Many factors can interfere on the crop cultivation practices and envi- with the ecological requirements of natural ronmental milieu. The interdependence of enemies and reduce their effectiveness as farming practices, pest dynamics and the control agents. Pesticide applications may impact of natural enemies often requires directly kill natural enemies or have indi- farmers to modify practices. As such, farmer rect effects through reduction in the num- education is key to success. Examples of bers or availability of hosts (Croft, 1990). farmer education span a number of exten- Various cultural practices such as tillage or sion approaches that include bulletins, field burning of crop debris can kill natural ene- days, grower meetings, electronic media mies or make the crop habitat unsuitable and farmer field schools. Two case studies (Gurr et al., 2000). In orchards, repeated illustrate the importance of farmer educa- cultivation for weed control may create tion in conservation biological control, as dust deposits on leaves, killing small preda- well as the opportunities to use this method tors and parasites and causing increases in pest management in subsistence crops. in certain insect and mite pests (DeBach and Rosen, 1991). Finally, host plant effects Maize in Honduras3 such as chemical or physical defenses may reduce the effectiveness of natural enemies Recently in Honduras, a validation study by altering their search efficiencies or life was conducted to determine if sugar solu- history characteristics (Kogan et al., 1999). tions applied to maize (Zea mays L.) would

Table 3.2. Examples of conservation biological control methods (see Barbosa, 1998; Gurr and Wratten, 2000; Landis et al., 2000; Stoll, 2000).

• Reduce pesticide application frequency and or rates • Use ‘softer’ pesticides such as microbials, soaps and botanicals • Plant flowers/using cultivars that provide pollen and nectar sources • Apply sugar-water or protein sprays to attract/maintain natural enemies • Provide shelters for or avoid destroying nests of social wasps • Reduce dust in orchards that can hinder predaceous mites • Plant ‘banker plants’ that harbor alternative (non-pest) prey • Diversify crop plantings using intercropping, relay cropping, etc. • Alter harvest and/or cultivation practices to maintain ‘refuge strips’ for natural enemies • Use cover crops to increase overwintering survival of natural enemies • Use tillage and fertilization practices that enhance natural enemy diversity and densities

3 This section adapted from an article by RJO first published in Midwest Biological Control News II (3): March 1995 (now: Biological Control News: http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/mbcn.html). 22 R.J. O’Neil et al.

attract natural enemies of the key pest, were pests of sweet products she sold), and Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Cañas and added it to what she learned, that ants are O’Neil, 1998). Using a sugar solution as a predators. She then began to experiment conservation technique has been reported with using sugar-water in her milpa in a number of scientific journals and has (small production plot), which lead to the been tried in the USA in lucerne and some validation work cited above. The repeated vegetable systems (Ben Saad and Bishop, invention of this technology by workshop 1976; Hagen et al., 1976; Evans and participants, and the validation study Swallow, 1993). However, the idea for by Cañas and O’Neil (1998) led to the using sugar solutions in Honduran maize extension of this technology to thousands did not arise from a scientific journal, but of farmers in Honduras, Nicaragua and El rather from a farmer who had invented a Salvador. Farmer innovation can be a pow- new(to her) technology of pest control. The erful mechanism in conservation biological pathway from farmer invention to testing by control, and programs that directly involve university scientists, to extension, to other farmers in the development and testing of farmers was predicated on a simple, yet practices should increase the adoption and profound idea. That idea, that farmers, like spread of this technology (Stoll, 2000). the rest of us, experiment with the familiar to gain insight on what they don’t know, Asian rice was used as the basis for an IPM program in Honduras (Bentley, 1989; Bentley et al., Rice is grown by tens of millions of small 1994). In brief, field studies by crop pro- farmers and is one of the most important tection specialists and the anthropologist, food crops worldwide. A ‘Green Revolution J.W. Bentley, at the Zamorano College in crop’, rice production increased dramati- Honduras (then the Panamerican School cally with implementation of new varieties, of Agriculture) identified critical gaps in irrigation schedules, fertilization and pesti- farmer understanding and use of IPM in cide use. These changes in production subsistence crops (maize and beans). A key practices, while increasing yields, also finding was that farmers did not appreciate increased plant protection problems, the role of natural enemies (primarily including the inducement of secondary pest ants, social wasps and parasitoids), and outbreaks of the brown planthopper (BPH), thus were not manipulating their practices Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Kenmore et al., to conserve natural enemies. A workshop 1984; Way and Bowling, 1994). Initial was developed and offered to farmers, who efforts using resistant varieties were met participated in a number of role-playing with success, but resistance was short- exercises (on pest and natural enemy lived, leading to cycles of varietal develop- biology), field studies (seeing social ment, deployment and eventual failure. wasps attacking pests), and discussions BPH management was further complicated (classroom presentations were minimized). by governmental policies that subsidized Our farmer4 attended one of these work- the purchase of insecticides causing wide- shops, which resulted in her invention of spread mis- and over-use further exas- using sugar-water to attract natural enemies perating BPH (and other pests) management (other workshop farmers also invented this programs. The net result of these efforts was and other control technologies). It is impor- a decrease in rice production productivity tant to note that farmers were taught that in an unsustainable system reliant on chem- ants eat pests, and not: ‘Use sugar-water to ical subsidies (Kiritani et al., 1972; Hare, attract ants to control pests.’ Our inventive 1994). In reaction to these developments, farmer took what she knew, that ants like agricultural scientists and policy makers in sugar (she owned a small store where ants several national (e.g. Indonesia, Vietnam,

4 Sra. Hublado Castro, Comayagua, Honduras. Biological Control and IPM 23

India, the Philippines) and international only through its implementation in the rice research centers (notably, the IRRI) collabo- production system, but also in its applica- rated with US, Japanese and European sci- tion to other crop–pest systems in Asia and entists and donor agencies (e.g. US Agency other parts of the world (Raj and Suresh, for International Development, the United 2000). Nations, The World Bank), to develop a newrice IPM program (Matteson et al., 1994). The hallmarks of the Asian Rice IPM 6 program were a reliance on conservation Augmentation biological control biological control and the use of FFS to investigate, implement and extend Augmentation is the direct manipulation of IPM technologies. FFS are organized at natural enemy populations to increase their the village level and involve farmers in the effectiveness as biological control agents development and implementation of pest (Debach and Rosen, 1991; Barbosa and management practices5. Because rice IPM Braxton, 1993; Elzen and King, 1999) (Table is built upon a foundation of conserving 3.3). In augmentation, natural enemies are endemic natural enemies (principally typically reared in insectaries then released predatory bugs, egg parasitoids and spiders), into the target environment where pest sup- farmers are involved in observing natural pression is desired (Ridgway et al., 1998). enemy attacks on rice pests, and investi- There are two ways in which such periodic gating relationships between production colonization is conducted; inundative and practices and natural enemy diversity, inoculative releases. In inoculative releases, dynamics and effectiveness. FFS are the natural enemy is intended to establish assisted by trainers (often NGO groups) and reproduce on the pest population with whose role is to facilitate discussion by future generations of the natural enemy posing questions to stimulate participation, essential in achieving pest control. Alter- without lecturing as the ‘expert’. Farmers natively, inundative releases involve the are encouraged to develop investigations initial release of large numbers of a natural that test insights they themselves have pro- enemy such that the released population posed (similar to the maize IPM example). overwhelms the pest. In inundative releases The success of this approach is evident not reproduction and persistence of the natural

Table 3.3. Selected references on augmentative biological control, mass rearing of natural enemies, non-target impacts of biological control and biology of major natural enemy taxa used in augmentation.

Topic Reference

Overview of augmentation Elzen and King, 1999 Mass rearing of natural enemies Ridgway et al., 1998 Non-target impacts Follett and Duan, 2000 Wajnberg et al., 2001 Augmentation in glasshouses van Lenteren and Woets, 1988 Parella et al., 1999 Biology and use of egg parasitoids Wajnberg and Hassan, 1994 Biology and use of Coccinellidae Obrycki and Kring, 1998 Biology and use of Chrysopidae Canard et al., 1984

5 The initial FFS focus on insect IPM in rice has expanded to other crops, production issues and pests. The existence of a cadre of farmers experienced with research protocols, teamwork and organization has made farmer–researcher–extension efforts more common and successful (Matteson et al., 1994). 6 Adapted from: Landis, D.A. and Orr, D.B. (1996) Biological control: approaches and applications. In: Radcliffe, E.B. and Hutchison, W.D. (eds) Radcliffe’s IPM World Textbook. University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota. http://ipmworld.umn.edu 24 R.J. O’Neil et al.

enemy is not required. Genetic enhance- Genetic enhancement of natural ene- ment of natural enemies to improve their mies has proven to be an important key to survival or effectiveness has also become success in several augmentation programs an important component of some modern (Whitten and Hoy, 1999). For example, augmentation efforts (Whitten and Hoy, cultures of the parasitic wasp Trioxys 1999). As with other methods of biological pallidus Haliday were artificially selected control, an understanding of the basic for resistance to azinphosmethyl, an insecti- biology of the natural enemy is key to the cide commonly used in an integrated man- effectiveness of any given program (e.g. see agement of the walnut aphid, Chromaphis Canard et al., 1984; Wajnberg and Hassan, juglandicola Kaltenbach, in California wal- 1994; Obrycki and Kring, 1998). nut orchards (Hoy et al., 1990). Following An early example of the inoculative mass release of the resistant parasitoids into release method is the use of the parasitoid walnut blocks, they established and rapidly wasp, Encarsia formosa Gahan, to suppress became the dominant strain in four of five populations of the greenhouse whitefly, release sites, demonstrating the potential of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) the technique. (Hussey and Scope, 1985; Parrella, 1990). The greenhouse whitefly is a worldwide Trichogramma in China pest of vegetable and floriculture crops that is difficult to manage with pesticides. In China, agricultural production and pest Releases of relatively lowdensities (typi- management systems capitalize on lowlabor cally 0.25–2 per plant, depending on the costs and generally followhighly innova- crop) of E. formosa immediately after the tive yet technologically simple processes. first whiteflies are detected can effectively For example, Trichogramma inundatively prevent populations from developing to released to suppress sugarcane borer, Chilo damaging levels. Augmentative methods spp., populations in sugarcane are protec- have been used against a wide diversity ted from rain and predators inside emer- of pests and estimates of the number of gence packets. Insectary-reared parasitized hectares under augmentative protection are eggs are wrapped in sections of leaves in the tens of thousands worldwide (van that are manually placed on the sugarcane Lenteren and Woets, 1988; Parrella et al., plants. Most Trichogramma production in 1999). China takes place in facilities producing A common form of inundative release is material for a localized area. These facilities the use of Trichogramma wasps to control range from open-air insectaries to mecha- lepidopteran pests in a number of crop and nized facilities that are leading the world in forest systems. These minute endopara- development of artificial host eggs. sitoids of insect eggs are released in crops Rearing of natural enemies for aug- or forests in large numbers (up to several mentative release can be labor intensive, million per hectare) timed to the presence particularly when it involves the rearing of of pest eggs. Trichogramma are the most the host insect. Chinese scientists were the widely augmented species of natural enemy, first to develop in vitro methods for the having been mass-produced and field culture of Trichogramma (Guan et al., 1978; released for almost 70 years in biological Liu et al., 1979). Initially, these artificial control efforts. Worldwide, over 32 million diets incorporated insect-derived ingredi- ha of agricultural crops and forests are ents to support normal development, while treated annually with Trichogramma in 19 later diets devoid of insect material were countries, mostly in China and republics of developed (Wu et al., 1980; Liu and Wu, the former Soviet Union (Li, 1994). As illus- 1982; Wu et al., 1982). These early efforts trated below, research into Trichogramma were responsible, in part, for the current biology and release technology was key to worldwide interest in development of successful implementation (Wajnberg and in vitro rearing techniques for natural Hassan, 1994). enemies. Biological Control and IPM 25

Trichogramma in Western Europe Trichocaps® for application is done by the supplying company, with growers responsi- One of the barriers to wider implementation ble for applying the product to crop fields. of biological control in Western agriculture has been socioeconomic constraints (van Lenteren, 1988). Currently, large-scale production agricultural systems place a Importation biological control premium on efficiency and economy of scale. In Western Europe, almost two Importation biological control is the pur- decades of intensive research resulted in poseful reuniting of natural enemies with the commercial marketing of three products their hosts/prey that have become pests utilizing the European native, Tricho- in areas outside their original geographic gramma brassicae Bezdenko, to suppress distribution7. The first major success of this the European corn borer, Ostrina nubilalis method, the complete control of the cottony Hübner, in corn fields (Bigler et al., 1989). cushion scale, Icerya purchasii Maskell, These products are annually applied to over in California in the late 1800s set the stage 70,000 ha in France, Switzerland, Germany for worldwide application. The central and Austria. All three products are based elements of the approach include, identifi- on manufactured plastic or paper packets cation of the ‘area of origin’ of the exotic designed to provide protection for the pest (requiring detailed taxonomic and bio- wasps against weather extremes and geographical study), and travel to collect predation until emergence in the field. natural enemies (a process called ‘foreign As in the Chinese example above, exploration’). Following collection, puta- European Trichogramma products are, for tive natural enemies and their hosts are the most part, applied to crop fields by held in quarantine laboratories (most run by ® hand. One product called Trichocaps con- state or federal governments) where their sists of hollowwalnut-shapedcardboard basic biology is initially studied and the capsules (approximately 2 cm diameter) natural enemies are evaluated for host each containing 500–1000 parasitized eggs specificity and contamination by insect of the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia pathogens and other parasites. Field kuehniella Zwolfer (Kabiri et al., 1990). releases are then made and their impact Developing Trichogramma inside capsules on the target hosts (sometimes including are induced into an overwintering (dia- economic impact) is determined. World- pause) state in the insectary, and then wide this method has been practiced on are refrigerated for up to 9 months. This 415 target pest insects, with some level of system allows for production during winter control success achieved in 40% of cases months for later distribution to growers (Huffaker and Dahlsten, 1999). when needed in the summer. Once removed from cold storage, Cassava green mite in Africa Trichogramma inside the capsules begin development and emerge approximately In the early 1970s, the neotropical spider 100 (°C) degree-days later. This reactivation mite Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar) was process can be manipulated so that capsules discovered attacking cassava in East Africa. containing Trichogramma at different devel- This exotic mite quickly spread throughout opmental stages can be applied to fields at the ‘cassava belt’ (an area larger than the the same time, extending the emergence continental USA) causing up to 80% reduc- period of parasitoids and increasing the tion in yield. Cassava green mite threatened residual activity of a single application production in many marginal areas where to approximately 1 week. Preparation of cassava was often the last crop available for

7 The importation method has also been practiced using natural enemies of different hosts, an approach referred to as the ‘novel association method’ (see Hokkanen and Pimental, 1984). 26 R.J. O’Neil et al.

harvest when all other crops had failed Neoseiulus idaeus never spread beyond (Yaninek and Herren, 1988). the two original release and ‘establishment’ The exotic nature of the pest and its host sites, and has probably been extirpated due plant in Africa prompted scientists in 1984 to insufficient mite prey on cassava and to initiate a classical biological control pro- associated host plant species. Typhlodro- gram to complement the efforts in resistance malus manihoti has become established and breeding. The control campaign focused on continues to spread. However, its impact on phytoseiid (predaceous mites) predators of M. tanajoa has been difficult to quantify at neotropical origin. Initially, natural enemies the lowpredator densities found in the field. were selected and shipped to Africa for Typhlodromalus aripo, a predator confined experimental releases because of their abun- to the growing tip of cassava plants, has been dance and frequency on cassava. Between the big surprise. This predator has become 1984 and 1988, more than 5.2 million established in 20 countries and rapidly phytoseiids belonging to seven species of spread beyond most of the original release Colombian origin were imported to Africa sites. Mononychellus tanajoa populations and released in 348 sites in ten countries. have been reduced by more than 50% and None of these species and populations ever yields increased by more than 35% where became established in the wide range of T. aripo is present. The economic return agronomic and ecological conditions tested, for this predator has been estimated to be apparently because of inadequate alterna- equivalent to millions of dollars in food aid tive food sources when M. tanajoa densities each and every growing season if yield were low and there were extended periods of losses had to be replaced. lowrelative humidity (Yaninek et al., 1993). Several constraints were overcome to Foreign exploration was adjusted in successfully implement the cassava green 1988 to focus on neotropical regions that mite program. The exotic phytoseiids had to were agrometeorologically homologous to be available in sufficient numbers and at the areas in Africa where the potential for severe right time to assure worthwhile experimen- M. tanajoa damage existed. Natural enemies tal releases. This was partly resolved by new associated temporally and spatially with mass production technology that was devel- M. tanajoa and capable of surviving periods oped to facilitate decentralized rearing of of low M. tanajoa densities on alternative phytoseiid predators. A cadre of highly food sources in the newexploration trained and dedicated core project staff was sites were given selection priority. Several needed to properly handle exotic phytoseiid natural enemy candidates were immediately mites. Most national programs had no identified from northeast Brazil and shipped experience working with mites of any kind. to Africa. Approximately 6.1 million phyto- Thus, capable individuals were identified seiids of the species Neoseiulus idaeus and trained in basic acarology and biological (Denmark and Muma), Typhlodromalus control applications. Release fields were manihoti Moraes, and T. aripo DeLeon, of judiciously selected and faithfully moni- Brazilian origin were released in 358 sites tored to understand the conditions needed in 16 countries between 1989 and 1997. to achieve widespread establishment. Post- Neoseiulus idaeus became established in release follow-up monitoring was one of Benin and Kenya (Yaninek et al., 1992), the most difficult tasks for national program T. manihoti became established in Benin, staff to accomplish because of many con- Burundi, Ghana and Nigeria (Yaninek et al., straints. Continued training and close men- 1999), and T. aripo became established in 20 toring by experienced collaborators helped countries spanning the cassava belt of Africa resolve the problem. Ultimately, close and (unpublished data). continuous contact between national pro- Prospects for control of M. tanajoa were grams with specific local capacities and initially inferred from the impact of natural needs, international programs with unique enemies in their area of origin, but eventu- expertise and implementation resources and ally field results in Africa told the real story. a donor community committed to long-term Biological Control and IPM 27

support, set the stage for the success products already on the horizon (Pew, achieved in this campaign. 2001). While transgenic crops may not The ecological risks associated with pose unique environmental risks compared biological control, particularly importation with traditional crops (NRC, 2001, 2002), biological control, has been the topic of con- there are risks to consider (Rieger et al., siderable discussion in recent years (Follett 2002), and more empirical experiences and Duan, 2000). Evidence of non-target will be needed to understand their affects (e.g. impacts on non-target species, potential impact on the environment and associated habitats and surrounding ecosys- compatibility with biological control. tems) by a few natural enemies introduced In 2002 the IOBC established a working before more stringent taxonomic specificity group to develop guidelines for evaluating standards were adopted, and increasing con- the environmental risk of transgenic plants cern about these introductions as potential in agricultural production systems (IOBC, invasive species, has put importation bio- 2002). These guidelines recommend five logical control practices under considerable scientific activities as part of the risk scrutiny. In the cassava green mite project, assessment process including: candidate natural enemies were systemati- 1. Establish a framework to evaluate the cally evaluated for potential multi-trophic, need for the transgenic crop; intra-guild, community and ecosystem 2. Characterize the transgenic construct impact as part of the selection and prerelease and phenotype in order to evaluate its procedures. There has been no evidence stability and inheritance; that any released natural enemy has had an 3. Assess non-target species effects and unanticipated impact or has posed an eco- biodiversity impacts; logical risk anywhere in the African cassava 4. Determine resistance risk and develop belt (Yaninek et al., 1993). Biological control appropriate management responses; and will continue to be a desirable and appro- 5. Monitor gene flow and geographic and priate intervention tactic in the future. genetic spread of transgenes. However, success and impact will be measured, in part, by the risks that are These guidelines will be tested in mitigated in the process. Kenya, Brazil and Vietnam which no doubt will improve our understanding of the Biological control and transgenic crops relationships between transgenic crops and biological control. However, the flexibility The advent of transgenic crops introduced of biological control to be used in diverse an entirely new category of pest manage- habitats, against a wide variety of pest ment intervention technologies into the target systems and in combination with environmental risk equation. In 1988, other IPM tactics suggests that it will be an the National Academy of Sciences pro- integral component in a transgenic cropping posed three principles when evaluating the system. environmental effects of transgenic organisms: (i) the act of transforming an organism poses no special threat to the environment; (ii) the environmental risks of releasing Summary a transgenic organism should be evaluated the same way any conventional release Biological control has enjoyed a rich history would be treated; and (iii) consider the of success and, as the above examples characteristics of the transgenic organism illustrate, its application is not bounded and the environment, not how the organism by crop, target pest or geography. The case was produced when evaluating risk (NRC, histories also illustrate that the keys to 1989). Transgenic crops are increasingly success lie not so much in the ecological important components of production agri- or economic constraints of the particu- culture with the ‘next generation’ biotech lar crop–pest system, but in the effort 28 R.J. O’Neil et al.

expended to institute biological control as a Based Technologies. American Chemical pest management option. The methods of Society, Washington, DC, pp. 21–27. biological control require different levels of Bellows, T.S. and Fisher, T.W. (eds) (1999) Hand- technical and farmer input, ranging from book of Biological Control. Academic Press, San Diego, California, 1046 pp. high levels of technical input in importa- Ben Saad, A. and Bishop, G.W. (1976) Attraction tion biological control to high levels of of insects to potato plants through use of farmer input in conservation programs. The artificial honeydews and aphid juice. rice and maize examples showthat farmer Entomophaga 21, 49–57. involvement is key in those systems in Bentley, J.W. (1989) What farmers don’t know which biological control is integrated in can’t help them: the strengths and weak- IPM programs. Not only does farmer nesses of indigenous technical knowledge in involvement avoid conflicts (e.g. pesticide Honduras. Agriculture and Human Values 6, use following release of natural enemies), 25–31. it maximizes adoption and spread of IPM Bentley, J.W., Rodríguez, G. and González, A. (1994) Science and people: Honduran technologies by other farmers (Stoll, 2000). campesinos and natural pest control inven- The future of biological control therefore tions. Agriculture and Human Values 11, rests on foundations of basic sciences such 178–182. as systematics, population ecology and Bigler, F., Bosshart, S. and Walburger, M. (1989) predator–prey theory, and applied efforts Bisherige und neue Entwicklungen bei der in pest management, sampling and other biologischen Bekampfung des Maiszunslers, quantitative methods. The application of Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn., mit Trichogramma biological control in the global arena will maidis Pint. et Voeg. in der Schweiz. growas networksof scientists, farmers, Landwirtscahft Schweiz 2, 37–43. extension specialists and national and Canard, M., Séméria, Y. and New, T.R. (1984) Biol- ogy of Chrysopidae. Junk, The Hague, 294 pp. international institutions coalesce around Cañas, L. and O’Neil, R.J. (1998) Applications of critical pest situations. The opportunities sugar solutions to maize, and the impact of that biological control offers as an environ- natural enemies on fall armyworm. Interna- mentally sound, safe and cost-effective tional Journal of Pest Management 44, 59–64. control technology are therefore limitless. Cook, R.J. and Baker, K.F. (1983) The Nature and Practice of Biological Control of Plant Patho- gens. American Phytopathological Society, Acknowledgments St Paul, Minnesota, 539 pp. Croft, B.A. (1990) Arthropod Biological Control Agents and Pesticides. John Wiley & Sons, We appreciate the extreme patience of New York, 723 pp. Dr Karim Maredia in waiting for the initial DeBach, P. and Rosen, D. (1991) Biological Control draft of this document. Kim Rebek and by Natural Enemies. Cambridge University Farah Heraux helped with editing. Drs Cliff Press, UK, 440 pp. Sadof and T. Gibb provided helpful reviews Elzen, G.W. and King, E.G. (1999) Periodical of the manuscript. release and manipulation of natural enemies. In: Bellows, T.S. and Fisher, T.W. (eds) Hand- book of Biological Control. Academic Press, San Diego, California, pp. 253–270. References Evans, E.W. and Swallow, J.G. (1993) Numerical response of natural enemies to artificial Barbosa, P. (ed.) (1998) Conservation Bio- honeydewin Utah alfalfa. Environmental logical Control. Academic Press, San Diego, Entomology 22, 1392–1401. California, 396 pp. Follett, P.A. and Duan, J.J. (2000) Nontarget Effects Barbosa, P. and Braxton, S. (1993) A proposed of Biological Control. Kluwer Academic definition of biological control and its rela- Publishers, Boston, Massachusetts, 316 pp. tionship to related control approaches. In: Guan, X.C., Wu, Z.X., Wu, T.N. and Feng, H. Lumsden, R.D. and Vaughn, J.L. (eds) Ameri- (1978) Studies on rearing Trichogramma can Chemical Society Conference Proceed- dendrolimi Matsumura in vitro. Acta ings Series. Pest Management: Biologically Entomologica Sinica 21, 122–126. Biological Control and IPM 29

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K.V. Raman1, Edward Grafius2 and Karim M. Maredia3 1Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA; 2Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 3Institute of International Agriculture and Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Introduction research and development issues on Internet websites (Table 4.1). In this chapter, we try Although the Green Revolution of the 1960s to provide an overviewof emerging new improved agricultural productivity, today biotechnologies for pest management. We an estimated billion people live in absolute also examine specific studies involving poverty and suffer from chronic hunger. the development and commercialization Seventy per cent of these individuals are of transgenic plants with pest resistance. farmers – men, women, and children – who The policy issues affecting access to new make a living farming small plots of poor biotechnologies, pest resistance manage- soils. These plots are mainly located in the ment, public–private sector linkages and the tropical environments that are increasingly future of biotechnology and its influence on prone to drought, flood, bushfires, and IPM in the global arena are discussed. hurricanes. Crop yields in these areas are stagnant and epidemics of pests and weeds often ruin crops (Persley and Doyle, 1999). Biotechnology Applications in IPM Among the principal problems in this area is the widespread use of insecticides, fungi- Development of technologies using bio- cides, and herbicides that raises production technology is often time consuming and costs and leads to contamination of soils expensive. It can take about 10 years or and water sources, thus threatening the more and many millions of dollars from the future of agriculture. time of first identification of a novel gene Increasing crop yields continues to be a to commercialization. Costs are expected challenge for many developing countries; to rise because society requires significant whereas biotechnology and information safety information on biotechnology- technology improves the health, well-being, derived products before their release and and the life styles of developing countries acceptance. The private sector, a dominant (Persley and Lantin, 2000). A wealth of player in commercialization, evaluates, information is available on biotechnology early in its business plans, the size and

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 31 32 K.V. Raman et al.

Table 4.1. List of selected websites related to • There is a significant investment in the agricultural biotechnology. area of BBTs by the US Federal govern- USAID – Agricultural Biotechnology Support ment – somewhere between US$150 Project (ABSP) million and US$200 million/year. www.iia.msu.edu/absp • The major use of BBTs at the moment is CABI – AgBiotechNet on insect pests of arable agricultural, www.agbiotechnet.com forestry, and aquatic environments. International Service for Acquisition of Agri- The least use is on weed control in Biotech Applications (ISAAA) agriculture, even though herbicides www.isaaa.org account for 57% of the US chemical Center for the Application of Molecular Biology to expenditures. International Agriculture (CAMBIA) • www.cambia.org BBTs are being adopted when con- Biotechnology Information Network and Advisory ventional pesticides are unavailable, Service (BINAS) unacceptable, as in environmentally www.binas.unido.org/binas/binas.html sensitive habitats, or where conven- Information Systems for Biotechnology tional pesticides are economically not www.isb.vt.edu feasible because costs are high relative ISNAR Biotechnology Service (IBS) to the value of resource. www.cgiar.org/isnar/ibs.htm • Increased knowledge of pests and International Center for Genetic Engineering and ecological systems will hasten the Biotechnology (ICGEB – Biosafety) transition from the current levels of www.icgeBtrieste.it/biosafety Technical Co-operation Network on Plant pesticide use to BBTs. Biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean The NRC that provides advice to the US (REDBIO/FAO) government was recently given the task of www.rlc.fao.org/redes/redbio/html/home.htm determining the future of biological control AgBioWorld agents for use in agriculture. The NRC www.agbioworld.org International Union for the Protection of New examined questions such as: Why do we Varieties of Plants (UPOV) need newpest control methods in crop and www.upov.int forest productions systems? What can we World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) realistically expect from investment in these www.wipo.int newtechnologies? Howdo wedevelop AfricaBio (NGO) effective and profitable pest control systems www.africabio.com that rely on ecological processes of control? Howshould weoversee and commercialize biological control organisms and products? value of the market. If it is not sufficient to The consensus reached indicates that safety, provide a return on investments made, the profitability, and durability in pest manage- product is not developed. ment are the key issues for success in this In industrial countries, there is an area. The biotechnology related applications increasing emphasis on reducing the reli- of importance to ecologically based pest ance on the use of conventional pesticides management include: use of transgenic using BBTs such as biological control, crops for insect and disease resistance, microbial control, pest behavior modifying molecular markers for host plant resistance chemicals, genetic manipulation of pest breeding, diagnostic tools, and the use of populations, plant immunizations, plant conventional and novel biological control breeding and enhanced resistance to agents. It is, therefore, timely for developing pests. The US Congress Office of Technology countries to consider the potential use- Assessment (1995) completed a study exam- fulness of these newbiotechnologies for ining the current and potential role of BBTs inclusion in their IPM programs. Persley for pest control. (1996) edited an excellent book on the role Notable points are: biotechnology can play in IPM. Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 33

Transgenic plants with insect and disease was devoted to Bt cotton while 28% had resistance with emphasis on the use stacked genes for Bt and herbicide resistance of Bt transgenic plants (Carpenter and Gianessi, 2001). Apart from the USA, Bt maize was also grown in: The ability to cut and join DNA to create Canada, Argentina, South Africa, Spain, a newmolecule (transgene) and to insert France, and Portugal. Similarly, Bt cotton this transgene into the crop plant forms was grown in: China, Australia, Mexico, the basis of the most revolutionary crop South Africa, and Argentina. improvement technology of the 20th Biosafety issues in field-testing and com- century. The bulk of crop transgenes thus mercialization of transgenic plants received far commercialized were designed to aid major attention in the industrialized nations. in crop protection against insects, diseases, In these countries, governmental regulations and weeds. The current value of the global for testing of transgenic crops in contained market in transgenic crops is estimated at and field experiments for assessing the US$3 billion, increasing to US$8 billion in potential risks prior to the approval for com- 2005, and US$25 billion by 2010 (Estruch mercialization are nowin place (see Chapter et al., 1997; James, 1999). Among the 39). Researchers in industrialized countries various disease and pest resistant trans- such as the USA from both the private and genic crops released for cultivation, insect public sectors nowfind it relatively easy to resistant crops are the ones which have conduct field trials. The large-scale deploy- received wide acceptance in many coun- ment of insect resistant crops using the Bt tries. The most extensively grown insect gene will be a major challenge in terms of resistant transgenic crops today are: maize the management and durability of Bt resis- (also referred as corn) and cotton. Accord- tance. The future, however, looks promising ing to James (2000), on a worldwide basis in because insect resistant products will cover 2000, Bt maize was grown on 6.8 million ha a much broader range of pests that cause eco- with an additional 1.4 million ha planted to nomic losses on crops in different regions Bt/herbicide tolerant maize. Bt cotton was of the world. Products with more than one grown on 1.5 million ha with an additional Bt gene will increase the durability of Bt 1.7 million ha grown to Bt/ herbicide resis- resistance and products with Bt and other tant cotton. Bt potatoes were grown on < 0.1 mechanisms of resistance will provide fur- million ha. The adoption of Bt cotton is ther security and offer newpossibilities for already bringing significant economic bene- optimizing the durability of deployed genes. fits to the small-scale farmers in South NewBt genes that confer resistance to many Africa (Gregory et al., 2002). of the tropical pests damaging rice, soybean, China was the first country to commer- sunflower, tomato, sugarcane, sweet potato, cialize transgenic plants in the early 1990s apple, and many other crops continue to be with the introduction of virus resistant discovered. These newproducts, whencom - tobacco, and later a virus resistant tomato. mercialized, will significantly reduce the In 1995, the USA EPA approved the first total use of insecticide. One study done in registration of Bt maize, potato and cotton this area reports that of the US$8.1 billion products; nowmore Bt crops are grownin spent annually on all insecticides world- the USA than any other country. Since this wide, US$2.7 billion could be substituted approval, there has been a dramatic increase with Bt biotechnology products (Krattiger, in the use of Bt maize and Bt cotton in the 1997). USA (US EPA, 2000). The area of Bt maize in It is also likely that, in the near future, the USA was 0.2 million ha in 1996 and transgenes for pest resistance are likely to reached 8.2 million ha by 1999. The area become more sophisticated than the various of Bt cotton in the USA increased from 0.7 genes for toxins employed today. Rather million ha in 1996, to 1.1 million in 1998. In than killing pests, they may reduce the 2000, 39% of the total cotton growing area ability of pests to recognize and/or colonize 34 K.V. Raman et al.

the crop, or they may modify the damage- evaluated them in greenhouse and field causing behavior of the pests. For example, trials are presented by Tu et al., 2000 and transgenes are being developed that produce Ye et al., 2001. In the near future, there is a a protein, which inactivates the binding site good possibility for the release of transgenic in insect vectors where plant viral pathogens Bt rice for farmers in developing countries nominally bind. Anti-vectoring transgenes, (Cohen et al., 2000). for example, can be introduced into insects, and using genetics, the genes can be spread Maize through the insect population. For a review on case studies involving the use of Bt in Technologies for transformation and regen- different crops including the economic, eco- eration of tropical maize allows many logical, food safety, and social consequences maize-growing developing countries to of the deployment of Bt transgenic plants see engineer traits of national importance. the recently published work of Shelton et al. For example, currently severe losses of over (2002). 40% occur in several tropical countries due to damage by pests (corn borers), and viruses such as the corn stunt, and others. Gene technologies (Bt, coat protein, Crop-specific issues replicase) provide an immediate short-term opportunity to develop superior pest and Major impact can be made for several crops disease resistant maize germplasm with grown in developing countries by deploy- these genes. Such materials should have a ing transgenic pest and disease resistant major impact in increasing yields by over crops. The following three examples 30% (James, 2000). provide a clear idea of the benefits. Soybeans Rice Plant breeders are nowable to back-cross Unfortunately many developing countries elite soybean cultivars grown in developing still face pest problems such as weeds (red countries such as Brazil with genetically rice), bacterial, fungal, viral diseases, and engineered pest and disease resistant soy- insect pests like the stem borer and plant bean varieties and create locally adapted hoppers. Plant biotechnologies using resis- germplasm for commercial release. Coun- tant transgenes have nowbeen researched tries such as Brazil and China have access and are available. For example, herbicide to some of the best soybean germplasm resistance genes genetically engineered into whereas the private sector has the gene conventionally grown rice may allow for technology. By combining efforts it is selective use of herbicides to control weeds possible to develop transgenic soybeans such as red rice, a major weed problem in with pest and disease resistance. Specific many regions of South America. Similarly, genes of interest are: herbicide resistance Bt resistance genes have nowbeen tested to the herbicide Roundup (glyphosate), and for resistance to rice stem borer, a major use of Bt genes for resistance to important insect pest of rice in Asia, and this technol- lepidopteran insects damaging this crop. ogy can be combined with genes for rice Yield gains of 30% and more can be sheath blight resistance, and the tungro expected due to the use of such technology. virus. By developing such rice with multiple resistances to pathogens and pests, Potatoes one would be able to reduce the current estimated yield loss of 20–30% annually Genotype independent transformation sys- in Asia. Additional information on the tems are nowavailable to use in combi - laboratories around the world which nation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens- have transformed rice with Bt genes and mediated transformation procedures to Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 35

obtain transgenic potatoes with a frequency were damaged by tuber moth and infected of transgenic plant recovery of up to 50% with bacterial rot (Douches et al., 2003). In (Douches et al., 1998; Coombs, et al., 2002). the same storage, 98–100% of transgenic Potatoes with a codon-modified Bt-cry5 Spunta tubers were undamaged after 3 (Bt-cry1Ia1) gene conferring resistance to months (Douches et al., 2003). Tuber potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella moth damage in storage can also destroy Zeller, have been developed (Li et al., tubers retained as seed for future crops, 1999). ‘Spunta’, a variety grown in Egypt for requiring purchase of commercial seed. local consumption, was used as the parent Eliminating the need for treatment of stored line because of its adaptation to tropical tubers with insecticide will significantly growing conditions. The highest expression reduce the risk of pesticide exposure to was obtained in transgenic lines with the consumers, reduce the cost, and allow CaMV 35S promoter without the gus longer storage of potatoes for future reporter gene. Laboratory trials in the USA consumption or seed. and field and storage tests in Egypt in Transgenic potatoes with resistance to cooperation with the Agricultural Genetic Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decem- Engineering Research Institute in Cairo and lineata (Say), Potato Virus Y, and Potato the International Potato Center station in Leafroll Virus have been produced and Kafr-el-Zayat showed up to 100% control of marketed in the USA by NatureMark leaf and tuber damage (Douches et al., (NatureMark, 2002), a subsidiary of 2003). Lagnaoui et al. (2001) evaluated the Monsanto Corp. However, adoption was Bt-cry5 potatoes against both P. operculella never widespread due to limited availability and Symmetrischema tangolias (Lepi- of seed, the additional cost of the transgenic doptera: Gelechiidae) using detached leaf seed, and consumer and buyer concerns bioassays. All Bt-cry5 Spunta lines caused about genetically engineered crops. As the high levels of mortality to both species result, these varieties are no longer available (80–98%). The Bt-cry5 Spunta lines are commercially. Research at Michigan State also effective against European corn borer, University and elsewhere continues on Ostrina nubilalis (Hübner), but not the development of potato varieties resistant to cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) Colorado potato beetle incorporating Bt-cry in detached leaf bioassays (Santos, Grafius 3A toxin via genetic engineering and using and Douches, unpublished). traditional breeding techniques to incorpo- The protection of potatoes in storage rate additional mechanisms of resistance from potato tuber moth and related species from other Solanum species (e.g. Coombs is especially important in developing coun- et al., 2002). tries, where refrigerated storage may not be Gene technologies to develop plants with available. Even with insecticides for control resistance to pests and diseases can also of tuber moth in the field and careful sorting be applied to other crops of importance in and removal of damaged tubers before the tropics. These include, wheat, chickpea, putting the crop into storage, eggs and newly oilseed (mustard), fruits and vegetables hatched larvae cannot be detected and some such as papaya, cucurbits, potatoes, level of infestation is almost certain to enter tomatoes, aubergine, and other crops of the storage. Without treatment, tuber moth significance to the economy of developing and the associated bacterial rotting organ- countries. isms can rapidly spread throughout a storage. Regular removal of tubers from storage, sorting out damaged tubers, and treatment with insecticides directly on the remaining New biological control agents tubers before returning them to storage is commonly practiced to reduce injury and Three main approaches for producing new losses. Within 2–3 months 100% of suscep- biological control agents using genetic engi- tible tubers in a traditional Egyptian storage neering are: 36 K.V. Raman et al.

1. The engineering of natural enemies of in developing countries. Production of such pests to be more effective agents of biological agents could be developed as a small-scale control; or large-scale biotechnology industry in the 2. The engineering of plants or their tropics. Using biotechnology tools, research- microbial associates with genes that protect ers in these regions will be able to produce them from pests; and less expensive, and effective formulations 3. The engineering of natural enemies of for pest control. Transgenic bio-pesticides pests with genes for pesticide resistance, may prove faster acting and broader- that increases options for pesticide use. spectrum than conventional products, but care must be taken not to sacrifice the Among these three approaches, the valuable, self-renewing nature of biological creation and use of GMOs to improve plant control agents in developing more bio- protection receives the major attention. For pesticide-like products that require more additional details on current trends in bio- repeated applications. technology for pest management, see Waage There is on-going work on developing (1996). more effective transgenic arthropods as With rapid advances in molecular biol- biological control agents (Hoy, 1996). ogy significant developments are occurring Currently, there is a lack of an example that in the development of biologically produced demonstrates that such transgenic arthro- pesticides (bio-pesticides). These advances pods can be effective in a pest management usually include: naturally occurring organ- program or that they can control a pest isms (such as fungi, baculoviruses, bacteria, population. Until this has been achieved, nematodes), their by-products (such as adequate resources and funding will be chemicals derived from microbial organisms difficult to obtain because it is considered such as Actinomyces and Streptomyces), to be high-risk research. products derived from insects (such as pheromones), and products derived from trees (such as azadirachtin). The global market for these products is estimated at New diagnostic tools over US$500 million (Georgis, 1996). How- ever, there are still a number of technological Progress in the development of new hurdles to overcome for mass-production, diagnostic tools based on monoclonal formulation, product safety, and persistence antibodies and molecular markers has been to reach this level of market sales. rapid. Using techniques such as restriction The future of biological pesticides will fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), depend largely on the financial strength polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in random and interest of the companies involved amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and a in producing these products. Initially, bio- newpowerfulsynthesis of RFLP and PCR, pesticides were produced by pharmaceuti- called amplified fragment length polymor- cal companies such as Sandoz and Abbott. phisms (AFLP) enable breeders to develop However, in the last 2–3 years, the industry newvarieties. These diagnostic tools also has begun to change. Firms such as Syngenta, allowIPM practitioners to determine: the DowChemicals, Zeneca, and DuPont have evolutionary status and population dynam- acquired many of the companies producing ics of pests, pathogens and of the natural bio-pesticides. Additional research on enemies of pests; to monitor changes in pest genetic engineering and manufacturing population and of the beneficial organisms; processes (fermentation, synthesis, formu- to predict pest outbreaks and detect lation) should strengthen the position of and measure pesticides; and to identify bio-pesticides in the market place. products produced from transgenic plants. The use of biotechnology will enable For details on the use of these novel these bio-pesticides to be an even more technology options in integrated pest man- effective component of future IPM programs agement systems see Whitten et al. (1996). Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 37

Developments in human health care genotypic selection without, or in addition allowthese tools to be modified for use to, phenotypic selection. For the purpose of in plant health diagnostics. In developing crop breeding, the major recent advances in countries the development of these tools genetic markers have consisted of finding will be useful for: ways to generate and assay large numbers of markers. The main physical tools are DNA 1. Pest identification; cleavage via restriction enzymes, homolo- 2. Enabling farmers to visualize the gous DNA–DNA hybridization, electropho- situation in the field, with respect to retic DNA separation technology, and DNA the presence of the pest or the disease; amplification via DNA PCR. Various combi- 3. Monitoring pest movement in time and nations of these have produced the genetic space; marker types known as RFLP and AFLP, 4. In resistance breeding by simplifying or RAPD, and simple sequence repeats. The eliminating the need for disease bioassay; practical consequence is that one can come 5. In monitoring pesticide contamination arbitrarily close to knowing the actual in the postharvest produce; and genetic composition of any plant in 6. In detecting pesticide resistant pests. comparison to its parents or siblings. This These tools are fairly easy to develop. affords better estimates of the number, For example, many developing countries contributions and genomic locations of such as Brazil, India, China, South Africa, genes controlling a complex character and Egypt use enzyme-linked immuno- (say, drought tolerance or pest resistance sorbent assays (ELISA) for the detection of controlled by many genes) than could ever important plant viruses. Similarly the have been obtained without DNA genotyp- quarantine programs of many developing ing. With this information one can identify, countries use ELISA to prevent the entry of without expensive field testing, plants that plant viruses of quarantine significance. are likely to possess the favorable alleles Developing countries are in need of of these genes, and discard those that do additional diagnostic tools for detecting not. The practical benefit of marker-assisted pesticide residues. The use of appropriate selection to plant breeding is expected to be diagnostic technology in this area will pro- large savings in the land, labor, and time mote exports and allowfor pesticide-free required for variety development; estimates certification. Other technologies such as the of potential time-saving vary from upward use of PCR to detect transgenic food prod- from 2 years for an annual crop. Marker- ucts and biochemical kits for detection of assisted selection is practical for single- resistant pests to transgenic plants and pes- gene traits whose assay is tedious (nematicides are also needed. It is in the interest of tode resistance in wheat, tomato, potato), developing countries to identify key areas and horticultural crops of high value, and where diagnostic technologies can be best in long cycle species such as trees. utilized in the short, medium, and long term. Current marker technology is not the end point in molecular breeding. Even the best markers are still relatively expensive (in time, labor, skill and materials) to assay. DNA markers, mapping and application for Although exact cost analysis is highly developing pest and disease resistant plants dependent on site, scale, and goals of a project, the cost of a data point (of the tens Many neutral-genetic markers are used as of thousands required for many mapping tags to identify the specific genes of interest experiments) was estimated to be from US$ to crop improvement. Once a statistical 0.10 to > 1.00 (Ragot and Hosington, 1993), gene-marker association is established for and has not decreased radically since then. a given cross, the marker phenotype of a The short-term trend is toward increasing progeny becomes a genetic shorthand for throughput of marker–genotyping labs its individual gene makeup, allowing via multiplex PCR reactions, fast DNA 38 K.V. Raman et al.

fragment-sizing methods (thin-gel or training newdeveloping country molecular capillary electrophoresis), or methods that breeders and acquainting established require separations such as allele-specific breeders with new tools. Application of this PCR (Gu et al., 1995), robotics for DNA expertise to existing technology is expected handling, and automated data acquisition to result in varieties with broad adaptation involving optical scanning and image analy- and stable performance under stress. This sis. Newtools have been developed for fast, is in contrast to transformation, which will cheap molecular genotyping using the oligo be used for making major and abrupt microarray (Chee et al., 1996), e.g. a small alterations in single-gene traits, but whose chip of glass slide on which are fastened long-term impact is uncertain especially in many thousands of DNA oligonucleotide smallholder agriculture. fragments for simultaneous hybridization with a fluorescent labeled DNA probe. The resulting patterns, read via microscope, are processed with computer image-analysis Policy Issues Affecting Access to software. This technology (pioneered by the New Biotechnologies Santa Clara, California based biotechnology company Affymetrix, among others) allows The majority of newand emerging biotech - the simultaneous assay of large number nologies are proprietary and reside in the of DNA polymorphisms with one or a private sector of the developed world. few hybridizations. The access, use and management of these Specific case studies involving the use proprietary technologies require a sound of molecular marker technology for analysis policy framework in IPR, biosafety, food and manipulation of resistance to crop pests safety and technology transfer (Maredia such as the bacterial blight of rice, and rice and Erbisch, 1998; Maredia et al., 1999). blast illustrate the value of these tools for Intellectual property is a broad term developing rice varieties with resistance to used to cover patents, plant variety protec- these diseases (Nelson, 1996). In the next tion, trademarks, trade secrets and copy- fewyears, molecular techniques of various rights. All of these have a part to play in kinds are likely to become universal in plant the use and management of biotechnologies. breeding. However, the rate at which molec- The intellectual property rights provide ular data can nowbe acquired has overtaken legal protection for genetic resources, genet- that at which it can be synthesized, under- ically transformed organisms, and related stood, and applied. Developing countries products and technologies as well as access should focus on expanding their ability not to technologies from local, regional and only to collect molecular data but also to international sources. Biosafety encom- develop bio-informatics tools and capabili- passes policies and procedures adopted to ties to synthesize, analyze, and apply it for ensure environmentally safe applications of crop improvement. A database system uni- newtechnologies. The environmental safety fying crop performance with molecular and issues surrounding the use of biotechnology pedigree data for a range of tropical crops include gene flow/gene transfer, weediness, should be created, and linked, where possi- pest/pathogen effects, impacts on non-target ble, to established databases for the same or and beneficial organisms, and development related crops in other countries. Expertise of pest resistance. The food safety issues should be acquired in computational biol- encompass allergenecity, toxicity, and ogy as applied to database model building, altered nutritional content of the genetically data mining and visualization, and the modified food products and their impact on statistical synthesis of complex laboratory human, and animal health. and field data sets to arrive at decisions The IPR, biosafety, food safety and for marker-assisted crop breeding. A core technology-transfer policies and their of national expertise will then be able to implementation are important for safe and supplement or replace foreign centers in legal exchange and commercialization of Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 39

biotechnology. They provide incentives are several projects in many developing for local researchers and firms, they are countries that focus on pesticide resistance required by international laws, and they can management. assist in the international transfer of tech- With the wide adoption of transgenic nology and international trade. In order to crops with insect resistance, the issue of access newbiotechnologies, many countries pests developing resistance is of major are putting together appropriate policy concern in both developed and developing frameworks and building their capacity to countries. It is, therefore, important to have implement these policies. For example, the information on resistance management government in Egypt has developed national strategies, regulatory options and other Biosafety guidelines and IPR policies as deployment strategies adopted in the USA they relate to the use and management of that may have significance in developing biotechnology in Egypt. countries. In the USA, the EPA Office of Pesticide Programs has formed the scientific Pesticide Resistance Management Working Pest Resistance Management Group to consider EPA’s role concerning resistance management of insect resistant Pests and diseases have a remarkable transgenic plants. The seven key elements capacity to adapt to several control agents. identified by this group for developing an Development of resistance in insect pests to adequate Resistance Management Strategy control methods using resistant plant vari- (RMS) are: eties, cultural or biological controls, insect 1. Knowledge of pest biology and ecology; controlling pathogens, and insecticides is 2. Appropriate gene deployment strategy; common. More than 4000 examples of resis- 3. Appropriate refugia (primarily for tance to insecticides have been documented insecticidal genes such as Bt); in populations of about 500 species of 4. Monitoring and reporting of incidents insects. Insect pests have evolved resistance of pesticide resistance development; to all major categories of insecticides 5. Employment of IPM; including insecticidal crystal proteins from 6. Communication and educational strate- the bacterium Bt, and some major insect gies on product use; and pests have evolved resistance to new 7 Development of alternative modes of insecticides within 1–3 years (Metcalf, action. For more details see: Lewis and 1989; Georghiou and Lagunes-Tejeda, 1991; Matten (1995). Gould et al., 1997). The tragic failures are not isolated Many of the above elements can be incidences. Every major crop – cotton, rice, achieved by relying on four key strategies: maize, fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals – (i) diversification of mortality sources; (ii) has one or more resistant pests. This prob- reduction of selection pressure; (iii) main- lem is not isolated to developing countries. taining a susceptible population via refugia Cotton producers in the USA, Australia, or immigration; and (iv) prediction of resis- China, Turkey, Pakistan and India are bat- tance development. Significant research tling resistance in more than a dozen species developments are in progress at several pri- of insects and mites; so are fruit growers vate and public sector institutions to imple- in Europe, Canada, the northwestern USA, ment these strategies at the field level. RMS Australia and Japan (among others). is further enhanced by the development of The price of insecticide resistance in several tactics. These include the use of gene lost yields and higher insect control costs is strategies. It is possible to use single or mul- staggering – more than US$1 billion in the tiple genes in a pyramid fashion. Multiple USA from the budworm/bollworm complex gene deployment reduces the likelihood alone. Once a crop protection product is of resistance development since multiple rendered ineffective by resistance, it may mutations would have to occur concurrently be lost from the IPM toolbox forever. There in individual insects. This tactic is still in 40 K.V. Raman et al.

the development phase and no cultivars 3. Experimentally validating resistance with multiple genes have yet been released management strategies; for commercial production. The second 4. Integrating Bt with other pest control involves the use of gene promoters which tactics; are either constitutive, or tissue specific or 5. Assuring an appropriate regulatory inducible (e.g. wounding). Targeted expres- environment; sion is aimed at reducing the time period of 6. Characterizing Bt cross resistance; insect exposure to a toxin by expressing it 7. Estimating Bt resistance gene fre- only in vulnerable parts of the plant or in a quencies; certain part of the plant simultaneously with 8. Mapping and cloning Bt resistance a particularly critical time in the develop- genes; ment of the plant. Several of the private com- 9. Establishing a national scientific advi- panies nowhave the technology to express sory group for management as a part of the the Bt toxin gene in selected parts of the national biosafety program; and maize plant. The third tactic includes the 10. Including resistance management as a use of high-dose gene expression including part of the national biosafety program. the expression of genes in mixtures. The The private sector in the USA involved high level of expression of a single toxin in with the commercialization of insect resis- all plants is aimed at killing the highest pos- tant transgenic crops has developed refuge sible percentage of insect populations and is management strategies for different trans- generally implemented in conjunction with genic crops to prevent the likelihood of refugia. Lowlevels of expression of a single insect resistance (Shelton, 2002). These gene toxin in all plants is expected to pro- deployment strategies already implemented duce a sub-lethal dose that would reduce fer- showthat a high-dose strategy withrefuges tility and growth of insect populations and has been adopted in cotton, maize, and also make the affected insects prone to pred- potato. These are all in the USA where five ators and parasites. The fourth tactic that is Bt transgenic products are already in the employed at the field level includes the use market. The exact refuge depends on the of a uniform single gene, mixtures of genes, crop and on the selected treatment of gene rotation, mosaic planting or providing the refuge area. Monsanto, in the com- refuges to delay the development of resistant mercialization of its Bt transgenic cotton insects. The use of refugia is nowa common under the trade name of Bollgard, provides practice that is recommended as a field tac- two options. The first is to provide 20% tic to delay resistance in insects by several of unprotected cotton (non-transgenic) as a the private companies involved with com- refuge using non-transgenic as a total mercialization of insect resistant transgenic refuge using no insect control whatsoever. crops. A refuge enables insects to breed and The private sector in the USA tends to favor thus provide a steady supply of wild-type the 20% unprotected refuge strategy as an insects (or non-resistant ones) that would be acceptable optimum. most likely to mate with potentially resistant Along with the refuge strategy, several insects. This would reduce the chances of of the private sector firms have established a an increase in the frequency of resistance monitoring program to sample insects. The genes. Further explanations on the various Novartis company (nowSyngenta) monitors gene strategies to delay resistance are maize insects such as the European corn provided in McGaughey and Whalon (1992). borer and corn earworm populations annu- Specific RMS used in the USA for ally. The goal of these monitoring efforts is transgenic plants containing Bt include: to identify as early as possible suspected 1. Establishing baselines and monitoring changes in insect susceptibility to Bt maize shifts in Bt susceptibility; hybrids, allowing time to modify RMS rec- 2. Research on ecological and genetic ommendations. Such monitoring of insects factors of Bt resistance; for early identification of possible resistant Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 41

insects is critical in all the strategies out- pre-agreed terms regarding its use or sale. lined above. This poses formidable chal- The private US company, Monsanto, used lenges because collecting insects at random licensing to achieve compliance on uti- may not necessarily allowearly enough lization, production and sales of transgenic detection of resistance to allowremedial Bt crops like potato, cotton, and maize. actions to be implemented. Requesting farm- Growers who partner in such agreements ers to monitor insect populations has limita- have an opportunity to purchase Bt crops tions, particularly in developing countries with appropriate information on gaining with resource-poor small-scale agriculture, maximum benefits from the use of this where the extension efforts required for such technology. Under this agreement growers a system to work are tremendous. Many agree to not reuse or save seed containing farmers lack knowledge of the simple tools the Monsanto gene technology, and to to identify and collect the right insects. The set up an adequate refuge when planting cooperation of many different groups is Bt crops. Additional details are given in needed to establish an effective monitoring the 1997 Monsanto technology agreement program. (Monsanto, 1997). Licensing strategies can be implemented at various levels. It can be done at the point where seeds are used by including seed com- Regulatory policy options for RMS panies, seed distributors, sales representatives, or end users. The enforcement appara- It is clear that the success of any policy will tus would then vary based on the particular depend on the number of entities or people target. For example, a national government regulated as well as the particular crop and agency could enforce licensing agreements production system involved. Obviously, the at all target levels, although government fewer the number of people that are targeted licensing of seed companies would be easier for regulation, the easier it will be to to implement than government licensing of enforce. The current regulatory apparatus, individual farmers. Seed companies or local the particular transgenic crop under con- grower organization could also enforce sideration, and the existing seed-handling licensing at the local level by acting as a system are important factors in determin- licensor. Strict penalties are usually enforced ing effective regulatory options in each if the license agreement is infringed upon or country. Whalon and Norris (1997) have is not followed. In all cases, the establish- identified six main regulatory options ment of such a policy requires the input of for Bt transgenic plant deployment. These many resources such as capital, personnel, include: (i) licensing; (ii) central control of facilities, and educational campaigns to seed; (iii) regulation of seed distribution; train in the license application process and (iv) labeling; (v) monitoring use; and proper use of the seed. (vi) monitoring resistance development. The easiest and most straightforward pro- Labeling cedure to implement and enforce appears to be licensing and labeling, followed by Most biotechnology companies nowpro - monitoring resistance development. vide ‘proper use labels’ on most products. Industry cooperation and compliance with Licensing this type of regulation can be high. For example, all pesticides currently sold carry Commercialization of newinventions such labels that give precise information on the as the development of transgenic plants chemical name of the pesticide, its concen- with the Bt toxin gene is a high priority of tration, the pests it controls, and at what the private sector in the developed nations. rate it should be applied. In the case of This is usually done by licensing their transgenic seed with the Bt toxin gene the proprietary technology to other parties with label should include: 42 K.V. Raman et al.

1. Identification of transgenic status; properly and track their stages of develop- 2. Recommended planting ratio (percent- ment. Pesticides should be used only if pest age of transgenic versus non-transgenic counts go over the local economic threshold seed, or recommended refugia for RMS); – the point at which economic losses exceed 3. A warning against misuse or over the cost of the insecticide, plus application planting of the transgenic seed; and costs. Timing applications against the most 4. An agency or industry contact in the susceptible life stages brings maximum event that resistance to the transgenic crop benefit from the product. becomes evident in the pest population. 4. Selection of insecticides that have minimum effect on beneficial insects and The local extension agencies in devel- other natural enemies. This will reduce oping countries should provide grower the number of applications and thereby education programs on howto interpret reduce selection pressure on insects to information on the labels and howto develop resistance. Resistance grows under implement the appropriate proper use rec- continued pressure. ommendations. Private companies should 5. The use of only one control component also be willing to participate in such efforts. such as Bt crops can enhance resistance. If one combines this technology with others, such as the ones described above, the resis- Use of IPM to delay pest resistance tance developed will be delayed allowing for better protection, and increased profits. IPM is a widely accepted strategy to reduce It is, therefore, essential that during over-dependence on chemical insecticides the deployment of insect resistant crops and their potential negative environmental developed through genetic engineering, all and economic effects. The use of IPM available IPM control methods are used reduces the selection pressure on pests and at the field level. National governments, thereby delays resistance development. regulatory agencies, the private and public IPM has been adopted widely for the con- sectors, and growers should conduct on- trol of rice pests in Asia. It is also practiced farm demonstrations on the use of such widely in many other crops grown in the approaches. Such simple trials will demon- developed and developing world. The strate the value of IPM, which in turn will insecticide resistance action committee in ensure the long-term durability of insect the USA recommends using IPM by the resistant crops. participating growers to delay resistance development. Five resistance guidelines are recommended to strengthen the durability Public–Private Sector Linkage of pesticides and to help keep grower costs Considerations down. These are: 1. Consulting with an agricultural advisor In most instances, conventional breeding or extension agent for regional insecticide and IPM technologies developed in the resistance and IPM strategies. This allows public sector are useful and should be con- one to consider the appropriate pest tinued. There are, of course, opportunities management options available and map for using well-proven and tested gene tech- out a season-long plan to avoid unnecessary nologies and other proprietary biological applications of insecticides. controls for increasing the durability of pest 2. Consideration, before planting, of the control. Many of these technologies being options for minimizing pesticide use investigated by the public and private sec- by selecting pest-resistant crops, and by tor firms in the developed world are propri- managing the crop for early maturity. etary and mostly patented by the private 3. Regular monitoring of fields during the sector. The participation of private sector is season to identify pests and natural enemies therefore critical to the delivery of effective Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 43

biotechnologies for effective plant protec- commercial license agreement, visiting tion. The public sector needs to create a scholar agreement, and confidential disclo- favorable environment to encourage private- sure of invention will help NARS to promote sector participation by providing a regula- partnerships with the private sector. tory system that accurately informs the pub- Several US universities and others in lic of the benefits and risks involved in the Europe provide training in all areas of IPR use of newtechnologies; a legal framework (Maredia et al., 1997; Maredia and Erbisch, for protecting IPR; adequate infrastructure 1998). A fewNARS are using these opportu - for power, transport and telecommunica- nities to develop their human resource base tions; a fair tax system and investment so that they are in a strong position to negoti- incentives; a skilled workforce, including ate with the private sector. It is also apparent a well-supported university sector; public that once genetically modified organisms funding for research and development; and are developed, NARS will have to field test incentives to establish innovative public– them under their own conditions following private collaboration, and joint ventures at appropriate biosafety and food safety the national and international levels. guidelines. Biosafety and the regulation For NARS to access proprietary tech- of biotechnology activities have been at nologies developed in the private or public the forefront of the biotechnology debate for sector requires the resolution of intellectual almost a decade, especially in developing property and ownership issues. This issue countries. In the USA there are three federal affects patents, plant variety protection, agencies that have regulatory responsibility seed certification and access to biodiversity. and authority to maintain the safety and Capacity building in the IPR area is crucial nutritional value of America’s food supply. so that NARS can effectively collaborate They are the EPA, the FDA and the USDA. with the owners of technology. Human Each agency has specific authority. How- resource development in the area of intellec- ever, such biosafety mechanisms are limited tual property management, legal, technical in developing nations. It is only during the and business expertise including database last 3 years that many developing nations management are important. A fewNARS are have started developing their own biosafety nowcreating IPR management focal points guidelines, and regulations for field-testing to serve as technology transfer offices. The transgenic plants. The ultimate aim of these personnel in these offices are trained in the programs is to develop regulations that area of IP policy development, protection are science based; transparent; harmonized and licensing mechanisms, networking, with international protocols, domestic legis- and creating newstart-up companies. IPM lation, and import–export requirements; researchers who do not have time to go and implemented by credible institutions. through the negotiation process with the This is a tall order and progress will be slow, private sector should consider using these as many NARS have limited financial and focal points to help them work with the pri- human resources to implement successful vate sector. The main purpose of such focal biosafety and food safety programs. Success points should be to protect local inventions will only come by creating human resource and enable access to technologies developed capacity for biosafety regulation through elsewhere. The capacity building in the IPR programs such as training, workshops, area is a continuing process and requires seminars, and technical meetings that will institutional and financial commitment. It continue to build capacity in biosafety and also needs to work in collaboration with food safety. In order for GMOs to reach other regional and global bodies that have developing NARS, other areas such as pub- the expertise in the area of IPR. Gaining lic participation and awareness programs knowledge on how to develop effective should be established from the outset confidentiality agreements, material trans- to communicate effectively with the public fer agreements, collaborative research agree- about the rationale for decisions, and the ments, research-only license agreement, risks and the benefits of crop biotechnology. 44 K.V. Raman et al.

The program should also encourage public since about 1984. Extracting biological participation in the decisions regarding the insight from this rawdata is one of the use of transgenic products. The benefits central challenges of biology today. such as direct saving to growers and any The ability to relate genomic data to other indirect savings and its impact on biological function would constitute a major processors and consumers should be step in understanding the process of life. demonstrated to the public. Such an advance would likely have a signifi- Information exchange and experience cant impact on medicine and agriculture. sharing with developed countries such as There are international efforts to establish the USA, which has now commercialized the full DNA sequence of every gene several transgenic crops, including potatoes, required to produce a plant. This is a would be useful. Through partnerships pioneering initiative for crop breeding. The and knowledge-sharing developing country subsequent steps involve interpretation of NARS will be able to develop their own genes’ structures and patterns of expression IPR, biosafety and food safety regulatory in each organism. Once a gene is identified structure and procedures for implementing in one species, its functional value can be policy. Once such guidelines are in place, found in other species to aid breeding of any it becomes easy for the private sector to crop for pest, and disease resistance. become a partner with NARS to promote Progress in the genomics area will technologies such as the use of genetically significantly influence the future of biotech- engineered plants with resistance to pests nology research, and the speed with which and diseases. For additional information we can develop plants with resistances see: Raman, 1995, 1998; Ives et al., 1998; to many pests and diseases. Newdevelop- Maredia et al., 1999. ments could include the ability of the plant’s own cells to fight pests and diseases. Global stakeholders in the life sciences sector have Future of Biotechnology in IPM already committed a significant level of internal, and collaborative investments in The vast majority of transgenic pest and genomics research with significant contri- disease resistant crops developed and com- bution flowing from universities and other mercialized are the result of single-gene world-class research bodies who have transfers, in which one or more genes expertise in genomics. In the future, new coding for desired characteristics such as advances in the area of genomics and insect, disease, virus or herbicide resistance allied areas such as proteomics will further are introduced. In some cases both insect stimulate research and commercialization and herbicide resistance were combined. opportunities for the biotechnology sector. Such efforts, although important for The convergence of classical biology, controlling specific pests, are unlikely to genomic tools, and sequence information control other important pests and diseases and the availability of sophisticated model of importance in the tropics. To create genetic systems are enabling unique oppor- plants with multiple resistance, the plants tunities for the agricultural scientists to would have to be thoroughly re-engineered both identify and commercialize newpest with more than one or two genes. control technologies. The emergence of new The technological advances in the area scientific fields, such as nano-biotechnology of genomics may provide clues to identify- that fuses non/microfabrication and bio- ing novel genes that may provide broad- systems to develop microscopic tools that based resistance to many pests. Since the can extract and explore genetic information, early 1980s, a succession of technological is expected to fuel major breakthroughs as it advances has made it possible to perform will allow more precise information to be large-scale DNA sequencing. Newgenomic gathered from biological systems in a more data has been generated at an explosive rate: rapid manner. Newultra performance DNA the volume has doubled every 15 months sequencing instruments based on novel Biotechnology and IPM in Developing Countries 45

fluorescent detection technologies will have and biotechnology policy. There are also the capability of sequencing large amounts issues related to intellectual property rights of genomic data, over 340,000 base pairs/ and regulatory hurdles, that one needs to hour or 5000/min. At the same time these consider for the responsible use of biotech- novel techniques will enhance the resolu- nology. Continuing efforts and investments tion of mixed DNA applications leading to to build capacity in biotechnology research, significant improvements in the develop- policy, and management are required. ment of DNA-based diagnostic tools. Education and awareness on the risk/ There is nowa growinginteraction benefits of the products of modern biotech- between fundamental researchers, the prod- nology should be continuously promoted uct developers, and marketers in the USA, at the national and international level, Europe, and to some extent, in Japan. This for the greater acceptance of biotechnology is helping to accelerate the realization of products. benefits to society from the scientific advancements in the life sciences area far more rapidly during the last decades. The References growing interaction between multidisciplinary researchers will be essential to Carpenter, J.E. and Gianessi, L.P. (2001) Agri- stimulate newdiscoveries to strengthen cultural biotechnology: updated benefit existing IPM. In the developed world, issues estimates. National Center for Food and related to IPM labeling, consumer educa- Agricultural Policy. http://ncfap.org/pup/ tion, and the role of the retail sector in pro- biotech/updatedbenefits.pdf Accessed 30 viding a way for consumers to buy food that August 2001. is produced in environmentally friendly Chee, M., Yang, R., Hubbell, E., Berno, A., Huang, ways continues to be a high priority. In the X.C., Stern, D., Winkler, J., Lockhart, D.J., developing world, implementation of these Morris, M.S. and Fodor, S.P. (1996) Access- ing genetic information with high-density and other IPM strategies have been limited. DNA arrays. Science 274, 610–614. NARS will have to continually develop and Cohen, M.B., Gould, F. and Bentur, J.S. (2000) Bt integrate existing IPM control components rice: practical steps to sustainable use. Inter- to offset the risks to farmers due to the loss national Rice Research Notes 25(2), 4–10. of conventional chemical control, and the Coombs, J., Douches, D., Li, W., Grafius, E. and problems of pest resistance. For example, in Pett, W. (2002) Combining engineered many areas of South and Central America, (Bt-cry3A) and natural resistance mecha- the leaf miner fly, white flies, aphids, and nisms in potato for control of Colorado potato potato tuber moth are resistant to the com- beetle. Journal of the American Society for monly applied insecticides. There is, there- Horticultural Science 127, 62–68. Douches, D.S., Westedt, A.L., Zarka, K. and fore, a need for continuing investments from Grafius, E.J. (1998) Potato transformation to national governments, NGOs, private sector combine natural and engineered resistance and international development agencies to for controlling tuber moth. HortScience 33, support IPM. Successful IPM labeling pro- 1053–1056. grams need to be promoted as this will allow Douches, D., Santos, F., Coombs, J., Grafius, E., consumers to differentiate between food pro- Li, W., Metry, E., Nasr El-Din, T. and duced using IPM and conventional systems. Madkour, M. (2003) Field and storage testing Such foods could enhance exports to other Bt-potatoes for resistance to potato tuber environmentally concerned countries. moth (Lepidoptera: Gelichiidae). Journal of In many countries, important food Economic Entomology (in press). Estruch, J.J., Carozzi, N.B., Desai, N., Duck, N.B., crops are genetically engineered for virus, Warren, G.W. and Koziel, M.G. (1997) Trans- fungus, and insect resistance. The challenge genic plants: an emerging approach to pest is to integrate these products into IPM and control. Nature Biotechnology 15, 137–141. crop management programs to delay or Georgis, R. (1996) Present and Future Prospects of prevent pest resistance. The IPM therefore Biological Insecticides. Cornell Community should become part of the national biosafety conference on Biological Control, 11–13 46 K.V. Raman et al.

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Chapter 5 Pesticide Policy and Integrated Pest Management

Gerd Fleischer1 and Hermann Waibel2 1Rural Development Department Division, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany; 2Faculty of Economics, University of Hannover, Hannover, Germany

Introduction pesticide use can thus be a contribution toward reversing the pro-pesticide bias in Chemical pesticide use in developing agricultural policies. countries has grown substantially during The aim of this chapter is to outline the past four decades. The so-called Green the rationale and the importance of policy Revolution technological package of high- analysis for designing rational decision yielding varieties and mineral fertilizer making in the area of crop protection. The demanded the use of chemical pesticides first section describes the most important to secure the full achievement of the yield trends in crop protection that shape the potential. National governments, bilateral current policy agenda and exert pressure to and multilateral donor agencies promoted change the pro-pesticide bias. Although the pesticide use in order to achieve national global policy environment has become more food security and match the production important in the last decade, actual imple- targets for agricultural export commodities. mentation of IPM policies is still mainly The orientation towards unilateral use of a task for decision makers at the level of chemical pesticides was challenged when individual countries. A concept for country widespread negative externalities became level studies has been used in a joint pilot apparent. IPM has been developed to over- project by the University of Hannover and come the dependency of cropping systems GTZ (German Technical Cooperation). The on chemical pesticides and to reduce analysis uses a welfare economic concept environmental and health risks. However, that approximates the socially optimal level the diffusion of IPM is severely impeded of pesticide use by integrating external costs. because in many developing countries pes- Factors that drive a wedge between the ticide use is subsidized or favored through private and social optimum are identified. non-price instruments when compared Conclusions for policy intervention can with non-chemical pest control measures. only be made when the driving forces of pes- The reform of the legal, fiscal, economic, ticide use and opportunities and constraints and institutional framework governing of influencing use trends are known.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 49 50 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

Global Pesticide Use: Trends and state that there is a ‘paradox of increased Policy Challenges pesticide use and increased losses from pests’ (Yudelman et al., 1998). It is estimated that about one-third of According to global estimates of Oerke chemical pesticides is used in developing et al. (1994) an increasing proportion of crop countries, 16% thereof in Latin America, output is lost to pests after a period when and 22% in East Asia (including Japan the use of chemical pesticides has rapidly and Korea) (Farm Chemicals International, increased. Increased vulnerability of crops 2002). Nearly all regions of the developing and production systems, reduction in crop world saw a higher average annual increase diversity and crop rotation, and emergence between 1993 and 1998 than in the ten of resistance of pests to pesticides are years before (see Fig. 5.1). World sales of among the factors that hint at the lack of chemical pesticides dropped from US$27.8 sustainability of crop protection strategies billion in 2000 to US$25.2 billion in 2002. relying exclusively on chemical pesticide However, forecasts of market research use. These concerns are a driving force companies suggest a further increase of towards adoption of an IPM strategy that sales in major regions of the developing come from within the agricultural sector world. While pesticide use in industrialized itself. countries, especially Europe and Japan, has The mounting evidence on the negative stabilized due to internal adjustment of externalities of pesticides is a factor that has agricultural policies, major developing pushed demands from a large number of country markets in Asia and Latin America actors of the global society for reconsidera- showhigh predicted growthrates. While tion of policies and strategies with regard agricultural intensification is generally to pesticides. As globalization of markets, considered necessary to meet the expected institutions and information increased, this demand increases for food and fiber due to trend is increasingly affecting developing population and income growth, there is a countries. The last decade has witnessed the less clear picture about the role of pesticides emergence of vocal and powerful global civil in these strategies. Researchers of the IFPRI society organizations that argue for the full

Fig. 5.1. Growth rates of pesticide use in world regions, 1983–1998. Source: After Wood et al., 2001. Pesticide Policy and IPM 51

recognition of previously neglected impacts Theoretical Framework for Pesticide of agricultural development and inclusion Policy Analysis of disadvantaged groups. Pesticides and their effects on farmers’ health, natural The objective for policies on pesticide use resources and biodiversity have been part of should be not to eliminate yield losses from that debate. At the same time, a remarkable pests but to reduce them towards a socially shift in global food demand has started. and economically optimal level. Welfare Based on increasing consumer awareness, economic theory suggests that the marginal food supply chain operators, mainly in utility of a unit of loss reduction should be Europe, put more stringent standards on equal to the marginal costs. Because of the reducing pesticide residues in food and need to account for external costs, decision meeting requirements of environmentally making about the extent of pesticide use in and socially responsible production pest management strategies has to be made methods (see protocol of European retailer both at the farm level and for the society as initiative, EUREP-GAP, 2001). Market a whole (Pearce and Tinch, 1998). access for high-value crops of developing Farmers’ decision making on the type countries is affected by private and public and amount of pesticide use depends on standards. This forces institutions in several considerations, i.e. type of pest, developing countries to respond effectively. expected crop loss, ratio of output and input Decision makers in developing coun- prices, risk attitude and availability of input tries find themselves in a policy dilemma. resources. However, subsidies and other An appropriate balance has to be found institutional factors distorting use levels between a careful reversal of proactive may contribute to pesticide use that exceeds pesticide support in the traditional agri- the optimum from the society’s point of view. cultural development agenda, which never- At the same time, alternatives in pest man- theless does not endanger food security agement are under-utilized which leads to and rural development objectives, and the productivity loss for the national economy. mounting forces that call for reduced use From the viewpoint of the society, of pesticides, particularly highly toxic and pesticide use is often excessive, because the persistent substances. The policy dilemma external effects caused by pesticides are usu- is reinforced through conflicting signals ally not included in the pesticide price. The from international institutions. On the individual farmer’s objective is to maximize one hand, liberalization and deregulation profit. With respect to pesticide use, profit of government intervention, which are maximization implies that the marginal part of the structural adjustment programs value product of pesticides equals their that aim at facilitating integration into marginal costs. Taking other inputs as given, world markets, frequently have weakened the farmer will seek to obtain the maximum capacities to monitor and enforce health level of crop loss prevention subject to the and environmental precautions with regard cost of pest control. Figure 5.2 shows how to pesticides. Government services were different types of costs are related to the scaled down, which had a negative impact optimal level of pesticide use. The x-axis on delivery of public goods such as shows units of prevented crop loss due to extension and information on IPM. On the the application of pesticides. The line (OD) other hand, a number of global conventions, represents the benefit from pesticides. The which require national governments to benefit of pesticide use may be a linear upgrade capacities for stricter pesticide function of crop loss based on the assump- control, have been put in place, e.g. the tion that the producer is a price taker. The Rotterdam convention on Prior Informed costs that users perceive as direct costs Consent (UNEP, 1998) and the recent include the costs of pesticides plus other Stockholm convention on Persistent farm-level costs such as application, storage. Organic Pollutants. Those costs will be represented by the cost 52 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

Fig. 5.2. Private and social optimum of pesticide use. (Source: Waibel, 1994.) function labeled as ‘perceived private costs’. In analyzing effects that contribute The optimal level of pesticide use will be to the distortion of pesticide use from its attained at (A). However, because pesticides socially optimal level, several groups of often affect the health of farmers (WHO, subsidizing and promoting factors can be 1990), these can result in health costs, which distinguished (see Table 5.1). The farm-gate are normally not considered in the produc- price of pesticides can be lowered by direct tion costs. By internalizing these costs, the transfer payments to pesticide industries or cost curve shifts from the perceived private retailers, or by administering controlled prices costs to the cost function specified as ‘actual through government distribution. Conces- private costs’ in Fig. 5.2. The economic sions on taxes and import duties as well as optimum of pesticide use decreases to (B). interest rate subsidies may be in place. Also, From the society’s point of viewthere external costs are in most cases not yet inter- are additional costs related to crop protec- nalized in market prices. These factors can tion. External costs of pesticide use occur be classified as price factors. The decision for example through the contamination of making of the actual pesticide user whether groundwater or food. Including these costs to apply pesticides or to use alternative crop in the computation leads to a third cost protection methods is influenced also by function labeled ‘social costs’. some other reasons which are acting indi- The optimal level of pesticide use from rectly and frequently hidden. Biases towards the society’s point of viewwouldbe reached chemical solutions in institutional settings at (C). This optimal level for society differs such as the agricultural education system, from the current level of pesticide use (A) if priorities in the research programs and orga- the external costs are not internalized. nization of the extension service, have an The exact determination of the socially important influence on the generation and optimal level may not always be feasible due the direction of technical progress and its to uncertainty about the magnitude of effects implementation on the field level. With and lack of data (Oskam, 1994). However, it regard to human resources, the type and appears particularly useful to determine the level of information about different crop pro- extent of the deviation of different private tection strategies is decisive for the over- and and social optima and the relative impor- misuse of chemicals of pesticides as well tance of distorting factors (Waibel, 1994). as the under-utilization of non-chemical Pesticide Policy and IPM 53

Table 5.1. Factors causing excessive pesticide use. (Source: Waibel, 1991.)

Price factors Non-price factors

Obvious I Government sells or gives pesticides III Misguided use of governments’ activities factors Donors provide pesticides at low or no costs in reducing pesticide damage Government refunds pesticide companies Governments’ investments in pesticide costs research Subsidized credit for pesticides Inadequate government research in Preferential rates for tax and exchange rate environmentally benign pest management Hidden II Plant Protection Service outbreak budget IV Lack of adequate procedures for factors Pesticide production externalities • pest definition Pesticide use externalities • crop loss definition Lack of information on agroecological parameters Lack of transparency in regulatory decision making Curricula of agricultural education and extension Dominance of pesticide industry in the market for crop protection information alternatives. Inappropriate government of pesticide use. A comprehensive analysis intervention in case of occurrence of exter- in the following areas is included: nal effects can also play an important role in 1. Characteristics of the agricultural sec- keeping pesticide use levels high. tor, e.g. relative importance of the sector, Pesticide subsidies have been first ana- farm size structure, dependence of the lyzed by Repetto (1985). He pointed at the sector on external economies. high amount of direct price support, govern- 2. Analysis of pest problems, pest management distribution at lowor no cost for the ment practices and pesticide use trends. user and the effects of exchange rate regimes 3. Externalities of pesticide use (e.g. in nine developing countries. A literature occupational health impacts, water pollu- reviewof the World Bank (Farah, 1994) used tion, damage to natural resources, pesticide an extended framework for the identifica- resistance). tion of subsidizing factors (Table 5.1) based 4. Evaluation of agricultural policy, i.e. on research in Thailand (Waibel, 1991). market and input price policies, trade and Despite the decisive impact of structural exchange rate policies, commodity price adjustment programs on abolishing direct support measures. price subsidies it appeared that both hidden 5. Regulatory intervention, i.e. registra- price factors and non-price factors play still tion requirements and procedures. an important role in many parts of the world. 6. Perception of pesticide use and regula- This stands in sharp contrast to the declara- tion in the society, e.g. perception of crop tion of IPM as a national policy goal in many loss by different groups of the society, per- countries (Fleischer and Waibel, 1993). ception of health and environmental risks. In order to get country-specific informa- 7. Farm and crop characteristics of tion on the extent of direct and indirect pesticide use, e.g. biophysical and socio- subsidies, a methodological framework for economic characteristics of farming system, country studies on pesticide policies was crop profile, characteristics of and informa- elaborated (Agne et al., 1995). The frame- tion level on plant protection strategies, work aims at an in-depth overview on the awareness of health risks. current status of pesticide use and policies 8. Economic evaluation of different pest by revealing the economic and institutional control strategies from the viewpoint of the factors that contribute to the deviation of private user and the society. the private costs from the social costs 54 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

So far, the framework has been applied the underlying trends. Appropriate policies to case studies in eight countries in coopera- and strategies for pesticides and crop tion with local, regional and international protection have to be formulated by taking organizations: Benin (Affognon, 2003), into account the broader framework of Costa Rica (Agne, 1996), Côte d’Ivoire agricultural, environmental, and health and (Fleischer et al., 1998), Ghana (Gerken et al., consumer protection policy. Policy change 2001), Mali (Camara et al., 2001), Pakistan will produce winners and losers among the (NARC, 2001), Thailand (Jungbluth, 1996), interest groups, depending on the objectives and Zimbabwe (Mudimu et al., 1999). In and instruments of proposed policy instru- most cases, the entry point for the policy ments. Therefore relevant stakeholders analysis was the interest of national or should negotiate policy reform. sub-regional research institutions to become The process involved several steps (see involved in the ongoing international Fig. 5.3)before policy instruments were discussion on pesticide policy research. actually implemented. In several of the case- The theoretical concept was adapted to study countries it has been observed that local conditions in a structured awareness providing local economic research institu- raising and training workshop. The GTZ/ tions with a link to the international debate University of Hannover Pesticide Policy about pesticide policy was a crucial element Project provided the link to the international for starting the policy reform process. The debate especially with regard to methods process of developing a consensus started for economic evaluation of pesticide already at the beginning by exposing stake- externalities. holder representatives to the approach for The situation analysis of the crop pro- economic evaluation to be used in the situa- tection sub-sector is a first step for establish- tion analysis. The workshops at the end of ing a common information basis, which can the study were in most cases convened by be used as a starting point for achieving con- either the agricultural ministry or a policy sensus about the extent of the problems and research institute. In almost all countries,

Fig. 5.3. Strategy for policy reform. Pesticide Policy and IPM 55

those workshops brought together for the crops that consume high amounts of chemi- first time a broad range of stakeholders at the cal pesticide per area unit. The latter holds national level in an open discussion forum. true especially for fruit, vegetable and The provision of reliable information to all plantation crops. Countries with a large stakeholders is a vital step towards improv- share of pesticides going to cotton producing information access for those actors, tion (Benin, Mali, Pakistan, and to a lesser which are structurally disadvantaged in the extent Côte d’Ivoire) showed particularly political decision-making process. It is thus high growth rates in the last decade which a contribution towards more rational policy hints at widespread problems of declin- making. ing productivity and emergence of pest resistance in cotton production systems.

Case Studies on Policy Distortions of Pesticide Use Pesticide subsidies

The detailed account for pesticide use The analysis of the driving forces for the trends in the country proved to be the most increase in pesticide use shows that various important starting point for the policy economic and institutional mechanisms analysis. Although import statistics have stimulate farm-level use patterns. Direct been updated in many countries for a and indirect government subsidies distort considerable period, information about the farm level decision making and provide trends of pesticide use at national level incentives for inefficiencies. Direct price and for the major cropping systems was subsidies are provided through two generally not readily available to most of mechanisms. Many African countries have the stakeholders in pesticide policy. programs with financial assistance from the Japanese government to provide subsidized inputs, among them pesticides, for the Pesticide use trend production of rice and other food crops. A second line of support has been found Results for those countries where a time- in countries where the parastatal cotton series analysis was available show high agencies still hold monopolies for setting growth rates in recent years (see Table 5.2) commodity and input prices. Indirect price which generally exceed the increase in agri- distortions, i.e. by import duty and sales cultural production. The increase is mainly tax exemptions, are present in all countries caused by general intensification of agri- where data were available (see Table 5.3). cultural production and the shift towards They play a major role in lowering the

Table 5.2. Pesticide use level in case study countries. (Source: own compilation based on results of eight country studies.)

Current pesticide use level, at the time of study Average growth rate of pesticide Country completion (US$ million) use per year

Benin 11.4 (1999) n.d. Costa Rica 90.1 (1996) 9.8% (1990–1994) Thailand .247 (1994) 18.8% (1992–1994) Côte d’Ivoire 41.1 (1997) 8.1% (1994–1997) Mali . 25 (1999) . 19% (1994–1999) Zimbabwe 56.3 (1997) 13.3% (1991–1997) Pakistan .200 (1999) n.d. Ghana .a 25 (1998)a n.d. aIncludes veterinary drugs. n.d. not determined due to lack of data. 56 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

Table 5.3. Direct and indirect pesticide price subsidies in case study countries. (Source: own compilation based on results of eight country studies.)

Country (year) Type of price subsidy

Benin Distribution of donor-financed pesticides through government at prices below costs (1999) Direct price and interest rate subsidy for cotton growers Exemption from import duty (29%) and sales tax (18%) Compound subsidy rate for cotton insecticides: 44% Costa Rica Exemption from import duty and sales tax (rebate ranging from 6% to 28%) (1996) Thailand Exemption from import duty, business and local tax (import duty on fertilizer = 10%, for (1995) agricultural machinery = 28%) Government budget for pesticide campaigns (‘outbreak budget’) = US$3 million Côte d’Ivoire Distribution of donor-financed pesticides through government at prices below costs (1998) (subsidy of over 50%) Exemption from import duty (18%) for cotton, banana and pineapple growers (2/3 of total market value) Mali Distribution of donor-financed pesticides through government at prices below costs (2000) Reduction of import duty (7.5% instead of 12%), exemption from sales tax (20%) Pakistan Import duty concessions for local formulators (2000) Ghana Distribution of donor-financed pesticides through government at prices below cost (budget (2000) of about US$1.2 million) Exemption from import duty (10%) and sales tax pesticide price to the user. In Benin, total adoption of chemical solutions to pest prob- subsidies amount to 44% of the calculated lems. Some countries, such as Thailand, full costs of cotton insecticides whose share Pakistan and others, have allocated funds to is about 90% of the total use in the country. research for IPM. However, weak research– This is equivalent to a subsidy of over US$9 extension linkages constrain the adoption million or 0.4% of total GDP. of research results by farmers. Costa Rica Eliminating direct and indirect price and Ghana have established IPM farmer subsidies would not only improve farm level extension and training programs, while efficiency, but would also improve the other countries such as Mali, Thailand, and government’s financial position. Farmers Zimbabwe started pilot activities. Despite could be compensated for income losses these efforts, IPM training programs cur- by funding the development and spread of rently reach only a small number of farmers alternative crop protection technologies. and have still a negligible impact on national Pro-pesticide biases in the institutional use levels. Educational and training setting are more difficult to identify and can curricula lack the adequate consideration generally not be assessed in a quantitative of non-chemical crop protection strategies. manner. However, the entrenchment of Government promotion of pesticide- biased support to pesticides in agricultural intensive production systems also plays an research, extension and education institu- important role. Those systems are supported tions as well as in the regulatory framework by priority setting in agricultural develop- is a truly global phenomenon as all of the ment programs and hence indirectly subsi- surveyed countries have been affected by dized and favored against other crops. In agricultural modernization strategies which some crops such as cotton in Côte d’Ivoire, were pursued during the times of the Green Mali, and Benin, credit programs are bound Revolution. Priorities and resources in to obligatory pesticide use. extension services and in research programs The informational environment for the are still predominately geared towards the decision making at farm level is almost Pesticide Policy and IPM 57

exclusively dominated by chemical solu- Human wealth costs and pesticide use tions for pest problems. Farmers lack, both, adequate information on alternatives to The most visible and pronounced external- chemical products as well as the knowl- ity problem arises from occupational health edge on feasible pesticide-use reduction impacts for farmers and farm laborers. measures such as a full understanding of According to WHO (1990) estimates, there agroecological principles. are more than 20,000 fatal poisoning cases One of the most challenging tasks for the due to occupational pesticide exposure that status analysis is the economic assessment occur annually worldwide. In the Pakistan of pesticide externalities. Overall assess- study, an attempt for a comprehensive ments are available for some industrialized assessment of the costs of occupational countries (Pimentel et al., 1993; Waibel poisoning was made. Based on evidence et al., 1999; Pretty et al., 2000). They have from case studies conducted in selected demonstrated that aggregated information areas, an extrapolation for nine districts in about the social costs of pesticide use is the Punjab province was made where about a useful tool for underpinning the notion 60% of the total cotton area of the country is that net benefits of pesticides to society are located (NARC, 2001). Health costs have to lower than their contribution to agricultural be borne by three sections of the population productivity. However, in most developing (see Table 5.4). The largest groups are countries negative impacts frequently go women from rural areas who are employed unnoticed as the capacities for long-term for picking cotton in the fields. Due to monitoring of health and environmental increasing intensity of pesticide use, mainly effects are underdeveloped. For example, caused by pest resistance problems, pesti- there is considerable underreporting of cide exposure at harvest time has become occupational poisoning cases. A case study a serious problem. Since in many cases in Thailand showed that the number of cotton picking is the only source of income poisoning cases is likely to be 13 times for landless families, exposure-related higher than official records (Jungbluth, productivity loss has a direct bearing on 1996). total household income. Farmers and farm

Table 5.4. Cost estimate for health effects due to acute pesticide poisoning in nine cotton districts of Punjab Province, Pakistan. (Source: NARC, 2001.)

Estimated costs per year No. of persons affected (US$ million)

1. Exposure during application at farm levela Farmers and farm workers suffering sickness 1.08 million Hospital treatment 0.02 million 0.45 Work loss 0.24 million days 0.35 Accidental fatalities 271 4.25 2. Exposure during cotton harvestb Female cotton pickers suffering sickness 2.23 million Medical treatment 2.255 Work loss 11 million days 12.5 3. Exposure at local pesticide refilling facilitiesc Laborers suffering sickness 500 Medical treatment 0.01 Work loss 450 days 0.002 Total 20.255 aEstimated for 2.17 million households of 9 major cotton growing districts. bEstimated for 5,127,000 tons of cotton picked by 2.6 million women in nine cotton growing districts of cotton zone. cEstimated for 1000 laborers working at 25 plants in Multan city. 58 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

workers are exposed to pesticides during pesticide damage, the polluter-pays- application. Safety precautions are gener- principle tends to be neglected. External ally lowand inadequate for the majority of costs are not internalized into private user’s insecticides used. A third group is workers decision making. For example, pesticide use in repackaging and refilling plants that are decisions of farmers are not affected by the exposed to pesticide health hazards due costs that users of contaminated drinking to substandard working conditions. Total water resources pay for clean-up or finding health costs for the nine cotton districts newsources. Thus, the price of pesticides alone equal about 10% of the total value of does not reflect costs borne by the society as pesticide imports into the country. a whole. A comprehensive estimation of external costs has been made in the Thailand study Environmental costs of pesticide use (see Table 5.5). External costs are between 9% and 93% of the market value of pesti- External costs of pesticide use occur also due cides. This may well be an underestimation to contamination of the environment with of the true costs since important effects such residues. Pesticides contaminate the envi- as costs of pest resistance development have ronment by leaching residues into ground not yet been quantified. Pimentel et al. and surface water and by soil accumulation. (1993), estimate that the USA has a ratio of For example, in Thailand a comparatively external costs to private costs that comes to large survey found residues in over 90% of about 200%. The study of Rola and Pingali soil, sediment and fish samples as well as (1993) on health costs of insecticides in in over 50% of water samples (Sinhaseni, rice farming in the Philippines estimates 1992, cited in Jungbluth, 1996). However, a similar ratio for health costs alone. contamination may only have an economic impact in the long run when avoidance, mitigation and damage abatement measures Achieving Stakeholder Consensus have to be undertaken, e.g. for securing on Policy Change access to safe drinking water resources. When governments spend resources Although the economic impact of different from general revenues in mitigation of subsidy factors was clearly determined by

Table 5.5. External costs of pesticide use in Thailand. (Source: modified from Jungbluth, 1996.)

Estimated annual Cost type Method of assessment costs (million Bahta)

Human health damage Case study on acute occupational health in citrus 13.0 growing area Resistance and Outbreak budget of plant protection service for control 57.4 resurgence of pests of rice pests and support of rice farmers Market produce loss Market value of contaminated fruits and vegetables 5037.4 due to residuesb Government regulation, Budget for pesticide quality and food residue monitoring, 404.4 control and extension for pesticide regulation and market control, and for research and extension of chemical control External costs of (excludes other externalities, e.g. water contamination, 462.8 to 5491.8 pesticide use (range)c loss of wild life etc.) aExchange rate at the time of the survey: 1 US$ = 25.6 Baht. b10% of samples in fruit and vegetables exceed maximum residue limits. Therefore, produce should be withdrawn, but regulatory control is inefficient. Therefore, other costs, e.g. chronic human health hazard may occur. More detailed research is needed in this area. cLower boundary excludes the market value of contaminated produce. Pesticide Policy and IPM 59

the research results in the different pesticide use and its externalities was countries, the available information did reached. The success of the effort in terms not automatically trigger the removal of of pushing decision makers towards actual inefficient subsidies. Policy change is deter- adoption of policy measures depended on mined not only by the facts, but also by several factors. In countries, where there the perceptions, interests, and strategies of was strong evidence of negative externali- policymakers and affected groups. There- ties, pressure from global markets to react to fore, study results were communicated to a food residue problems and growing levels of broad range of stakeholders to become a civil society concern about pesticide-related dominant point of reference for the dialog issues, policy makers were more likely to among concerned groups. The objective endorse a pro-IPM policy reform agenda. In was to reach consensus among experts from some countries, factors like the high stakes different fields and among the interest of agricultural agencies (ministry, research, groups in order to enable further action extension service) in chemical crop protec- towards policy change. tion, the sales strategies of pesticide indus- The results of the situation analysis try, or general political instability hampered were discussed with an expert forum where the adoption of a reform path which required representatives from government ministries a long-term vision for the improving and agencies in agriculture, environment, sustainability of the agricultural sector. and health protection, as well as non- The Central American workshop governmental organizations, e.g. pesticide explored the potential role of economic industry, farmers’ associations and environ- instruments in crop protection policy based mental groups participated. Qualitative on the findings of pesticide policy reports indicators for the extent to which each factor from five countries. A common understand- influences pesticide use levels were used ing was reached that legislative measures in a number of case-study countries. The should be harmonized in the region but are experts did an overall ranking of stimulating not sufficient for effective regulatory control and discouraging factors of chemical pesti- of pesticide externalities. Reduction of cide use. The example of Costa Rica shows pesticide use and risks should be achieved that the overwhelming majority of influenc- by adding economic instruments, such as ing factors act towards pesticide use levels polluter-pay-taxes to the policy toolbox. The that exceed the social optimum (see Fig. 5.4). process of establishing a common market This clearly indicates that pesticide use in the region demands also a harmonized is above the socially desired level when approach for the withdrawal of tax exemp- all direct and indirect costs are taken into tion and for taxation of pesticides (Reiche, account. Only fewmeasures counterbalance 2000). the effects of indirect subsidies and other Policy change may be triggered if deci- promoting influences. For example, farmer sion makers are convinced that a crisis situa- extension on IPM presently reaches only tion demands corrective action. In the case a small number of farmers in Costa Rica. of Pakistan and Mali, this point was reached IPM adoption shows little impact on overall when there was unanimous consensus that pesticide use levels because of the large continuing the present trend of pesticide number of factors that favor chemical use, especially in cotton, would have serious pesticide use. economic, health or environmental impacts Experience with policy reform work- (Camara et al., 2001; NARC, 2001). shops were, among other countries, made in In Thailand, a national workshop among Thailand (Poapongsakorn et al., 1999), the stakeholders from all relevant government Central America region (Reiche, 2000), Mali organizations and societal interest groups (Camara et al., 2001), and Pakistan (NARC, recommended a master plan on sustainable 2001). The workshops were instrumental in agriculture (Poapongsakorn et al., 1999). A developing a reform agenda. For example, newpesticide policy is currently under a common perspective on the trends of discussion and expected to be officially 60 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

adopted in early 2002 (TGPPP, 2001). Since especially with a view on adhering to pesti- the country has been known for its too cide residue standards in export markets. liberal pesticide market a need for tighten- The master plan contains instruments for ing the regulatory policy was expressed, a stepwise reduction of the most toxic

Fig. 5.4. Determinants of pesticide use and their impact (Agne, 1996). Pesticide Policy and IPM 61

pesticides. In a comparatively advanced for providing information to policy makers. economic situation like Thailand, changes Interaction between economists and natural in the institutional environment of crop scientists is particularly important to protection decisions play a major role. improve the assessment of the impacts of Workshop participants demanded increased pesticide use for the society at large. efforts supporting the adoption of the IPM The analysis of pesticide use in the eight paradigm in research, education and exten- countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa sion. It was stressed that obligations for demonstrates that a number of factors distort pesticide use in credit schemes as well as pesticide use levels from its social optimum. special government budgets for subsidies in There is a consistent pattern of economic outbreak situations should be abolished. and institutional support measures for Both, the Mali and the Pakistan pesti- unilateral pesticide use which hamper the cide policy workshops were held at a time diffusion and adoption of IPM approaches in when the crisis in the cotton sector provided developing countries. Once the distorting favorable conditions for launching a policy factors are identified, appropriate regulatory reform strategy. In Mali, recommendations and economic instruments for correcting the of the policy workshop were directly imbalances can be designed. included into an agricultural lending pro- The second pillar of a policy reform gram, financed by the World Bank and other strategy is the establishment of a dialog donors. The component includes farmer forum. The situation analysis of the crop training on IPM, strengthening of regulatory protection sector is an appropriate entrance control, and adjusting the fiscal and eco- point for awareness creation among dif- nomic framework related to pesticides. In ferent stakeholders. Typically, there exist Pakistan, escalating pesticide use trends conflicts between different ministries and in cotton have become a liability for the agencies on the extent of problems related to national economy. The federal agricultural pesticide use and about suitable measures to ministry took the initiative to develop a be taken. Differing perceptions and interests national IPM program. Within this context, block inter-agency committees. In this case, the policy study was an opportunity to win a policy study covering all aspects of the the support of the provinces and to draw pesticide use problem in a manner that is the attention of the international lending as complete and as transparent as possible agencies on this area. improves the common information base Further continuation of the policy and helps to identify action areas of high reform process depends on the awareness priority. of major actors as well as on the relative More studies will be needed to substan- position of the interest groups in the politi- tiate the emerging evidence about negative cal process. Comprehensive pesticide use long-term impacts of pesticide use on the reduction plans have been used in several agroecological resource base. Pest resistance European countries to reconcile conflicting and resurgence are compromising the interests among groups and achieve a frame- long-term productivity of crop protection. work for the elaboration of a package of To date, these effects have been only sporad- instruments (Reus et al., 1994). ically assessed in economic terms. More emphasis should be placed on the economic evaluation of externalities of pesticides as well as of other crop protection products and Conclusion technologies. This information is essential to quantify the difference between the Pesticide policy studies are an important private and the social costs of crop pro- element in strategies that aim at rapid IPM tection technologies. Reliable information implementation. Analyzing the trends in from both areas will help to establish better pesticide use and the economic impacts of arguments for IPM that can be used in the influencing factors plays an important role political process. 62 G. Fleischer and H. Waibel

References Mudimu, G.D., Waibel, H. and Fleischer, G. (1999) Pesticide Policies in Zimbabwe – Status and Affognon, H. (2003) Crop Protection Policy in Implications for Change. Pesticide Policy Benin – Factors Influencing Pesticide Use. Project, Publications Series Special Issue Pesticide Policy Project, Publication Series No. 2. GTZ/University of Hannover Pesticide No. 11. GTZ/University of Hannover, Pesti- Policy Project, Hannover, Germany. cide Policy Project, Hannover, Germany (in NARC (2001) Policy and Strategy for Rational press). Use of Pesticides in Pakistan. National Agne, S. (1996) Economic Analysis of Crop Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad. Protection Policy in Costa Rica. Pesticide Oerke, E.C., Dehne, H.W., Schönbeck, F. and Policy Project, Publications Series No. 4. Weber, A. (1994) Crop Production and Crop GTZ/University of Hannover Pesticide Protection. Estimated Losses in Major Policy Project, Hannover, Germany. Food and Cash Crops. Elsevier Science, Agne, S., Fleischer, G., Jungbluth, F. and Amsterdam. Waibel, H. (1995) Guidelines for Pesticide Oskam, A. (1994) Pesticides – issues at stake for Policy Studies – a Framework for Analyzing economists. In: Michalek, J. and Hanf, C.H. Economic and Political Factors of Pesticide (eds) The Economic Consequences of a Dras- Use in Developing Countries. Pesticide Policy tic Reduction in Pesticide Use in the Euro- Project, Publication Series No. 1. GTZ/ pean Union. Revised papers of a workshop University of Hannover Pesticide Policy held in Tannenfelde (Schleswig-Holstein), Project, Hannover, Germany. 13th–14th November 1993, Kiel, pp. 81–108. Camara, M., Haidara, F. and Traoré, A. (2001) Pearce, D. and Tinch, R. (1998) The true price of Etude socio-economique de l’utlisation des pesticides. In: Vorley, W. and Keeney, D. pesticides au Mali. Institut du Sahel, Bamako. (eds) Bugs in the System. Redesigning EUREP-GAP (2001) EUREP-GAP Protocol for the Pesticide Industry for Sustainable Fresh Fruit and Vegetables. EUREP-GAP/ Agriculture. Earthscan, London. FoodPlus GmbH, Cologne, Germany. Pimentel, D., Acquay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., Farah, J. (1994) Pesticide policies in developing Silva, M., Nelson, J., Lipner, V., Giordano, S., countries – do they encourage excessive Horowitz, A. and D’Amore, M. (1993) Assess- pesticide use? World Bank Technical Paper ment of environmental and economic Series 238. World Bank, Washington, DC. impacts of pesticide use. In: Pimentel, D. Farm Chemicals International (2002) Meister and Lehman, H. (eds) The Pesticide Question Publishing Co., Willoughby, Ohio, December – Environment, Economics, and Ethics. issue. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 47–84. Fleischer, G. and Waibel, H. (1993) Survey Among Poapongsakorn, N., Meenakanit, L., Jungbluth, F. Plant Protection Officers During the Global and Waibel, H. (eds) (1999) Approaches to IPM Conference, Bangkok, August 1993. pesticide policy reform – building consensus Report to the FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts for future action. A Policy Workshop in Hua on Integrated Pest Control, Göttingen/Rome. Hin, Thailand, 3–5 July 1997. Pesticide Fleischer, G., Andoli, V., Coulibaly, M. and Policy Project, Publication Series No. 7. Randolph, T. (1998) Analyse Socio- GTZ/University of Hannover Pesticide économique de la Filière des Pesticides Policy Project, Hannover, Germany. en Côte d‘Ivoire. Pesticide Policy Project Pretty, J., Brett, C., Gee, D., Hine, R., Mason, C., Publication Series No. 6. GTZ/University Morison, J., Raven, H., Rayment, M. and van of Hannover Pesticide Policy Project, den Bijl, G. (2000) An assessment of the Hannover, Germany. external costs of UK agriculture. Agricultural Gerken, A., Suglo, J. and Braun, M. (2001) Pesti- Systems 65(2), 113–136. cides Use and Policies in Ghana – an Eco- Reiche, C. (ed.) (2000) Memoria – Taller Sobre el nomic and Institutional Analysis of Current Uso de Plaguicidas an America Central, Practice and Factors Influencing Pesticide 17–19 de Setiembre de 1997. Proyecto Use. Pesticide Policy Publications Series No. IICA/GTZ sobre Agricultura Recurso 10. GTZ/University of Hannover Pesticide Naturales y Desarrollo Sostenible. Instituto Policy Project, Hannover, Germany. Interamericano de Cooperación para la Jungbluth, F. (1996) Pesticide Policy in Thailand. Agricultura, San José, Costa Rica. Pesticide Policy Project Publications Series Repetto, R. (1985) Paying the Price – Pesticide No. 5. University of Hannover, Germany. Subsidies in Developing Countries. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Pesticide Policy and IPM 63

Reus, J., Weckseler, H. and Pak, G. (1994) Towards Waibel, H. (1994) Towards an economic a Future EC Pesticide Policy – an Inventory framework of pesticide policy studies. of Risks of Pesticide Use, Possible Solutions In: Agne, S., Fleischer, G. and Waibel, H. (eds) and Policy Instruments. Centre for Agri- Proceedings of the Göttingen Workshop on culture and Environment, Utrecht, The Pesticide Policies, Göttinger Schriften zur Netherlands. Agrarökonomie, Vol. 66. Institute of Agri- Rola, A. and Pingali, P. (1993) Pesticides, Rice cultural Economics, University of Göttingen, Productivity, and Farmers’ Health – an Germany, pp. 1–10. Economic Assessment. International Rice Waibel, H., Fleischer, G. and Becker, H. (1999) Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, The economic benefits of pesticides: a case Philippines. study from Germany. Agrarwirtschaft 48(6), TGPPP (2001) New Pesticide Policy for Health 219–230. Environment and Export Workshop, Novem- WHO (1990) Public Health Impact of ber 16, 2001. Thai–German Plant Protection Pesticides Used in Agriculture. World Programme, Bangkok. http://www.tgppp.org Health Organization, Geneva. Accessed 20 December 2001. Wood, S., Sebastian, K. and Scherr, S. (2001) UNEP (1998) PIC – Rotterdam Convention on the Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems. Agro- Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain ecosystems. IFPRI and World Resources Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in Institute, Washington, DC. International Trade. Text and Annexes. Yudelman, M., Ratta, A. and Nygaard, D. (1998) United Nations Environment Programme, Pest Management and Food Production. Nairobi. Looking to the Future. Food, Agriculture, Waibel, H. (1991) Pesticide subsidies in Southeast and the Environment Discussion Paper 25. Asia. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 38(2), International Food Policy Research Institute, 111–120. Washington, DC.

Chapter 6 Industrial Perspective on Integrated Pest Management

Graham Head and Jian Duan Monsanto Company, St Louis, Missouri, USA

Introduction of research and extension staff located in all 50 States and six Territories. This network IPM is generally thought of as a manage- broadly influences the management prac- ment system that uses all available tools tices throughout the USA by encouraging and techniques to maintain pest popula- research on IPM-related problems and tions at levels beloweconomical thresholds disseminates the results of this research (Kogan, 1998). IPM aims to control insects, using media that include workshops, scout- weeds, diseases, and other pests in an envi- ing programs, consultations, and a wide ronmentally safe and cost-effective manner. variety of printed and electronic materials IPM tools may be either preventative (see http://www.reeusda.gov/ipm). Indus- or interventional. The former category try also recognizes this value and supports includes host-plant resistance traits, many both the individual principles and IPM as methods of cultural control (for example, a framework for defining good agricultural crop rotation), and genetically modified practices. This chapter describes the unique crops. The latter includes chemical role that industry plays in developing, sup- treatments that are applied according to porting and implementing IPM programs. thresholds, some forms of biological control Industry’s influence can be seen in three (for example, inundative and augmentative basic areas: natural enemy releases), and sanitation 1. Industry’s primary role lies in providing methods that reduce pest populations and pest control tools that can form the basis for suitable pest habitat. Ideally these methods IPM programs. We will discuss how IPM also work in a complementary fashion to considerations are integrated into the new natural biological control agents. product development process. IPM is not a newconcept, and its obvi - 2. In the product development process, ous value to farmers and the environment industry develops a large amount of data on has long been recognized. Governments product performance and appropriate prod- and academic scientists have had a long- uct use. These data are valuable in designing standing commitment to IPM (e.g. Wallace, effective IPM programs. We will describe 1993; Kogan, 1998; Fitt, 2000). For example, examples of industry working with other in the USA, the CSREES-Land Grant stakeholders, including academic scientists University IPM Program involves a network

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 65 66 G. Head and J. Duan

and farmer organizations, to design such previously for crop protection. In such programs. cases, the history of use can be studied. 3. Industry, as the provider of technolo- Where possible, insecticidal molecules that gies to farmers and thus trusted by them, has have been previously used in comparable an opportunity to communicate and educate ways without environmental problems are farmers in relation to desirable practices. preferred. For example, the crystalline IPM is one important topic dealt with in this (Cry) proteins that have been incorporated way. We will talk about how this is accom- into genetically modified, insect-protected plished and give examples of successful maize, cotton and potatoes were used safely educational programs. in foliar sprays for almost 40 years (McClintock et al., 1995; EPA, 1998; Betz et al., 2000). Product Development and IPM

Companies recognize that certain criteria Product testing must be met for a newproduct to be suc - cessful: the product must provide a highly Initial testing of novel insecticidal products effective solution to a particular pest prob- begins up to a decade before commercial- lem of economic significance, and must ization. The testing process follows a stan- also complement IPM practices and natural dard risk-assessment process and involves biological control (Briggs and Koziel, 1998). multiple tiers of laboratory and field testing The design process, and subsequent testing, (Sharples, 1991). The tests used are shaped ensures that newproducts have desirable by the requirements of regulatory agencies environmental properties and a good as well as by product stewardship consider- potential fit with IPM practices. ations. In the USA, the EPA and the USDA– APHIS regulate the environmental safety of newpest control technologies (see, for Product design example, EPA RED, 1998). In other countries, ministries of agriculture and the In designing a newproduct, considerable environment have divisions that play a effort goes into ensuring that the active comparable role. The tests performed on any ingredient is both highly effective and spe- newproduct include laboratory and field- cific. This is equally true of a conventional based studies, and typically proceed in a insecticide and the choice of an insecticidal tiered fashion. These tests address regula- protein to be expressed in a genetically tory requirements regarding environmental engineered crop. The candidate molecule is safety and the agricultural role of the new screened against important target and non- product. Testing includes an assessment of target animal species to determine the range the impact of the newproduct on important of activity. In addition, the mode of action ecological guilds within agricultural systems of the molecule is examined so that predic- such as predators, parasitoids and polli- tions can be made about its activity against nators. Ultimately, potential newproducts select species. The aim is to find proteins are compared with reasonable agronomic with high activity against the target pest alternatives with respect to agronomic and insects and little or no activity against other ecological impacts. Regulatory agencies, in taxa. As a consequence of this selection granting product approvals, must make process, proteins that might cause adverse a determination that the benefits a new environmental impacts because of either product can bring to farmers and society broad toxicity or activity against key clearly outweigh any risks. non-target groups are eliminated. Even after commercialization, work on In many cases, similar molecules, or ecological and agronomic impacts continues, even the same molecule, have been used nowin commercial-sized fields managed Industrial Perspective on IPM 67

with standard farmer practices. At this stage, The incompatibility of broad-spectrum the emphasis is on larger scale effects and insecticide use and biological control, par- emergent properties (system functioning). ticularly the survival of natural enemies, has Aspects like energy floware examined and been a major stumbling block in the attempt impacts on agronomic systems are assessed. to initiate IPM programs. Many of the widely These impacts can be direct or indirect, an used classes of conventional insecticides, example of the latter being the facilitation of including organophosphates and pyre- a shift toward reduced tillage by genetically throids, have been shown to adversely affect modified, herbicide-tolerant crops. This a broad range of non-target species, includ- shift should positively affect both soil and ing species of economic importance (e.g. water quality in areas where these products Badawy and El-Arnaouty, 1999; Amano and are used. In general, such studies are a part Haseeb, 2001). In Indian cotton, over 600 of product development and stewardship, such species have disappeared altogether as well as being regulatory requirements in (Sundaramurthy and Gahukar, 1998). These some countries. impacts on natural enemies have been Through the initial product design shown to lead to flare-ups in non-target pest process and subsequent safety tests, species, some of which were not previously products with minimal impacts on non- economically important. Replacing these target organisms, particularly biological chemistries with Bt crops allows natural control agents, are selected. This ensures populations of predators and parasitoids to that future products will complement the increase, and the opportunity for success- biological control capacity of agricultural fully introducing other suitable beneficial systems, thereby fitting into existing IPM species also is improved. Through removing systems. major negative impacts on natural enemy populations, the use of Bt crops and concomitant decrease in broad-spectrum insecticide use can contribute to improved An example – genetically modified pest control even of species not directly Bt crops and IPM impacted by Bt proteins (Turnipseed et al., 2001). Bt is a common species of soil bacterium. In the case of Bt cotton in the USA, Many strains exist which produce various Roof and DuRant (1997) demonstrated that combinations of insecticidal proteins. The beneficial arthropod numbers were greater Cry proteins are of particular interest in Bt cotton fields than conventional cotton because of their specificity and effective- fields in South Carolina. Similarly, in a ness (see reviewin Schnepf et al., 1998). multi-state study, Head et al. (2001) found Each protein only affects a relatively equivalent or greater numbers of many gen- small set of related insect species; for eralist predators in commercial Bt cotton example, Cry1-type proteins control various fields compared with commercial sprayed Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), while conventional cotton fields (see Table 6.1). Cry3 proteins control certain Coleoptera Similarly, in a multiple-year field study, (beetles). Unrelated non-target species are Reed et al. (2001) demonstrated that unaffected. The genes for Bt Cry proteins transgenic Bt potato eliminated the need have been genetically engineered into cer- for weekly Bt microbial sprays, biweekly tain crop plants. These so-called Bt crops, permethrin sprays, or in-furrowapplication because of their effectiveness, can replace of systemic insecticides for Colorado potato insecticides with undesirable environmen- beetle control. In doing so, the use of Bt tal characteristics. Tropical systems and potato enhanced the survival and reproduc- crops like cotton in which pest pressure tion of naturally occurring generalist preda- is very high, and thus broad-spectrum tors such as big-eyed bugs (Geocoris spp.), insecticide use would otherwise be very damsel bugs (Nabid spp.), pirate bugs (Orius high, are particularly benefited. spp.), and spiders (Araneae) relative to 68 G. Head and J. Duan

Table 6.1. Average abundance (number of individuals observed on beating-cloths) of various natural enemies in commercial conventional cotton (Conv) and Bt cotton (BG) fields in southeastern USA. Insecticide applications for lepidopteran pests began between 4 July and 11 July on the conventional cotton fields. The final row has the ANOVA results for each species or group of species. (From Head et al., 2001.)

Geocoris Orius Spiders Ants

Date Conv BG Conv BG Conv BG Conv BG

20 Jun 4.0 13.6 0.6 1.0 6.3 6.8 97 64 27 Jun 8.0 10.6 0.3 0.5 7.3 8.5 64 38 04 Jul 8.3 18.6 1.8 2.5 20.6 20.6 45 73 11 Jul 11.6 17.6 5.3 3.8 24.6 27.6 33 53 18 Jul 6.8 19.6 8.5 30.6 16.6 47.6 21 46 25 Jul 17.6 34.6 3.5 39.6 8.5 36.6 15 130 02 Aug 10.6 8.3 1.3 1.8 2.3 9.8 11 40 F, Prob. F = 7.75, P = 0.007; F = 6.21, P = 0.016; F = 7.51, P = 0.008; F = 7.73, P = 0.08 conventional potato fields treated with up, particularly after the severe impacts of broad-spectrum insecticides. consistent broad-spectrum insecticide use. The impact of these increased non- target natural enemy populations (relative to fields sprayed with conventional insecti- Working with New Products cides) can be improved biological control of pest species not directly controlled by the Bt Industry, as the developer of newpest con- protein. This, in turn, means that the num- trol tools, also has the greatest knowledge ber of insecticide sprays used for these other of these products. During the development pests are reduced. For example, in Alabama process, companies create large data sets in 1996, beet armyworms were less likely around the characteristics of each new to occur at economic levels in Bt cotton, product, and howthese products should be apparently in part because of higher num- used in the context of current practices and bers of beneficial insects imparting natural needs. As a consequence, companies can protection (Smith, 1997). In the case of Bt provide unique and valuable input into IPM potato fields, generalist predators effectively programs; industry’s information can form suppressed the population of green peach the basis for defining appropriate use aphid, Myzus persicae – vector of potato practices for a new product. viral diseases (Reed et al., 2001). Work in other countries has produced comparable results. With the introduction of Bt cotton in China, broad-spectrum insec- Industry’s role in promoting proper ticide use has been reduced by up to 80%, product use and this has been accompanied by a 24% increase in generalist predator populations Industry has a responsibility and vested (Xia et al., 1999). In an agricultural system interest in ensuring that use practices for where a wide variety of crops are grown in a newproduct are optimized and that they close proximity, such as in many parts of fit with current IPM practices. Companies India and Africa, Bt cotton could even act as accomplish these goals through internal a natural enemy reservoir for other crops, research and external collaborations. thereby increasing the role of biological Industry routinely works with groups that control in these crops too. This process include academics, regulators, scientists may require several years to produce its full with government research institutions, effect because of the time that some of these and farmer organizations. The resulting natural enemy populations require to build use guidelines can include application Industrial Perspective on IPM 69

practices, establishing windows for use, programs through the IRAC, a group that combining or rotating products, and estab- contains representatives of agricultural lishing scouting thresholds for target pest chemical companies (see http://www. species. plantprotection.org/irac). IRAC serves as IRM practices form a subset of IPM a coordinating group for methodologies programs in which industry has particular and resistance surveys and provides seed interest and where industry’s information money to fund research in problem areas. can be particularly useful. The aim of IRM is IRAC also plays a role in IRM education to maximize the durability of pest control by developing literature and videos and by tools by limiting the selection for resistance. placing articles in the popular press. IRAC Some common IPM practices that serve this has worked with academic scientists, dual purpose include rotation of different extension services, farmer organizations, pest control tools, the establishment of and commodity groups to achieve some spatial refuges for transgenic Bt crops, and outstanding successes (Thompson and the use of economic thresholds to determine Head, 2001). when and where pest control tools are used. For cotton-growing areas of Asia, IRAC has worked with academic scientists from universities in India, Pakistan, China, and Examples – the Center for Integrated the UK, and the NRI, to develop and dissemi- Pest Management nate effective and sustainable practices for cotton bollworm control. This has involved synthesizing existing knowledge, surveying The industry/university Center for Inte- insecticide use and resistance, developing grated Pest Management was established practical tools for farmers to use in evaluat- in 1991, and nowconsists of companies ing different insecticides, producing a (including Monsanto, Syngenta, and handbook for use in smallholder systems in DowAgroSciences), government agencies Asia and Africa, and organizing workshops (including the USDA Forest Service, in these areas. USDA/APHIS, USDA/ARS/OPMP, and In the southwestern USA, the local USDA/CSREES), commodity organizations IRAC group cooperated with farmers, a (including groups associated with cotton, commodity-related organization (Cotton soybean, sweet potato, and turfgrass), Incorporated), and university research grower groups, and an organization repre- and extension personnel to research and senting consultants (see http://ipmwww. communicate a plan to combat the whitefly, ncsu.edu/cipm). The CIPM funds a variety Bemisia argentifolii (Dennehy and Williams, of projects ranging from small, 1-year ‘seed 1997). This program has been successful for money’ efforts to longer-term regional 4 years and is continuing with monitoring programs. The research funded involves and refinement. multi-state problems and solutions, and works as a provider of unbiased IPM. The CIPM is working to include more grower associations, food processors, companies, Influencing and Educating Farmers government agencies, and other agricultural groups with an interest in affordable and IPM practices and programs will only be safe food production. adopted and successfully implemented by farmers if they are seen as valuable and practical. In this sense, the success of IPM IRAC and Insect Resistance ultimately rests with farmers. Once appro- Management programs priate IPM-related practices are developed, farmers must be educated on these prac- Industry has worked collectively with a tices, and industry plays an important role variety of stakeholders to create IRM in this educational process (Jutsum et al., 70 G. Head and J. Duan

1998). With respect to industry partici- These same products also require farmers pation, the education of farmers occurs to employ novel practices as part of IRM through information being placed on prod- (Sherrick and Head, 2000). In the various uct labels, through separate technical docu- countries in which they have been comments being developed and distributed, mercialized, farmers growing Bt crops and through the development of special must ensure that an adequate area of non- materials like informational websites and transgenic crop exists as a refuge for suscep- videotapes. Some of these communications tible pest insects. This notion of farmers are required by regulatory agencies, includ- providing and maintaining fields of crops to ing the details placed on all product labels support a pest population is not only new for agricultural chemicals and the technical but also counter to the instincts of many guides developed for the use of transgenic farmers. Nevertheless, this practice has crops. In addition, companies have made been successfully implemented on a global IPM and IRM key components of product basis. This success reflects several factors. stewardship (for example, Urech et al., First, educational efforts in the relevant 1997). In some cases, industry has worked countries have been intense, and co- to fill broader needs where they exist. In ordinated across industry and public sector developing countries, academic institutions scientists. Second, farmers recognize the often have limited resources and there may value of these technologies and are highly be no group that fills the traditional exten- satisfied with their performance, and thus sion role. Under such conditions, coalitions are willing to go to exceptional lengths of companies may step in to address the to preserve them. Third, other mechanisms need for basic farmer education around agri- have been introduced to ensure that farmers culture, appropriate agricultural practices, followthe practices required of them. In the and how IPM programs are assembled. USA and Australia, for example, farmers Obviously, with the introduction of any must sign license agreements to gain access newpest control product, farmers must to these products, and these agreements learn specific details on howthat product spell out their responsibilities with respect should be used. Consequently, farmers are to IPM and IRM practices. Genetically receptive to information at this stage, and modified, herbicide-tolerant crops have this represents an opportunity to refine IPM met with similar approval and also programs and educate farmers broadly in have brought changes in farmer practices relation to agricultural practices. Effective (Sherrick and Head, 2000). pest control technologies provide a special opportunity to influence farmers. Because they are effective, these technologies are particularly attractive to farmers, and they pro- Web-based resources and distance vide an opportunity to influence and possi- learning programs bly alter farmer practices in positive ways. The CropLife International federation is a network of 75 national and regional associations (see http://www.croplife.org). Examples – farmer practices and genetically This overarching organization has identi- modified crops fied sustainable agriculture, including the development of IPM programs, as one of As described earlier, the first genetically its five strategic pillars of action. To this modified crops were commercialized in the end, an international Integrated Crop/Pest mid 1990s. These products have required a Management project team has been created. variety of changes in farmer practices. For This team works to build private–public example, Bt crops require unique scouting partnerships to shape IPM policies and practices and economic thresholds because facilitates training programs for farmers. of their effectiveness and mode of action. Within the six regional nodes of CropLife Industrial Perspective on IPM 71

International, the AMEWG, the LACPA, technologyproviders. These companies are and the APCPA are all working on separate, the source of new and better pest manage- specific regional training and education ment tools (critical building blocks for programs for farmers and other interested IPM), theyare the primaryrepositories for groups. information on these tools (information that APCPA efforts will be used to illustrate defines how these tools can fit into IPM the sorts of programs that industrycan and programs), and theymaintain strong rela - has created around farmer education and tionships with their customers, the farmers, IPM (see http://www.apcpa.org). APCPA which can be useful in IPM education. consists of eight companies and 14 national Through the formation of partnerships association affiliates. At the broadest level, within the industry, and with public sector APCPA has worked with non-governmental groups, companies have played an impor- organizations like ISAAA to establish Infor- tant role in the development of IPM pro- mation Centers in the region and has held grams on a global basis, and theyare com - workshops on safe use targeted at small- mitted to continuing to do so in the future. holder farmers. APCPA also has worked with non-governmental groups and governmental agencies to establish the APRTC (see References http://www.aprtc.org). The APRTC is an educational network that uses distance Amano, H. and Haseeb, M. (2001) Recently- learning tools and other Web-based proposed methods and concepts of testing the resources to promote IPM and good agricul- effects of pesticides on the beneficial mite tural practices. Courses are being offered on: and insect species: studylimitations and implications in IPM. Applied Entomology • digital literacyfor agricultural and Zoology 36, 1–11. professionals; Badawy, H.M.A. and El-Arnaouty, S.A. (1999) • English for agriculture; Direct and indirect effects of some insecti- • safe and effective use of agrochemicals; cides on Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) • introduction to IPM; s.L. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Journal of • IPM for cotton; Neuropterology 2, 67–76. Betz, S., Hammond, B.G. and Fuchs, R.L. • IPM for irrigated rice; • (2000) Safetyand advantages of Bacillus IPM for vegetables. thuringiensis-protected plants to control The APRTC is activelyworking to insect pests. Regulatory Toxicology and develop new initiatives with two SEARCA- Pharmacology 32, 156–173. headed organizations – the AAACU and the Briggs, S.P. and Koziel, M. (1998) Engineering new plant strains for commercial markets. Current Southeast Asian UniversityConsortium for Opinion in Biotechnology 9, 233–235. Graduate Education in Agriculture and Dennehy, T.J. and Williams, L. III (1997) Manage- Natural Resources. In such partnerships ment of resistance in Bemisia in Arizona with the APCPA, academic institutions can cotton. Pesticide Science 51, 398–406. benefit through improved course content, EPA Registration EligibilityDecision (RED) (1998) the opportunityto interact with a network Bacillus thuringiensis. EPA 738-R-98-004, of educated and experienced agricultural March 1998. professionals, advanced training for faculty, Fitt, G.P. (2000) An Australian approach to IPM and the opportunity to generate funding. in cotton: integrating new technologies to minimize insecticide dependence. Crop Protection 19, 793–800. Head, G., Freeman, B., Moar, W., Ruberson, J. Conclusions and Turnipseed, S. (2001) Natural enemy abundance in commercial Bollgard and conventional cotton fields. Proceedings of Agricultural chemical and biotechnological the Beltwide Cotton Conference, National companies have an important function Cotton Council, Memphis, Tennessee, within IPM because of their role as pp. 796–798. 72 G. Head and J. Duan

Jutsum, A.R., Heaney, S.P., Perrin, B.M. and Wege, IPM. In: Kennedy, G.G. and Sutton, T.B. (eds) P.J. (1998) Pesticide resistance: assessment Emerging Technologies for Integrated Pest of risk and the development and implemen- Management. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota, tation of effective management strategies. pp. 96–100. Pesticide Science 54, 435–446. Smith, R.H. (1997) An extension entomologist’s Kogan, M. (1998) Integrated pest management: his- 1996 observations of Bollgard technology. torical perspectives and contemporary devel- Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Con- opments. Annual Review of Entomology 43, ference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, 243–270. Tennessee, pp. 856–858. McClintock, J.T., Schaffer, C.R. and Sjoblad, R.D. Sundaramurthy, V.T. and Gahukar, R.T. (1998) (1995) A comparative reviewof the mamma - Integrated pest management of cotton insect lian toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis-based pests in India. Outlook on Agriculture 27, pesticides. Pesticide Science 45, 95–105. 261–269. Reed, G.L., Jensen, A.S., Riebe, J., Head, G. and Thompson, G.D. and Head, G. (2001) Implications Duan, J.J. (2001) Transgenic Bt potato and of regulating insect resistance management. conventional insecticides for Colorado American Entomologist 47, 6–10. potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Turnipseed, S.G., Sullivan, M.J., Hagerty, A. and management: comparative efficacy and non- Ridge, R. (2001) Cotton as a model IPM sys- target impacts. Entomologia Experimentalis tem in the southeast: a dream or potential et Applicata 100, 89–100. reality. Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Roof, M.E. and DuRant, J.A. (1997) On-farm Conference. National Cotton Council, experiences with Bt cotton in South Carolina. Memphis, Tennessee. Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Con- Urech, P.A., Staub, T. and Voss, G. (1997) ference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, Resistance as a concomitant of modern Tennessee. crop protection. Pesticide Science 51, Schnepf, E., Crickmore, N., van Rie, J., Lereclus, 227–225. D., Baum, J., Feitelson, J., Zeigler, D.R. and Wallace, M. (1993) The National Coalition on Dean, D.H. (1998) Bacillus thuringiensis and IPM: working for safer food, cleaner water, its pesticidal crystal proteins. Microbiology and wildlife conservation through expanded and Molecular Biology Review 62, 775–806. implementation of IPM. In: Leslie, A.R. Sharples, F.E. (1991) Ecological aspects of hazard and Cuperus, G.W. (eds) Successful identification for environmental uses of Implementation of IPM for Agricultural genetically engineered organisms. In: Levin, Crops. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, M.A. and Strauss, H.S. (eds) Risk Assessment Florida, p. 193. in Genetic Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New Xia, J.Y., Cui-Jin, J., Ma, L.H., Dong, S.L. and York, pp. 18–31. Cui, X.F. (1999) The role of transgenic Bt Sherrick, S. and Head, G. (2000) General concepts, cotton in integrated insect pest management. status, and potential of transgenic plants in Acta Gossypii Sinica 11, 57–64. Chapter 7 Role of Integrated Pest Management and Sustainable Development

George W. Bird Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Introduction Agriculture Commission entitled, Agri- culture: Observations, Prognosis and IPM and sustainable development evolved Recommendations (Bird, 1994). as processes of significance during the last three decades of the 20th century. This chapter is designed to: (i) summarize the Mechanistic and Ecological World-views histories, practices, systems and philosophies of these topics; and (ii) illustrate how The current dominant world-view is a IPM can be of assistance in the quest for mechanistic world-view. It is based on a sustainable future based on a reasonably linear relationships and the assumption high quality of life for all of our planet’s that the whole represents the sum of the people. A comprehensive understanding parts. Resources are considered as infinite of the concept of alternative world-views, or it is assumed that replacement tech- however, is imperative for use of IPM as a nologies are continually available. There catalyst in the achievement of the goals of are relatively fewdirect feedback loops, and sustainable development. The contribution only a small number of system components relies heavily on many IPM and sustaina- with overlapping functions. This world- bility science contributions, including two viewdoes not mandate existence within recent books published by the US Academy a vibrant community of local ecological of Sciences, National Research Council (Our interdependence and partnerships (Capra, Common Journey: a Transition Toward 1996). The quantitative phenomenon of Sustainability, 1999 and Drama of the Com- growth is a fundamental component of this mons, Ostrom, 2002). Other works of major world-view. There is an increasing flow emphasis include, Capra’s The Web of Life: or throughput of matter and energy for a New Scientific Understanding of Living production of goods and services for an Systems (1996), Horne and McDermott’s economy based on both population and The Next Green Revolution: Essential consumption growth (Miller, 2000). Steps to a Healthy, Sustainable Agriculture An alternative world-view is an eco- (2001), Bird et al. (1990) Design of Pest logical world-view. It is a cyclic system Management Systems for Sustainable Agri- based on the assumption that resources are culture and a presentation to the Michigan finite and that the whole is greater than the

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 73 74 G.W. Bird

sum of its parts. Local ecological inter- Common Future) as, ‘. . . development that dependence and partnerships, cyclic pat- meets the needs of the present without com- terns of organization, system components promising the ability of future generations with overlapping functions and multiple to meet their own needs’. The report’s feedback loops, and existence within a recommendations were global in nature vibrant community are the characteristics and involved progressive transformation of an ecological world-view (Capra, of economy and society. During the sub- 1996). This world-view is based on sequent decade, the topic of sustainable self-organizing, interdependent and inter- development emerged as a major imperative connected networks of living organisms that for all of global society (UNCED, 1992). are autopoietic (self-replicating), dissipative Meadows et al. (1992), Wright and Nebel (requiring energy inputs and providing (2002) and Miller (2000) described visions residual outputs) and cognitive (responsive of the concept of sustainable development to their environment). (Fig. 7.1). More recently, the US Academy The mechanistic and ecological world- of Sciences, National Research Council views are fundamentally different! What is described the transition to sustainability commonly known as conventional agricul- as Our Common Journey (1999). The report ture is based on the mechanist world-view focuses on nature, life support systems (Bird and lkerd, 1993). It is a highly pro- and community as things that must be ductive system of food, feed and fiber sustained; and people, economy and production that relies heavily on external society as what needs to be developed. system inputs. Sustainable development To understand the concept of sustain- (the process of maintaining a system at a able development, however, it is imperative fuller or better state) is based on the ecologi- to differentiate between growth and develop- cal world-view. Although IPM originated ment (Meadows et al., 1992)! Growth is a within the boundaries of the mechanist quantitative phenomenon characterized by world-view, many of its fundamental size increase through assimilation of matter. properties are based on attributes of the Growth has distinct limits! Development, ecological world-view. During the last half however, is a qualitative phenomenon in of the 20th century, however, there were which an entity realizes potential or is relatively fewformal research and imple - brought to a fuller or better state. There are mentation initiatives related to management no known limits to development! The con- systems based on the ecological world-view cept of sustainable development mandates (Bird, 1995; Lipson, 1997). that moral and ethical value judgments be made. These are often outside the normal boundaries of science and scientific method. Sustainable Development

Potter et al. (1970) introduced the concept Current State of sustainability through recognition of the significance of intergenerational equity and The tool revolution, estimated to have quality of life. In Our Next Frontier (1984), taken place about 2.4 mya, was followed in Rodale indicated that the first phase in the relatively recent times, c. 10,000 ya, by the development of a society relates to the beginning of the agricultural revolution; discovery of its natural resources, the an event of major significance in relation to second phase deals with learning how the evolution of modern society (Diamond, to use the resources to enhance quality 1999). Only yesterday, about 250 ya, society of life, and the third phase is the challenge entered into an age of growth initiated of sustainability. Sustainable development by the European Industrial Revolution. In was defined in the 1987 World Commission response to these events, human population on Environment and Development (Our reached the 1.0 billion level c. AD 1830. Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 75

Fig. 7.1. Hierarchical levels of awareness (after Miller, 2000).

Table 7.1. Major societal events. for the advantage of humankind. It assumes Major societal event Time that natural resources are essentially infinite, and that if a resource becomes Tool revolution 2.4 million to 100,000 extinct, another will be substituted as an years ago alternative. It is a taker world-view and is Agricultural revolution 10,000 years ago supported by government policy, multi- Industrial revolution 250 years ago national corporations, current practice of Chemotechnology era 55 years ago economics and the heritage of science (Daly Electronic era 15 years ago Biotechnology era 10 years ago and Cobb, 1989; Goldsmith, 1992). Although Sustainable Unknown future date the technologies associated with this world- agriculture era view have resulted in highly significant increases in human population growth, and Industrial growth age 1750–unknown future date numerous amazing advances in quality of Age of sustainable Unknown future date– life, there have also been consequences that development unknown development were either unexpected, or have the poten- distant future date tial for major long-term detrimental impacts on society and the biosphere. These impacts are similar throughout most sectors of society. This was followed in the 20th century by The unexpected consequences associ- the chemical technology, electronic and ated with US agriculture resulted in both biotechnology eras (Table 7.1). the evolution of IPM (Bird et al., 1990) and During 10,000 years of development the more recent activities concerning the of western civilization, a single dominant sustainability of agriculture. These conse- mechanistic world-view emerged. As indi- quences include a decrease in the number of cated above, it is based on the assumption farms, increase in farm size, high depend- that all components of the environment (air, ency on off-farm purchased inputs, increase water, soil, minerals, and all microbial, in risk of farm failure, decrease in system plant and animal species, including nema- diversity, decrease in biological diver- todes) are natural resources to be exploited sity, unacceptable risks associated with 76 G.W. Bird

environmental quality, increase in risks representing 60% of the total number of farm associated with human health, decrease in enterprises. The off-farm income of part- reliance on rural communities, and decrease time farms exceeds the net farm income. in direct contact between the farm sector Many part-time farms are not part-time and urban–suburban communities. This farms by choice. They have adopted this resulted in the evolution of a single domi- type of farming as a default function nant system of US agriculture. It is known as designed to protect a desire for an agrarian conventional agriculture or the industrial style of life. The viability of the part-time agribusiness model. It is frequently even farm usually depends on factors outside referred to as Traditional Agriculture! the farm sector, and in many cases factors The US food system can be subdivided outside of agriculture. into three components: (i) market; (ii) input; Miller (2000) outlined a philosophy of and (iii) farm sectors. Between 1910 and sustainable development based on hierar- 1990 the market sector grew627% in abso - chical levels of awareness (Fig. 7.1). The lute dollars, while the input sector increased first-order of awareness after recognition of 460%, and the farm sector declined 8% the unexpected consequences of the mecha- (Smith, 1992). The benefits of the increases nistic world-view is an understanding of in farm sector productivity were reaped by the need to address environmental quality the off-farm sectors of the food system. and pollution issues. IPM is an example of a Today, about 85% of the food and fiber philosophy and set of technologies resulting produced in the USA comes from about from this first-order level of awareness. 15% or 300,000 of the 2,000,000 farms. The second-order level of awareness The vast majority of these enterprises are takes into consideration the issues of over- operated under the structural attributes of consumption and over-population. These the conventional farm model (Table 7.2). are topics that are frequently outside the The narrowprofit margin associated boundaries of discussion. The third-order with the conventional farm model usually level of awareness deals with a holistic mandates growth in farm size as a strategy approach to spaceship earth. This is for economic viability. This fosters the addressed in detail by Goldsmith in his 1992 continued decline in the number of viable publication entitled, The Way: an Ecological full-time conventional farms. Recently, World-View, and by Capra (1996). Only after there has been increased interest in on-farm development of appropriate strategies to value added initiatives. deal with the first three levels of awareness Another major component of the US is it possible to evaluate seriously the farm sector is the part-time farm. There temporal nature of issues of sustainability in are about 1.2 million part-time farms, relation to decades, centuries or millennia. The original Michigan State University concept of IPM was based firmly on the Table 7.2. Structural attributes of the conven- techniques of systems science. tional agriculture farm. (After Bird and Ikerd, The philosophies of sustainable 1993; Strange, 1988.) development presented by Meadows et al. • Centralized management (1992), and Wright and Nebel (2002) are very • Emphasis on specialization similar. Meadows et al. (1992) used five • Hired worker days exceed owner on-farm work criteria to describe sustainable development days as operating within both natural resource • Separation of management and labor and social subsystems. All five of the criteria • Technology used to minimize labor inputs must be met for the system to be sustainable (limited education required) (Table 7.3). • Heavy reliance on purchased inputs The approach of Wright and Nebel • Technology designed to minimize real-time (2002) uses four principles of sustainability. in-field decision-making • Emphasis on standard farming practices It also includes elements of both natural and social systems (Table 7.4). Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 77

Table 7.3. Attributes of sustainable development (Meadows et al., 1992).

• Renewable resources must not be used at a rate greater than the regenerative capacity of the system. • Non-renewable resources must not be used at a rate greater than the development of substitute resources. • System residuals must not be produced at a rate greater than the assimilation capacity of the system. • The system must meet the ecological world-view quality of life mandates associated with rural, regional and urban human living environments. • The system must provide for intergenerational equity.

Table 7.4. Attributes of sustainable development goal for US agriculture. Howto convert this (Wright and Nebel, 2002). goal into practical realities, however, is a • The foundation of the system must be based on major challenge. During the last decade of solar energy. the 20th century, SARE served as a catalyst • The system must make optimal use of natural for building newcoalitions betweenUS cycles. farmers and ranchers, and representatives • The system must be designed to prevent of non-profit private organizations, govern- overconsumption–overpopulation. ment academia and some agribusiness. It • The system must promote biodiversity. resulted in development of an alternative vision of US agriculture for the 21st century. Sustainable Agriculture The vast majority of individuals associated with US conventional agriculture have During the next to last decade of the 20th limited or no experience with alternative century, a coalition of US environmental farming systems. Because of this and other advocates, organic farmers and ecologists societal reasons, they frequently have worked with the US Congress and the US serious doubts about and often strong Department of Agriculture to obtain fund- bias against alternative systems. Evidence ing for research and education programs indicates, however, that this is beginning in alternative agriculture systems. In 1988, to change. Research data indicate various appropriations were approved for the LISA. alternative systems, including organic agri- In 1990, the US Food, Agriculture, Con- culture, can be highly productive and eco- servation and Trade Act expanded the pro- nomically profitable (Peterson, et al., 2000). gram. Today it is known as the SARE. The The types of technology associated with Act authorizing SARE defined sustainable alternative systems of agriculture, however, agriculture as: are usually very different from those associated with our current dominant world-view. an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site specific One vision of sustainable agriculture for application that will, over the long-term: the 21st century includes an environment satisfy human food and fiber needs; that would allow alternative agriculture enhance environmental quality and the systems to thrive. An example might be a natural resource base upon which the 21st-century diversified farm (Table 7.5). agriculture economy depends; make the Although evidence exists that there has been most efficient use of nonrenewable an increase in the number of enterprises resources and integrate where appropriate, in this category, it is highly probable that natural biological cycles and controls; specific policy, research initiatives and sustain the economic viability of farm education programs targeted for alternative operations; and enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole. systems are necessary to enhance the transformation. Numerous individuals representing widely For the 21st-century diversified farm diverse sectors of US agriculture indicate to become a major reality, the farm sector that this definition represents a long-term will have to recapture a small portion, 78 G.W. Bird

Table 7.5. Structural attributes of the 21st-century diversified farm. (After Strange, 1988; Bird and Ikerd, 1993.)

• The farm is owner operated. • Hired-worker days usually do not exceed farm-family worker days. • The farm is a partnership of, usually, not more than three families. • The farm is structured as a joint management–labor relationship. • The operation places major emphasis on biological diversity. • There is an emphasis on the use of on-farm resources. • Site-specific and real-time decision-making are important components of the system. • A diverse set of enterprise statements include environmental goals, natural resource conservation objectives, economic priorities, production system goals, family quality of life objectives, local community quality of life activities, and urban–suburban community interfacing mandates.

approximately 10%, of the resources cur- was used for controlling insects and mites as rently controlled by the market and input early as 2500 BC. Cultural procedures and sectors. It is believed that this should be various forms of habitat modification were possible to achieve through on-farm and part of early pest control programs. Bio- local value-added initiatives. The results logical control was used in citrus orchards in would include a significant increase in the China as early as AD 307. Botanical pesti- number of viable farm-sector opportunities, cides such as pyrethrin and other toxicants a revitalization of rural communities, greatly including arsenic, mercury, Paris green, and enhanced environmental quality, and an Bordeaux mixture were discovered and used overall improvement in quality of life for the in Europe during the late 18th and 19th farm-sector and society as a whole. centuries. The vedalia beetle was imported from Australia to the USA in 1888 to control cottony cushion scale of citrus in California. Pests and Pest Management Some pre-synthetic pest control tactics were very successful, while others left much room Humankind has always had to deal with the for improvement. detrimental impacts of pests in its search Between 1850 and 1925, scientists for food, fiber, shelter or space. Other pests working with agricultural pests identified function as vectors of disease-causing or newpest problems, developed improved nuisance organisms in relation to human pest management strategies, and discovered comfort or welfare. As hunters and gath- basic principles that have served as catalysts erers, humans often migrated as a means of for important developments in other areas of resolving pest and other natural resource science and technology, including human issues. With the advent of agriculture and medicine. A farmers bulletin on root-knot permanent settlements, the detrimental nematode management, published by E.A. impact of pests became associated with Bessey in 1911, illustrated that a truly all components of society, including urban, integrated approach to pest management suburban, and rural environments, as was available shortly after the turn of the well as industrial, agricultural, forest, and 20th century. aquatic systems (Diamond, 1999). Pests are Today, conventional agriculture is per- included among many of the 23 currently ceived primarily in the context of gains in recognized kingdoms of living organisms. increased substitution of capital for labor Numerous species of insects, nematodes, and the associated productivity of labor bacteria, fungi, viruses, vertebrates etc. and expansion of total product. It is often become pests under specific environmental overlooked that agricultural output and conditions. pest management are closely tied to the Pest control procedures in the pre- availability and cost of synthetic inputs and synthetic pesticide era were diverse. Sulfur their derivatives. The post World War II Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 79

chemotechnology era resulted in a vast array (iv) impacts on non-target organisms; of inexpensive pesticides; including acari- (v) pest population resurgence; and (vi) cides, fungicides, herbicides, nematicides, development of newpest problems. They bactericides, and rodenticides. Both weed resulted in the evolution of what has become science and the science of nematology known as IPM. evolved as direct results of chemical technology development. The economics of scale evident in post IPM World War II agriculture were made possible by inexpensive and abundant supplies of IPM is recognized as the development, use, natural resources. Some of the direct spin- and evaluation of pest control procedures offs of conventional agriculture include that result in favorable socioeconomic and increased specialization in the production environmental consequences. In a 1979 US process, reduced heterogeneity of cropping Presidential Message to Congress, IPM was systems, and an associated decline in defined as ‘a systems approach to reduce redundancy of natural feedback loops. This pest damage to tolerable levels through a resulted in a decrease in system resiliency variety of techniques, including predators to perturbations and the movement toward and parasites, genetically resistant hosts, larger production units. Pest management natural environmental modifications and, practices are directly related to prevailing when necessary and appropriate, chemical agricultural technologies, which, in turn are pesticides’. Although the development and determined by the cost and availability of utilization of IPM is far from complete, existing energy inputs. The availability of it can be conceptualized as a process inexpensive high-energy technology has led involving seven core components (Fig. 7.2). to the development of unique interactions Biological monitoring is one of the among living organisms that would likely be core components of IPM. This is frequently vastly different in more labor-intensive and referred to as ‘scouting’. Biological monitor- diversified systems. The development and ing consists of sampling procedures desig- broad-scale rapid adoption of herbicide– ned to estimate the stages and population cyst nematode resistant soybean varieties is densities of both pests and beneficial organ- an excellent example. isms. It also involves monitoring the stage In the USA, publication of Rachel of development and symptomatology of the Carson’s Silent Spring catalyzed a general associated crop, animal or other entity such awareness of potential human health and as a human living environment. Biological environmental risks associated with some monitoring is a very knowledge-intensive uses of pesticides. As a result, the US Fed- procedure, and requires highly trained indi- eral Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide viduals. The system manager or decision Act was amended in 1972. This changed the maker is responsible for the current state of orientation of national pest control legisla- the system, and is hypothetically best suited tion from consumer protection for pesticide for this role. Private sector scouts from pest users to environmental protection. Concom- management associations or private consult- itantly, the scientific community began to ing firms, however, are often hired to do place increased research emphasis on the the biological monitoring. In the USA, bio- use of multiple pest control tactics and on logical monitoring specialists are frequently potential environmental and human health trained by Land Grant Universities. hazards associated with pesticides. In addi- Pest populations and the growth and tion to the highly significant benefits of the development of crop plants are governed by chemotechnology era to pest management, environmental parameters such as air tem- at least six unexpected consequences took perature, soil temperature, soil moisture, place. These included: (i) human health light intensity, and relative humidity. This risks; (ii) environmental risks; (iii) develop- mandates that environmental monitoring be ment of pest resistance to pesticides; another core component of IPM. Weather 80 G.W. Bird

Fig. 7.2. Conceptual model of the components and process of IPM (Bird et al., 1990). monitoring information for IPM must be still, and will likely always remain, as essen- available on both a regional, local and some- tial elements of successful IPM programs. times microhabitat basis. This information The system manager or designated must be readily available, user friendly, and representative is responsible for pest as close to real-time as possible. Weather management decisions. This aspect of IPM monitoring systems for use in IPM programs is a very knowledge-intensive process. An have improved greatly during the past individual within the specific enterprise decade. In addition to macro-climatological may be assigned the IPM decision-making information, farm-level micro-climatological responsibility, or a private consultant hired. data is frequently imperative for predicting Individuals trained only in pest scouting diseases caused by fungi and bacteria. Dedi- should never be delegated the responsibility cated microcomputers are available for use of IPM strategy or tactic decision-making. in environmental monitoring in a significant A fundamental difference between pest number of agricultural systems. control and IPM is the use of population Because of the complexity and the large density thresholds (Fig. 7.3). The first thres- number of potentially significant interac- hold that needs to be considered is the action tions between pests, beneficial organisms, threshold. When the population density of a crops, agricultural animals, and the environ- pest reaches an action threshold, or is predic- ment, decision support aids are important ted to reach this level in the near future, it is aspects of IPM systems. These may be time to select appropriate IPM strategies and relatively simple look-up tables or comput- tactics for implementation. An economic erized systems. A decision support system threshold must be estimated when selecting may be based on simulation models from IPM procedures. IPM procedures should research data or developed as expert usually be implemented when the marginal systems. Elementary aspects of artificial revenue derived from the management input intelligence have been investigated for a few is equal to or exceeds the marginal cost. The systems. Human experience and wisdom are economic threshold is a dynamic concept Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 81

Fig. 7.3. Population dynamics of a potentially major pest in a sustainable agricultural system in which the population density is maintained below the damage/injury/pathogenicity threshold in 4 out of 5 years (Bird et al., 1990). and depends on the cost and efficacy of the potential benefits of IPM have become management input, production system eco- widely recognized, and adopted in a limited nomics, nature of the pest and population number of agricultural systems, resources density, and other environmental para- for the design, research, education, and meters. Although IPM strives to reduce envi- facilitation required for broader adoption ronmental and human health risks, the costs have not developed quickly. In some cases, associated with these factors are usually not production system managers and other available for incorporation into the eco- decision makers have received mixed nomic threshold. Where the criteria of the signals about IPM, and have not invested economic threshold are met, an appropriate in the additional educational and support pest management procedure should be resources required by this knowledge- implemented. This will usually consist of intensive system. Several of the important manipulation of the pest, crop or animal, or success stories in IPM have evolved from regulation of the associated interactions. crisis and not from the planned change After implementation of an IPM pro- through procedures of education, facilita- cedure, it is imperative that the biological tion, and persuasion. These lessons should and environmental monitoring programs be be studied in detail as plans are made for continued to determine if the desired pest future systems of sustainable development. management objectives were achieved or if While IPM has been successful, it is not there is need for additional action. IPM is a designed for solving all of the issues of highly dynamic process. It has been success- sustainability. IPM is usually implemented fully implemented in a significant number as a strategy to deal with features of a system of important systems on a worldwide that are the causes of pest problems. IPM is basis. Even with significant institutional, designed to make incremental adjustments educational, and social constraints, IPM to the system’s trajectory. has become a well-established practice. The Soil quality and pest management are principles of IPM appear to be ideally suited important components of sustainable agri- for use in conjunction with the concepts culture. The nature of pest management in of sustainability science and sustainable sustainable agriculture, however, is not well development. defined. The most important pest manage- Global agriculture and agribusiness ment strategy in sustainable agriculture may appear to be changing rapidly. Although the be pest problem avoidance through the use 82 G.W. Bird

of alternative system designs. The primary to plants. It is based on an understanding of objective is to exclude pests (including the entire ecological system to which the major pests of conventional agriculture) host that we are interested in keeping from the area of concern, or to maintain pest healthy belongs’. The concepts of sustain- populations at a population density below able development take IPM a step further the damage, injury, or pathogenicity thresh- and recognize it as a continuous journey. old. For an agricultural system to be sustainable, it is suggested that this pest management objective be achieved in at least 4 out of Role of IPM in Sustainable Development every 5 years. This will mandate the use of system design as a management tool. The practices, systems and philosophies Norris and Caswell-Chen (2003) and developed under the rubric of IPM should Flint and Gouveia (2001) published compre- be extremely useful in the journey towards hensive books on IPM. These need to be part an era of sustainable development (Fig. 7.4). of the library of all current IPM practitioners. Although the issues of sustainability in an Benbrook (1996) authored a book entitled, era of 6–11 billion people on a planet with Pest Management at the Crossroads, con- limited resources are immense, there are taining substantial references to organic certain similarities with the issues encoun- food and farming systems. tered during the last half of the 20th cen- IPM represents both a vision and a tury. In 1973, Rachel Carson observed, ‘The methodology. As James Kendrick Jr (Vice entomologist, whose specialty is insects, is President for Agriculture, University of Cali- not so qualified by training, and is not psy- fornia) succinctly put it in 1988, IPM ‘. . . is chologically disposed to look for undesir- an ecological approach to maintaining plant able side effects of his control program.’ To health. It is an attitude evolving into a con- generalize this observation, one need only cept of controlling pest and disease damage point to the writings of Barry Commoner in

Fig. 7.4. Conceptual model of the components and process of sustainable development (after Bird et al., 1990). Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 83

1969: ‘We have become not less dependent (system science), Dean Haynes (entomol- on the balance of nature, but more depend- ogy), Thomas Edens (resource develop- ent on it. Modern technology has so ment), Lal Tummala (electrical engineering) stressed the web of processes in the living and William Cooper (zoology). The process environment at its most vulnerable points was similar to that described by Capra (1996) that there is little leeway left in the system.’ with his focus on the Macy Conferences Commoner proceeds to point out the and the concept for the search for patterns rules of environmental biology indicating of sustainability. The principles and proce- that ‘. . . everything has to go somewhere’ dures of systems science are both useful and ‘everything is connected to everything and highly appropriate for the construction else’. Indeed, this interconnectedness is the of conceptual models of sustainable crux of our problem. Capra’s 1996 treatise development (Fig. 7.5). on The Web of Life: a New Scientific Our willingness to place a high priority Understanding of Living Systems, is a truly on understanding and mitigating our long- interdisciplinary and holistic approach. term impacts on our planet’s ecosystems IPM is an interdisciplinary process. will dictate society’s future state. A con- It cannot be stronger than its weakest dis- tinuing issue that directly impacts our ciplinary component. The same is true for ability to understand and evolve towards sustainability science. Both IPM and sus- sustainable agricultural and pest manage- tainable development must be based on ment practices is the time horizon adopted the ecological world-view. IPM has three by various key participants in the political decades of experience dealing with both decision-making process. The very use of the biological and social aspects of pest the term sustainable implies a temporal management. Sustainable development has dimension. Economists and politicians a shorter but broader formal history. The frequently use rather short market or procedures and lessons of IPM can provide a term-of-office oriented time frames in their sound foundation for the future journey of analyses. Geologists or anthropologists, on sustainable development. The conceptual the other hand, are accustomed to using model of the process of IPM is easily decades, centuries or even millennia as a convertible into one for sustainable temporal frame of reference. This is perhaps development (Fig. 7.4). why the 1999 National Research Council At Michigan State University, the devel- report speaks of the journey of moving opment of IPM was based on the principles toward a more sustainable system rather of systems science and the legendary than attaining some conceptual level of interactions among Dr Herman Koenig sustainability.

Fig. 7.5. Conceptual system model of sustainable development. 84 G.W. Bird

It is also essential to be aware of the strategies and tactics for optimizing the political, economic, and social realities that long-term sustainability of ecosystems. play a major part in determining for whom The objectives of both sustainable sustainability is sought and for howlong. In development and IPM can be viewed as the his Second Inaugural Address on 20 January process of a journey: stated in terms of tem- 1937, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt poral stability, inter- and intra-group equity, stated that ‘The test of our progress is not and ecological impact along all perceivable whether we add more to the abundance of time horizons. The problem quickly encoun- those who have much; it is whether we pro- tered is how, from a scientific view, does one vide enough for those who have too little.’ measure whether or not a practice or process Societies or individuals in a survival mode is sustainable or leads toward a more sus- at the edge of starvation are not likely to con- tainable system. What are the indicators of cern themselves with or take actions to pro- sustainability? It is highly probable that vide for the next generation. Even preparing isolated components will never be suitable for the next day or week is a major task. for use as indicators of sustainability. It is Many of our global commons problems are more likely, however, that it will be possible core factors in the issue of sustainability. to identify patterns of sustainability! Pat- These include, among others, rainforests terns result from the interactions of structure destroyed, woodlands removed, and waters and process. An approach recommended irrevocably contaminated. Individuals in within IPM is to focus on process and lowincome nations and other stressed envi- to evaluate elements of the process in a ronments need and deserve the attention dynamic way so as to assess their contribu- and support of the high income nations in tion to sustainability in terms of their impact order to move towards sustainability. Most on the length or duration of subsystem wealthy nations, however, exist under the cycles. In addition, it has been argued that a dominant mechanist world-view. movement toward closure of cycles within Sustainable development transcends subsystems is imperative for sustainable the agricultural sector. It is useless to argue development (Edens and Haynes, 1982). for the sustainability of anything outside the For an ecological world-view to context of the total system within which it become a dominant world-view, society exists. This is one of the reasons it is impera- must become ecologically literate. The tive for sustainability science to rediscover Michigan State University International the fundamentals of systems science as out- Education Initiative in IPM-Sustainable lined at the legendary Macy Conferences Agriculture is a small but very important and its second generation leaders like contribution towards this effort. The Herman Koenig and Fritjof Capra. IPM is a participants are an important part of the small but very important subsystem. The key to global ecological literacy. way in which this subsystem fits into the larger system in the context of a sustainable food system must be defined holistically. References The determination and will to develop and nurture sustainable systems requires both Benbrook, C.M. (1996) Pest Management at the a vision for the future and a goal for the Crossroads. Consumers Union, NewYork, present. The future of agricultural pest 272 pp. management is highly objective-dependent Bessey, E.A. (1911) Root-knot and its and presents several significant challenges. Control. Bureau of Plant Industry, USDA, Washington, DC, 89 pp. Unless there are major unlikely develop- Bird, G.W. (1989) The Integrated Pest Management ments in the area of technological domi- Experience. In: Reform and Innovation of nance of nature, agriculture will have to rely Science and Education: Planning for the on an increasingly knowledge-dependent 1990 Farm Bill. Committee on Agriculture, system of pest management. This must Nutrition and Forestry, United States Senate, be designed to take advantage of multiple pp. 31–41, 101–161. Role of IPM and Sustainable Development 85

Bird, G.W. (1992) Sustainable agriculture research Farming. Organic Farming Research Founda- and education program: with special refer- tion, Santa Cruz, California, 82 pp. ence to ecology. Journal of Sustainable Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L. and Randers, J. Agriculture 2, 141–152. (1992) Beyond the Limits. Chelsea Green Bird, G.W. (1994) Agriculture: Observation, Publication Company, Post Mills, Vermont, Prognosis and Recommendations. Testimony 300 pp. to the Michigan Agriculture commission Miller, G.T. Jr (2000) Living in the Environment: (USA), 7 June. East Lansing, Michigan, 7 pp. Principles, Connections and Solutions, Bird, G.W. (1995) Sustainable Agriculture – a Case 7th edn. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Study of Research Relevancy Classification. New York, 815 pp. Invited Presentation of the 1995 Annual National Research Council (1999) Our Common Meeting of the American Association for the Journey: a Transition Toward Sustainability. Advancement of Science, 20 February 1995. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 3 pp. 363 pp. Bird, G.W. and Ikerd, J. (1993) Sustainable agricul- Norris, R.F. and Caswell-Chen, E.P. (2003) ture: a twenty-first-century system. Annals of Concepts in Integrated Pest Management. the American Association of Political and Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Social Science 529, 92–102. Jersey, 586 pp. Bird, G.W., Edens, T., Drummond, E. and Ostrom, E., Dietz, T., Dolsak, N., Stern, P.C., Groden, E. (1990) Design of pest management Stonich, S. and Weber, E.U. (2002) The systems for sustainable agriculture. In: Drama of the Commons. National Academy Francis, C.A., Flora, C.B. and King, L.D. (ed.) Press, Washington, DC, 521 pp. Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Zones. Potter, V.R., Baerreis, D.A., Bryson, R.A., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 55–110. Currin, J.W., Johansen, G., McLeod, J., Capra, F. (1996) The Web of Life. Anchor Books, Rankin, J. and Symon, K.R. (1970) Purpose New York, 347 pp. and Function of the University. Science 167, Daly, H.E. and Cobb, J.B. Jr (1989) For the Common 1590–1593. Good. Beacon Press, Boston, 482 pp. Peterson, C., Drinkwater, L.E. and Wagoner, P. Diamond, J. (1999) Guns, Ferms and Steel: the (2000) The Rodale Institute Farming Systems Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton, Trial: the First 15 Years. Rodale Institute, New York, 480 pp. Kutztown, Pennsylvania, 40 pp. Edens, T.C. and Haynes, D.L. (1982) Closed system Rodale, R. (1984) Our Next Frontier. Rodale Press, agriculture: Resource constraints, manage- Emmaus, Pennsylvania. ment options, and design alternatives. Smith, R.L. (1992) Farming activities and family Annual Review of Phytopathology 20, farms: getting the concepts right. Joint Eco- 363–395. nomic Committee Symposium. Agricultural Flint, M.L. and Gouveia, P. (2001) IPM in Practice: Industrialization and Family Farms: the Role Principles and Methods of Integrated Pest of Federal Policy. 21 October. United States Management. University of California, Congress, Washington, DC. Publication 3418, Davis, 296 pp. Strange, M. (1988) Family Farming: a New Goldsmith, E. (1992) The Way: an Ecological Economic Vision. University of Nebraska World-View. Shambhala Publications, Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. Boston, 442 pp. UNCED (1992) Agenda 21. United Nations. Horne, J.E. and McDermott, M. (2001) The World Commission on Environment and Next Green Revolution: Essential Steps Development (1987) Our Common Future. to a Healthy, Sustainable Agriculture. Food Oxford University Press, New York, 400 pp. Products Press, New York, 312 pp. Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J. (2002) Environmental Lipson, M. (1997) Searching for the O-Word: Science: Towards a Sustainable Planet. Analyzing the USDA Current Research Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Information System for Pertinence to Organic Jersey, 644 pp.

Chapter 8 Social and Economic Considerations in the Design and Implementation of Integrated Pest Management in Developing Countries

Blessing Maumbe1, Richard Bernsten1 and George Norton2 1Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 2Department of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Introduction risks, and the need for countries to spend scarce foreign exchange on importing Pest infestation represents one of the major pesticides. agricultural production risks facing farmers Understanding why farmers in develop- worldwide. Although prophylactic pesti- ing countries have failed to adopt IPM in a cide sprays may act as a form of insurance significant way, despite its proven success against a pest attack, ineffective pest in other parts of the world, is central to scouting, poor weather conditions, com- motivating individual farmers to respond to peting demands for the growers’ time, and IPM programs. Economists rely on several in some instances, lack of cash needed to approaches, including benefit cost analysis purchase the chemicals, have often led to (BCA), to weigh the benefits relative to untimely pesticide treatment. An important the costs of adopting IPM practices. In question to ask is whether alternative IPM1 its advanced form, BCA captures not only strategies effectively insulate farmers from direct income benefits, but the value of yield and income risks associated with intangible, non-market-based goods and pest damage. There is nowa growing services such as biodiversity, stable yields, realization that IPM strategies provide and clean water. Understanding the behav- viable alternatives to relying totally on ioral characteristics of farmers adopting IPM pesticides to manage pests. By reducing is important for guiding extension education farmers’ dependence on chemicals, IPM and the development of newIPM tech - programs potentially reduce environmental nologies worldwide. Both IPM farmers and contamination from pesticide residue, the agribusiness firms can benefit from such incidence of pesticide-related health information, and it may help them to

1 IPM is a strategy for reducing the level of economic damage to crops by relying on numerous user- and environmentally friendly technologies, including host plant resistance, pheromones, natural enemies, crop rotations, trap crops, synchronized planting, sanitation measures, and vegetative barriers. ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 87 88 B. Maumbe et al.

make better decisions about investments in judicious use of chemicals as a last resort, research and IPM-related products. if scouting or surveillance indicates that It is important to note that in most LDCs, pest levels exceed a predetermined ETL2 the use of calendar-based spraying is which can not be reduced using alternative common. Farmers have been advised by methods. scientists, extension workers, and chemical The aim of this chapter is to: (i) high- companies to apply prophylactic, on- light key socioeconomic factors that affect schedule applications of pesticides. In addi- farmer adoption of IPM; (ii) identify eco- tion, many LDCs have had a long history of nomic considerations that explain farmers’ subsidizing agricultural chemicals, includ- behavior and thereby affect their ability and ing pesticides. These subsidies to the willingness to adopt IPM strategies; (iii) chemical industry have been complemented describe the type of socioeconomic data by crop protection policies centered on that are necessary to design a successful chemical control of pests. Yet problems of IPM program; and (iv) discuss howthese pesticide misuse that include application data can be analyzed to increase the of the wrong pesticides or the wrong amount probability that an IPM program will be of a pesticide, and/or even the wrong successful. Case studies in the following timing of pesticide application have been chapters illustrate successful IPM strategies widespread (Tjornhom et al., 1997). as well as some of the problems and con- In Europe and the USA, the search for straints encountered in their implementa- alternatives to heavy reliance on chemical tion. The case studies highlight technical pesticides for controlling pests gained aspects of IPM use, extension programs, and momentum in the 1960s after the publi- socioeconomic and institutional factors that cation of Silent Spring (Carson, 1962), which drive the uptake of IPM in various regions of described health and environmental dan- the world. gers of pervasive pesticides use (Norton et al., 1999). In the 1980s, a shift from prescription-based systems to newmethods of building farmer knowledge and decision- What Factors Affect the Success of IPM? making capacity evolved in several LDCs. In the developing world, Asia has taken the Understanding the nature of IPM technology lead, with notable IPM programs in place in several countries, including Indonesia, the In contrast to pesticides that rely on a single Philippines, and Bangladesh. For example, technology to produce immediate results the Indonesia FFS IPM program, considered (e.g. dead insects), IPM programs typically one of the most successful cases, grewin a incorporate several complementary compo- short space of time from a non-IPM mode in nents. It is also important to note that these 1989 to one that reached more than 300,000 pest management practices are both loca- rice farmers and 10,000 vegetable growers by tion and crop specific. Basically, IPM can 1992 (Untung, 1995). However, it is disturb- be understood from two angles: the ‘input ing that only a fewcountries have adopted oriented approach’ which focuses on differ- a national IPM strategy, making lack of ent IPM technology components, and the political commitment by LDC governments ‘output oriented approach’ which looks at a major stumbling block to IPM uptake IPM in terms of desired outcomes, includ- (World Bank, 1997). While the goal of IPM ing attainment of a certain level of profit- is to reduce the use of chemical control ability, human health, and environmental measures, most IPM programs allowthe qualities (Swinton and Williams, 1998).

2 This is the break-even point at which the dollar value for an increment of loss in yield quantity or quality is equal to the cost of a control method that successfully eliminates pest damage and yield loss (Kiss and Meerman, 1991). Design and Implementation of IPM in Developing Countries 89

Genetically modified crops that include The FFS philosophy, originally devel- herbicide or insecticide resistance, such oped as a strategy to fight the problem of as Roundup Ready soybeans or Bt cotton pesticide resistance and farmer health risks varieties, represent a newapproach to pest in rice-based monocultures in Asia, is now management in the 21st century. increasingly being used to spread IPM in Concern for the design of effective IPM many parts of Africa (Gallagher, 1998). FFS programs is nowshifting from emphasis on is a participatory training approach that the composition of technical components uses discovery-based learning techniques in of IPM to institutional design. There is pest and crop management with the overall increasing realization that IPM is both a aim of helping farmer-groups to understand technical and social process that relies on agroecosystems analysis required to cope well-functioning institutions (Waibel and with biotic and abiotic stresses. It stresses Zadoks, 1995). Institutions are the rules of the importance of farmers growing a healthy the game, which as in a sporting event, are an crop, observing their fields weekly, conserv- important guide to understanding human ing natural enemies, and experimenting interaction (North, 1990). Institutions define themselves using relevant science-based and limit the opportunity set of farmers knowledge. Although this tool has not been (i.e. institutions establish rules that create extensively tested in all regions and in all opportunities for some and place restric- cropping systems in Africa, initial results tions on others). Rapid adoption of IPM from a study of the smallholder cotton therefore requires sound knowledge and production system in Zimbabwe indicate understanding of the institutional arrange- that awareness of IPM technology through ments. In many LDCs, institutions are not exposure to FFS is a major driving force conducive to IPM adoption and diffusion. in farmers’ adoption of IPM (Maumbe, Traditional train and visit extension pro- 2001). One of its main advantages is that it grams have often failed to reach farmers empowers limited-resource farmers to make with IPM methods they consider useful independent pest management decisions. (Norton et al., 1999). Some of its apparent drawbacks are the In terms of IPM implementation, a costliness of FFS-based IPM programs and holistic and farmer-driven IPM program may the danger of program quality deterioration not realize its full potential if it conflicts as training responsibilities are passed on with agricultural policy objectives such as successively to newly trained farmers (Seif intensification and food security. In the and Lohr, 1998). same vein, the World Bank has argued for A key consideration in IPM use is the the need to mobilize and develop strong fact that it is difficult for farmers to observe local constituencies in support of environ- the benefits of each specific IPM component, mental protection and public health issues and the full impact of these benefits may be (World Bank, 1997). A growing number realized over a relatively long time horizon. of studies have clearly demonstrated the The idea that the relationship between pest benefits of knowledge-based technologies damage and a farmer’s action is not obvious, such as IPM in significantly reducing over- suggests that IPM programs must include application of pesticides, thus improving a significant educational component and productivity, human health, and the envi- farmers may adopt some program compo- ronment (Antle and Pingali, 1994; Norton nents relatively slowly. Evidence of selec- and Mullen, 1994; Fernandez-Cornejo, tive step-wise adoption of interrelated 1998; Swinton, et al., 1999). To facilitate packages has been highlighted in the litera- more extensive adoption of IPM, the ture (Byerlee and de Polanco, 1986). Equally USA has introduced the EQIP, under the important is the need to understand the core 1996 Federal Agricultural Improvement and practices that may represent an ideal IPM Reform Act, as a public cost-share program technology package in each farming system, designed to reduce the cost of adopting IPM as these packages are still in the dev- practices (Swinton and Day, 2000). elopment stages in most regions. More 90 B. Maumbe et al.

importantly, trainers need to ensure that including farmers, researchers, policy mak- attendees at FFS events are directly involved ers, extension workers, and the chemical in pest management themselves. In Zimba- industry – all of whom are critical for bwe, male farmers mainly apply pesticides. the adoption and diffusion of IPM. There However, since most men work off-farm in is little doubt that the use of subsidies the urban areas, women may be more appro- has contributed immensely to the overuse priate participants in FFS training programs. of pesticides. All forms of tax exemptions This gender-related difference highlights for pesticide imports and refunds by gov- the need for newpest management informa - ernments for pesticide sales taxes should be tion to reach various stakeholders. Similar abolished because they stimulate artificial issues pertain to the case where hired demand for pesticides. In contrast, pesti- workers, who may not be exposed to IPM cide taxation would reduce pesticide knowledge, apply pesticide treatments. demand and generate additional funds that could be used to strengthen IPM research and training programs. Governmental The need for group versus individual actions commitment is essential to establish an enabling environment for abolishing poli- Many Green Revolution agricultural tech- cies that support environmentally unsus- nologies such as fertilizers and high- tainable pest management and for strength- yielding varieties are divisible – implying ening regulatory institutions. Targeted that they can be tested by individual farm- support for IPM is crucial in the early stages ers and, if successful, individual farmers of IPM diffusion. As has happened in the can adopt them over their whole farm. USA, governments of LDCs might consider In contrast, because many insects respect subsidizing IPM technologies such as use no boundaries, some IPM technologies are of natural enemies in order to encourage ineffective, unless adopted simultaneously farmers to adopt them more rapidly. by all farmers in a region. The challenge for Another macroeconomic deterrent to a successful IPM program is to mobilize IPM technology adoption is the prevalence community support needed for simulta- of overvalued exchange rates (Tjornhom neous adoption. For that reason, the et al., 1998). In most developing countries concept of FFS has grown as a strategy for pesticides are imported, and overvalued spreading IPM in most parts of the world. exchange rates indirectly subsidize these For FFS or any other approach to success- imports. fully deliver IPM technology, farmers should have a common agenda. When farmers have a goal of reducing pests in more The role of farmer’s indigenous knowledge effective and safer ways, then the use of farmer group-based IPM may deliver bigger Prior to the development and marketing and earlier benefits to individual farmers of chemical pesticides, farmers relied on than when IPM is viewed as component indigenous knowledge to help protect their technologies that are only focused on crops from pests. Although there is growing higher yields and lower costs. recognition that farmers have considerable ‘indigenous knowledge’ of crop–pest ecology, they also have misconceptions that Macroeconomic determinants can act as barriers to the adoption of IPM (Bentley, 1994). For example, studies of At the national level, the removal of IPM use in the Philippines and Uganda, pesticide subsidies and the promulgation have identified failure to recognize the by governments of national IPM strategies is difference between insect and disease dam- a major first step needed to usher in a new age and the stress caused by water defi- way of thinking among all stakeholders, ciency and high temperatures as common Design and Implementation of IPM in Developing Countries 91

problems facing farmers in FFS (Tjornhom Second, because scouting is knowledge et al., 1997). They also fail to recognize intensive, farmers without sufficient under- pests that are difficult to observe such as standing of the rationale for counting pests nematodes (Norton et al., 1999). In addi- may consider it a waste of time. Third, land tion, it has been reported that farmers fail to tenure arrangements may affect the attrac- identify the difference between pests and tiveness of IPM. For example, in some beneficial insects (natural predators), a key countries tenant farmers and their land- dimension of IPM technology (Kiss, 1995; lords share the cost of purchased inputs, Lazaro et al., 1995). None the less, the but the farmer must provide all of the World Bank (1997) argues that the effective required farm labor. Under this arrange- integration of technical and social knowl- ment, there is less incentive for the tenant edge is one of the essential aspects of IPM farmers to substitute labor-intensive IPM diffusion. As a starting point, IPM programs strategies for insecticides, compared to need to knowwhatfarmers knowin order owner-operators. to design a strategy for teaching them the ‘newscience’ of IPM. Over time, scientists have discovered that traditional tech- What Social and Economic Concepts nologies such as the use of mud-sealed are Relevant? clay containers, and in some cases neem 3 (Azadirachta indica) , to control post- In order to understand farmers’ IPM tech- harvest pests are not only quite effective, nology adoption behavior, four concepts but are also relatively inexpensive – a are critical: opportunity cost, uncertainty, key advantage to resource poor farmers – marginal benefits, and ETLs. compared with some chemical alternatives. Challenges remain in the use of economic thresholds, which are still underdeveloped and require further refinement, if they are Opportunity cost of pesticide use to be applied successfully in developing countries. Indiscriminate pesticide use has been associated with concerns about farmer health and environmental risks. Trade-offs Farmer’s resource endowments between health and economic effects have been documented in recent studies in the The adoption of agricultural technology has Phillipines and Ecuador (Antle and Pingali, been shown to differ across socioeconomic 1994, Crissman et al., 1994, 1998; Cuyno, groups and over time (Feder et al., 1985). In 1999). Pesticides threaten not only human addition to economic status, farmer circum- health, but also the vitality of other species stances differ considerably in terms of their including beneficial insects. However, in access to productive labor, educational deciding to adopt labor-intensive IPM tech- levels, and land. These circumstances can nologies, farmers may have to delay other be key factors affecting farmers’ decisions critical crop operations such as planting to use IPM recommendations. For example, and weeding, and daily household chores 4 scouting – a key component of IPM – such as gathering firewood, and fetching requires considerable labor. Thus, farmers water. In diffusing IPM, proponents have to with limited labor may find it too time con- assess the newpractices in terms of their suming, relative to the anticipated benefits. opportunity cost – the activities that farmers

3 In many parts of the developing world, farmers use an organic insecticide, which is made from the leaves of the neem tree, to protect their stored crop. 4 Scouting involves periodically counting the number of harmful insects attacking the crop to determine if the insect population exceeds a predetermined threshold level, which requires the application of an insecticide. 92 B. Maumbe et al.

may have to give up versus the benefits that an ETL in IPM programs in LDCs remains farmers will gain from adopting IPM. controversial. Some researchers believe that LDC farmers do not have sufficient information required to make the appropriate Uncertain benefits and positive interventions. Others are concerned about marginal returns the accuracy and precision needed to effectively apply an ETL in developing countries. In the USA and Europe, elaborate If the production benefits justify the costs, ETLs have been developed and are com- then the spread of IPM will be relatively monly used by farmers in pest management easy. Some technologies have performed decisions. However, there is no single ETL very well under supervised experimental for every crop and climatic condition in conditions and yet performed dismally the world (Kiss and Meerman, 1991). None under farmer field conditions. Further, the less, others believe that it is in the while some ‘research station’ recommenda- best interest of LDC policy makers, farmers, tions have worked well for some farmers, researchers, and extension workers to the same recommendations have not per- invest the time and effort required to adapt formed as well for farmers facing slightly ETLs to specific farming systems in LDCs, if different ecological and social circum- pesticide interventions are to be meaning- stance. That farmers are relatively efficient ful. The bottom line is while the concept but poor is well understood. Farmers will of ETLs is sound, at least for insect pests, be hesitant to adopt a technological package getting farmers to followthe program’s unless it is clear to them that under their threshold recommendation requires a major farming conditions (i.e. ecological and education effort. socioeconomic) each element of the package is beneficial, and it gives a sufficiently great marginal return to justify the time required to implement it. The current Socioeconomic Data Needed for dilemma for farmers in many countries IPM Program Design throughout the world is that production without pesticides is not profitable in the Most IPM programs first attempt to short run, even though further application understand the insect, disease, weed, and of pesticides may lead to pesticide nematode complex, in order to set priorities resistance, lower yields, higher pesticide in terms of which pests cause damage and expenses, and increased incidence of what predators are present. For example, pesticide-related health risks. for insect pest problems, entomologists often conduct ‘insect population surveys’. However, given the dynamic nature of pest Economic thresholds populations due to climatic and other factors, these surveys must be carried out for A key component of many IPM programs several years to assess the relative impor- is the recommendation that farmers to not tance of pest and disease constraints effec- apply chemicals unless the level of damage tively. Too frequently, IPM and related agri- is sufficiently large to justify the cost of cultural research priorities are established controlling the pest. Although this strategy based on an inadequate assessment of the is technically and economically sound, it pest constraints. Successful IPM programs often conflicts with farmers’ current beliefs. also require data on: (i) farmers’ knowledge For example, farmers may typically wait to of pests; (ii) farmers’ current pest manage- take action until they observe adult insects ment practices and perceptions, against (which may be too late) or spray as soon as which the impact of the program can they observe any leaf damage (which may be measured; and (iii) farmers’ resource be too early). The appropriateness of using endowments (Table 8.1). Such information Design and Implementation of IPM in Developing Countries 93

Table 8.1. Data needs for the design of successful IPM programs.

Farmers’ knowledge of insect biology Farmer’s knowledge of pesticides Data needs Data needs • Insect, nematode, weed, and disease types • Types of pesticides applied • Type of damage • Pesticide prices • Persistent versus sporadic pest problems • Rate of application per crop • Farmers’ knowledge of pest predators • Basis for spraying, crop height, pest pressure, etc. • Farmers’ traditional pest control methods • Label literacy • Pesticide application technology • Safety precautions for handling pesticides • Training received on pesticides use and source • Benefits of current pesticide application strategy • Knowledge of ‘safer pesticides’

Crop production and level of technology use Human and production resource endowments Data needs Data needs (a) Varieties • Farmers’ educational levels • Varieties grown (traditional versus improved) • Household size and gender distribution • Variety characteristics, yields, size, height, etc. • Labor sources (i.e. family versus hired) • Rationale for choosing the specific varieties • Acreage cropped • Susceptibility to pests • Farm tenure arrangements (b) Crop management • Access to credit • Cropping patterns, monoculture, intercropping • Market outlets and prices • Planting dates for each crop • IPM-related inputs available, sources and cost • Irrigated versus dry land production • Extension assistance • Use of trap crops • Farmers’ perceptions about IPM practices • Use of field sanitation • Farmers’ preferences about IPM practices (rank) • Crop rotations • Possible IPM adoption constraints • Major production constraints • Farmers’ views on health effects of pesticides • Cash crops versus food crops produced • Farmers’ views on environmental hazards • Training needs on pest management can be obtained via participatory apprais- At the planning stage, IPM programs als, group interviews, and farmer surveys. should incorporate organizational innova- Analysis of these data should focus on tions that provide continual feedback during identifying the IPM components most likely project implementation. In the event that to be accepted and those that are most likely factors that condition farmers’ adoption of to be rejected by farmers because they con- IPM technology – such as lack of credit, flict with farmers’ goals or preconceptions non-availability of key inputs, especially – due to significant information gaps in improved varieties, and weak extension farmers’ understanding of insect population support – are highlighted as major con- dynamics, proposed IPM program compo- straints, then the IPM program can initiate nents that are unfamiliar to the farmers, and a dialogue with policy makers to identify misinformation that farmers will have to ways to remove these barriers to program ‘unlearn’. success. Training to ‘promote’ key elements of an Finally, policy makers and donors now IPM program should be based on farmers’ require agricultural research and develop- feedback. With insights gained regarding ment programs to document the impact of specific information gaps, the program can their programs. Impact analysis is important focus its attention on developing a curricu- for two main reasons: (i) to measure program lum to teach farmers what they need to know success and or failure; and (ii) to form the about IPM. Components that are most likely basis for guiding program redesign needed to be difficult to implement should be given as newconstraints emerge and newunder - priority during training. standing is gained. Program redesign will 94 B. Maumbe et al.

benefit from farmer feedback on which diffusion of IPM requires early identifica- components of the program they believe are tion of a clear IPM technology package that is ineffective and need modification. Evidence simple and effective under farmers’ condi- of program impact can be obtained by tions. Such location-specific IPM programs resurveying the farmers in the target area to are a win-win situation that will help solve measure the degree to which the goals of the pest problems, minimize pesticide costs, program have been achieved, including and raise agricultural productivity while the amount of change in farmers’ attitudes, reducing both environmental damage and knowledge, and behavior following program farmer health risks. The FFS model is one implementation. In particular, the initial approach that has been well received and is and follow-up surveys should ask questions a growing force in the spread of IPM in about farmers’ perceptions regarding levels Africa, Asia, and Latin America. However, of pest damage. Economic data should be it too can be a costly means for spreading collected to assess changes in cost of pro- IPM information and may not be the most duction, yields, returns to labor and profit. cost-effective approach in every situation. Economy-wide economic and environmen- The challenge remains in finding cost- tal/health impacts can also be calculated. effective ways of changing farmers’ attitudes, given their cautionary approach to changing traditional farming practices. Conclusion

Although crop protection specialists gener- References ally agree that IPM programs have been successful in many countries, the success of a Antle, J.M. and Pingali, P.L. (1994) Pesticides, specific IPM program depends on both the productivity, and farmer health: a Philippine validity of the technical recommendations case study. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 76, 418–429. around which the program is built and the Bentley, J.W., Rodriguez, G. and Gonzalez, A. compatibility of these technical elements (1994) Science and people: Honduran with the target farmer’s ecological and campesinos and natural pest control inter- socioeconomic circumstances. Thus, reli- ventions. Agriculture and Human Values, able information about both the agroecology Winter, 178–182. and the socioeconomic environment of the Byerlee, D. and de Polanco, E.H. (1986) Farmers’ target area is critical to successful imple- step-wise adoption of technological pack- mentation of IPM. At the farm level, recog- ages: evidence from the Mexican altiplano. nition of key pests is a critical component of American Journal of Agricultural Economics IPM training programs. Introduction of IPM 68, 519–527. Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring. Houghton Muffin is not easy when farmers are poorly Company, Boston. motivated; hence the need to demonstrate Crissman, C.C., Cole, D.C. and Carpio, F. (1994) clearly the opportunity cost and expected Pesticide use and farm worker health in benefits and costs of adopting IPM. Rapid Ecuadorian potato production. American adoption of IPM can be stimulated by well- Journal of Agricultural Economics 76, targeted economic incentives for farmers to 593–597. adopt IPM technologies. Crissman, C.C., Antle, J.M. and Capalbo, S.M. Government commitment to developing (1998) Economic, Environmental, and Health IPM programs and encouraging adoption Trade-Offs in Agriculture: Pesticides and the can play a vital role in IPM diffusion. Sustainability of Andean Potato Production. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, In designing IPM programs, social scientists Massachusetts. as part of an interdisciplinary IPM team Cuyno, L.C.M. (1999) An economic evaluation can provide insights into the social and of the health and environmental benefits of economic environment that may contribute the IPM program in the Philippines. PhD to the success of an IPM program. The dissertation, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg. Design and Implementation of IPM in Developing Countries 95

Feder, G., Just, R.E. and Zilberman, D. (1985). management: lessons from the IPM CRSP. Adoption of agricultural innovations in dev- Agriculture and Human Values 16, 431–439. eloping countries: a survey. Economic Devel- Seif, A.A. and Lohr, B. (1998) Integrated opment and Cultural Change 33, 255–298. Pest Management in horticultural crops Fernandez-Cornejo, J. (1998) Environmental and in East and Southern Africa: activities economic consequences of technology adop- and experiences of GTZ IPM horticulture tion: IPM in viticulture. Journal of Agricul- project. Proceedings of the Integrated Pest tural Economics 18, 145–155. Management Communications Workshop: Gallagher, K.D. (1998) Farmer field schools for East and Southern Africa. 1–6 March, integrated pest management in Africa with Nairobi, Kenya. special reference to East Africa. Proceedings Swinton, S.M. and Day, E. (2000) Economics in the of the National Pre-Season Planning Design, Assessment, Adoption, and Policy Workshop on the Implementation of Field Analysis of IPM. Staff Paper, Department School Groups for Integrated Production of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State and Pest Management. 31 August–1 Septem- University, East Lansing, Michigan. ber, ZIPAM, Darwendale, Government of Swinton, S.M. and Williams, M.B. (1998) Assess- Zimbabwe and FAO Global IPM Facility, ing the Economic Impacts of Integratred Rome, Italy. Pest Management: Lessons from the Past, Kiss, A. (1995) Pest management needs and Directions For the Future. Staff Paper 98-12, trends in Africa today. International Food Department of Agricultural Economics, Policy Research Institute Workshop on Michigan State University, East Lansing, Pest Management, Food Security, and the Michigan. Environment: the Future to 2020. May 10–11, Swinton, S.M., Batie, S.S. and Schulz, M. Nairobi, Kenya. (1999) FQPA Implementation to Reduce Kiss, A. and Meerman, F. (1991) Intergrated Pest Pesticides Risks: Part II: Implementation Management and African Agriculture. World Alternatives and Strategies. Staff Paper Bank Technical Paper No. 142. African Tech- 99-46, Department of Agricultural Econom- nical Department Series, Washington, DC. ics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Lazaro, A.A., Heong, K.L., Canapi, B., Gapud, V. Michigan. and Norton, G.W. (1995) Farmers’ Pest Man- Tjornhom, J.D., Norton, G.W., Heong, K.L., agement Knowledge, Attitude and Practices Talekar, N.S. and Gapud, V.P. (1997) Deter- in San Jose, Philippines: a Baseline Survey. minants of pesticide misuse in Phillipines Integrated Pest Management Collaborative onion production. Philippine Entomology Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) 11, 139–149. Working Paper 95-2. Virginia Tech., Tjornhom, J.D., Norton, G.W. and Gapud, V. (1998) Blacksburg, Virginia. Impacts of price and exchange rate policies Maumbe, B.M. (2001) Essays on the economics on pesticide use in the Philippines. Agricul- of cotton production in Zimbabwe: policy tural Economics 18, 167–175. implications for technology adoption, farmer Utung, K. (1995) Institutional constraints on IPM health and market liberalization. PhD implementation in Indonesia. Institutional dissertation, Michigan State University, Constraints to IPM. Papers Presented at the East Lansing. XIIIth International Plant Protection Con- North, D.C. (1990) Institutions, Institutional gress (IPPC), The Hague, 2–7 July, 1995. Change and Economic Performance. Politi- Waibel, H. and Zadoks, J.C. (1995) Institutional cal Economy of Institutions and Decisions. constraints to IPM. Papers Presented at the Cambridge University Press, New York. XIIIth International Plant Protection Con- Norton, G.W. and Mullen, J. (1994) Economic gress (IPPC), The Hague, 2–7 July, 1995. Evaluation of Integrated Pest Management World Bank (1997) Integrated Pest Management: Programs: a Literature Review. VCE Publica- Strategies and Policies for Effective Imple- tion 448–120, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg. mentation. Environmentally Sustainable Norton, G.W., Rajotte, E.G. and Gapud, V. (1999) Development Studies and Monograph Series Participatory research in integrated pest No.13. World Bank, Washington, DC.

Chapter 9 Integrated Pest Management Adoption by the Global Community

Waheed Ibrahim Bajwa and Marcos Kogan Integrated Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

Introduction the world’s pesticide sales (Table 9.1). In the 1990s, pesticide use leveled off in the Nearly 33 years after introduction of IPM, USA; declined in The Netherlands, Den- pest control is still largely dependent on mark, and Sweden; and slightly increased the use of pesticides. In many countries in the UK (Kogan and Bajwa, 1999). These – developing countries in particular – countries have strong IPM programs, based pesticide consumption actually increased on excellent research and outreach efforts. in the 1990s. For instance, pesticide use has It is unfortunate that in the developed increased by a factor of 39 between 1950 countries, 95% of pesticides is used to con- and 1992 and the developing countries trol the final 5% damage which is often nowaccount for one quarter of the world’s cosmetic (van Emden and Peakall, 1996). pesticide use (FAO Statistics). However, the In developing countries, most farmers still industrial countries of North America and believe in high volumes, high pressure and Western Europe still account for over half of high doses, as the most appropriate way to

Table 9.1. Sales of agrochemicals in the major regions of the world.

1990a 1992b 1996c

US$ % US$ % US$ % Region (billion) share (billion) share (billion) share

North America 5.4 21.9 7.3 29.2 9.2 29.4 Western Europe 6.6 26.7 6.7 26.7 8.2 26.2 Eastern Europe 1.9 7.7 1.2 4.6 na na Asia 6.8 27.5 6.1 24.4 7.7 24.5 Africa 1.2 4.9 na na na na Latin America 2.8 11.3 2.4 9.5 3.3 10.4 Rest of the world na na 1.4 5.6 3.0 9.5 Total 24.7 100.3 25.1 100.3 31.4 100.3 na, not available; aGIFAP, 1992. Asia Working Group. Publication of International Group of National Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products, Brussels. bChemistry & Industry, 15 November 1993. cAgrow: World Crop Protection News, 13 December 1996, 14 February and 28 February 1997. ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 97 98 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

apply pesticides. Problems with pesticide- information providers (research and exten- intensive pest control programs are the sion specialists, NGOs, private consultants) driving force behind IPM adoption or at to acquire the information and knowledge least consideration for its adoption at the necessary for developing an IPM program national or local level in most countries, suited to their needs. Thus, IPM is a diffuse and in many it has become official technology not amenable to generalized governmental policy. prescriptions. Decisions must be made at IPM is an information-intensive, the local, or at best, at the regional level site-specific, multitactic approach to pest (Table 9.2). With its success in many parts control. Rates and levels of adoption of IPM of the world, IPM is viewed as an ecologi- are determined by the resultant interplay of cally benign and cost-effective pest control a regional producers culture and experience, strategy ideally suited for both small and influenced by promotional efforts of the large farmers around the world. agrochemical industry, moderated by public educational and outreach efforts and availability of extension support. In contrast to the rapid adoption of pesticide technology Levels of IPM Adoption worldwide, adoption of a newly developed IPM approach or technology may take years. Adoption of IPM can be viewed under Table 9.2 provides a summary of possible a continuum, starting with systems largely reasons for the contrast in the rates of adop- confined to using a single tactical approach tion of these crop protection technologies. such as using economic thresholds for In addition to the reasons suggested in better timing of pesticide applications. Table 9.2, because of differences in climate, Along the continuum, additional non- pests, soil, variety and other factors, a well- chemical tactics such as cultural controls, developed IPM program for a crop in a biological controls, resistant crop varieties, particular location may not necessarily mating disruption, sterile insect release, work well in another situation. Farmers etc., may be integrated into the system. need site-specific information. Generally, Above a certain level of tactical integration, they have to work with local IPM a threshold is reached at which a previously

Table 9.2. Contrasting features of pesticide technology and IPM as possible reasons to explain the fast rate of adoption of the former and the slow rate of adoption of the latter.

Pesticides IPM

Compact technology from acquisition to Diffuse technology with multiple components. application. Easily incorporated into regular At times difficult to reconcile with normal farming farming operations operations Promoted by the private sector Promoted by the public sector Strong economic interests. Large budgets for R&D Budgets extremely limited for R&D Aggressive sales promotion supported by Promoted by extension personnel usually trained professionally developed advertising campaigns as educators not as salespersons Skillful use of mass communications media Limited support of trained communications media personnel. Educational programs of restricted scope Capable of providing incentives to ‘adoption’ (free Technical support usually provided, but limited by advice, slick publications, bonuses and small gifts) inadequate staffing. No material incentives Results of applications usually immediately Benefits often not apparent in the short run. Some apparent. difficult to demonstrate (e.g. results of biological control) Consequently: pesticide technology was Consequently: adoption of IPM technology rapidly adopted has been slow IPM Adoption by the Global Community 99

pesticide-centered program, becomes an interactive impacts of all pests within the IPM system. At the other extreme of the crop community and the tactics for their continuum, higher levels of integration are management. The operational unit is the reached including multiple pest impacts individual farm or multiple farms within a and consideration of ecosystem processes. region and the ecological scale is the crop Eventually a stage is reached at which pesti- biotic community. Level III – is the integra- cide use is minimized with a concurrent tion of multiple pests and controls within increase in the amount of time and the context of the regional cropping system management skills that are devoted to and surrounding natural vegetation. The IPM operations (Fig. 9.1). operational unit is the regional agricultural IPM is conceived at three levels of production system and the ecological scale integration. Level I – is the integration of is the ecosystem (Kogan, 1988). Prokopy and multiple control tactics into a control strat- Croft (1994) suggested the need for a fourth egy for individual pest species or species level, socio-political integration, but, in our complexes within the same pest category, view, regulatory and other issues deter- i.e. arthropods, pathogens, or weeds. The mined by societal demands and political operational unit is the crop field and the actions permeate all three levels of inte- ecological scale is the pest population. gration and thus should not be identified as Level II – is the integration of multiple and yet an additional level.

Fig. 9.1. Continuum from conventional pest control to level III IPM, as exemplified by Fruit IPM in USA. A minimum set of tactical components determines the ‘threshold of IPM’. DD, degree-day; SIR, sterile insect release. 100 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

Criteria for the effectiveness of capable of achieving adequate pest popula- an IPM system tion regulation. Such a stage, what Sterling (1984) called the inaction threshold, The following criteria have been suggested requires no integration of tactics, merely a by Kogan and Bajwa (1999) for measuring profound understanding of the ecology of performance of an IPM system: the agricultural system. Such was perhaps the nature of the most heralded IPM success • Ability of the system to maintain pest in the world, the control of the brown plant- populations belowestablished eco - hopper, Nilaparvata lugens, in Southeast nomic injury levels. As the stated goal Asia (Kenmore, 1996). of an IPM system is to eliminate or at In most countries, some form of IPM least attenuate the economic impact of nowexists withvarying degrees of sophisti - pests, efficacy in the reduction of pest cation and adoption. Major effort has been populations is a primary indicator of directed to crops such as banana (Costa effectiveness of the system. Rica), cotton (USA, many Asian, African, • Measurable reduction of pest impact on and South American countries), rice (many crop yield and quality over a period of Asian and African countries), soybean (USA time leading to greater stability in the and South American countries), maize productivity of the system. (USA, many Asian and African countries), • Reduction in amounts of production vegetables (most countries), pome fruits and protection inputs of non- (Europe, Australasia, and North America), renewable resource origin (mainly citrus fruits (USA and Australia), and plan- pesticides) while maintaining stable tation crops (Malaysia) (see Tables 9.3–9.7). productivity levels for the region. Several regional IPM programs have suc- • Level of adoption of the IPM system by cessfully been implemented on crops such producers. as cassava (mealy bug in Africa), coconut • Preservation of environmental qual- (rhinoceros beetle in Asia/Pacific), crucifers ity, as determined by measurable (diamondback moth in Asia), and rice indicators. (brown planthopper in tropical Asia) • Increase in safety and comfort of rural (Mengech et al., 1995; Soon, 1996). Experi- workers and their families. ence from these examples has shown that • Increase in the level of consumer IPM can work very well in both developed confidence in the safety of agricultural and developing countries; however, suc- products. cessful implementation requires raising general awareness of IPM and training at the research, extension, and farm levels. In IPM adoption around the world many developing countries, IPM was found economically more efficient than con- Measuring IPM adoption is a complex but ventional pest control approaches based much needed process because it provides on intensive use of pesticides. In these information about the efficiency of an IPM countries, a 50–100% reduction in pesticide program, identifies constraints to adoption, use is possible with no detrimental effects and identifies areas in need of improve- on yield (Soon, 1996). ment. Reliable estimates of IPM adoption In the developed world (both in Europe are not available presently for most crops. and North America), the food industry (par- In fact, the measurement of IPM adoption ticularly baby food products) has recently depends largely on the definition of IPM. accepted the concept of IPM and is actively IPM is often viewed as a strategy to inte- encouraging its development and adoption. grate two or more control tactics. However, Several companies have hired IPM special- a decision to do nothing is perhaps the most ists to conduct IPM research and develop desirable state of an IPM program in which programs for their contract growers. Some forces of nature are identified as, per se, companies help promote IPM by purchasing IPM Adoption by the Global Community 101

products from IPM/organic growers use of economic thresholds (ET) or at the (Sorensen, 1998; Kogan and Bajwa, 1999). level we call the IPM threshold), 23–35% Estimates on IPM adoption in some under medium level (scouting, ET and one crops are given in the Tables 9.3–9.7. These or two additional practices) and 20–30% tables contain information on direct mea- under a high level (scouting, threshold and surement such as area under IPM or indirect three or more additional practices) of IPM. measurement such as impact on reduction In fruits, nuts and vegetables, about 50% of in pesticide use, application frequency, or the area was under IPM with more than half treated area. Table 9.7 provides a list of other classified as high-level IPM. Among field IPM programs mentioned in the literature as crops, 74% and 72% of planted area was successful, but with no indication of levels under IPM for maize and fall potatoes, of adoption. respectively. About 38% of the fall potato acres were classified at high level IPM for USA and North America insects. Lack of crop consultants to deliver IPM services and the higher managerial Estimates on IPM adoption in USA are input necessary for IPM implementation based on a survey carried out from 1990 to were the most frequent impediments to 1993 (Table 9.3). Overall, 50% or more of adoption. Adoption rate has recently the crop acreage in fruits, nuts, vegetables, improved, for example, in the state of and field crops was under IPM for at least Washington, where 100% of fruit growers one of the three major pest types: insects, are now using Level I IPM (Warner, 1998). diseases, and weeds. About 5–15% of the In Canada, rate of IPM adoption is area was under low level (just scouting and 25–95% in different areas and commodities

Table 9.3. IPM adoption in field, vegetable, fruit and nut crops in major producing states of USA, 1991–1994.

Production area (1000 ha or %) Planted ha under IPM (%) Producing states % US Crops Total US reporting ha Insects Diseases Weeds

Field crops Maize 29,537 26,583 90 74 (22) na 53 (51) Soybean 25,760 21,638 84 na na 59 (57) Fall potatoes 25,482 25,453 94 72 (69) 63 (58) 66 (65) Vegetables 52 (43) 41 (29) 35 (33) Lettuce 25,108 25,105 97 81 (59) 80 (42) 41 (41) Melons 25,165 25,132 80 56 (48) 52 (34) 47 (47) Sweetcorn 25,305 25,259 85 43 (34) 34 (25) 46 (46) Tomatoes 25,166 25,144 87 66 (55) 41 (36) 23 (23)

All pests (insect, weed, disease)

High IPM Total

Fruits and nuts 31 50 (44) Almond 25,156 25,154 99 32 54 (53) Apple 25,188 25,154 82 27 42 (41) Grapes 25,299 25,296 99 37 54 (48) Oranges 25,248 25,248 100 26 64 (49) Pear 25,229 25,228 95 26 40 (37) Walnuts 25,274 25,274 100 31 43 (41)

Values in parentheses are based on the IPM threshold concept by Kogan, 1998. na, not available. (Source: Vandeman et al., 1994.) 102 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

(Table 9.6). In Nova Scotia, 95% of growers have recently started initiatives to adopt use Level I IPM and 25–40% Level II and III IFP methods. IPM. In British Columbia, rate of adoption is over 75% in pome and stone fruits. Asia and Australia

Europe In Asia and Australia, various stages of IPM have been successfully adopted in Ban- In Western Europe, 35% of the total area gladesh (rice), China (cotton, fruit crops, (322,000 ha) of pome fruit production is maize, rice, soybean, vegetables), India under integrated fruit production (IFP), an (cotton, fruit crops, sugarcane, vegetables), approach in which IPM has a central role. Indonesia (rice), Korea (rice), Malaysia The area has increased by 40% since 1991 (vegetables, plantation crops), Pakistan (Schafermeyer, 1991). Area under pome (cotton, mango, sugarcane), the Philippines IPM in Europe is given in Table 9.4. (rice), Tadjikistan (cotton), Thailand (cot- Adoption of IFP over a large area has led to ton), Turkmenistan (cotton), Vietnam (rice), promotion of higher standards of integrated Australia (pome and citrus fruits) and New pest management, up to 30% reduction in Zealand (pome fruit) (Tables 9.5 and 9.7). pesticide use, and use of environmentally Information on IPM adoption is generally benign pesticides (Cross et al., 1995). IFP not available for many countries where has received a warm welcome from devel- emphasis was given to biological means oped countries in other parts of the world, of pest control as the major component e.g. USA (Kogan and Bajwa, 1999), and New of IPM. In these countries mass production Zealand and Australia (Cross et al., 1995). and release of several biocontrol agents Implementation of IFP is not confined to have occurred without subsequent study on Western Europe or the developed world, it the effect of the program. In China, where is spreading to many other fruit growing large-scale mass release of biocontrol agents countries, e.g. Poland (Kogan and Bajwa, has been adopted for many years, it was 1999), Hungary (Balázs et al., 1996), South estimated that by the end of 1991, the area Africa, and Argentina (Cross et al., 1995) covered under the mass release program

Table 9.4. IPM adoption in Europe.

Area (1000 ha) Area Farmers under adopted Country/region Crop Total crop IPM ha IPM (%) IPM (%) Reference

Western Europe Apple & pear – – 50 – Reed, 1995 Western Europe Pome fruits 920.08 322.08 35 (1994) – Cross et al., 1995a Western Europe Fruit crops – – 29 – Reed, 1993 Austria Pome fruits 5.83 4.77 82 51 Cross et al., 1995a Belgium Pear – – – 98 Schaetzen, 1996 Belgium Pome fruits 20.00 4.51 23 31 Cross et al., 1995a Denmark Pome fruits 3.44 0.96 28 17 Cross et al., 1995a France Pome fruits 75.00 0.50 <1 ~1 Cross et al., 1995a Germany Pome fruits 38.60 30.44 79 27 Cross et al., 1995a UK Pome fruits 17.00 13.00 76 77 Cross et al., 1995a Italy Pome fruits 71.24 38.00 53 47 Cross et al., 1995a The Netherlands Pome fruits 21.00 14.80 70 57 Cross et al., 1995a Portugal Pome fruits 25.50 1.10 ~4 <1 Cross et al., 1995a Spain Pome fruits 56.00 0.40 <1 <1 Cross et al., 1995a Switzerland Pome fruits 6.08 4.35 72 39 Cross et al., 1995a Hungary Pome fruits 37.0 3.08 8 6 Valyi and Sallai, 1993a aValues represent adoption of integrated fruit production. IPM Adoption by the Global Community 103

was 25.8 million ha and 2.2 million ha were (WRI, 1994). Part of this success came from under microbial control (Raheja, 1995). field schools which allowed local farmers to In Southeast Asia, a major breakthrough harness their indigenous knowledge of natu- in IPM occurred in Indonesia in 1986–1987 ral pest control to IPM (Morse and Buhler, when IPM was adopted as the national crop 1997). The schools were set up with the protection strategy. Of 66 broad-spectrum assistance of the FAO. In these schools, more pesticides used on rice at the time 57 were than 250,000 farmers received IPM training banned by presidential decree (Morse and from 1989 to 1994 (WRI, 1994). According Buhler, 1997). This decree endorsed IPM as to Wardhani (1991), Indonesian Rice IPM the official ‘strategy’ for rice production. program represents a social movement that Subsidies on pesticides were reduced from links the scientific development of ecologi- 75% in 1986 to 40% in 1987 and removed cal concepts with intensive field training of altogether by January 1989 (APO, 1993). Five farmers on ecologically sound field manage- years later, rice yields increased by 15%, ment techniques. This success story has while pesticide use dropped by 60% (Morse proved instrumental for IPM adoption by and Buhler, 1997). In the first 2 years alone rice farmers in other Asian countries partic- the government saved US$120 million that it ularly in Vietnam (Soon, 1996) and China would have spent subsidizing chemicals (Mangan and Mangan, 1998). Indeed, such a (WRI, 1994). The overall economic impact mass scale IPM adoption has influenced and of IPM has been estimated at US$1 billion motivated farmers all across the globe.

Table 9.5. IPM adoption and/or its impacts in Africa, Asia and Australia.

Area Area Reduction in: (1000 ha) under Farmers pesticide Country/ IPM adopted usea, AFb or region Crop Total crop IPM (%) IPM (%) TAc/CCd (%) Reference

Asia Rice 132,158 – – – 35–100b FAO, 1993 132,100 4,900.3 3.71 – 28a (5 Y) Raheja, 1995 133,000 6,600.3 4.96 – – Morse and Buhler, 1997 Australia Cotton 133,270 – – 90 – Fitt, 1994 Bangladesh Rice 9,919 – – – 95c (14 Y) Raheja, 1995 van Emden and Peakall, 1996 China Cotton 5,200 15,00 .3 29 (1990) – – Zhaohui et al., 1991 Cotton – – – – 85b (10 Y) Raheja, 1995 Maize 20,350 2,000.3 10.96 – – Zhaohui et al., 1991 Rice 32,500 10,000.3 31 (1990) – – Zhaohui et al., 1991 Soybean 8,000 1,500.3 19 (1990) – – Zhaohui et al., 1991 Vegetables1 – – – – d Raheja, 1995 Wheat 29,850 6,000.3 20 (1990) – – Zhaohui et al., 1991 India Cotton2 – – – – 70b (15 Y) Raheja, 1995 Indonesia Rice 10,734 – – – 60a (1994) Morse and Buhler, 1997 Pakistan Mango3 133,213 10,003.3 25.96 – – Soon, 1996 Sudan Cotton – – – – 50a Pretty 1995, Morse and Buhler, 1997 Tajikistan Cotton 133,300 – – – ~85a (22 Y) Sugonyaev, 1994 Turkmenistan Cotton 133,620 – – – ~99a,c (24 Y) Sugonyaev, 1994 aPesticide use; bapplication frequency; ctreated area; dpest control cost. Y: year (s); M: million. Reporting area: the whole country except for 1200 cities in 22 provinces of China; 2State of Andhra Pradesh, India; 3Province of Punjab, Pakistan. 104 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

South America wheat), Chile (wheat), Colombia (cotton, ornamentals, soybean, sugarcane, tomato), In South America, IPM has been success- Paraguay (cotton, soybean), Peru (cotton, fully implemented in Argentina (lucerne, sugarcane), and Venezuela (cotton, sugar- citrus, soybean), Brazil (citrus, cotton, cane) (Tables 9.6 and 9.7) (Campanhola livestock, soybean, sugarcane, tomato, et al., 1995; Soon, 1996).

Table 9.6. IPM adoption and/or its impact in the Americas (countries other than USA).

Area Reduction in: (1000 ha) Farmers pesticide adopted usea, AFb or Country Crop Total crop IPM IPM (%) TAc/CCd (%) Reference

Argentina Soybean 5,935 – – 50b Aragon, 1991 Canada Field crops, fruits – – – 30–50a Surgeoner and Roberts, and vegetables1 1992 Pome fruits – – 75 – CHC, 2002 (British Columbia) Fruit & field – – 95 (Level I) – CHC, 2002 crops 25–40 (Nova Scotia) (Level II & III) Brazil Cassava – 3342 50 80–90d Braun et al., 1993 Citrus 31,0003 – – 77b (1970 Campanhola et al., 1995 vs. 95) Cotton 310,2224 – 70 – Ramalho, 1994 Soybean 5,935 – – 85b (11 Y) Campanhola et al., 1995 11,100 – 40 60–80b Campanhola et al., 1995, (1991) (25 Y) Iles and Sweetmore, 1991 10,728 – 40 60a Moscardi and Sosa- Gomez, 1996 Sugarcane 4,183 150 – – Campanhola et al., 1995 Wheat5 – – – 94c Campanhola et al., 1995 (5 Y, 1982) Chile Wheat – – – (Annual Campanhola et al., 1995 saving US$20 M)a Colombia Cotton 310,2266 26 – 85–90b Campanhola et al., 1995 (1995) Cotton – 3 67 – 97b (7 Y) Campanhola et al., 1995 Sugarcane 310,3188 318 100 – Campanhola et al., 1995, Escobar, 1986 Soybean – – – 80–90d Garcia, 1990 Tomato9 – – 70 100b Campanhola et al., 1995 Costa Rica Banana10 – – – 100a (1973) Soon, 1996 Paraguay Cotton 10,454 – – ~80a Servian de Cardozo, 1990 310,21911 – – 50b Servian de Cardozo, 1990 Venezuela Sugarcane 10,111 50 – – Campanhola et al., 1995 aPesticide use; bapplication frequency; ctreated area; dpest control cost. Y: year (s); M: million. Reporting area: the whole country except for: 1Province of Ontario, Canada; 2State of Paraná, Brazil; 3 & 4State of São Paulo, Brazil; 5Wheat-growing areas of Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná and Santa Catarina, Brazil; 6, 8 & 9 Valle del Cauca, Colombia; 7Municipality of Zarzal, Colombia; 10Reduction in insecticide sprays; 11By Cooperative Colonia Unidas, Paraguay. IPM Adoption by the Global Community 105

Table 9.7. Other examples of reported IPM adoption.

Countries Crop Impact – reduction in/comments Reference

Argentina Citrus Pesticide use & application Campanhola et al., frequency 1995 Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Rice Successfully implemented Pretty, 1995 India & Sri Lanka Egypt, Sudan, Togo, Zimbabwe Cotton Successfully used Pretty, 1995 Malaysia Plantation Pesticide use (+ Environmental Raheja, 1995 crops conservation) Vegetables Pesticide use Raheja, 1995 Peru (Canete Valley) Cotton Pesticide use & control cost (1972) Boza-Barducci, 1972 South Africa Apple Pesticide use & application Nel et al., 1993 frequency China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vegetables Successfully used van Emden and Taiwan, Thailand, Peakall, 1996 the Philippines, Vietnam

Africa the environment and for the very survival of the human race on earth. The robust The current status of IPM adoption is given conceptual foundation of IPM projects in Tables 9.5 and 9.7. In Sudan, IPM influences beyond the limits of crop produced good results with more than 50% protection. IPM has become a model for all reduction in insecticide use. Introduction other operational components of sustain- of a parasitoid wasp, Epidinocarsis lopezi, able agriculture. It is just a matter of time spectacularly controlled the cassava mealy- and dedication from those who believe in bug, Phenacoccus manihoti, across the its potential for IPM to become a global cassava belt (Zethner, 1995; Soon, 1996). reality in practice, as well as in theory. This program started in 1979 and by 1990 E. lopezi had become established in 25 countries where cassava is cultivated (Zethner, 1995). IPM has been successfully References used in South Africa on apple; Togo, Zimbabwe and Egypt on cotton; and [APO] Asian Productivity Organization (1993) Burkina Faso on rice. Ghana has recently Pest Control in Asia and the Pacific: Report launched IPM as the national crop protec- of an APO Seminar 24th September– tion strategy, which includes controls on 4th October, 1991. Asian Productivity the import of chemical pesticides (Zethner, Organization, Tokyo, Japan, 409 pp. 1995). Countries like Burkina Faso, Côte Aragon, J. (1991) El manejo integrado de plagas en d’Ivoire, and Kenya are currently focusing soja. Desarrollo Argentino (Rosario) 8, 9–12. Balázs, K., Jenser, G. and Bujáki, G. (1996) Eight more on capacity building as the initial step years’ experience of IPM in Hungarian apple towards adopting IPM (Zethner, 1995). orchards. In: Polesny, F., Müller, W. and Olszak, R.W. (eds) Proceedings of the Inter- national Conference on Integrated Fruit Conclusion Production, Cedzyna, Poland, 28 August– 2 September 1995. Acta Horticulturae 422, 95–101. IPM is a tangible reality in some privileged Boza-Barducci, T. (1972) Ecological consequences regions of the world, but still remains a of pesticides used for the control of cotton distant dream for many others. Given the insects in Canete Vally, Peru. In: Farva, M.T. world demographic and social realities, and Milton, J.P. (eds) The Careless Tech- however, adoption of IPM is not an option, nology. Natural History Press, NewYork, it is a vital necessity for the conservation of pp. 423–438. 106 W.I. Bajwa and M. Kogan

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Chapter 10 Integrated Pest Management in Burkina Faso

Dona Dakouo1, Marcel S. Bonzi2, Abdoussalam Sawadogo1, Clémentine L. Dabiré3, Souleymane Nacro1 and Bouma Thio1 1INERA, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; 2INERA, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; 3INERA, Station de Kamboinsé, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Introduction Agriculture accounts for 36.1% of the Gross Domestic Product and 65% of the country’s Burkina Faso is a landlocked country of exports. Cotton, shea nuts (karité), sesame, 274,000 km2 (105,869 square miles), located vegetables and tobacco are the major in the heart of Western Africa, 1000 km exports, while millet, sorghum, maize, rice, from the Atlantic Ocean. The country is sweet potatoes and yams are the main food bordered by Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, crops. Mali, Niger and Togo. With 10.9 million inhabitants and a density of 39.8 inhabitants/km2 (13.1/square mile), Burkina Faso History of IPM in Burkina Faso is one of the most highly populated states in West Africa. Chemical control Like other Sahelian countries, Burkina Faso suffers from drought and desertifi- Plant protection started in Burkina Faso cation, overgrazing, soil degradation, with the control of locusts and cotton deforestation, and from the effects of pests in the early 1960s using chemicals. uneven population distribution. The tropi- Chemical control was well known as a fast cal weather in Burkina Faso is divided into and easy way to control pests in field crops two seasons: the dry season from November and stored products. However, chemical to May (with a cool and dry period from control rapidly showed its limits by causing November to February, and hot weather problems of pest resistance and hazards to from March to May), and the rainy season humans and the environment. from June to October. The average tempera- Based on the demonstrated need for ture is 15°C at night, and 30°C during the newpest management strategies, IPM strate - day, except in the dry season when tempera- gies have been developed by multidisciplin- tures may rise to over 38°C. Average rainfall ary teams in plant protection, breeding and is approximately 1200 mm (47.2 inches) in agronomy. IPM requires adequate research, the south, to less than 400 mm (15.7 inches) a protocol for decision making based on in the north and northeast. specified criteria, and the use of compatible Some 90% of the country’s populat- control methods including natural enemies, ion is actively involved in agriculture. habitat management, cultural practices, ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 109 110 D. Dakouo et al.

resistant varieties and pesticides (Bonzi, of Agriculture is also involved through its 1996). technical services: Agricultural Extension Directorate, Regional Directions of Agricul- ture, and Plant Protection Service. Private IPM programs in Burkina Faso sector groups also contribute to IPM. At the grassroots level, farmers’ organizations in The first successful IPM program in cotton, rice and vegetable crops participate Burkina Faso was the Regional IPM Project in IPM in the field. (1980–1987) in the nine Sahelian countries. These countries are members of the CILSS (the Inter-States Committee for Drought IPM research in Burkina Faso Management in the Sahel). The project was funded by USAID and carried out with Research focusing on IPM has primarily the technical assistance of FAO. In each been carried out at INERA within the country, the program relied on a multidisci- CNRST and at the University IDR both plinary research team in food crops (cereals under the Ministry of Higher Education and vegetable crops). Regional meetings and Scientific Research. Regional or inter- were held every year to discuss results national research institutes such as CIRAD among scientists and extension agents from and IRD (French overseas research insti- the nine countries. The project worked well tutes), IITA, ICRISAT and WARDA (CGIAR but ended before most of the results were International Centers) carry out research implemented in farmers’ fields. on plant protection in collaboration with In 1995, FAO began to experiment with national research institutes. the Asian FFS approach with pilot IPM pro- The development and adoption of the jects in Ghana (1995), Côte d’Ivoire (1996), Strategic Plan for Scientific Research (Anon- Burkina Faso (1997) and Mali (1998–1999). ymous, 1995a) was done in collaboration Other IPM programs in Burkina Faso with national and international organiza- included the cowpea IPM Project tions in research and extension, private (1996–1999) and the sorghum IPM Project sector, and farmers’ organizations. (1996–2000). A Regional IPM Project in rice, vegetables and cotton for three countries (Mali, Senegal and Burkina Faso) has been Agricultural research in Burkina Faso established and will be carried out over 3 years (2001–2003) with the assistance of Research activities within INERA are FAO. Following the adoption of a Strategic conducted according to five agricultural or Plan for Scientific Research in Burkina ecological regions in Burkina Faso. Each of (Anonymous, 1995a), all research programs the five regions hosts a Regional Research in plant protection are IPM oriented. Center where research is conducted according to the specific needs of the region. Such research is part of the activities of the 16 IPM Organizational Structure in research programs of the Institute. Of these Burkina Faso 16 research programs, five are focused on crops: traditional crops (sorghum, millet Organizations involved in IPM and maize), rice, cotton, vegetables and fruits, legume and oil crops. Research Organizations contributing to IPM include includes studies on ecology of pests, their the Ministry of Higher Education and relationships with biotic factors (host Scientific Research through its national plants, natural enemies) and abiotic factors research and higher education institutes, (climate, soils), and the development and primarily the INERA and the Institut de implementation of IPM programs. The five Développement Rural (IDR). The Ministry regions include (Fig. 10.1): IPM in Burkina Faso 111

Fig. 10.1. The regional centers for environmental and agricultural research of INERA. *Indicates Regional Research Centers; Kamboinsé is a Regional Research and Training Center near Ouagadougou (Anonymous, 1995b).

• The Sahel Region, 36,896 km2, popula- Scientists train extension facilitators and tion 662,169; farmers, while feedback on the successful • The Center Region, 94,000 km2, popu- or unsuccessful aspects of IPM programs is lation 3,584,117; provided to research scientists by farmer • The Northwest Region, 30,817 km2, organizations and extension services. population 1,280,933; • The West Region, 52,000 km2, population 1,184,000; Other important groups in IPM • The East Region, 60,000 km2, population 1,500,000. The Sofitex Cotton Company

Sofitex (Société Burkinabé des Fibres Textiles) is a parastatal company. It over- Agricultural extension sees the production, industrialization, sale and export of cotton. It also supplies inputs The Ministry of Agriculture administers (fertilizers and insecticides) to cotton farm- this sector. Programs include development ers through their organizations. Sofitex has at the national level of extension methods, a network of 130 cotton extension agents programming, and follow-up evaluation of in plant protection throughout the country. animal and plant production. This sector The INERA research program in cotton is divided into 12 regional directions of trained these extension agents. They work agriculture. with all aspects of cotton production and Extension and research programs training of cotton farmers on the use of work together to develop IPM programs. plant protection methods. The cotton plant 112 D. Dakouo et al.

protection program is based on chemical in connection with Sofitex. A similar control. A total of 8,801,888 l of insecticides organization for rice farmers, the ‘Comité were used from 1997 to 2001 (Anonymous, Interprofessionel du Riz du Burkina 2001). However, in the past 3 years, prog- (CIR-B)’ has been recently created. Such ress has been made on the development of organizations are potential channels for the IPM methods in cotton. promotion of IPM methods, because they can most accurately identify constraints to NGOs production and sale of their products.

Two NGOs operating in Burkina Faso have a specific program in plant protection. IPM and Pesticide Use Policy The ‘Albert Schweitzer Centre Ecologique’ (a Swiss funded ecological center) promotes the use of local technologies in local envi- In 1992, the members of CILSS adopted a ronments. The Centre has an experimental common pesticide legislation (Diarra, 2000) farm where methods to protect vegetable and created ‘The Sahelian Committee of crops and storage products are tested. Pesticides’ in 1998. This body has the Training in agroecology is also provided to authority to regulate pesticide use, registra- farmers. tion, import, export and local production in The ‘Assistance Ecologique aux Projets the nine member countries. The committee de Développement’ (Ecological Assistance is made up of 24 members drawn from the to Rural Development Projects) also works nine countries and from regional and inter- in plant protection. It is based in Bobo- national organizations such as OCLALAV, Dioulasso (in the southwest of the country) CPI/OUA, FAO, and WHO. and was founded by a Catholic priest in The Sahelian Committee of Pesticides 1981. Its mission is to inform and train holds two annual meetings to examine farmers on the use of environmentally requests for pesticide registration made sound methods in agriculture. by pesticide companies and to address all related matters such as issuing a list of The private sector registered pesticides in the nine countries (Diarra, 2000). In each country, the national The private sector includes several chemical committee administers the decisions and pesticide companies that conduct the distri- oversees matters related to pesticides in the bution and sale of pesticides. Pesticide use country. in Burkina Faso is only common in cotton, Each national committee consists of rice and vegetable crops. Large quantities of 16 members. In Burkina Faso, the members pesticides have often been donated to the are drawn from the Ministries of Agri- government of Burkina Faso by exterior aid culture, Environment, Trade, Animal for locust control. The private sector can Resources, Finance, Higher Education and play a greater role in environmental and Scientific Research, Health, Labor, and Jus- IPM issues by improving farmers’ knowl- tice and from the private sector (pesticide edge on pesticides and their proper use. companies, pesticide users and consumers’ organizations). The National Committee Farmers’ organizations meets twice a year. The National Committee of Pesticides Farmers’ organizations operate primarily (NCP) is divided into four commissions: at the village level, but a fewworkat verification, control, pesticide management, regional and national levels. At the national and fraud. Each commission holds at least level, the cotton farmers’ organization, the one meeting a year. The recommendations ‘Union national des paysans producteurs from the NCP are submitted to the Minister de coton du Burkina (UNPCB)’, works with of Agriculture. Since August 2000, the NCP all aspects of cotton production and sale has held a training program for plant IPM in Burkina Faso 113

protection service officers in charge of pest The IPM system in rice (1987–1990) and pesticide control at country borders. Irrigated rice covers only 7% of the total cropped acreage (40,000 ha) in Burkina Successful IPM in Burkina Faso Faso, but accounts for one third of the estimated rice production. Using modern The Regional IPM Project in the Sahelian rice production methods, two crop seasons countries (1980–1987) a year may occur, with an average yield of 4 t/ha. Insect pests and rice blast caused by The first successful IPM project in Burkina the fungus Pyricularia oryzae are of major Faso was the Regional IPM Project. Impor- importance. Important insect species tant results of this project included research- include lepidopterous stem borers (Chilo building capacity in plant protection, an zacconius, C. diffusilineus, Maliarpha inventory of food crop pests in the Sahel, separatella and Sesamia calamistis), the training staff (masters and PhD) in several rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzivora and the areas (entomology, plant pathology, weed stalk-eyed borer, Diopis sp. science), and increasing the awareness of Insect control in irrigated rice still policy makers about IPM (Bonzi, 1996). In largely depends on the use of insecticides. 1990, an international workshop was held However, chemical control does not always in Bamako to highlight the major results of meet the necessary criteria of efficiency and the project (Anonymous, 1990; Mattesson, profitability. Systematic use of insecticides 1990). Two major achievements of the pro- has proved to be prohibitively costly for ject in Burkina Faso were the pilot program small-scale farmers and disastrous for the in millet and the IPM system in rice. environment (Matteson, 1990). Therefore, there was a need to develop an insect management system that minimized the use of chemicals. The pilot program in millet An insect pest management system was developed (Dakouo et al., 1992) using This program took place in all the millet- a procedure that relied on monitoring and producing CILSS countries from 1985 to threshold interventions based on levels of 1987. The program strategy was based on stem borer damage. The Vallée du Kou evaluating all of the control methods irrigated rice region (near Bobo-Dioulasso, against millet pests generated or collected in the southwest of the country) was selected by the Regional IPM Project since 1980, for this case study because of its relatively primarily against the millet downy mildew large size (1100 ha), the possibility of two and striga, a parasitic plant. Methods used crop seasons per year and the high average included hand weeding and burning striga yield of 4 t/ha. Lepidopterous stem borers and all millet infested by downy mildew. were the major insect pests in the area. In addition to these, cultural practices such Damage symptoms included dying off of as plowing before sowing, use of fertilizer, the central leaf during the vegetative stage sowing on lines, fixed spacing, and plant (dead heart) or dying off of the panicle at thinning were used (Bonzi, 1996). the reproductive stage (white head). The The program began in the 1985/86 crop efficiency and profitability of the insect pest season with 15 farmers from three villages. management system was evaluated during By the 1986/87 season, 75 farmers from 12 two consecutive crop seasons with 30 villages were participating. The farmers randomly selected farmers. Twenty farmers reported increased yield in the pilot plots, were assigned to apply insecticides accord- effective control of millet pests, and an ing to one of two threshold levels: (i) 5% of effective combination of control methods dead heart during vegetative stage; and (ii) (Bonzi, 1996). 1% of white head during the reproductive 114 D. Dakouo et al.

stage. Ten of the 30 farmers were assigned to (1994–1996), was executed in five countries, the control group, applying insecticides at namely, Benin, Burkina Faso, Mozambique, pre-defined intervals without considering Niger and Nigeria. Very promising results insect damage. from an extensive evaluation (Anonymous, Table 10.1 illustrates the yield, average 1999) were the basis for extending the number of insecticide applications per project into an implementation phase crop season and the cost–benefit ratio. An (1997–1999) and expanding it to four new average of 1.2 insecticide applications were countries: Cameroon, Ghana, Mali and recorded per crop season in the 20 pilot Senegal. fields. In the control fields, 3 applications Main achievements of the project were done on average. In the pilot fields, included the development of single and yield increased by 10.5%, and the cost– multiple resistant cultivars to bruchids, benefit ratio was 1:17.4 (Dakouo et al., aphids, thrips, bugs, striga and drought, the 1995). development of methods to protect cowpea using botanical insecticides from plants such as Hyptis spicigera, Cassia nigricans, Boscia senegalensis and Azadirachta indica The cowpea IPM project (1994–1998) (Anonymous, 1999). In 2000, PEDUNE and RENACO (Réseau Cowpea is an important staple grain legume de recherche sur le niébé pour l’Afrique in the lowland dry savanna and the occidentale et Centrale = West and Central Sahel regions of Africa. Unfortunately, it is Africa Cowpea Research Network) merged heavily damaged by insect pests, diseases into a newproject called Projet Niébé pour and parasitic weeds making it difficult to l’Afrique (Cowpea Project for Africa, produce without pesticides. But effects of PRONAF) (Anonymous, 2000) for a 2-year repeated applications of pesticides lead period (2000–2002). This project accom- to the development of pest resistance, plished the completion of baseline surveys health hazards and environment pollution. in eight PRONAF countries, improved stor- In addition, these pesticides are not accessi- age techniques, and IPM training for farmer ble to small-scale farmers. Alternative tech- organizations and government institutions nologies for sustainable cowpea production (Anonymous, 2000). Multilocational trials including host-plant resistance, insecti- have been conducted across countries and cides derived directly from plants, cultural different ecological regions using planting control methods, and biological control, dates and intercroppings to control pod- have been developed by IITA Cotonou sucking bugs. Findings in Burkina Faso (Benin) and the NARS. A regional IPM showed that the population of the main project, PEDUNE was initiated in mid-1994 sucking bug, Clavigralla tomentosicollis for testing and adapting these technologies decreased with late plantings due to through a participatory approach and to the activity of an egg parasitoid, Gryon make them available to farmers and rural fulviventre. Intercropping cowpea with communities. This project had two phases. cereals (sorghum or millet) reduced the bug The pilot phase, which lasted for 21 years population and its incidence on cowpea

Table 10.1. Profitability of the IPM system at the Vallée du Kou irrigated rice scheme in Burkina Faso.

Insecticide applications Type of Yield Yield Cost–benefit farmers (kg ha−1) increase (%) Range Average Cost (US$)* ratio

Control 4145 – 3 3.2 17 – Pilot 4581 10.5 0–2 1.2 7 1:17.4

*US$1 = 700 CFA Fr. IPM in Burkina Faso 115

yield, the best result being with millet Parasitic nematodes of vegetable crops (Dabiré, 2001). Importance of parasitic nematodes on vegetable crops The Sorghum IPM Project (1996–2000) Parasitic nematodes are major pests on several vegetable crops. A survey by Sawadogo The Sorghum IPM Project was funded (1990) identified 20 genera or species of by the European Union. It included five nematodes associated with most of the research partners: CIRAD-CA (France), cultivated vegetable crops in Burkina Faso the University of Heidelberg (Germany), (tomato, aubergine, potato, bean, okra, CNESOLER (Mali), IER (Mali), and INERA onion and sweetcorn). Vegetable crops are (Burkina Faso). The objectives of the project grown during the dry season, after rainy were to reduce losses caused by insect season crops such as cereals, or after the pests, especially lepidopterous stem borers rice crop in irrigated rice areas. Nematode (Busseola fusca, Eldana saccharina and damage is highly correlated with soils, Sesamia calamistis), panicle-feeding pests climatic conditions and farmer practices. (sorghum midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola) Parasitic nematodes are a limiting factor and head bugs. The project focused on in maize and tomato productivity in upland four IPM components: host plant resistance, growing areas (Sawadogo et al., 1998). plant-derived pesticides including extracts Helicotylenchus, Scutellonema, Pratylen- of physic nut (Jatropha curcas) and neem chus and Meloidogyne are the most impor- (Azadirachta indica), sex pheromones of tant genera of nematodes associated with the stem borer (Busseola fusca), and vegetable crops. Five species of root-knot combining integrated control strategies. nematodes have been identified in Burkina The final goal was to apply IPM packages in Faso: Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, farmers’ fields. M. mayaguensis, M. chitwoodi and M. Several methodologies and research hispanica. M. incognita and M. javanica are tools were developed in the sorghum project the most common species. during its 4-year duration (Ratnadass, 2001). Some of the most important results in Burkina Faso included: The control of root-knot nematodes with crop rotation • identification of ten newsources of resistance to the sorghum midge High populations of root-knot nematode (Dakouo et al., 2000); (Meloidogyne spp.) can occur in upland • development of three sorghum vegetable crops (Sawadogo et al., 1998). cultivars combining high yield poten- Meloidogyne spp. are a threat to tomato tial and resistance or tolerance to production in West Africa. Recent research midge and/or head bugs; has focused on the effects of common rainy- • improved efficiency of insecticides season crops on nematode populations and derived from neem seed powder tomato production. The goal was to identify against stem borers; alternative rainy-season crops that decrease • an efficient trapping technique for the population of Meloidogyne spp. in soil, the sorghum stem borer Busseola fusca and lead to good tomato production in the using pheromones, that can be used for dry season. either direct or indirect control of the One study was conducted in two vegeta- pest (Dakouo and Ratnadass, 1999); ble growing areas near Bobo-Dioulasso • successful testing of IPM packages in 2 consecutive years. Seven treatments based on manipulation of planting were tested as alternative crops in the rainy dates; host-plant resistance and season: groundnut var. RMP12, maize var. sorghum protection using neem in Jaune de Fô, millet var. M12, sorghum farmers’ fields. var. Gnofing, fonio (Digitaria exilis Stapf.) 116 D. Dakouo et al.

landrace, tomato var. Roma VF, and natural control methods was conducted in 2000 fallow. Nematode population levels at the in two locations (Banzon and Karfiguela) end of the rainy season showed significant by Kabore et al. (2002). Preliminary results differences. Tomato, fallowand maize were showed that Hirschmanniella spinicaudata highly infested, while groundnut, sorghum, and H. oryzae were the primary nematode millet and fonio were associated with low species present in these locations. Three nematode population levels. These results treatments were used in the study: indicated that crop rotation can be an effec- 1. Untreated control. tive strategy. Sorghum, Digitaria exilis and 2. Synthetic pesticides: Basudin (diazi- groundnut are the best alternative crops for non) at 1000 g a.i./ha, foliar sprays 20, tomato, helping to reduce nematode damage 40 and 60 days after transplanting; a nema- (Sawadogo et al., 1995). ticide, Basamid (dazomet) at 100 kg/ha, incorporated into the soil 14 days before transplanting; and a fungicide, Kitazin (di- Parasitic nematodes of rice isopropyl-s-benzyl-thiophosphate), foliar spray at 720 g a.i./ha at panicle emergence. Nematodes associated with rice 3. Botanical pesticides (IPM): treatment with botanical pesticides derived from neem A survey of plant parasitic nematodes asso- (Azadirachta indica) and organic matter ciated with irrigated rice was conducted in against nematodes, kernel liquid extract of Burkina Faso and Mali in 1994 (Sawadogo A. indica against insects, and rice stem ashes et al., 1994). Hirschmanniella spinicaudata against fungi. and H. oryzae were the most abundant species. Yield loss assessments due to parasitic The synthetic pesticide treatments nematodes of Hirschmanniella genus were reduced nematode populations in both done in pot trials in greenhouse and on locations, but the botanical pesticides were farm trials. efficient in root population reduction. The Pot trials showed a yield loss of 30% botanical pesticide treatments increased due to rice root nematode H. spinicaudata rice yields by 3% compared with 9.3% with (Thio, 1998). In farm trials, the nematicides synthetic pesticides at the Karfiguéla site. carbofuran and isazophos increased rice Rice yield was increased by 18.5% in yield by 60%. The same result was observed both the synthetic and botanical pesticide with the nematicide dazomet applied in treatments at the Banzon site. soils 2 weeks before transplanting. A screening of 50 rice cultivars conducted in two locations indicated that some Economic benefits of control of them showed partial resistance to the Hirschmanniella and Heterodera genera (Anonymous, 2000). Resistance study Table 10.2 illustrates the economic benefit carried on African rice species, Oryza of the botanical pesticide (IPM) treatments. glaberrima, and the Asian rice species The synthetic chemicals produced a benefit O. sativa and their crosses showed good of US$142.10 at Banzon and US$23.90 at resistance of African rice species and partial Karfiguéla, but the treatment cost was very resistance of hybrids (Thio, 1998). high, at US$858.00. The botanical pesticide (IPM) treatments also produced a benefit A multidisciplinary approach to nematode of US$142.10 at Banzon, and a benefit of control in irrigated rice US$65.60 at Karfiguéla, but the treatment cost was much lower at US$42.80. High costs and environmental hazards Expensive imported chemicals used in due to excessive use of pesticides led to the synthetic chemicals treatment led to eco- the development of alternative pest control nomic losses with a cost–benefit ratio of methods. A study comparing several 1:0.16 at Banzon and 1:0.26 at Karfiguéla. IPM in Burkina Faso 117

Table 10.2. Profitability of the integrated protection system combining organic manure, rice ashes and neem products against nematodes, blast and insects at Banzon and Karfiguéla during the 2000 wet season (Kaboré et al., 2002).

Yield (t/ha) Benefit in US$* Cost in US$ Cost–benefit ratio

Treatments Banzon Karfiguéla Banzon Karfiguéla Banzon Karfiguéla Banzon Karfiguéla

Control 6.31b 5.78b – – – – – – Synthetic chemicals 7.48a 7.69a 142.1 231.9 858.0 858.0 1:0.16 1:0.26 Botanical pesticides 7.48a 6.32a 142.1 65.6 42.8 42.8 1:3.38 1:1.50 (IPM)

*US$1 = 700 CFA Fr. Cost–benefit ratio = cost/benefit; the ratio expresses the return for 1 dollar invested. Means followed by the same letters in a column are not significant at 5% level.

The IPM approach, using exclusively local Rural Cooperation (CTA), Wageningen, The natural products, provided a relevant cost– Netherlands, 128 pp. benefit ratio of 1:3.38 at Banzon and 1:1.50 Anonymous (1995a) Strategic Plan for Scientific at Karfiguéla, with the added advantage of Research: Agricultural Research. Ministère des Enseignements Secondaire, Supérieur et better environmental protection. de la Recherche Scientifique, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 90 pp. Anonymous (1995b) Agricultural Research Key Constraints of IPM Project – Formulation of Phase II (Pre- liminary report). Centre National de la The following constraints are challenges to Recherche Scientifique et Technologique IPM in Burkina Faso and can explain the (CNRST), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. failure of some IPM projects: Anonymous (1999) PEDUNE Farmer Participatory IPM for Cowpea, 1997–1998 Progress Report. • Inadequate awareness of the National ITTA /Swiss Agency for Development and IPM Policy: only public organizations Cooperation, Cotonou, Benin, 83 pp. (research and extension services) are Anonymous (2000) Integrated Pest Management aware of the policy. of legumes pests and diseases. In: Annual • Lack of collaboration between research, Report 2000, Research Highlights. Inter- national Institute of Tropical Agriculture extension services and NGOs: recom- (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, p. 8. mendations from research do not Anonymous (2001) Statistics on Pesticides always reach farmers due to insuffi- Importation over the 5 Past Years 1996–2000. cient communication networks. Société burkinabè des fibres textiles (Sofitex), • Inadequate funding for research, IPM Direction du Développement de la Produc- development and implementation. tion Cotonnière, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina • Lowincome of farmers: they cannot Faso. afford the use of costly imported inputs Bonzi, S.M. (1996) Plant Protection in Burkina (fertilizers) on traditional crops (sor- Faso: Part I – Diagnosis. Consultant Report ghum and millets), which results in for the Institut du Sahel, Bamako, Mali. Dabiré, L.C. (2001) Etude de quelques paramètres low yields and poverty. biologiques de Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stål. (Hemiptera: Coreidae), punaise suceuse des gousses du niébé (Vigna unguiculata (L.) References Walp), dans une perspective de lutte durable contre l’insecte au Burkina Faso. Thèse Anonymous (1990) Food Crop Pests in the Sahel. de Doctorat d’Etat ès Sciences Naturelles, Regional Coordination Unit in Plant Protec- Université d’Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, 179 pp. tion (UCTR-PV), Institut du Sahel, Bamako Dakouo, D. and Ratnadass, A. (1999) Les lépidop- Mali /Technical Centre for Agricultural and tères foreurs de tige en Afrique de l’Ouest, 118 D. Dakouo et al.

fluctuations saisonnières, importance Sciences et Techniques du Langdoc, économique et perspectives de lutte intégrée. Montpellier, France. Annales de la Société Entomologique de Sawadogo, A., Thio, B., Konate, A. and France 35, 463–470. Abdoulaye, A. (1994) Inventory of nematodes Dakouo, D., Nacro, S., Post, R. and Traoré, Y. associated with rice in the Sahelian Burkina (1992) A system of rational control of insect and at the Office du Niger (Mali). Nuisibles pests in irrigated rice schemes in Burkina Pests Pragas 2(2), 130–148. Faso: phytosanitary survey and threshold Sawadogo, A., Thio, B. and Kini, L. (1995) Crop action. Nuisibles Pests Pragas 1, 1–9. rotation as a way to control tomato gall- Dakouo, D., Nacro, S., Post, R., Traoré, Y., Nokoe, nematodes in Western Burkina Faso S. and Munyinyi, D.M. (1995) Evaluating Nuisibles Pests Pragas 3(2), 197–207. Insect Pest Management in rice environ- Sawadogo, A., Thio, B. and Konate, A. (1998) nement. Insect Science and its Application Yield lossses due to nematodes in a maize– 16, 93–101. tomato crop rotation in Burkina Faso. Cahiers Dakouo, D., Trouche, G., Ratnadass, A., Ba, M. and Agricultures 7, 323–325. Da, S. (2000) Newsources of resistance to sor - Thio, B. (1998) Studies on effects of Hirschman- ghum midge in Burkina Faso. International niella oryzae (Pratylenchidae: Nematodes). Sorghum and Millet Newsletter 41, 34–37. MSc thesis, University of Ouagadougou, Diarra, A. (2000) Common Regulation of the Burkina Faso. Member States of CILSS on Pesticides Registration. Inter-States Committee for Drought Management in the Sahel (CILSS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 7 pp. Important Websites Kaboré B., Dakouo, D., Thio, B. and Sawadogo, A. (2002) Efficiency and profitability of an Permanent Interstates Committee for Drought IPM system against insects, diseases and Control in the Sahel (CILSS) nematodes at two irrigated rice schemes in Burkina Faso. International Rice Research www.cilssnet.org Notes 27(1), 34–35. Matteson, P.C. (1990) Lessons learned in the Education and Research development of IPM in Asia. In: Institut du Sahel (ed.) Proceedings of the International Centre National de la Recherche Symposium on IPM in the Sahelian Coun- Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST): tries, Bamako 4–9 January 1990, Institut du www.cnrst.bf Sahel, Bamako, Mali, pp. 257–263, Université de Ouagadougou: www. univ- Ratnadass, A. (2001) Final Report of the INCO-DC ouaga.bf Project – Sustainable Production of Sorghum in West Africa by Integrated Control of its Institute for Research and Development Main Insect Pests. CIRAD, Programme (IRD): www.ird.bf CALIM, Montpellier, France. Sawadogo, A. (1990) Contribution à l’étude de la NGOs nématofaune et de la mycoflore antagoniste dans les cultures maraîchères du Burkina Albert Schweitzer Ecological Centre: www. Faso. Thèse de Doctorat, Université des ceas-ong.net Chapter 11 Ghana National Integrated Pest Management Program

K. Afreh-Nuamah Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana

Brief History of IPM in Ghana biotic factors on pest populations, had been lacking. Furthermore, contacts with farmers IPM has been recognized as one of the had been very minimal. practical alternative measures that could Following the West African IPM be used to deal with many problems workshop at the Accra Conference Centre in emanating from increasing pesticide use Accra, Ghana, in 1991 (under the auspices of especially at the farm level. However, the the IPM forum), the National Plant Protec- implementation had been restricted to a few tion and Pesticide Regulatory Committee of isolated crops in the developed world. the National Agricultural Research Project Recent developments, however, have (NARP) submitted a memorandum to the shown that IPM could be more practical and NARP Secretariat pushing adoption of IPM field-oriented to the benefits of the ordinary as a major component of Ghana’s Plant farmer. Especially when it is adopted not as Production/Protection Strategy. This recog- a technology, but as an approach and a strat- nized the excessive use of pesticides egy for developing technologies, to solving especially on crops like vegetables (tomato, pest and disease problems as and when they cabbage and aubergines) had led to occur (Kiss and Meerman, 1991). unacceptable residues in market produce Until 1991, research on IPM in Ghana resulting in risks to consumers and com- was fragmented and lacked a focused modity rejection at the international market. approach. Until then most of the research Increasing incidence of farmer poisoning work was undertaken within the institutes and long-term effects of pesticides on of the CSIR and the faculties of agriculture of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems were the country’s universities. These centered further causing concern to agriculturists on developing control measures, which were and environmentalists. usually pesticide oriented, and screening The need to reduce dependence on germplasm for resistance to insects pests/ chemical pesticides and the development diseases for the various crop commodities. and implementation of alternative pest Well-planned experiments to study control measures were therefore of urgent population dynamics and seasonal distribu- priority. In addition to the memorandum, a tions of pests and their natural enemies, NBCC was formed with the assistance of the and the nature and influence of interacting IITA, in September 1992.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 119 120 K. Afreh-Nuamah

The NBCC which was IPM oriented, Philippines National IPM program. Techni- established a number of multidisciplinary cal inputs on special topics were provided crop-based working groups. Members of by scientists and training specialists from these groups included leading scientists WARDA and local research institutions and engaged in agricultural research (from the University of Ghana. Overall policy Ghanaian Research Institutions), Technical guidance and supervision for this project Officers and Extensionists from the Ministry was provided by an Oversight Committee of Food and Agriculture and importantly, chaired by the Director of Agricultural local farmers. These groups worked to Extension Services Directorate of MOFA, identify pest problems and recommended Ghana and with representatives from three environmentally friendly and sustainable relevant technical departments of MOFA strategies for controlling them. The targets and the University of Ghana, Legon. were crops and pests known to be associated The Dawhenya experience showed that with overuse or abuse of pesticides and for the IPM/FFS concept of training could also which an adequate knowledge base was work in Africa. This observation was available (preferably with local research endorsed by participants of an FAO Techni- support). Major pests included variegated cal Consultation Workshop on Participatory grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus), larger Training in IPM for Africa at Akosombo, grain borer, mango mealybug, water Ghana, from 5 to 12 September 1995. Conse- hyacinth and the plantain/banana weevil quently, follow-up training programs for rice (Cosmopoliti sordidus). Targeted crops were farmers were established at five irrigation cereals and vegetables such as tomatoes, sites (i.e. Ashaiman, Dawhenya, Afife, aubergines and cabbage. Botanga and Tono) in 1996, to extend the Dawhenya experience to other regions or ecologies and to train additional rice farmers. About 500 rice farmers were trained Implementation of the FFS Methodology under this program. At both the training of trainers In August/September 1993, the FAO (TOT) and post-TOT training, yields were Inter-Country IPM Program for South increased from 3 t/ha to 6 t/ha compared and Southeast Asia organized a global IPM with a reference group of farmers who had meeting and study tour for representatives not been trained, and worked according to from 40 countries to Southeast Asia to conventional farmers’ practice, the average expose participants to the IPM FFS training net returns of trained farmers were 138% methodology and to sensitize participants higher. to establish national IPM/FFS programs in After training, over 80% of farmers their own countries. changed their practices and adopted the IPM After the study tour, proposals made strategies. In a number of communities, by the Government of Ghana for an FAO/ farmers formed groups after they completed Technical Cooperation Programme project their FFS training. These groups of FFS to establish an IPM Training of Trainers graduates meet and discuss their problems. course in irrigated rice were approved for The results of these training activities implementation at the Dawhenya Irrigated convinced the relevant government authori- Rice Scheme from 31 May to 6 October 1995. ties that IPM/FFS has the potential to The Training of Trainers course in healthy complement the extension delivery in the rice production was organized at Dawhenya country and, therefore, should be scaled up for 24 staff of the Ministry of Food and Agri- to cover other crops and made available to culture (MOFA) from Ghana, three from large groups of farmers. Côte d’Ivoire and one from Burkina Faso Subsequently, the concept is now with the assistance of one IPM trainer from being progressively applied to Ghana’s agri- the FAO Inter-country IPM Program in Asia culture. To date, plantain, cassava, cowpea, and two rice Master Trainers from the sorghum/millet and vegetables have been Ghana National IPM Program 121

handled. The UNDP through the FAO, in contamination and unnecessary health its National Poverty Reduction Program, is hazards. Intervention: ignorance about sponsoring the training of 1700 rice, vegeta- pests/diseases replaced by insight into the ble, sorghum/millet and plantain farmers ecosystem and the interactions among pests from five districts (viz. the Afram Plains, and natural enemy populations, the causal Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA), Bongo, relationship between crop agronomy and Juabeso-Bia and Dangme West) using the physiology, damage to plants and economic IPM/FFS strategy. loss which form the basis for the farmers’ The purpose of UNDP assistance to capability to take crop management deci- the National Action Program for Poverty sions based on findings from his/her field. Reduction, was to provide direct support 3. Temporary and limited impact of exten- to community-based organizations, NGOs, sion services as a result of a top-down system decentralized departments, the private sec- which provides crop management instructor and civil society operative at the district tions without giving farmers sufficient own- and community level in order to improve the ership of the information knowledge-base on living conditions of the poor. which these instructions are based. Inter- The Poverty Reduction Program, vention: the FFS approach offers a solution. therefore, focused on achieving rising real The project seeks to establish a capacity household incomes and possibilities for to conduct FFS, thereby contributing expanding opportunities for such increases to increased effectiveness of agricultural permanently across the board. extension. The training program, which is season- long, covers an entire crop-growing season IPM/FFS and TOT Course: a participatory from land preparation, nursery establish- training approach for both extension ment and transplanting through to agents and farmers harvesting or postharvesting practices.

The IPM/FFS is an experiential field-based training program, which encourages farmers to growhealthy crops in a more environ - Principles of the training approach mentally sustainable manner with little or no input of agrochemical pesticides. The training approach is based on three There are no standard recommendations main principles: or packages of technology offered. 1. Grow a healthy crop. This involves all aspects of growing a healthy crop; soil and land preparation, agronomy, crop physiol- Critical problems addressed ogy, nutrient management, pest and disease during the training management, irrigation and water management, and harvest/postharvest techniques. 1. Low productivity and low farmer 2. Monitor your field regularly. Regular income due to poor knowledge and inade- scheduled visits to the field, at least once a quate skills. Intervention: provision of week for field crops and about twice a month skills/scientific-based knowledge through for plantation crops. Field inspection and experiential field oriented learning tech- monitoring is done using the AESA techniques using the FFS strategies. This nique – a tool for detailed field inspection makes crop production more sustainable and data collection, processing of data and cost-effective. and informed decision making. Field 2. Excessive pesticide use stemming from observations and critical analysis of data/ ignorance about pests and pesticides, and information gathered from the field are leading to increasing unsustainable and discussed by entire group, using previous cost-ineffective production, environmental knowledge of crop performance at particular 122 K. Afreh-Nuamah

crop growth stage. Trainees learn to traditional production constraints and agro- become acquainted with monitoring and nomic practices, farmers’ intervention to field inspection methods. At least 50% of constraints and sociocultural information the time is spent in the field. about the community, always precede any 3. Conserve natural enemies. This is an FFS training program. Survey results are indirect way of encouraging trainees to processed and technological interventions reduce or avoid use of agrochemical pesti- from research put together in an experien- cides. Training emphasizes the presence of tial learning method as the training predators and other beneficial organisms in curriculum. the environment which all help to regulate Usually, a training session involves a pest population. Simple exercises to demon- group of 30 or 25 farmers, who agree to meet strate harmful nature of agrochemicals in regularly once a week for the entire crop the environment, especially to predators are cycle. These groups of farmers are sub- carried out. In addition, functions of pests divided into subgroups of five or six per and beneficial insects and their biology are subgroup. Each subgroup is led by a trained demonstrated in insect zoos. Farmers find Extension Officer – facilitator trained in out for themselves that limited pest damage special TOT courses. does not usually reduce yields, and that During the training session, two main spraying against several pests increases both plots – one depicting farmers’ traditional production costs and the risks of further pest farming practices based on information outbreaks. collected from a baseline survey in the community before the training – where Farmers become experts after the train- pesticides use is on a calendar basis or as ing, and can properly understand the cause– any insect/disease is observed on the field, effect relationship between pest/diseases use or little application of fertilizer, poor and beneficial/predators and, therefore, irrigation and land preparation, irregular learn to be careful in the use of agrochemical random planting, untimely/irregular field pesticides. Enhanced agronomic and soil visits and poor farm hygiene practices. nutrient management practices all lead to Then the ICPM plots, where the new healthy crop growth and therefore higher farming strategies to overcome production yields and greater economic returns. constraints are introduced – nursing of good Full-time season-long TOT courses are or clean seeds and transplanting of seedlings organized to prepare Extension Staff to in rows, incorporation of organic manure or conduct FFS training. During the TOT composting to enhance soil nutrient avail- they carry out comparative experiments, ability, regular visits for field monitoring and growand monitor the target crops to using AESA. Informed decisions are made learn about the problems that farmers face based on actual field situations, i.e. selective throughout a cropping season. use of pesticides, usually environmentally A validation trial becomes necessary friendly biopesticides, so as to encourage whenever FFS is to be introduced to build-up of predators and other natural pest newcrops. This facilitates the testing and regulatory organisms. adaptation of theory and foreign experience During training, non-formal adult to actual farm situations. This activity is education exercises and group dynamic usually conducted by future master trainers studies, like team building, group formation and selected farmers with involvement of and cohesiveness, are all carried out. researchers. Gender issues are also discussed and encouraged so that membership of groups is not discriminatory. Training methodology Through participation in the field schools, farmers quickly realize that the FFS Baseline surveys during which ICPM can be effectively used to address other trained Extension Agents determine community development issues, such as Ghana National IPM Program 123

improved health status due to drastically manner. They are able to generate additional reduced pesticide poisoning, education for revenue to reduce poverty and upgrade their youth, etc. It could even be a medium for standard of living. discussions on HIV/AIDS. A fewcase studies willillustrate the potential of the IPM/FFS in managing crop Managing of plantain weevils and nematodes pests. On-station yield loss trials in Ghana showed the importance of nematodes and Case Studies weevils as production constraints, particularly when in combination. Weevils alone Cabbage production at Weija Irrigation (artificial infestation) gave a yield reduction Scheme (AMA, 1998 season) of 35%; nematodes (natural population) reduced the yield by 64%; and combined, Because of high levels of pest damage from the pests led to a severe reduction of 85% in a variety of pests, e.g. Plutella, and lack of the plant crop. appropriate knowledge and skills in pest and crop management, farmers at the Weija irrigation scheme abandoned cabbage pro- ICPM Trial duction for several years. In 1998, the project conducted season-long training for An ICPM trial was carried out with the farmers at Weija in integrated pest and crop following objectives: management in FFS for cabbage produc- 1. To determine the crop production and tion. Marketable cabbage yields and net protection strategies that give the highest returns from IPM practice and farmers con- yield at lowest input cost. ventional fields were recorded and com- 2. To determine the best season of planting pared in three farmers’ fields as follows that gives the highest yield. (Table 11.1). When farmers adopted their conven- In the IPM plot the trainers made vital tional cabbage production practices, they crop protection decisions as to whether consistently made losses in their field. Using to weed or prune old leaves or not based crop production skills acquired through on monthly AESA, whilst in the farmers’ training in FFS by the project, farmers practice (FP) plots weeding was done as and at Weija are nowable to resume cabbage when necessary based on traditional local production on a cost-effective and highly practices as reported during the baseline profitable and environmentally sound surveys.

Table 11.1. Marketable cabbage yields and net returns from IPM practice vs. conventional fields.

Marketable cabbage yields % increase Field number Farmers’ practice (FP) IPM practice (IPM over FP)

Field 39 Yield 4.9 t/ha 27.5 t/ha Revenue −¢0.78 million +¢3.9 million 550 Field 42 Yield 14.4 t/ha 18.3 t/ha Revenue −¢0.67 million +¢1.7 million 354 Field 56 Yield 1.8 t/ha 21.8 t/ha Revenue −¢1.6 million +¢3.75 million 334

US$1 = ¢7000 (Ghanaian Cedis). 124 K. Afreh-Nuamah

No insecticides were applied in either • researchers the IPM or the FP plots and weeds were con- • intermediaries – NGOs, international trolled manually in both plots. Yield data centers, UN agencies and donors and net returns are presented in Table 11.2. • policy makers. Percentage harvested plants for the major season were 60 and 7 for the IPM and FP respectively (Table 11.2). The corre- Research sponding figures for the minor season were 62% and 23%. Generally, yields were unexpectedly higher in the major season than in Since 1990/91, Ghana Agricultural the minor season. This could be attributed to Research Systems has been restructured enhanced agronomic practices imposed and with the establishment of the NARP. NARP the healthy planting materials used as well comprised all institutions engaged in agri- as the unusually good rainfall distribution. cultural research including the universities, The net returns (Table 11.2) in terms of research institutions under the CSIR, profit margins, followed the same trend as the MOFA and farmers. Under the NARP, the yield data; while the IPM recorded a commodity-based multidisciplinary and profit of about US$634.3 in the major season interinstitutional research teams are in the FP recorded a loss of about US$51.42. place. Research is usually adaptive with However in the minor season planting, farmers on farmers’ fields, but there are also while IPM recorded a profit of about some basic research activities, especially in US$460, FP recorded a profit of about the universities. Each of these commodity- US$85.7. The loss incurred in the major based research teams has some of the season FP plot was due to the high incidence scientists concentrating on IPM issues, of toppling in the major season, caused by a which usually emphasize pest/disease high incidence of nematodes together with identification and control with pesticides wind damage that followed the dry weather on calendar or ‘need-be’ spray schedules, from January to March. cultural practices and use of resistant varieties of crops. Scientists on these commodity teams IPM Stakeholders in Ghana are the main local resource persons in IPM/ FFS/TOT programs, with technical backstopping by the Global IPM Facility, through IPM stakeholders in Ghana are considered employment of consultants. A non-formal to include the following: education workshop was organized for the • farmers local scientists who serve as resource per- • extension agents of MOFA sons in TOTs and curriculum development

Table 11.2. Percentage number of harvested plants for plant crop and first ratoon crop of Apantu Pa plantains grown under IPM and FP in the major and minor seasons. Net returns for major and minor seasons.

Season of planting Plant crop First ratoon Mean Net return (U$)

Major IPM 61 58 59.5 634.28 FP 9 4 6.5 −51.42 Minor IPM 62 61 61.5 460.75 FP 29 16 22.5 85.71 Average: IPM US$547.1 Average: FP US$17.1

US$1 = ¢7000 (Ghanaian Cedis). Ghana National IPM Program 125

workshops to create awareness of adult the Deputy Director General, Agricultural education techniques and strengthen and Research (NARP of CSIR) on it. A professor enhance their participation in IPM. It was from the University of Ghana was expected that the performance of the NARS appointed the National IPM Co-ordinator would be further enhanced to be more and acts as Secretary to the POC. The Senior responsive to demand-driven farmer pro- Crop Protection Officer, at the FAO duction constraints through these IPM/FFS Regional Office for Africa, in Ghana, is an programs. This has been a very important advisor to the POC. output of the IPM program.

Networking Policy makers In line with the Government of Ghana’s The Government of Ghana endorses the call recent decentralization exercise, the POC from the UNCED to promote IPM at farm has recommended the establishment of level in order to make crop production more Regional and District Oversight Committees sustainable and environmentally sound. throughout the country to supervise all Consequently, the MOFA is very keen to IPM/FFS activities. Regional MOFA expand (IPM/FFS) training methodology Directors are to chair these committees, to cover other crops after the successful with representatives from farmers, NGOs, IPM/FFS pilot activities in 1995/96 on rice researchers and extension agents. District and the positive experiments achieved for Directors (MOFA) of all districts with cassava and cowpea. A National Integrated IPM/FFS activities are to be members. The Crop Protection Advisory Committee, National IPM Co-ordinator will then link up chaired by a Deputy Minister, Ministry of with these committees to form a National Food and Agriculture was established by IPM Network. the Government in April 1995. This committee, which is an advisory body on all IPM issues, is made up of policy makers, NGOs researchers (from the universities and research institutions), the EPA, extension The NGOs in Ghana have recently formed agents and farmer associations. an action group, with a representative on With time, the committee has fully the POC. We expect these groups to work endorsed the IPM/FFS training strategy and closely with the National IPM Program. The has recommended to the MOFA to adapt it as POC accepted to train six NGOs during the an extension tool in training of extension vegetable IPM/TOT scheduled for August staff and farmers. Integrated crop manage- 1998. It was expected that after training ment strategies have been the central theme of the respective NGOs they will mobilize of this committee’s recommendations. funds on their own to enable their trained personnel to train farmers within their respective communities. I hope such Institutional framework collaboration will continue.

In recognition of the validity of the IPM/ FFS approach, the MOFA institutionalized Coordination the Project Oversight Committee (POC) in May 1997 to facilitate the expansion of In May 1997, a National IPM Co-ordinator IPM/FFS in Ghana. The POC is chaired by a was appointed. A secretariat was established Deputy Minister of MOFA and includes all at the Plant Protection and Regulatory Ser- the relevant Directors of MOFA, the EPA vices Department (PPRSD) of MOFA. The and NGOs. The reconstituted POC nowhas secretariat is equipped with computers, an 126 K. Afreh-Nuamah

administrative clerk, telephone, one cross- Ghana’s ARS at Kade, with resource persons country vehicle and a driver. Plans are in from ARS, Kade, Crop Research Institute place to connect this secretariat to the and IITA/West African Plantain Project, and Internet, so it could be the main Internet the PPRSD. access to be linked with the regions/ districts, the universities and research institutions. Currently, coordination is achieved Achievements by regular visits to all regions, personal and telephone contacts with POC/National National IPM policy environment Integrated Crop production Advisory Com- mittee members, and sometimes by mail A very favorable policy environment has correspondence. Workshops, occasional been created for the expansion and imple- lectures and publicity in both the print and mentation of the IPM/FFS program to train electronic media have also been used. more extension staff on more crops, so that a larger percentage of farmers could be reached. Overall strategy At a recent workshop to review the IPM/ FFS program, the Communiqué released at The IPM/FFS strategy, though acknowl- the end of the workshop recommended that edged to be potentially viable for enhancing the IPM/FFS training methodology should crop production practices in the country, be adopted as a normal training strategy in was developed in pilot cases. The idea was MOFA’s extension system with the requisite not to stop ongoing training approaches, budgetary allocation provided by the dis- nor to condemn existing practices, but to tricts. As a result of this, it was decided that perfect and consolidate it in our system. For a more appropriate name to be adopted for sustainability, emphasis was placed on use the program is ICPM/FFS program, to take of local expertise and improvement of our into account the holistic approach to healthy own human resources. crop production that the program advocates. Several other IPM projects have been ongoing in Ghana. These included projects on cowpea (USAID), striga control (GTZ), Development of extension capacities cassava and plantain (IITA), integrated crop protection (GTZ/MOFA), integrated food The project started with a series of studies crop system project (NRI/NARP). The IPM/ commissioned to provide field-base infor- FFS training methodology was expected to mation on farmers’ cropping practices and add value to these. A national mechanism constraints to efficient crop production. for cooperation and coordination among These studies were exhaustively discussed IPM initiatives is envisaged to be established at technical workshops to define the com- under the national IPM program. ponents for conducting season-long train- The main target crop for IPM/FFS has ing of extension agents in the use of inte- been irrigated rice. Further pilot activities grated crop and pest management strategies on IPM/FFS for cassava and cowpea in crop production. Some technologies, conducted by the 1995 rice TOT graduates which did not directly address the produc- (cassava: Ecologically Sustainable Cassava tion constraints, were validated to adjust Plant Protection – IITA, cowpea: USAID them to a field school training and to build Bean-Cowpea Collaborative Research Sup- up the confidence of the trainers. port Program) in 1996, demonstrated that As a result of this, well established and IPM/FFS has great potential to add value to tested guidelines for developing methodolo- these ongoing projects. Since October 1997, gies and curriculum for ICPM/TOT/FFS a pilot IPM/TOT/FFS scheme on plantain training have emerged which have already has been ongoing at the University of enabled us to develop curricula for training Ghana National IPM Program 127

extension agents and farmers in newcrops economic and social benefits from their like plantain, sorghum and millet. farming. A recent evaluation and impact assessment of the program in all five poverty dis- Benefits realized by trainers tricts (June 2000) indicated the following: • Farmers had enthusiastically adopted The IPM trainers have achieved a high level the ICPM technologies, because the of experience and competence in IPM train- methods give increased yields (repor- ing so much so that other African countries ted by 55.8% respondents), are healthier such as Malawi, Tanzania-Zanzibar and for the farmer and even the consumer Tanzania-Mainland have requested assis- (33.7%), facilitate farming (33.7%) and tance from Ghana for IPM trainers to facili- reduce production costs (31.7%). tate the conduct of FFS in their countries. • Further, the FFS have given them the Other requests for assistance received opportunity to form farmers’ groups for include study tours from Senegal, Niger, common action to solve their problems. Tanzania-Zanzibar (see Table 11.3). In some areas the program had intro- The UNDP-supported project has there- duced newcrops helping them to fore enabled Ghana to develop capacities diversify their productions (6.7%). within the agricultural extension service, to train farmers in the adoption of ICPM methods for sustainable, cost effective and Impact of ICPM on crop production environmentally sound crop production. In and quality recognition of this expertise, the National IPM Oversight Committee has decided to The impact assessment study observed that create a cadre of extension agents known with ICPM, crop yield rose by a mean of as IPM Master Trainers in order to further 150%, crop losses dropped from 46.2% to promote the development of agro-skills in 10.4% and production cost fell by about smallholder farmers. 40–58%. The beneficiary farmers indicated that ICPM vegetables are more wholesome with heavier, richer green, smoother skin Benefits realized by farmers free from insect holes. They are tastier and have a longer storage life than traditionally Using the skills acquired from season-long produced vegetables. ICPM-produced rice training by the project, smallholders have also gives a better-filled panicle with longer begun to realize farm profits as well as grains and very little breakage during

Table 11.3. Assistance requested from IPM project.

Country Assistance requested

Tanzania-Zanzibar Study tour for two trainers to study planning and implementation of TOT and FFS Tanzania-Mainland One IPM Trainer to backstop TOT and FFS activities Senegal Study tour for two plant protection technicians to study planning and implementation of TOT/FFS CILSS/Departement de Formation Study tour for two senior IPM specialists to study field en Protection des Végétaux Niger implementation of FFS Malawi Training of three extension agents on TOT/FFS training process CGIAR/NGO One IPM Master Trainer to facilitate FFS workshop IITA/PEDUNE IPM Master Trainers for cowpea technical backstopping and coordination of curriculum development workshop for a regional Cowpea TOT/FFS field training at Tamale 128 K. Afreh-Nuamah

milling. Similarly, ICPM plantains have agencies and related agricultural develop- larger and heavier bunches and fingers. ment projects in Ghana. Six village worker NGOs were trained as trainers in vegetable production during Impact on farm revenue, lifestyle and the 1998 TOT course at the Weija Irrigation household food security Project site. Since then the GOAN and the With ICPM, beneficiary farmers’ yearly ECASARD have adopted the ICPM/FFS earnings have increased by an average of strategy as the main component of extension 70–143%. This enabled them improve their training activities. housing, pay children’s school fees, In addition, with assistance from the increase church contributions or acquire ICPM/FFS program, some of the existing television sets, newfurniture, utensils, new related agricultural development projects clothing for the family, etc. such as the FAO-Ghana SPFS, the Root Some farmers have been able to send and Tuber Improvement, the Lowland Rice their children to vocational or secondary Development Project, have all incorporated schools. ICPM also facilitates family feeding ICPM/FFS training approach into their during the lean season, by enabling farmers implementation activities. to store more food or buy the necessary Strong collaboration with and partner- ingredients. The longer shelf-life of ICPM ships will also be established with the foodstuffs also assists household food GTZ-supported PTD/FFS project and with security. the DFID Rural Sustainable Livelihood program. Amex International of the USAID and the Vegetable Producers and Exporters Gender issues in FFS Association have established linkages with the ICPM/FFS program training in healthy During the conduct of TOT courses and and sustainable production of crops like FFS, every effort was made to encourage the pineapples, mangoes and vegetables. participation of women or women’s groups in these field activities. Women farmers continue to make significant and quality Emerging Issues and Constraints contributions to the planning of FFS and all the associated activities. 1. Workload and limited trained extension The participation of women in FFS was personnel. Trained FFS facilitators have had strongly location specific. In some commu- to conduct FFS field activities in addition to nities, women were primarily home-bound their normal extension work, thus FFS train- taking care of the children, the home and ing is seen as additional load. This affected marginally doing some subsistence farming quality of delivery as planning sessions just to supplement the family food require- prior to FFS days were usually left out. ments. In such locations, there were usually 2. Marketing. Marketing of produce was an a lowpercentage of womenin the FFS. initial problem, but improved as farmers Therefore, only a limited amount of time was explored other opportunities for marketing. devoted to discussions of specific gender This was one of the risks identified before issues in such schools. start up of project. 3. Erratic rainfall. Over reliance on rainfall for crop production delayed and affected Partnerships the training program. In addition crop production was restricted to only the rainy The project has promoted and established season. Thus farmers could not make as collaborative programs with relevant much money as should have been possible Ghana National IPM Program 129

were irrigation facilities available for the Anonymous (1998f) Report on Vegetable PM farming ventures. Training of Trainers (TOT) Course and 4. Access to credit. Limited financial Farmers’ Field School (FFS) in Ghana, Weija resources prevented trained farmers from (Tubakrom). Anonymous (2000) Final Report of the National expanding their farms and optimizing their Integrated Crop and Pest Management farm operations. Another risk factor. Farmers’ Field School Programme Review 5. Limited availability of land. Land was a Workshop: 16–17 December 1999. limiting factor in certain communities, e.g. Chowdhury, D. (1998) Report on Integrated Crop Bongo, making it impossible for some of the Management Training: Rice-Fish-Dike Crop trained farmers to take advantage of the Production. knowledge gained in the FFS training. Ghana IPM Secretariat (2000) Report on Plantain IPM Training of Trainers Course. Keetelaar, J.W.H., Millomeda, G. and Pulmano, A. (1995) Report on Training of Trainers and Bibliography Farmers’ Field Schools for Rice Integrated Pest Management in Ghana. TCP/GHA/4553. Afreh-Nuamah, K. (1996) Report on IPM Farmers’ Kiss, A. and Meerman, F. (1991) Integrated Field School in Ghana. TCP/GHA/4553. Pest Management and African Agriculture. Afreh-Nuamah, K. (1999) The Development World Bank Technical Paper number 142, and Implementation of Integrated Crop 122 pp. and Pest Management Farmers’ Field School Kwasivie, F. (2000) An Impact Assessment of (ICPM/FFS) in Ghana. Integrated Crop and Pest Management Anonymous (1996) International Literature (ICPM)/Farmers’ Field School (FFS) in Rice, Search for IPM Interventions on Tomato and Vegetable and Plantain Farming at Five Sites Cabbage Farming. Project GHA/96/001, CAB – NPRP in Ghana. Final Report June 2000. International, Egham, UK. Obeng-Ofori, D. (1998) Data Base on Crop Health Anonymous (1997) Consultative Workshop on Problems of Vegetables in Ghana. Integrated Pest Management in Ghana. Ofori-Budu, K.G., Timbilla, J.A. and Asante, V.O. Sogakope, Ghana. (1998) Survey Report on Tomato and Anonymous (1998a) Ghana IPM Programme, Cabbage Production in the Vea/Tono, Aku- Preparatory Workshop for Design of IPM madan, Weija and Damage Areas in Ghana. Validation Trials, Project HA96/001, Vos, J.G.M. (2000) Ghana IPM Programme, Consultancy Report. CAB International, Vegetable Farmers’ Field School Evaluation. Egham, UK. Consultancy Visit Report. CAB International, Anonymous (1998b) Ghana IPM Programme, Egham, UK. Vegetable Curriculum Development Work- Youdeowei, A. (1999a) Briefing Document to the shop in Dawhenya and Vegetable IPM/TOT UNDP Evaluation Mission. September, 1999. course in Weija, Consultancy Report. CAB Youdeowei, A. (1999b) Progress in Implementa- International, Egham, UK. tion of Integrated Pest Management in Anonymous (1998c) Ghana IPM Programme: Irrigated Rice and Vegetables in Ghana. Vegetable IPM Training of Trainers in Weija. Consultancy Report, 27 January 1999. Project GHA/96/001, Consultancy Report. Youdeowei, A. (1999c) Agroskills Development: CAB International, Egham, UK. Integrated Pest Management Farmers’ Field Anonymous (1998d) Vegetable IPM/TOT Curricu- Schools and Briefing Documents to the UNDP lum Development Workshop, Proceedings. Mission, September 1999. Ghana: UNDP Pov- Dawhenya, Ghana, Project GHA/96/001, erty Reduction Programme, GHA/96/001. August 1998. Youdeowei, A. and Amedzro, A. (1999) Anonymous (1998e) Report on Rice IPM Training Facilitators’ Field Guide (2) on Non-Formal of Trainers (TOT) Course at Dawhenya and Education for IPM. Farmers’ Field School (FFS) at the Kpong UNDP/GoG/NPRP (1999) Report of Evaluation Irrigation Project Site, Asutsuare. Mission: September 1999.

Chapter 12 Development and Implementation of Integrated Pest Management in the Sudan

Yasir G.A. Bashir, Elamin M. Elamin and Eltigani M. Elamin ElObeid Agricultural Research Station, ElObeid, Sudan

Introduction most of the rawmaterials for industry in Sudan. Most cultivated land in Sudan is on Agriculture in Sudan the clay plains that cover 10% of the country. In this region, the bulk of the cotton crop Sudan, the largest country in Africa, is grown on heavy black soil, in addition to occupies about 1 million square miles, sorghum, groundnuts and a variety of fruits extending from the desert in the north to and vegetables. Cotton is the most important the equatorial forests in the south. It lies cash crop in Sudan, representing nearly between latitudes 3° and 22° north and 40% of the total value of agricultural longitudes 22° and 38° east, and shares its exports. About 350,000 ha of cotton are borders with nine countries. Sudan has a grown annually under irrigation or tradi- population of 25 million with an annual tional rain-fed production. Most of the growth rate of 2.6%. The country contains cotton crop is exported; only 20% is used rich natural resources, with vast areas suit- for the Sudanese textile industry. able for agriculture and an adequate water supply. Agricultural production in the country can be divided into three sectors. Irrigated History of the IPM program in Sudan crops compose one sector, with cotton, wheat, groundnuts, vegetables and sorghum The IPM program in Sudan was initiated as the most important crops. Another sector in 1974 under the FAO/UNEP cooperative includes mechanized agricultural pro- program on development and application of duction of sorghum and sesame. The third IPM. Top priority was given to cotton and sector, traditional rain-fed crop production, rice (Elamin, 1997). includes millet, groundnuts, sesame and In 1975, the FAO global coordinator for field watermelon. the IPC programs informed the ministers of Agriculture is considered the backbone agriculture in Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Soma- of the Sudanese economy. About 85% of the lia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania that FAO population depends on agriculture for a liv- intended to select a cotton-growing country ing. Agricultural production comprises 40% in Africa as a base for the African Regional of the gross national product, and provides IPC program. In 1976, Sudan was nominated

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 131 132 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

by FAO/UNEP IPC Consultation Mission as inventory of natural enemies, develop- a suitable country for the program. Major ment of biological control strategies, crop losses caused by insect pests in the analysis of cotton ecosystems and Sudan, the vital importance of cotton to organization of large-scale demonstra- the Sudanese economy, the impacts of tions in commercial fields to showthat increased use of chemical insecticides, and fewer pesticides could be used without the availability of well-developed facilities yield reduction. for research stations were all cited as reasons • Phase III. The third phase began in for choosing the Sudan for the program. July 1990 and ended in December 1992. Cotton was one of the principal target During this phase, economic threshold crops of the program, partly because of levels for four major cotton pest species its vital importance to many developing were revised after large-scale field countries as a revenue source. Cotton was experiments in cotton production also a focus because of environmental schemes, improvement of the role of problems and decreased effectiveness biological control agents in cotton crop resulting from the over-reliance on chemical protection, and initiation of research pesticides for control of cotton pests. and demonstration activities for food The program was titled ‘The African crops in the cotton rotation. Inter Country Program for the Development • Phase IV. In 1992, the significant and Application of IPC in Cotton’ and was achievements of the program resulted based at Gezira Research Station in Wad in a recommendation to continue into Medani, Central Sudan. The negative conse- a fourth phase, targeted towards the quences of over-reliance on pesticides in development of IPM in vegetables, cotton were discussed in a symposium where pesticide misuse and risk for held on ‘Crop Pest Management in Sudan’ in health and environment are large. February 1978 in Khartoum, Sudan, with From 1993 to 1996, the program shifted special focus on the effect of DDT on cotton in focus from cotton to vegetables and pests. cereals. The project was titled ‘Devel- opment and Application of IPM in • Phase 1 of the IPM program in Sudan. Vegetables, Wheat and Cotton.’ In 1978, the program was changed to ‘Development and Application of IPC During all phases of the IPM project, on Cotton in the Sudan’. The FAO/ training was an important project compo- UNEP Panel of IPC Experts closely nent at both the local and international monitored the developments on IPC levels, in addition to organization of on cotton. The project was titled ‘The workshops on IPM for different target Development and Application of Inte- groups. Budgets allocated for the first, grated Pest Management in Cotton and second, third and fourth phases were US$1 Rotational Food Crops’ and executed million, US$1.4 million, US$2.9 million and by the FAO as part of the global pro- US$3 million, respectively. gram on IPC. The Directorate General for International Cooperation of the Netherlands primarily financed it. The initial financial support IPM policy extended to October 1982. Funds were allocated for background research. The Sudanese Ministry of Agriculture is In 1982, the FAO and the Dutch heavily involved in IPM activities, most government reviewed the progress notably by setting priorities for the project. of the project, and recommended its The First Secretary of the Ministry of Agri- extension to 1990. culture, which determines the overall IPM • Phase II. In the second phase, the pro- strategy for the country and finds ways to gram concentrated on preparation of an reach IPM objectives, chairs the steering Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 133

committee. In 1995, this committee became As part of the biological control the National IPM Steering Committee, program, an egg parasitoid (Trichogramma integrating all policy makers related to IPM pretiosum) of the African bollworm was col- in Sudan. Government support for IPM in lected in Texas, reared in The Netherlands Sudan is outlined in the recent publication, and released in cotton-growing areas. Sudan Country Strategy Note 1997–2000. At both the federal and state levels, the Wheat Ministry of Agriculture provides support for expanding IPM activities. Research done The second research focus was on wheat. by the Agricultural Research Corporation, The total area under wheat production in as well as universities, follows the IPM Sudan is 164,929 ha. Aphids, termites, stem philosophy. borers, rodents and birds regularly attack wheat in Sudan, causing grain losses as high as 30%. Before the IPM program, Pesticide regulations chemical control was being used against two aphid species, Rhopalosiphum maidis To limit the use of pesticides and improve and Schizaphis graminum, at a threshold safety to humans, animals and environ- level of 35% infested plants. More intensive ment, the Agricultural Research Corpora- scouting methods were developed to tion (ARC) issued Procedures and Regula- improve aphid monitoring procedures. tions Governing Research on Agricultural A modified economic threshold level was Pesticides for Registration. developed, which considered the role of natural enemies. The newthreshold for wheat aphid control was based on the Research and Extension Focus in Sudan degree of infestation (DOI) rather than the percentage of infested plants. The DOI Research was calculated by multiplying the number of plants infested in a sample of 100 tillers Cotton by the category (class) of infestation. Aphid population density was divided into three The first three phases of the IPM project in categories 1 = 1–9 aphids/tiller; 2 = 10–29 Sudan focused exclusively on cotton. New aphids/tiller and 3 = more than 30 aphids/ economic threshold levels were adopted tiller. for the four major cotton pests: the cotton Benefits of introducing the improved whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), jassid (Jacobiasca scouting techniques in 1994/1995 season lybica), cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), and included a potential reduction of the area the African bollworm (Helicoverpa armigra) treated with insecticides by 35% due to the (Table 12.1). The newthresholds dropped neweconomic thresholds. This wouldresult the average number of insecticide sprays in a savings of 51,402,934 Sudanese dinars from eight to three without yield reduction. at the rate of 897.6 dinars/ha.

Table 12.1. Recommended economic threshold levels (ETL) for four major cotton pests in the Sudan, since 1993.

Pest Old ETL New ETL

Cotton whitefly Bemisia tabaci 200 adults/100 leaves 600 adults/100 leaves Jassid Jacobiasca lybica 50 nymphs/100 leaves 70 nymphs/100 leaves in Gossypium hirsutum and 100 nymphs/100 leaves in G. barbadense Cotton aphid Aphis gossypii 20% infested plants 40% infested plants African bollworm Helicoverpa 5–10 eggs or larvae/ 30 eggs or 10 larvae /100 plants. No insecticide armigra 100 plants spraying before advanced flowering 134 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

Vegetables • Good quality products. • Fewer pesticide applications result During the fourth phase (1993–1996) the in fewer hazards to farmers, consumers focus of the program shifted to vegetables. and the environment. Losses in vegetable crops due to pests in Sudan were estimated at 25% (Elwasila, 1981). A 1990 survey of vegetable farmers in the Khartoum and Gezira regions reported Training and extension accomplishments that most of the farmers used chemical insecticides and 90% sprayed their crops at Training and extension were an important weekly intervals (Siddig and Nasr El Din, component of the program. Training 1990). The vegetable IPM program focused included organization of workshops, on tomato, aubergine, onion, potato and conferences and international MSc and PhD okra. A package of IPM options was devel- fellowships, in addition to degrees offered oped for each crop with the participation in Sudan. Six higher degrees were offered of farmers. This included the development in Sudan, as well as 11 degrees overseas and testing of improved cultural practices and 18 study tours organized by the for key pests with farmer participation. FAO/ARC IPM project. The program also organized a series of IPM options for vegetables workshops and seminars (Appendix 12.1) aimed at identifying farmers’ needs for effec- A survey of the seasonal occurrence of tive IPM transfer. In addition, the project pests, predators, and parasites on vegetable reviewed the capabilities of the national crops formed the basis for the development agricultural extension service and their of IPM techniques to conserve natural work in advising and training the farmers. enemies. Other options included evaluating The program issued a number of varietal resistance of vegetables to pests and extension and training materials (some are diseases, screening of selective insecticides, in press) to provide farmers and extension using botanical extracts (e.g. neem officers with easily understandable informa- water extract), and using repellents and tion on various aspects of crop management attractants (e.g. coriander and fenugreek). (see Appendix 12.2). Development of IPM on vegetables can be a more complex task than on cotton and wheat, because vegetables comprise a heter- FFS ogeneous group of crops, that attract a The IPM project in Sudan adopted the FFS variety of pests. In addition, vegetables are approach in 1993 (Fig. 12.1). Sudan is the not produced on a large scale under close first African country to introduce this supervision of the plant protection special- approach. The structure of the IPM FFS ist, but by individual small farmers or share- program is outlined in Table 12.2. The croppers who are only infrequently reached goal is to help farmers become experts in by extension services (Dabrowski, 1994). managing their fields. The FFS program In spite of this, the project succeeded in was aided by close collaboration with developing a solid basis for vegetable IPM. researchers from the ARC, universities Results of IPM pilot studies conducted with extension services, and field plant in FFS demonstrated: protection staff. • A significant yield increase (151% on In the 1995/96 season, seven pilot FFS tomato) in the use of IPM options over were established. Each focused on a certain traditional practices. crop: one for wheat, one for cotton and • Reduction in the number of chemical five for vegetable production. Pilot field sprays, reducing the cost of crop schools sought to introduce and evaluate production and saving of foreign IPM options with technical assistance from exchange. the IPM specialists and extension workers. Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 135

Fig. 12.1. An IPM FFS weekly session.

Overall 46 IPM FFS were established Kosti to establish newFFS in those areas during the program to encourage hands- (Dabrowski, 1997). Total numbers of people on research and extension by farmers. reached directly by the program are School activities included weekly meetings presented in Table 12.3. throughout the growing season with a group of 20–25 farmers. Successful IPM examples from Sudan: Rural Womens’ Schools Cotton and Watermelon

IPM Rural Womens’ Schools were also Cotton IPM established in 1995/96 with the objective of enabling rural women to understand the Background on cotton production in Sudan effect of pesticides on human life and environment. Other subjects included major Cotton has been grown commercially in diseases and howto protect their families, Sudan since 1867. In 1911, it was sown in and howto establish small home gardens. central Sudan in the Gezira Scheme Nutrition and home food preservation were (Elamin, 1997). Before World War II and the also taught as part of the program. introduction of the chemical insecticide The IPM program provided support DDT, pest control on cotton was based through discussions and lectures during on cultural, physical and legislative group training courses organized by approaches to reduce the damage of major other FAO/ARC/UNDP/IFAD projects cotton pests. These included flea beetle coordinated from ElObeid (SUD/88/022) or (Podagarica puncticollis), jassid (Empoasca Kosti (IFAD). Two leaders in participatory lybica), pink bollworm (Pectinophora research and training were asked to adminis- gossypella), and termites (Microtermes ter an on-farm research project in traditional thoracalis). Minor pests of cotton included rainfed agriculture (FAO/UNDP/ARC) in African bollworm, whitefly, and cotton ElObeid and the White Nile Project for aphid. A bacterial blight caused by Xan- Agricultural Development (IFAD/ARC) in thomonas malvacearum was an important 136 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

Table 12.2. FFS structure, membership and activities (as recommended by Schulten and Meerman, 1995, cited from Dabrowski, 1997).

Role Membership Responsibilities

IPM planning IPM CTA 1. Approval of FFS plans, locations, and supervision IPM National Project Director structures and costs team IPM Extension and Training Expert 2. Preparation of FFS program, incentives, IPM Biological Expert inputs, fuel and transportation ARC DG Deputy 3. Participate in field visits for supervision and problem solving 4. Approval of FFS final reports

IPM FFS IPM Planning and Supervision Team 1. Call for meetings coordination FFS coordinators 2. Program preparation and follow-up for FFS committee Technical officers 3. Exchange experiences and opinions Horticulturist among members on program planning, Protectionist supervision and execution Pathologist Agricultural mangers

FFS area Coordinator 1. Plan FFS programs and supervise their coordination Entomologist execution team Pathologist 2. Data collection, monitoring and evaluation Horticulturist of FFSs Extension worker 3. Making available requirements and Farmers’ representative coordinate different concerned services

FFS organizer Extension worker, horticulturist or 1. Conduct weekly meeting field sessions entomologist 2. Ensure that data are collected 3. Request the FFS area coordinator for assistance 4. Prepare monthly report for FFS area describing the activities undertaken, farmers’ views on the IPM options and suggestions, further improvement and a listing of data collected 5. Responsible for organization and execution of all IPM FFS activities

FFS members 20 selected farmers who are willing 1. Attend weekly/monthly FFS sessions and ready to learn and apply IPM 2. Involved in all FFS activities principles 3. Learn IPM practices and teach others 4. Apply IPM principle

cotton disease, first reported in 1922. It is or less was applied using DDT primarily controlled by breeding resistant varieties. against jassid. The continuous use of DDT Other diseases include leaf curl, vectored and other chlorinated hydrocarbons until by whiteflies, and cotton wilt caused by 1980, and the increasing use of organophos- Fusarium oxysporum (Abu Salih and phates, led to the resurgence of secondary Kalifa, 1978). pests. The number of insecticide sprays per season gradually increased with an Insecticide use in cotton outbreak of the African bollworm in 1963, high infestation levels of whitefly, and Cotton spraying with chemical insecticides abundance of the cotton aphid (Bashir, began in 1945; an average of one spray 1997). The average number of insecticide Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 137

Table 12.3. Participants in the FAO/ARC IPM Project, Sudan during 1993–1996.

Number of participants

Category 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total

Cadre 586 346 428 266 1626 Farmers (general session field days) 2161 625 264 230 3280 Farmers in the IPM FFS 108 140 221 448 917 Rural women 842 50 515 252 1659 Students 2071 146 284 80 2581 applications increased from one spray in Table 12.4. Number of insecticide sprays and 1945 to eight or nine sprays per season dur- cost of crop protection of cotton in the Gezira ing the 1970s (Table 12.4). However, the Scheme, since 1945. cotton yield remained almost stagnant. Period/ Number Crop protection cost as % year of sprays of total production costs Another problem with aphids and whiteflies 1945–1954 0.5 – 1955–1964 1.6 – The stickiness of the cotton fibers as a result 1965–1974 5.0 14.5 of honeydewexcreted by large numbers of 1975–1978 6.9 25.5 aphids and whiteflies became a problem in 1979/80 8.87 34.5 the ginning mills; consequently, a number 1980/81 8.61 32.5 of complaints were raised by consumers of 1981/82 6.78 26.5 Sudanese cotton and prices fell still further. 1982/83 5.22 24.5 The increasing use of insecticides on 1983/84 5.45 26.5 cotton eventually became a burden on the 1984/85 4.14 23.5 foreign exchange reserve of the Sudan. At 1985/86 8.60 33.5 about the same time, cotton prices fell 1986/87 5.20 30.5 1987/88 5.67 24.5 sharply in the international markets. Prices 1988/89 5.27 22.5 of extra long staple cotton fell from about 1989/90 4.34 15.5 US$1.3/pound in 1951 in the Liverpool mar- 1990/91 3.72 10.5 ket to belowUS$0.40 in the early 1960s. 1991/92 4.75 19.5 Farmers’ income followed a similar fall. The 1992/93 4.93 35.5 net income of farmers fell to less than US$2/ 1993/94 3.02 30.5 acre in the 1963/1964 season (Elamin, 1997). 1994/95 2.85 22.5 Cotton production in the Sudan was in a crisis, approaching the disaster point where Sudanese cotton would not sell on the world market. Field data indicated that rapidly Cotton and Rotational Crops’ (1979–1983), developing strains of whiteflies were research identified morphological and bio- becoming resistant to organophosphate chemical characters of a resistant cotton insecticides. For example, monocrotophos genotype such as gossypol content, okra provided effective control of whitefly until leaf, hairiness and nectar. Consequently, a 1977/78, when whiteflies were out of medium staple cotton variety Suda-K was control in fields that had been sprayed released. The lowhumidity and high as many as 11 times with this insecticide temperature in the microenvironment of the (Elamin, 1997). open canopy of the okra leaf variety created unsuitable conditions for the whitefly, Host plant resistance better penetration of pesticide and reduced number of sprayings (two versus four to six During the first phase of the project for the for the normal Acala types) (Abdelrahman ‘Development and Application of IPM in et al., 1997). 138 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

Biological control Scheme the number of sprays in cotton dropped from 4.55 in 1993 to 3.1 in 1994. Heavy insecticide application at the begin- This saved US$700,000. The total donor ning of the season often prevents the estab- contribution to the FAO/ARC IPM Project lishment of natural enemies (Bashir, 1992). amounted to US$8.3 million from 1979 to The natural enemies of whitefly and aphid 1995. The donor contributions turned out to are important in central Sudan. In one be less than the savings in pesticide spend- experiment, when cotton was left without ing, after 2 years of IPM implementation in spraying throughout the season, both cotton and wheat in the Gezira and Rahad species were kept below the economic Schemes (Report of the Tripartite Review threshold level (Abdelrahman and Munir, Mission 21–30 July 1994). 1989). During the second phase of the IPM program (1985–1989), the project concentrated on demonstration work in large-scale trials in addition to biological control Field watermelon IPM activities. An egg parasitoid of the African bollworm, Trichogramma pretiosum,was Field watermelon is one of the most impor- introduced in commercial production tant crops in the traditional rain-fed system areas. A large-scale program of mass release in western Sudan. It can withstand the was carried out from 1986 to 1990 with harsh climatic conditions prevailing in the the cooperation of the Dutch government, area. It is grown as a sole crop or on a relay which agreed to compensate farmers for intercropping system with groundnut, mil- potential yield losses. The initial let, sorghum, sesame and okra. Watermelon experiment involved 320 ha of cotton left is a strategic crop for small farmers in the unsprayed in the 1986/87 season. Initial traditional rain-fed sector. It is a multi- studies showed that 45% of bollworm purpose crop; the seeds are an important eggs were destroyed by the introduced cash crop, the fruit is a source of drinking parasitoid. In addition, Ahmed (1995) water, and fruit remains are used as feed for mentioned that the braconid wasp Meteorus animals. In addition, field watermelon is layphygmarum destroyed about 20% of the only crop that remains in the field after bollworm larvae in fields where early other crops are harvested (from July to chemical application was avoided. March), helping to prevent soil erosion. During years of cereal shortages, melon Economic benefits of IPM in cotton seed flour is added to cereals in many rural areas in western Sudan. As a result, In 1981, the Ministry of Agriculture consumption of cereals such as millet reported that expenditures incurred for and sorghum decreases by 60%. For this purchase and application of pesticides had reason, watermelon is considered to be an risen to US$65 million. After the adoption important food security crop. of raised economic threshold levels and The production of watermelon in the the introduction of IPM on cotton, pesticide state of North Kordofan has substantially spending dropped to an average of US$12 decreased during the last ten years due million in 1992–1995. to attack by the melon bug Aspongopus Raised economic threshold levels for viduatus. This has led to negative economi- four key insect pests in cotton and one key cal, social and environmental impacts. pest in wheat are now implemented in the Farmers use broad-spectrum pesticides Gezira and Rahad Schemes. As a result, the such as malathion and carbaryl to control number of sprays in the Gezira Scheme has this pest. The large quantities of insecticides dropped from 5.6 to 3 in cotton and from 1.7 (10,000 kg and 4000 to 5000 l of liquid) to 0.9 in wheat. This translates into savings required amount to a cost of 15 million of approximately US$2.6 million in cotton Sudanese dinars, a difficult sum for the state and US$1.3 million in wheat. In the Rahad to afford. Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 139

IPM control strategies for melon bug Table 12.5. Localities participating in hand picking campaign and the amount of melon bugs After the biology and ecology of melon collected during May–June 1999. bug were studied, an IPM program was Locality No. of sacks Weight (kg) designed with community participation. The melon bug Aspongopus viduatus is Al Mazroub 1722 86,100 oval, rather flat, and relatively large Tayba 154 7,700 (1.8–2 cm long and 0.8–1 cm broad) Um Kradim 2641 132,050 (Schumeterer, 1969). From May to June, Elobeid 16 ,800 the bugs congregate in large numbers for a Total 4533 226,650 period of estivation. As a result of this research, two IPM strategies were developed: (i) reduction of the number of adult bugs by hand picking; and adult insects do not release odors or bite. and (ii) the use of cultural practices and Most importantly, the recommended time less hazardous insecticides to control the for hand picking (May–June) coincides with remaining bug population. a let-up in other farm activities, leaving a large available workforce. Hand picking Cultural strategies The hand picking campaign was started in 1998. As an incentive, 100 Sudanese dinars Watermelon planted early in the season (US$0.39) were paid for each kilogram of is subject to attack by two consecutive bugs. The campaign began in May and generations of melon bug, which breed and ended in mid June prior to the rainy season. reproduce on watermelon before they enter A total of 15 tons of bugs were collected and winter diapause. Therefore, delaying the burned by farmers during the campaign. planting date of watermelon to late August The rate of community participation was was recommended. about 50%, highest among women and children (70%). Indirect benefits of Insecticide trials hand picking included the raising of Botanical water extracts were evaluated in awareness among farmers of the advantage on-farm experiments after the hand picking of cooperative pest control operations. of melon bugs. Botanical extracts were In 1999, another hand picking cam- mixed with a small dose of malathion to paign was carried out in areas suffering a control the remaining bug population. They drinking water shortage. Hand picking was were also targeted at the African melon conducted in collaboration with some NGOs beetle Aulacophora africana, which working in the area on the basis of issuing appears late in the season. Treatments were Food For Work (one sack of sorghum for one prepared as follows: sack of melon bugs). A total of 226 tons of melon bugs were collected and burned by • 25 ml malathion in 4 l water (the farmers (Table 12.5). farmers’ usual practice). Hand picking is not often an effective • 200 g neem seed water extract and method of pest control, but in the case of the 10 ml malathion in 4 l of water. melon bug, mass collection could be suc- • 200 g neem seed in 4 l of water. cessful. Picking melon bugs does not require • 250 g neem leaf in 4 l of water. skilled labor because adult bugs are large • 250 g neem leaf water extract and 10 ml and can easily be recognized and collected. malathion in 4 l of water. Also, adult insects can be found in large • 100 g Balanites egyptiaca seed water numbers during their estivation period. extract and 10 ml malathion in 4 l of The insects exhibit reduced movement and water. limited ability to fly during their estivation, • Control (water only). 140 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

Botanical extracts gave adequate control Cotton in the Sudan: a Participatory to both insects. Since heavy infestation Approach. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, by the two pests kills the watermelon Kenya, pp. 173–176. plants, the botanical extracts increased the Abu Salih, H.S. and Khalifa, O. (1978) Problems of cotton diseases control. In: Bashir, S., plant survival rate. About 4375 plants/ha El Tigani, K.B., Eltayeb, Y.M. and Khalifa, H. survived in the neem seed/malathion (eds) Proceedings of the Symposium Crop treatment while 1650 plants/ha survived Pest Management in the Sudan. Khartoum in the control. University Press, Sudan, pp. 99–104. Yield exceeded 8 tons/ha, 12.3 times Ahmed, M.A. (1995) Natural enemies in higher than the average yield in North Gezira and Rahad. Annual Report 1994/1995. Kordofan during 1989–1994, and 50 times National Insect Collection. FAO/IPM Project greater than the average production during GCP/SUD/025/NET, Wad Medani, Sudan. 1995–1998. 4 pp. Other benefits of the IPM program on Bashir, N.H.H. (1997) Cotton pest resistance in the Sudan: status quo. In: Dabrowski, Z.T. (ed.) field watermelon included: Integrated Pest Management in Vegetables, 1. A reduction in the malathion applica- Wheat and Cotton in the Sudan: a Participa- tion rate reduced the amount of insecticide tory Approach. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, used by two-thirds, representing significant Kenya, pp. 21–24. Bashir, Y.G.A. (1992) Some biotic and abiotic savings to the government and reducing the mortality factors affecting the population cost of production. of Chrysopa carnea in cotton fields in the 2. The Plant Protection Department repor- Gezira. MSc thesis, University of Gezira, Wad ted that the total amount of insecticides Medani, Sudan. used by farmers in watermelon production Dabrowski, Z.T. (1994) Integrated Vegetable declined by 50% in 1999/2000. A drop of Management in the Sudan. FAO/ 75% is projected for 2000/01(annual report Government of Sudan Cooperative Project of State Ministry of Agriculture and Animal GCP/SUD/025/ NET. ICIPE Science Press, Wealth, North Kordofan, 1999/2000). Nairobi, Kenya, 71 pp. 3. Better yield of watermelon during 1999/ Dabrowski, Z.T. (1997) The impact of the FAO/ARC Integrated Pest Management 2000 encouraged settlement in rural villages Project on vegetables, wheat and cotton in the and reduced migration of the population to Sudan. In: Dabrowski, Z.T. (ed.) Integrated cities searching for temporary jobs. Pest Management in Vegetables, Wheat 4. The State Ministry of Agriculture and Cotton in the Sudan: a Participatory reported a decrease in the area cultivated Approach. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, with watermelon due to increase in produc- Kenya, pp. 25–39. tivity (annual report of Ministry of Agricul- Elamin, E. Mohamed (1997) The development of ture and Animal Wealth, North Kordofan, Integrated Pest Management in the Sudan: 1999/2000). a historical perspective. In: Dabrowski, Z.T. (ed.) Integrated Pest Management in Vegetables, Wheat and Cotton in the Sudan: a Participatory Approach. ICIPE Science References Press, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 13–20. Elwasila, G. (1981) Pests of vegetables and fruits Abdelrahman, A.A. and Munir, B. (1989) and their control strategy. Proceedings of Sudanese experience in integrated pest the Third Annual Meeting of the African management in cotton. Insect Science and Association of Insect Scientists (AAIS). ICIPE its Application 10(6), 787–794. Science Press, Nairobi, Kenya. Abdelrahman, A.A., ElJack, I., Banaga, A., Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth (1981) Gendil, B., El Allam, E., Maragan, M. and Annual report season 1980/81, Khartoum, Ahmed, A.M. (1997) Integrated pest manage- Sudan. ment in cotton: production and protection. MOA (2000) Annual Report of the Ministry of In: Dabrowski, Z.T. (ed.) Integrated Pest Agriculture, Animal Wealth and Irrigation, Management in Vegetables, Wheat and Season 1999/2000. ElObeid, Sudan. Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 141

Schmutterer, H. (1969) Pests of Crops in Northeast Siddig, A.S. and Nasr El Din, S. (1990) Con- and Central Africa. Gustav Fisher, Stuttgart, sultancy on Vegetable Production, Present 296 pp. Insect Status and their Control. FAO Project GCP/SUD/025/NET, November 1990, Wad Medani, Sudan, 96 pp. 142 Y.G.A. Bashir et al.

Appendix 12.1.

In-service training courses and workshops organized by the FAO/ARC IPM Project, Sudan since January 1993. KAP, Knowledge Attitude and Practice; SMS, Subject Matter Specialist. (Source: Dabrowski, 1997.)

No. Title Duration Audience

1 IPM training course 4 days 59 extensionists and inspectors 2 IPM training course 2 days 18 project members 3 Training course on operation, maintenance 2 days 14 extensionists and inspectors and safety measures of knapsack sprays 4 IPM training course 13 days 54 extensionists and inspectors 5 Training in IPM 1 day 20 extensionists + 67 farmers 6 KAP survey training 1 day 19 cadres 7 Training course on operation, maintenance 2 days 20 extensionists and technicians and safety measures of knapsack sprays 8 National workshop on integrated vegetable 3 days 101 cadres + 23 farmers production 9 IPM training course 1 week 49 entomologists 10 IPM GTZ training course on vegetables 4 days 26 extensionists 11 Extension staff training course 2 months 5 cadres 12 Annual review and planning workshop 2 days 79 policy makers, researchers SMSs 13 National workshop on the role of agricultural 3 days 42 extensionists and researchers extension in IPM 14 IPM/FFS orientation day 1 day 47 FFS cadres 15 Training course on vegetable IPM 2 days 49 FFS cadres, SMS and researchers 16 IPM workshop 5 days 53 extensionists, SMSs and researchers 17 Biological control training course 8 days 20 IPM staff 18 Annual review and planning meeting 4 days 75 researchers, SMSs, policy makers and extensionists 19 Workshop on control of Orobanche 1 day 46 researchers, SMSs and extensionists 20 IPM workshop 5 days 40 extensionists and SMSs 21 Biological control workshop 2 days 45 IPM FFS trainers 22 Workshop for Gezira and Rahad schemes 5 days 48 inspectors 23 Workshop 6 days 48 inspectors 24 Vegetable diseases workshop 3 days 38 IPM FFS trainers 25 IPM workshop 5 days 75 inspectors 26 IPM workshop 5 days 73 inspectors 27 IPM workshop 5 days 50 inspectors 28 Group training on biology, ecology and 1 day 20 cadres control of nematodes in the Sudan 29 IPM agricultural extension workshop 3 days 8 extensionists and farmers 30 Annual review and planning workshop 3 days 95 researchers, extensionists, plant protectionist; cotton, wheat and vegetable agronomists

Total of 1359 individual trainees attended Development and Implementation of IPM in the Sudan 143

Appendix 12.2.

List of training and extension materials produced by the FAO/ARC IPM Project, Sudan 1993–1996. (Source: Dabrowski, 1997.)

No. Title Authors Year Pages

1 The effect of improved cultural practices on S.M. Alsaffar and M. 1993 12 vegetable pests Ezzeldin 2 Basic cultural practices for main vegetable crops: Mirghani Khogali 1993 22 tomato, onion, okra and aubergine 3 FAO/ARC IPM project development (brochure) Asim A. Abdelrahman 1993 6 4 IPM wall calendar 1994 IPM project staff 1994 6 5 IPM pocket calendar 1994 IPM project staff 1994 1 6 Operation and maintenance of knapsack sprayers M. Ezzeldin Mahgoub 1994 12 7 Field manual on farmer’s friends natural enemies B. Munir 1993 34 8 Pamphlet on vegetable insects Dieya Eldin Alagwah 1994 38 9 Pamphlet on safe use of pesticides F. Alagbani and 1994 6 Ahmed Alsaffar 10 Identification of main vegetable pests and farmer Saud M. Saad Eldin 1994 46 friends 11 Integrated vegetable crop management in the Z.T. Dabrowski (ed.) 1994 71 Sudan and 15 counterparts 12 IPM FFSs Ahmed Assaffar 1995 99 13 Workshop in the role of agricultural extension in IPM project staff and 1995 70 IPM 12 counterparts 14 Field guide on evaluation of pest and disease Nafisa E. Ahmed, 1996 8 infestation on tomato and onion and Z.T. Dabrowski 15 Participatory approach in IPM FFSs Z.T. Dabrowski and 1996 17 A. Yassin 16 Identification of farmer’s problems and priorities Ahmed Alsaffar 1996 12 17 Textbook on vegetable production in central Sudan Mamoun Basher 1996 104 18 Challenges in plant protection Z.T. Dabrowski and 1996 18 Eltigani M. Elamin 19 Broomrape–Halouk (Orobanche spp.) in the Sudan Z.T. Dabrowski and 1996 70 Abdalla Hamdoun (eds) and 10 counterparts 20 Poster on Broomrape–Halouk control (in press) Z.T. Dabrowski and 1996 100 × 40 cm Nasr Eldin Khairi 21 Lecture notes on IPM, part 1 IPM project staff and 1996 82 counterpart 22 Biological control in FFSs C.M. Beije and 1996 13 Eltigani M. Elamin 23 IPM on cotton in the Sudan Asim A. Abdelrahman 1996 16 24 Using Bacillus thuringiensis in transgenic plants Ahmed H. Mohammed 1996 6 25 Development of rural women schools in the Sudan Hala Abdel Rahim 1996 11 26 Main natural enemies of insect pests in central C.M Beije 1996 100 × 40 cm Sudan 27 (Poster in preparation) Manual on IPM of Z.T. Dabrowski 1996 74 vegetable pests in the Sudan 28 Integrated Pest Management in Vegetables, Wheat Z.T. Dabrowski 1997 245 and Cotton in the Sudan: a Participatory Approach

Chapter 13 Integrated Pest Management in Tanzania

Brigitte T. Nyambo1, Ana Milena Varela2, Zuberi Seguni3 and Geoffrey Kirenga4 1Integrated Crop Management Practitioner, Village Market-Nairobi, Kenya; 2PO Box 41607, Nairobi, Kenya; 3Agricultural Research Institute, Mikocheni, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 4Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Plant Protection Services, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Brief History and Evolution of chemical pesticide use began to be embraced IPM in Tanzania by farmers and policy makers as the best option for pest control and sustainable IPM practices in Tanzania have a long crop production. To encourage wider use, history, starting from the colonial days, subsidies were introduced in all production although the word IPM was not the sales- systems. man’s catchword. Although, up and until 1997, there was no national policy on IPM, the National Research and Extension Ser- Policies and IPM vices under the Ministry of Agriculture promoted IPM practices in cash crops, e.g. The establishment of the National Plant coffee, cotton, and sugarcane, and in food Protection Regulations and Policies, e.g. crops, e.g. maize, field beans, sorghum, and the Plant Protection Ordinance of 1937, bananas. This was explained by two the Pesticide Control Regulations of 1984 reasons. First, effective pesticides were not and more recently, the Plant Protection Act easily available. Second, even if they were 1997 recognized the significance and role of available, they were generally considered pesticide use in the national agricultural not economically viable and acceptable for production systems. The first two policies the small-scale production systems (Swyn- were not conducive to IPM practices and nerton et al., 1948; Peat and Brown, 1961). encouraged use of pesticide subsidies to The situation changed after World War facilitate their wider use at farm level. II with the discovery of cheap and potent The 1937 ordinance resulted in the pro- pesticides such as DDT. Arsenic baits, motion of indiscriminate use of pesticides gamma-BHC and DDT were used in coffee in major export crops such as coffee and the production systems in the 1940s to control demise of established IPM approaches in Antestia bugs (Antestiopsis spp). DDT and many production systems. DDT mixtures were introduced in cotton The Plant Protection Act of 1997 systems in 1960s. From there onwards, reflects a change in policy. The Government

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 145 146 B.T. Nyambo et al.

initiated activities to reviewand update participatory technology development and existing legislation in 1996. As a result, the transfer through farmer groups in different Agricultural and Livestock Policy of 1997 cropping systems and areas, as a step and the National Environmental Policy of towards promotion of sustainable IPM 1997 were formulated and introduced as at farm level. A wealth of experience and measures to ensure IPM is adopted and used expertise has been accumulated from these in all crop and livestock production systems pilot projects (Nyambo, 2001, unpublished). (Anonymous, 1997b,c,d). A newPlant Pro - This will be used as a springboard for further tection Legislation that emphasizes the use promotion of IPM countrywide. of IPM was enacted in 1997 followed by its regulations of 1999. Effective from 1 July 2001, a newlegislation to regulate pesticide IPM Experiences with a Focus on Coffee, use in the country was introduced to further Cotton, and Coconut strengthen adoption and use of IPM. The Plant Protection Act of 1997 does As indicated above, IPM is being promoted not favor use of subsidies on any of the in various crops and production systems. agrochemical inputs. In addition, and in The achievements and constraints also vary recognition of past mistakes and problems depending on crop/system, and the crops associated with excessive use of chemical used in this reviewwillgive highlights on pesticides in some cropping systems, the current status of IPM in Tanzania. emphasis is on integrated pest management approaches in all production systems. Due to the problems associated with the existing top down research and extension system Coffee in promoting sustainable IPM, the Ministry and its partners have taken several measures Coffee is an important export crop in Tanza- to ensure IPM is adopted and practiced nia. At national level, it is the number one countrywide. export crop. Over 90% of the crop is produced by small-scale farmers in Northern Tanzania (Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions), Southern Highlands (Mbeya and Ruvuma Key Institutions Involved in IPM regions) and Kagera region. The crop is attacked by a wide range of The major custodian of promoting the IPM insect pests and diseases. The major insect concept and practices in Tanzania is the pests include antestia bugs (Antestiopsis Plant Protection Services (PPS) department spp.), leaf miners (Leucoptera spp.), stem under the Ministry of Agriculture and Food borers (Anthores leuconotus), berry moth Security. The PPS works in close collabora- (Prophantis smaragdina), and berry borers tion with the department of crop develop- (Hypothenemus hampei). The diseases are ment, the National Agricultural Research coffee berry disease (Colletotrichum cof- and Training Institutes of the Ministry feanum), and leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). of Agriculture. Other partners include Prevention of these pests through an integra- the Sokoine University of Agriculture, tion of good cultural practices (mulching, international organizations, e.g. FAO, The providing optimum shade, manuring, prun- World Bank, IFAD, GTZ, NRI, ICIPE, IITA, ing, sanitation, and planting at correct depth ICRISAT, CIAT, DFID, CABI, and NGOs and spacing), conservation of indigenous (local and international). natural enemies and limited use of pesti- Between 1992 and 2000, the Govern- cides was emphasized and encouraged at ment, in collaboration with GTZ, FAO and farm level from the early years (Swynnerton IFAD, initiated some IPM pilot projects to et al., 1948). However, since the 1937 develop local expertise and experience in ordinance was not IPM friendly, coupled the organization and conducting of farmer with the fact that pesticides were heavily IPM in Tanzania 147

subsidized and spraying results were easy toxicity of copper to a wide range of natural and quick to demonstrate, chemical pesti- biocontrol agents including antagonists that cides were popularized at farm level at the inhabit the soil. Consequently, pest popula- expense of the established IPM practices. tions build up to damaging levels without In the 1940s, only two sprays of their natural control. The exceptionally high copper-based fungicides were deemed copper levels in the coffee soils results necessary for the control of coffee leaf rust in toxicity, this depressing the activity (CLR) in bad years. In most seasons, the of potential indigenous biocontrol agents disease could be effectively managed (Crowe, 1964; Kullaya, 1983; Bridge, through good cultural practices. The 1984; Masaba, 1991; Ak’habuhaya and situation changed dramatically in 1970s Rusibamayila, 2000). with the outbreak of the coffee berry disease The IPM approaches formulated and (CBD). By 1983, the number of copper-based extended to coffee farmers in the 1930s and sprays had increased to nine per season 1940s have been severely eroded and the (Kullaya, 1983). The application of copper- system is nowat a crisis. The increasing based fungicide was in the rate of 5.5–11 kg pest pressure despite increased spraying a.i./ha per spray by 1985 (Bujulu and Uronu, frequency has led to a critical situation in 1985). Since then, the dosage rate has the small-scale coffee production systems continued to increase without necessarily in Northern Tanzania. Increased pesticide an increase in efficacy and control of the prices without parallel increases in cash diseases. returns from coffee sales have forced many Coffee leaf miners can be very damaging of the small-scale farmers to neglect their to coffee but outbreaks are usually checked coffee plantations and divert their resources by a complex of its indigenous natural to alternative cash generating crops, e.g. enemies and therefore spraying in most vegetables and beans (Nyambo et al., 1994, seasons was deemed unnecessary (Notely, 1996). 1948, 1956; Swynnerton et al., 1948). How- ever, in the early 1980s, coffee farmers began to complain that it was no longer possible to achieve effective control with recommended Cotton insecticides such as fenitrothion. It was later established that this was because the pest Cotton is another important foreign has developed resistance to recommended exchange earner for Tanzania. Up and until organophosphates due to an increase in the late 1980s, it ranked second to coffee as spraying frequency (Bardner and Mcharo, a major export crop. Some 90% of the crop 1988; Nyambo, 1993, unpublished). is produced in the Western Cotton Growing Similarly, continued use of copper- Area (WCGA) (Mwanza, Shinyanga, Mara, based fungicides for the control of CBD and Singida and Kigoma regions) by small-scale CLR has exacerbated the pest pressure on farmers and is solely rainfed. It is the main coffee and its companion crops. Increased non-food cash crop in most areas where it is frequency of spraying with copper-based grown. The crop is grown over a wide range fungicides is considered as one of the major of ecological and climatic conditions and factors contributing to the development and it is therefore subject to varying degree increased pressure of the coffee leaf miners, of attack by insect pests and diseases in CLR, CBD and the African coffee root-knot different areas. nematodes (Furtado, 1969; Bridge, 1984; Although cotton was introduced in the Masaba et al., 1993). The yields of maize and region in 1904, research to improve the yield beans, the two crops often grown in associa- and quality of the crop did not begin until tion with coffee has declined. The incidence 1932 (Jones and Kapingu 1982; Nyambo, and severity of root-knot nematodes on 1982). The main task at the beginning of the bananas, a crop often intercropped with program was to identify key limiting factors coffee, has intensified. This is due to the to increased production. 148 B.T. Nyambo et al.

Before the 1940s, jassids (Empoasca bacterial blight resistance played a major spp.), and bacterial blight (Xanthomonas role in the increase in annual cotton produc- campestris pv malvacearum), were identi- tion from 190,000 bales to about 390,000 fied as the major pests limiting production of bales of lint between 1960 and the mid- quality cotton in the area (Peat and Brown, 1970s (Peat and Brown, 1961). In addition, 1961; Arnold, 1965). An assessment of cotton production became possible in areas cotton crop damage and loss due to insect where production was previously impossi- pests done between 1934 and 1957 revealed ble due to damage caused by jassids and in addition that the American bollworm blight (Spence, 1967). (Helicoverpa armigera), the spiny boll- The achievements made in the produc- worm (Earias spp.) and the cotton stainers tion of jassid and bacterial blight resistance (Dysdercus spp. and Calidea dregii) were opened an avenue to search for resistance also important pests (Nyambo, 1982). As a to other pests as well. The outbreak of basis for developing economically accept- Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. able management options, studies on the vasinfectum (Alk) Snyder and Hansen) in biology and ecology of these insect pests 1953 on the shores of Lake Victoria was and diseases were done to establish their taken as yet another challenge to the seasonality and possible management strate- research program. Breeding and selection of gies in cotton (Mackinlay and Geering, 1957; potential varieties from the local varieties Perry, 1962; Reed, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1970, and crossbreeding with some resistant 1971, 1972; Wickens, 1964a; Robertson, varieties from West Africa and America 1970; Wood and Ebbles, 1972). (Brown, 1964; Wickens, 1964b; Ebbles, Before the 1940s, the lack of good 1975; Hillocks, 1984) produced UK 77, effective insecticides and the fact that even if which was released in 1977. UK 77 carries they were available they were not consid- a level of resistance equal to that found ered economic under the small-scale farm- in most Fusarium wilt resistant commercial ing conditions, research efforts emphasized varieties in the world (Jones and Kapingu, other viable alternatives. The discovery 1982; Ngulu, 1982). As a follow-up to this of the mechanism of jassid resistance in achievement, a backcrossing and selection cottons in South Africa in 1935 (Parnell program was started to improve further on et al., 1949) was an invaluable contribution the level of resistance to Fusarium wilt in the to the industry. As a follow-up to this, breed- commercial varieties. ing and selecting for jassid resistance started The UK cotton varieties have the ability at the Ukiriguru Agricultural Research Insti- to compensate for early crop loss of fruiting tute, the main cotton research centre for the points caused by either physiological WCGA. The first real jassid-resistant variety stress or by H. armigera attack, provided (UK 46) was released in 1946. As a result soil moisture and nutrients are not limiting. of this early success, selecting for jassid- Thus early sowing, preferably between the resistance became a continuous process in end of November and end of December, is the cotton program and resistance levels strongly recommended. In seasons when were gradually improved with each release H. armigera attack builds up early, the of the Ukiriguru (UK) commercial varieties. early sown cotton may lose its bottom crop, Similarly, breeding and selecting for bacte- but can compensate later by producing a rial blight resistance and improved yields crop during the main rains in March–April. and quality of cotton was emphasized. If the bollworm population builds up later, Dramatic increases in production followed then the early sown crop would have set its the release of varieties with good resistance main crop and will therefore escape damage. to jassids and bacterial blight in the 1960s The sowing date and the compensatory (Arnold, 1957, 1963; Cross, 1963; Cross ability of the UK varieties both contribute and Innes, 1963; Cross, 1964a,b; Cross and to minimizing the damage caused by Hayward, 1964). The genetic improvement H. armigera (Mackinlay and Geering, 1957; in yield and quality potential plus jassid and Brown, 1965). IPM in Tanzania 149

To extend this integrated approach strategies. The spiny bollworm, cotton further, chemical spraying against the major stainers, Calidea dregii and the cotton seed insect pests was also evaluated and recom- bugs are late season pests (starting at boll mendations made for farmers (Reed, 1967, formation stage) and hence early sowing and 1971, 1972; Kerridge et al., 1969; Robertson, picking is recommended to avoid attack. 1970). A fixed spraying regimen consisting The close season is also a strategy to further of six sprays at 2-week intervals starting reduce carry-over of cotton stainers, the pink from first flower was recommended in 1968 bollworm and bacterial blight since there is to take care of H. armigera and the other evidence to showthat the pests can survive minor pests during the flowering and fruit- on cotton trash (Arnold and Arnold, 1969). ing period. This blanket recommendation is A well-grown crop has good growth vigor simple to implement but is not ideal as it and can also withstand a certain level of ignores any variations in pest pressure that pest attack. Therefore, farmers are advised to may occur during the season. In addition, it apply manure and/or inorganic fertilizers to does not provide an environment conducive realize a good crop (Prentice, 1946; Peat and to the build-up of H. armigera natural Prentice, 1949; Le Mare, 1954, 1959, 1972, enemies (Nyambo, 1990). 1974; Peat and Brown, 1960, 1962a,b). Due to the shortcomings associated Thus, the IPM practices in the WCGA with fixed spraying regimes, simple damage are a combination of host-plant resistance to scouting thresholds for H. armigera were the major pests, cultural practices, use of developed and recommended to farmers synthetic pesticides, conservation of natural to further enhance the effectiveness of the enemies and crop scouting. bollworms’ natural enemies and to optimize It is also recognized that IPM strategies the benefits of chemical spraying (Nyambo, can be improved and/or changed in 1986, 1989). A pegboard was developed and response to the development of newpest fine-tuned in collaboration with farmers problems and/or a change in farming to make cotton scouting at farm level systems. Traditionally, cotton is grown as a technically simple. Many farmers in WCGA monocrop. However, farmers have tended to are nowscouting their crop before spraying intercrop it with other crops, particularly (B. Nyambo, personal observations). Where maize, sorghum and sunflower to optimize farmers are doing effective scouting the microeconomics at farm level. In response to number of sprays have been reduced from this, research work is in progress to identify six to three, with yield advantage over suitable plant arrangement and combina- the blanket recommendation (Anonymous, tions to optimize the benefits of plant–plant 1997a). interactions in pest management (Nyambo, Seed dressing is used to reduce seedling 1988; Katua, Kolowa and Mkondo, personal diseases, such as Rhizoctonia solani (Ngulu, communication). 1982). All commercial seeds sold to farmers The IPM strategies for the WCGA are a are already dressed. result of over 50 years of work involving To control aphids, which attack the step-by-step improvement of individual crop early in the season, farmers are advised components. Host-plant resistance was not to spray their cotton crop early in the sea- recognized as the foundation for economic sons to allowfor the build-up of its natural and viable plant protection practices at farm enemies, which can give effective control. level from the inception of the research In addition, the heavy rain in March/April program and continues to form the backbone wipes out much of the population. for all other strategies. All cotton varieties Cultural practices (early planting, early released to farmers have good tolerance picking, clean weeding and close season) and/or high resistance to the major pests. to control spiny bollworm, cotton stainers, The significance of team work, involving Calidea dregii, pink bollworm, bacterial plant breeders, entomologists, plant pathol- blight and cotton seed bug is also a ogists, agronomists, extensionists and fiber strong component of the pest management technologists was recognized as the key 150 B.T. Nyambo et al.

to the development of the cotton crop in (Kabonge and Temu, 1997; Yusuf et al., Tanzania and was therefore emphasized 1997). and enforced. A supportive research policy The coreid bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi ensured staff continuity and adequate fund- Brown (Heteroptera: Coreidae), and the Afri- ing until recently. Funding is nowa major can rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes monoceros constraint and much of the work has been Oliv (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), are the suspended. In addition, networking and free major insect pests of coconut in Tanzania. flowof information betweenthe national, Other pests include mites and termites, regional and international cotton research which may cause serious damage to young programs played a major role in the success nuts. The latter are very destructive on seed of the Ukiriguru-based cotton research nuts in nurseries, on sprouts and on newly work. The information on mechanism of transplanted seedlings. jassid resistance in cottons was discovered Pseudotheraptus wayi is by far the most in South Africa (Parnell et al., 1949). The damaging as it is responsible for premature sources of resistance to Fusarium wilt were nut fall which leads to extensive crop losses. obtained from West Africa and America The National Coconut Development Pro- (Jones and Kapingu, 1982). Some technology gram (NCDP) has been developing feasible developed in neighboring countries was IPM measures to control this pest with fine-tuned for local use to optimize emphasis on biological control by using its resources (Mackinlay and Geering, 1957). indigenous predator, the weaver ant, Oeco- Cotton scouting and the use of pegboard phylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: was developed in Malawi (Matthews and Formicidae). Although insecticides could be Tunstall, 1968) and modified for use in the used to give effective control of the bug, WCGA (Nyambo, 1986). spraying is not a feasible solution because it is difficult to spray the tall palms. The potential of the weaver ant was recognized in early 1950s as the only feasible Coconut control method against P. wayi (Way, 1951, 1953a,b, 1963; Vanderplank, 1958). The coconut crop is a major source of Methods to enhance the effectiveness of food, shelter and household income for O. longinoda were researched. Interplanting smallholders on the coastal belt of Tanzania coconut fields with tree crops, e.g. citrus and Zanzibar Islands. The crop provides and cloves, that hosts the weaver ant, were fresh nuts, cooking oil and the surplus is recommended in the 1980s (Way, 1983, sold for cash. Although not considered as unpublished). Preservation of non-host tree one of the principal cash crops, coconut is plants such as wild custard apple as well exported as copra cake in limited quanti- as maintaining suitable ground vegetation ties. During the 18th century coconut was were also suggested as strategies to enhance an important export crop for Zanzibar. the efficacy of the weaver ant. However, over the past 20–30 years, However, inimical ants, notably production has declined tremendously for Pheidole megacephala Fabricius and the a number of reasons including neglect of pugnacious ant Anoplolepis custodiens palms, mismanagement, old age of palms Smith, were observed to interfere seriously and pest problems. Consequently, produc- with successful biological control of P. wayi tion of copra, oil and coir declined for by preying on and inhibiting the establish- the Mainland and Zanzibar Islands. On the ment of O. longinoda in infested trees Mainland, copra production declined from (Oswald and Rashid, 1992; Varela, 1992; 6597 t in 1973/74 to about 1600 t in 1980. Seguni, 1997). Thus, successful selective Production for export has practically suppression of P. megacephala and A. stopped. In Zanzibar, production followed custodiens was necessary to ensure effec- the same trend. Copra export declined from tiveness of the weaver ants. This was made 11,871 t in 1980 to 7360 t in a decade possible by application of hydramethylene, IPM in Tanzania 151

a selective ant bait. Hydramethylene is are only known by a few farmers, mostly applied at the rate of 6 g per tree at the base of because of lack of adequate funding for the trees. This eliminates P. megacephala technology transfer. Luckily, pesticides are but not A. custodiens. Anoplolepis cus- not used on the palms because it is not easy todiens populations can be reduced by to spray the tall trees. However, quality maintaining appropriate ground cover in production is hampered by a lack of coconut fields. Where hydramethylene technical know-how at farm level on how is applied, there is fast colonization of to manage the major pests. host trees interplanted in coconut fields by aggressive colonies of O. longinoda, reduced populations of P. wayi and a fivefold Key Constraints to IPM increase of nut production within 24–36 months of establishment of the weaver ants The development and practice of IPM in (Varela, 1992; Seguni, 1997). Tanzania has been constrained by a number Another strategy used to enhance the of factors including: effectiveness of the weaver ant is the use of artificial bridges. Oryctes longinoda is 1. Lack of an enabling national IPM policy. known to readily accept artificial aerial As presented above this has favored wide bridges to walk from one tree to another and injudicious use of pesticides. and so spreading to neighboring trees. This 2. The traditional top-down national behavior has been used to enhance O. longi- research and extension policy, which noda by creating aerial passages between ignored farmer participation in technology trees in coconut plantations, thus bypassing development and transfer. Consequently, P. megacephala and A. custodiens on the technologies developed by researchers have ground. Farmers use various types of rope not reached the end users and/or they were material for the aerial bridges including not appropriately formulated for use in discarded steel wires, manila ropes and different production systems. locally available natural fibers. This method 3. Lack of coordinated multidisciplinary is simple and environmentally friendly and team and cropping systems approach at therefore likely to be sustainable (Z. Seguni, research and extension levels. Some personal observations). pest management recommendations are The rhinoceros beetle is very destruc- sometimes antagonistic at farm level. For tive to young palms. The only feasible instance, the copper-base fungicides used management option recommended to farm- for the control of CBD and CLR are not com- ers is physical removal or killing the beetle patible with other insect pest management using a thin metal rod and field sanitation. strategies. The copper-based fungicides are Although hooking of the beetles is effective toxic to a wide range of potential indigenous it is impractical for a farmer with many natural enemies of leaf miners and hence the palms. However, farmers are advised to deal resurgence of the coffee leaf-miners in recent with a few palms at a time. Field sanitation years. involves removal of dead logs to eliminate 4. Inadequate funding for IPM research breeding sites for the beetle (Kabonge and and extension in all cropping systems. This Temu, 1997). is due partly to the poor national IPM policy. The main disease affecting coconuts is This has been the case in the coconut crop the lethal disease associated with phyto- discussed above as well as in horticultural plasmas. The disease occurs on the main- crops and cashew. In cashew for example, land in localized areas and kills palms of all the insect pest pressure is escalating due to ages. To date, the national research program excessive use of sulfur to control powdery has not been able to identify a viable mildew(Anonymous, 2000). The recom - solution (Kullaya et al., 1997). mended disease tolerant/resistant clones The IPM approaches so far developed and cultural practices have not been by researchers in collaboration with farmers promoted at farm level due to lack of funds 152 B.T. Nyambo et al.

– a situation that applies to many other crop- United Republic of Tanzania. Vice Presi- ping systems/technologies (Nyambo, 2001, dent’s Office Dar es Salaam. The Government unpublished). Printer, Dar es Salaam, pp. 18–19. 5. Frequent senior staff transfers due Anonymous (2000) Annual cashewresearch report 2000/2001. CashewResearch Pro - to poor policy and lack of priorities that gramme, ARI. Naliendele Mtwara 2, 2–14. interfered with program continuity in many Arnold, H.M. (1957) Resistance to bacterial blight crops and systems. in Lake Province local cotton. West African The case example of cotton has shown Research Conference, Sumaru, Northern Nigeria, p. 159. that development of IPM is a long-term Arnold, H.M. (1963) The control of bacterial endeavor requiring careful planning. It blight in rain grown cotton. 1. Breeding also shows the importance of teamwork, for resistance in African up-land varieties. staff continuity, networking, free flow of Journal of Agricultural Science 60, 415. information between the national, regional Arnold, H.M. (1965) The control of bacterial and international research programs, and blight in rain grown cotton. II. Some effects adequate funding. Any newcomponent in of infection on growth and yield. Journal of the system has to be careful evaluated to Agricultural Science 65, 29. avoid/prevent possible adverse effects on Arnold, H.M. and Arnold, K.M. (1969) Bacterial the equilibrium of the system as happened blight of cotton: trash borne infection. Empire Cotton Growing Review 38, 258. in the case of coffee. Bardner, R. and Mcharo, E.Y. (1988) Confirmation Thus, the success in cotton is fortuitous of resistance of the coffee leaf miner, in the light of the existing national agri- Leucoptera meyricki Gesq. (Lepidoptera: cultural policy. A change of policy, reflected Lyonetiidae) to organophosphate insecticide in the newGovernment Agricultural and spray in Tanzania. Tropical Pest Manage- Livestock Policy of 1997 and the National ment 34, 52–54. Environmental Policy of 1997 together with Bridge, J. (1984) Coffee Nematode Survey of the newPlant Protection Legislation of 1997, Tanzania. Report on a visit to examine plant should create a more favorable environment parasitic nematodes of coffee in Tanzania, for the development and implementation February/March 1984. Tropical Plant Nematology Advisory and Research Unit, of sustainable IPM in other production IPP, UK, 22 pp. systems. Brown, A.G.P. (1964) Field trials of three Fusarium wilt resistant cotton selections in Tanganyika. Cotton Growing Review 41, 194. References Brown, K.J. (1965) Response of three strains of cotton to flower removal. Cotton Growing Ak’habuhaya, J. and Rusibamayila, C. (2000) Review 42, 279. Contamination of soils and the coffee plant Bujulu, J. and Uronu, A. (1985) A revise of the by copper-based fungicides in Kilimanjaro coffee berry disease (CBD) chemical control Region; Northern Tanzania. Tropical Pest in Northern Tanzania for the period 1980–84 Management Bulletin 1(1), 20. seasons. Tropical Pest Research Institute Anonymous (1997a) Brief Outline on the Profile Miscellaneous Report No. 1019. of the IPM project – Lake Zone. Tanzania– Cross, J.E. (1963) Pathogenicity differences in German Project for Integrated Pest Manage- Tanganyika populations of Xanthomonas ment (IPM) Western Zone Tanzania, pp. 1–9. malvacearum. Empire Cotton Growing Anonymous (1997b) The Plant Protection Act, Review 40, 125. 1997. The United Republic of Tanzania. The Cross, J.E. (1964a) Breeding for resistance to Government Printer, Dar-es-Salaam. more pathogenic variant of Xanthomonas Anonymous (1997c) The Agricultural and Live- malvacearum. Cotton Growing Review 41, 48. stock Policy of 1997. Ministry of Agriculture Cross, J.E. (1964b) Field differences in patho- and Co-operatives, Dar-es-Salaam, Jan 1997. genicity between Tanganyika populations The United Republic of Tanzania. The Gov- of Xanthomonas malvacearum. Cotton ernment Printer, Dar-es-Salaam, pp. 40–41. Growing Review 41, 44. Anonymous (1997d) The National Environmental Cross, J.E. and Hayward, A.C. (1964) Relationship Policy, Dec 1997, sectoral policies. The between pathogenicity and phage type IPM in Tanzania 153

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sp. Bulletin of Entomological Research 44, vasinfectum in North Western Tanzania. 669–691. Cotton Growing Review 49, 79. Way, M.J. (1963) Mutualism between ants and Yusuf, C.H., Hassan, H.A., Mbarouk, I.K., honeydew-producing Homoptera. Annual Khalifan, N.A. and Ali, S.H. (1997) Status of Review of Entomology 8, 307–343. coconut industry in Zanzibar. International Wickens, G.M. (1964a) Fusarium wilt of cotton: Cashew & Coconut Conference, Dar es seed husk a potential means of dissemina- Salaam, pp. 40–45. tion. Cotton Growing Review 41, 23. Wickens, G.M. (1964b) Methods for detection and selection of hereditable resistance to Fusarium wilt in cotton. Cotton Growing Useful website Review 41, 172. Wood, C.M. and Ebbles, D.L. (1972) Host range and survival of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. http://www.habari.co.tz/tpri

Chapter 14 Integration of Integrated Pest Management in Integrated Crop Management: Experiences from Malawi

Sieg Snapp1 and Eli Minja2 1Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 2International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Nairobi, Kenya

Introduction Vietnamese rice production (Heong, 1999). In general, IPM has been effective at using IPM should be viewed as an integral part of ecological principles to improve pest control ICM. To raise productivity of smallholder while minimizing pesticide use and abuse in farmers in Malawi it is necessary to address disrupted agroecosystems (Greathead, 1989). soil quality and fertility management Reducing grower costs through efficient and issues, along with IPM. This integrated effective use of pesticides, and replacing crop management approach focuses on soil pesticides with biologically based inter- health as the foundation of plant health, ventions makes sense for cropping systems and involves farmers and researchers in that are dependent on pesticide use, and partnership to evaluate indigenous knowl- is not necessarily applicable to subsistence edge and promising newtechnologies. This production systems (Orr et al., 2000a). integrated approach is illustrated through The Malawi context is characterized by case studies from Malawi. Experiences limited use of pesticides and a lack of market presented include farmer-friendly strategies integration (Bentley and Thiele, 1999). to reduce Striga infestation in maize A case in point is the use of pesticides to (Zea mays) systems and to improve pest control serious outbreaks of pod borer pests management in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan). in pigeonpea, application was almost zero IPM has brought biological-based in a recent survey (Minja et al., 1999). In decision-making aids to farmers around the Kenya, by contrast, pesticides were used on globe, but the focus has primarily been on pigeonpeas by about one-third of the farmers areas where cash crops are grown with rela- surveyed. Malawi is one of the poorest coun- tively high pesticide input levels. Success tries in Africa (US$170 GNP/capita in 1995). stories of farmers adopting IPM approaches Purchase of pesticides, and access to spray- include sweet potato and vegetable manage- ers, is so limited in Malawi that even when it ment in Indonesia (van de Fliert and Braun, is an economically viable option, farmers 1999) and campaigns to improve pesticide may prioritize easy to apply inputs such efficiency and reduce excess use in as fertilizer. Further, small investments in

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 157 158 S. Snapp and E. Minja

fertilizer frequently improve productivity encompass reducing risk, optimizing greatly, as soil fertility is low(Kumwenda economic returns and returns to small et al., 1997). The lack of market integration investments of cash or labor (Rohrbach and in Malawi also limits the extent to which Snapp, 1997). Particularly in very poor, horticultural and high value crops can be resource limited environments, careful grown, and thus influences what are appro- attention must be paid to understanding priate IPM options. We suggest that the focus farmer priorities and beliefs. This can be of IPM in Malawi must be broad – to include addressed through farmer participatory integrated crop management issues, such as approaches, surveys and whole farm replenishment of soil fertility and tradeoffs budgets to improve understanding of the between investment in weeding and fertil- economic context, and farmer perceptions izer. Orr et al. (1997, unpublished) put forth (Heong and Escalada, 1999; Snapp and a similar hypothesis. Silim, 2002). Farmer participatory research The productivity of smallholder farms has documented the need to include soil is constrained by a unimodal precipitation fertility in integrated pest management tropical climate, and a heavily maize-based research. Soil fertility is frequently the cropping system. Maize dominates 67–89% number-one priority of smallholders in of the smallholder cropped land area, grown Malawi when households were asked to primarily for food security purposes. Many rank agricultural problems in surveys (Table farmers are at the edge of survival, cropping 14.1). For specific crops, particularly among less than 1 ha of land (Kanyama-Phiri pest-vulnerable crops such as legume pulses et al., 1998). There are many challenges to tend to be, pests may be ranked high as major producing crops in a sub-humid tropical yield constraints (Table 14.2). ecology, with low soil fertility and minimal Beyond soil fertility, pest problems resources. Farmers are pursuing a range of are identified as productivity constraints strategies in the face of rising economic by farmers in some surveys, notably: Striga pressure from the declining value of local (S. asiatica L. Kuntze) and termites in maize; currency and subsidy removal from inputs; pod suckers, borers and Fusarium wilt in further, farmers are aware of new opportuni- pigeonpea and other legumes; and sweet ties from recent market liberalization potato weevil (Riches et al., 1993; Minja trends. One approach is the diversification et al., 1999; Ritchie et al., 2000b). Sauerborn and intensification of maize-based systems (1991) concluded that Striga is the largest, into a wide range of crops, grown primarily single biological constraint to food produc- to sell: e.g. tobacco, vegetables (tomatoes, tion in Africa, and pod-pests are the greatest leafy vegetables, pepper, onions, and green constraint to productivity in pigeonpea maize), legumes (pigeonpea, groundnut, (Minja et al., 1999). Unfortunately, there Phaseolus bean), and root crops (sweet are feweasy answersfor these serious pest potato, cassava, and Irish potatoes) (Orr problems. We present case studies here that et al., 2000b; Snapp et al., 2002). However, explore integrated management of whole market options are limited in part because systems, including soil fertility, Striga Malawi is a land-locked country located issues in maize-based systems and pigeon- at the bottom of the Great Rift Valley in pea pod pests. Through active partnerships southern Africa. we discuss how researchers can work Researchers, farm advisors and change with farmers’ knowledge to help develop agents working in Malawi are finding that appropriate technologies to control these not only is it important to take an integrated challenging pests. The importance of involv- approach, combining soil and pest manage- ing farmers as active partners in technology ment for holistic cropping systems, it is development and taking a whole-systems also crucial to look beyond assumed goals, approach are key components of Malawi such as maximizing productivity. Surveys IPM experiences (Kanyama-Phiri et al., have documented that farmer priorities 2000; Orr et al., 2000a). Integration of IPM in Integrated Crop Management 159

Table 14.1. Ranking of agricultural problems in terms of importance, where all farmers in three communities surveyed listed their three worst problems in Malawi (Snapp et al., 2002).

Chisepo Dedza Mangochi

MHHa FHH MHH FHH MHH FHH (n = 100) (n = 19) (n = 42) (n = 48) (n = 87) (n = 33)

Ranking: Lack of fertilizer 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lack of seed 3 2 3 2 3 Lack of labor 2 2 2 Lack of food 3 3 4 Lack of cash 2 Pests 3 aResponse reported separately for male headed households (MHH) and female headed households (FHH).

Table 14.2. Farmers’ perceptions of important from nil to severe in the same field, and fre- biotic constraints to pigeonpea production in quently varies from year to year as well Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda (adapted (Riches et al., 1993; Orr et al., 2000a). This from Minja et al., 1999). has negative implications as farmers are not Farmers concerned about sure howsevere the infestation willbe and a given constraint (%) what returns in increased productivity can be expected from controlling Striga. The Southern one positive aspect of heterogeneous Striga Constraint eastern Africa Malawi distribution is that farmers note that the Pod sucking bugs 83 88 ‘patchiness’ of distribution makes it easier Pod boring Lepidoptera 51 39 to concentrate on severely infested areas for Flower (pollen) beetles 32 41 localized, hand pulling to eradicate Striga Termites 26 31 (Riches et al., 1993). Bruchids 72 54 Fusarium wilt 42 72 Scope of problem in Malawi

Striga infests about two-thirds of fields Case Studies with depleted soil in southern and central Malawi – particularly where continuous Reducing Striga infestation of maize-based maize has been grown for many decades, systems in Malawi near urban areas such as Blantyre and Lilongwe (Kabambe and Mloza-Banda, Biology of Striga 2000). Striga is heterogeneously distributed, causing losses of about 50% in a minority The major parasitic weed that infests maize (~10%) of infected fields, and minor dam- in Malawi is Striga asiatica. Striga is effec- age of 5–15% in other fields (Riches et al., tive at infesting maize fields in part because 1993). In some areas of central Malawi aver- of its astoundingly prolific seed production age maize yield loss is about 28% (Chanika (millions of seed produced per plant). et al., 2000). Occasionally farmers in south- Allowing even one Striga plant to produce ern Africa will abandon to fallow severely seed can cause significant long-term dam- Striga infested land (Riches et al., 1993). age to maize production. The seeds are long lasting, so it is difficult to deplete the seed Indigenous knowledge of pest management bank. The problem is compounded by the erratic and heterogeneous nature of the Farmers in Malawi appear to have some parasitic weed: Striga infestation varies knowledge of the potential for severe 160 S. Snapp and E. Minja

negative impact from Striga, and that fertilizer, green manure biomass, animal damage to maize occurs before the weed manure or rotational systems can reduce the is visible when it emerges above the soil negative impact of Striga to almost zero. surface (Riches et al., 1993). Farmers fre- Urea and other nitrogen sources have been quently associate Striga infestations with shown to limit germination and infection long-term, continuous maize production by Striga, so benefits of soil fertility inputs with insufficient soil fertility inputs. How- may be in part due to nitrogen release that ever, farmers interviewed by Riches et al. reduces parasitic infestation (Mumera and (1993) were not aware that Striga was a Below, 1993). But the main benefit from add- parasite on maize roots, that the attachment ing fertilizer sources – organic and inorganic to the host plant is how the weed draws – appears to be growth enhancement that on nutrients and is the mechanism for allows the crop to out-grow the negative its particularly competitive effect. Local effects of Striga by improving plant nutrition knowledge associates evil witchcraft (Kabambe and Mloza-Banda, 2000). powers with this weed. In Malawi the Use of legume rotations and legume name for Striga is witchweed (English) or intercrops have been studied, both as Kaufiti, which means a witch or wizard in nitrogen enhancing technologies and as trap Chichewa, an important local language. crops. The role of a trap crop is to stimulate Striga seeds to germinate and subsequently Potential control methods and die from lack of an appropriate host. A num- resource constraints ber of cowpea varieties, and other legume species – most notably Malawi’s indigenous The recommended control practice for Tephrosia vogelii plant – can stimulate Striga and all parasitic weeds is hand pull- Striga to germinate and die (Chanika et al., ing and burning the plant, according to the 2000). A maize/Tephrosia intercrop tends to Malawi Government Guide to Agricultural enhance maize grain yield compared with Practice (1995). Hand removal is a very sole cropped maize. This may be related to arduous undertaking and in a labor-short nitrogen contributions from the biomass, but agricultural system, such as Malawi small- a role for Tephrosia in limiting Striga infes- holders face, other alternatives are urgently tation has also been hypothesized (Snapp needed. et al., 2000). Farmers have observed that A long-term, lowcost solution has been Striga infestation of maize is often reduced sought through breeding maize varieties when Tephrosia is intercropped, to a greater that are resistant to Striga. This goal has extent than either maize/pigeonpea inter- remained elusive as no varieties have been crop or continuous maize. On-farm results identified that showany consistent degree of support farmer observations, where Striga tolerance or resistance to Striga infestation emergence was markedly reduced in a (Kabambe and Mloza-Banda, 2000). How- maize/Tephrosia intercrop (Table 14.3). ever, some degree of escape may be possible Similar results were reported by Kabambe as early maturing maize varieties frequently and Mloza-Banda (2000), where a Tephrosia are damaged less by Striga parasitism, com- intercrop with maize reduced Striga emer- pared with longer season varieties. Another gence by about 50% compared with emer- long-term biological solution would be to gence in continuous sole cropped maize. identify fungi that could act as mycoher- Malawi agronomists have followed up these bicides, as parasitic fungi that infect Striga observations with studies of Tephrosia as a occur in nature and could be exploited Striga germination stimulator and found it to (Greathead, 1989). be the most effective of all tested trap crop Application of fertilizer and manure plants (Chanika et al., 2000). is recommended for Striga management Rotation of grain legumes such as soy- in maize-based systems (Kabambe and bean and groundnut with maize appears to Mloza-Banda, 2000). Soil fertility enhance- help control Striga infestation, although not ment from addition of nitrogen-containing as effectively as a green manure legume Integration of IPM in Integrated Crop Management 161

Table 14.3. Effect of legume intercrop on maize Table 14.4. Marginal return analysis of alterna- yield and Striga emergence in a central Malawi tive cropping systems compared with unfertilized, research station trial, 1999 where n = 4 (S. Snapp, continuous maize. Tested in central and southern unpublished data, 2000). Malawi on-farm trials where n = 30, 1997/98– 1999/2000 (S. Snapp and J. Rusike, unpublished Striga emergence Grain data, 2000). at tasseling yield Cropping system (number/m2) (t/ha) Chisepo Mangochi Cropping system Return (%) Return (%) Continuous maize 92.01 1.9 Maize/pigeon pea 70.01 1.5 Unfertilized maize na na intercrop Maize/Tephrosia vogelii 49 39 Maize/Tephrosia 37.01 1.9 intercrop vogelii intercrop Maize/pigeonpea intercrop 239 649 Mean (LSD) 66 (10) 1.8 (0.4) Groundnut + pigeonpea 220 184 P <0.01 <0.2< rotation with maize

na, not applicable. rotation of maize/mucuna (Snapp, unpublished data). Rotation of maize with ground- Table 14.4 indicated that maize/Tephrosia nut reduced Striga emergence to 4 plants/m2 intercrop was the poorest performing system compared with 16 plants/m2 in continuous in a comparison of legume integrated maize (Kabambe and Mloza-Banda, 2000). options with unfertilized, sole cropped Sesbania sesban relay intercrop and rotation maize. Tephrosia is not a very attractive systems have been shown to increase maize option for farmers because it does not pro- yields by 30–80% compared with continu- duce grain or another marketable product, ous maize – which has been attributed to compared with grain–legume systems. Fuel enhanced soil fertility and reduced Striga wood and a biopesticide from leaf extract are infestation (Kanyama-Phiri et al., 1998; Phiri potential products from Tephrosia, but have et al., 1999; Sanchez, 1999). no market value at present.

Potential for adoption of integrated Striga management Farmer-friendly control strategies for pigeonpea pests An integrated approach is particularly useful to control Striga as there appears to be a Biology of pigeonpea and associated cumulative positive benefit from combining seed pests practices (Kabambe, 1997). It is recommended that Malawi smallholders use manure Pigeonpea is a short-lived perennial legu- in addition to inorganic fertilizer, plus hand minous shrub that is grown for multiple pulling of parasitic weeds in heavily products. The primary produce from infested areas and rotating maize with pigeonpea is the seed, used as a vegetable legumes or intercropping legumes, to the green pea and as a dry grain, however farm- extent practical. Farmer adoption of these ers also use pigeonpea stems for fuel wood control methods however will remain and the high quality residues as fodder to limited unless fertilizers are affordable feed livestock and for soil fertility enhance- and the policy context does not favor maize ment (Faris and Singh, 1990). The multiple production over legume production (Snapp uses and soil-nutrient building capacity of et al., 2002). pigeonpea has fostered great interest in pro- The economics of adoption must be moting this crop to resource-poor farmers considered before green manure crops such (Ritchie et al., 2000a; Snapp et al., 2000). as Tephrosia are considered for promotion However, not all pigeonpeas are alike in as Striga controlling systems. Unfortunately terms of ability to fix nitrogen biologically, the marginal returns analysis shown in nor in yield potential. Pigeonpea genotypes 162 S. Snapp and E. Minja

vary greatly in growth habit, including Pod borers can be severe, causing 5–35% annuals, biennials and perennials. Widely losses and pod fly usually causes less grown varieties of pigeonpea vary from than 2% damage (Table 14.5). Bruchids short-lived, determinate, short-statured and are highly variable and can cause up to high-yield potential types to longer-lived, 100% losses in stored grain, depending on indeterminate types that branch and are storage conditions and period of storage well adapted to intercropping systems with (Silim-Nahdy, 1995). cereal crops such as maize (Snapp and Another major pest problem in pigeon- Silim, 2002). pea is Fusarium wilt, which can cause sub- Pest protection measures are most stantial plant losses (up to 80%) depending urgently required for determinant varieties on varietal susceptibility, spread of disease that have one reproductive period and are in soil, and soil types (Songa and King, particularly vulnerable to pigeonpea flower 1994). Generally, pigeonpea suffers more and pod pests. Risk adverse farmers in a pest from wilt in heavy and poorly drained (as ridden environment – particularly humid in the drainage lines where vegetables and regions – can growindeterminate materials seed production are concentrated) than in that produce multiple flushes of flowers light and well-drained soils. Fortunately, and pods and thus avoid a one-time vulner- Fusarium wilt resistant varieties of pigeon- ability. Climate and day-length sensitivity pea are released and widely available in greatly influence growth habit of pigeonpea, Malawi, such as ICP 9145 (Snapp and Silim, and the suitability of varieties for different 2002). Use of wilt resistant genotype ICP production systems (Silim et al., 1994). Pod 9145 and the newly released ICEAP 00040 borer activity is influenced by climate as has been widely promoted by development well, where damage to pigeonpea pods by efforts and NGOs (Ritchie et al., 2000b). Helicoverpa armigera is reported to be low during cool and dry months (Myaka, 1994). Indigenous knowledge of pest management

Scope of problem in Malawi Farmers use their knowledge of insect behavior to advantage through avoidance The mean grain yield losses due to field techniques, such as growing long-duration insect pests on pigeonpea in farmers’ fields pigeonpea varieties that mature during the in Malawi has been estimated at between 15 dry season, to reduce damage from pests and 20% (Minja et al., 1999; Minja, 2001). that are active and at high population densi- The economically important insect pests ties during the wet season. The majority of on pigeonpea include the pod-sucking bugs farmers surveyed by Minja et al. (1999) also (Hemiptera), pod-boring caterpillars (Lepi- had traditional methods to control storage doptera), pod-boring fly maggots (Diptera) pests of pigeonpea grain, including wood and storage bruchids (Coleoptera). Of these, ash mixed with grain. The survey high- the damage levels pre-harvest are most lighted, however, that farmer knowledge severe from sucking bugs which generally was lacking regarding which insect groups account for about 60–70% of damaged seed. were pests and which their natural enemy

Table 14.5. Mean pigeonpea grain yield losses (%) and contribution (%) of each field pest group to the losses in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda (Minja et al., 1999).

Country Kenya Malawi Tanzania Uganda

Mean grain yield loss (%) 22 15 14 16 Contribution (%) to losses by pest groups: Flower/pod borers 22 28 50 53 Pod-sucking bugs 52 69 47 30 Pod fly 26 3 3 17 Integration of IPM in Integrated Crop Management 163

(Minja et al., 1999). Increased efforts to train process of being rigorously evaluated lead farmers and extension staff on specific throughout Malawi. On-farm testing has crop pests and associated parasitic and included comparison of high yielding other natural enemies is urgently needed medium-duration pigeonpea genotypes in Malawi. This was also a conclusion of with respective local cultivars for field the FSIPM project in southern Malawi pest susceptibility. Over 100 farmers in (Orr et al., 2000a). However, prioritization Chiradzulu and Matapwata areas of south- is important in an extremely resource-poor ern Malawi were involved over several country and Orr and colleagues make the years (Ritchie et al., 2000a). In addition, point that training farmers to use low-cost farmers experimented with maize inter- soil fertility improvements may be the first cropping with long-duration genotypes of step in an integrated crop management pigeonpea. In terms of field pest damage, approach, before knowledge of insect the local farmer control variety in the behavior is addressed. medium-duration genotypes was less dam- Farmers in Malawi have developed a aged compared with the three improved range of pigeonpea pest management control genotypes. The importance of conducting technologies, as documented by recent sur- evaluation on-farm was illustrated by ICP veys (Minja et al., 1999 and unpublished 6927. This variety was very promising in data). As mentioned earlier, farmers use research station trials, but it turned out to selection of the appropriate genotypes be the most susceptible in these on-farm to optimize environmental conditions and trials by Ritchie and colleagues. Among reduce pest activity, as much as is practical. the long-duration genotypes, the improved For example, farmers in the drier parts of variety ICP 9145 had the least damage. Pest southern Malawi, near Mwanza and Zomba, damage at Matapwata was comparatively use medium-duration cultivars of pigeonpea higher than at Chiradzulu and the differ- to avoid terminal drought and high pest ence was believed to be due to different pest populations. In contrast, farmers in wetter loads resulting from climatic differences regions further south, such as Mulanje and where Matapwata is wetter that Chiradzulu Kyolo, growlong-duration cultivars that (Ritchie et al., 2000b). mature after the warm rainy period to escape Assessment of improved pigeonpea high pest populations. Intercropping of varieties by client farmers and other stake- pigeonpea and maize is used throughout holders is essential before any adoption will southern and eastern Africa, partly to reduce occur (Snapp and Silim, 2001). Some 64 labor requirements by intensifying crops, farmers in Chiradzulu and Matapwata areas enhancing returns from labor and land of southern Malawi experimented further invested (Table 14.4). However, inter- with four long-duration pigeonpea varieties cropping may also reduce pest problems identified in earlier research. The varieties through enhancing natural enemy habitat. included a local cultivar that is susceptible Post-harvest techniques to reduce damage to Fusarium wilt, an improved ICRISAT line include storing seed above the fireplace, ICP 9145 that was selected in Kenya and mixing the seed with chillis, wood ash, and released in Malawi in 1987 for its resistance other herbs before storage and regularly to Fusarium wilt (Daudi, 1994), and two sunning the stored food grain to keep away high yielding improved lines from the storage pests. Another strategy pursued by ICRISAT eastern and southern Africa farmers is to sell off grain immediately after pigeonpea improvement program – ICEAPs harvesting and process it quickly, to avoid 00040 and 00053. ICEAP 00053 had desir- storage losses (Minja et al., 1999). able seed characteristics, including a large cream-colored seed, but was rejected by Research on control of pigeonpea pests farmers because it was as susceptible to Fusarium wilt as the local cultivar. Farmers Promising pigeonpea cultivars with pest- were particularly interested in ICEAP 00040 resistant or avoidance properties are in the because it has large cream seeds and many 164 S. Snapp and E. Minja

seeds per pod (5–8) compared with ICP 9145 the potential to control sucking bugs (4–5), which improved ease of harvest. In and a field trial has just been established addition, the newvariety is resistant to at the University of Nairobi research Fusarium wilt and pigeonpea processors farm (E. Minja, personal communication, (millers) preferred it for its seed size and 2001). color (Ritchie et al., 2000a). The variety has been released for cultivation by farmers in Potential for adoption of integrated southern Malawi. management of pigeonpea pests Longer-term research continues on pest-resistance in pigeonpea. Genotype The market context must be considered screening and selection for insect pest carefully when assessing the potential of tolerance/resistance is on-going in Kenya IPM technologies. Farmer investment in (S. Silim, personal communication, 2001). IPM and soil fertility inputs may only be In addition to the development of pest- economic for cash crops that provide suffi- resistant varieties research is targeting the cient return (Orr et al., 2000b). Involvement production of plant-based insecticides that of processors and traders, market represen- can be locally produced. On-station research tatives, and input suppliers in this process from Malawi (unpublished data, E. Minja) is very important (Jones et al., 2000). The and Uganda (Silim-Nahdy, 1995) has shown importance of market linkages and that dried Tephrosia vogelii leaf powder appropriate farming system economics at 1 kg/100 kg pigeonpea grain can provide is illustrated by attempts to promote pest- protection from storage bruchids when susceptible, and high yielding, cultivars of incorporated with the stored grain. Field pigeonpea in Malawi. This is an example work in Kenya and Uganda (Minja, 2001) of howfarmer–researcher partnerships indicates that mature Tephrosia leaf extract can evaluate and find a niche for a new may be able to reduce field pest damage crop, the short duration and high yielding on pigeonpea satisfactorily, although the pigeonpea. In semi-arid areas of southern pest numbers may not be reduced substan- Malawi along the lakeshore cotton and tially. The phytoinsecticide product from tomato are the major cash crops. These Tephrosia appears to be highly unstable and crops are vulnerable to pest infestations, rapidly degraded under most conditions. and generally require farmers to invest in This is desirable from the environmental pest control measures. Backpack sprays and viewpoint, but it makes it difficult to use moderately intense use of pesticides are effectively in non-confined settings. Control common among cotton and fresh market of postharvest pests may be the only tomato smallholder producers, in contrast practical use for this bioinsecticide. to the lack of experience among the vast The need to identify biocontrol agents majority of Malawi smallholders (Minja of pod sucking and pod boring bugs and et al., 1999). develop practical pest management tech- After unsuccessful attempts to promote nologies has been widely acknowledged, pest-vulnerable short duration pigeonpeas however this is a long-term research and in hundreds of on-farm trials across Malawi, development project (Greathead, 1989). a targeted approach was tried along the arid Preliminary results from an ICRISAT/ lakeshore in southern Malawi (R. Jones and ICIPE field trial test on a locally isolated S. Snapp, unpublished data, 1998). Twenty Helicoverpa NPV gave promising results cotton farmers were provided with seed suggesting a newcontrol measure may of new, high-yield potential varieties of be possible to protect short-duration pigeonpea, that were also short season and pigeonpea. This virus is, however, specific thus produced grain at the end of the rainy only to the bollworm. Laboratory bioassays season when pod pest activity was high. with Metarrhizium spp. have also been Farmers were encouraged to intercrop the conducted in Kenya and are showing pigeonpea varieties with cotton, with the Integration of IPM in Integrated Crop Management 165

expected benefit of dual pest control on cot- References ton and pigeonpea. The pigeonpea proved difficult to manage alongside cotton, how- Bentley, J.W. and Thiele, G. (1999) Bibliography: ever farmers experimented and developed a farmer knowledge and management of crop more successful intercrop of tomato and disease. Agriculture and Human Values 16, short-duration pigeonpea, along similar 75–81. lines to the cotton/pigeonpea intercrop. Chanika, C.S.M., Abeyasekera, S., Ritchie, J.M., However, these entrepreneurial pigeonpea Riches, C.R., Mkandawire, C.B.K., Mputeni, H., Makina, D. and Daudi, A.T. (2000) farmers continually raised concerns about On-farm trials of technologies for the manage- access to market. Over the last fewyears ment of Striga asiatica in Blantyre/Shire traders, millers and exporters have begun to Highlands. In: Ritchie, J.M. (ed.) Integrated consistently purchase large amounts of Crop Management Research in Malawi: pigeonpea, and farmers are beginning to Developing Technologies with Farmers. invest in pest control systems and higher University of Greenwich, Natural Resources yielding pigeonpea varieties (Jones et al., Institute, Chatham, UK, pp. 216–225. 2000). Daudi, A.T. (1994) Plant protection research on pigeonpea in Malawi. In: Silim, S.N., Tuwafe, S. and Laxman Singh (eds) Pigeonpea Improvement in Eastern and Southern Conclusion Africa. Annual research planning meeting 25–27 Oct 1993, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Improved understanding of integrated pest ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, management and soil health can solve chal- India, pp. 63–64. lenges and improve productivity on-farm, Faris, D.G. and Singh, U. (1990) Pigeonpea even under the severe resource constraints nutrition and products. In: Nene, Y.L., that face Malawi smallholders. However, Hall, S.D. and Sheila, V.K. (eds) The Pigeonpea. ICRISAT and CAB International, we contend this requires systems-based Wallingford, UK, pp. 401–433. research and extension that involves farm- Greathead, D.J. (1989) Present possibilities for ers at every step in the process. We present biological control of insect pests and weeds here two case studies that explore the in tropical Africa. In: Yaninek, J.S. and challenges and opportunities for integrated Herren, H.R. (eds) Biological Control: a crop management of Striga in maize Sustainable Solution to Crop Pest Problems systems and pests in pigeonpea. Progress in Africa. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 173–194. has been achieved in the development Heong, K.L. (1999) From-research-to-farmer of market and farmer acceptable pigeonpea practice: a case study in rice pest manage- varieties with improved resistance to ment. In: Balasubramanian, V., Ladha, J. and Denning, G. (eds) Resource Management some pests and Fusarium wilt. Farmers in Rice Systems. Kluwer Academic, The are experimenting with intercrops of pest- Netherlands, pp. 199–211. vulnerable pigeonpea varieties and other Heong, K.L. and Escalada, M.M. (1999) Quantify- cash crops such as tomatoes, for dual ing rice farmers’ pest management decisions: purpose pesticide management. beliefs and subjective norms in stem borer Legume-based intensified systems control. Crop Protection 18, 315–322. showpromise as means to reduce Striga Jones, R.B., Likoswe, A. and Freeman, H.A. (2000) infestation, including the use of Tephrosia Improving poor farmers’ access to technolo- and pigeonpea intercrops with maize. gies and markets for pigeonpea in Malawi. However, combined strategies of manure or In: Ritchie, J.M. (ed.) Integrated Crop Management Research in Malawi: Develop- fertilizer applied to legume–maize inter- ing Technologies with Farmers. University crops may be necessary. Finally we stress of Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute, the requirement for market integration Chatham, UK, pp. 150–157. and economic returns that justify farmer Kabambe, V.H. (1997) Studies on some agronomic investment in pest control, and building approaches in the control of witchweed soils for improved productivity. (Striga asiatica L. Kuntze) in Maize (Zea 166 S. Snapp and E. Minja

mays L.) in Malawi. PhD thesis, University of Planning Meeting. Southern and Eastern Reading, UK. Africa. ICRISAT, Nairobi, Kenya. Kabambe, V.H. and Mloza-Banda, H. (2000) Orr, A., Mwale, B., Ritchie, J.M., Lawson- Options for management of witch weeds in McDowall, J. and Chanika, C.S.M. (2000a) cereals for smallholder farmers in Malawi. Learning and Livelihoods: the Experience In: Ritchie, J.M. (ed.) Integrated Crop of the FSIPM Project in Southern Malawi. Management Research in Malawi: Develop- Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK, ing Technologies with Farmers. University 58 pp. of Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute, Orr, A., Mwale, B. and Saiti, D. (2000b) Markets Chatham, UK, pp. 210–215. and livelihoods: lessons from farming sys- Kanyama-Phiri, G.Y., Snapp, S.S. and Minae, S. tems research in Blantyre/Shire Highlands. (1998) Partnership with Malawian farmers In: Ritchie, J.M. (ed.) Integrated Crop Man- to develop organic matter technologies. agement Research in Malawi: Developing Outlook on Agriculture 27, 167–175. Technologies with Farmers. University of Kanyama-Phiri, G.Y., Snapp, S.S., Kamanga, B. Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute, and Wellard, K. (2000) Towards integrated Chatham, UK, pp. 279–291. soil fertility management in Malawi: incorpo- Phiri, R.H., Snapp, S.S. and Kanyama-Phiri, G.Y. rating participatory approaches in agri- (1999) Soil nitrate dynamics in relation to cultural research. Managing Africa’s Soils nitrogen source and landscape position in No. 11. International Institute for Environ- Malawi. Agroforestry Systems 47, 253–262. ment and Development, UK. www.iied.org/ Riches, C.R., Shaxson, L.J., Logan, J.W.M. and drylands Munthali, D.C. (1993) Insect and parasitic Kumwenda, J.D.T., Waddington, S.R., Snapp, S.S., weed problems in southern Malawi and the Jones, R.B. and Blackie, M.J. (1997) Soil use of farmer knowledge in the design of con- fertility management in Southern Africa. trol measures. Agricultural Administration In: Byerlee, D. and Eicher, C.K. (eds) Research and Extension Network Paper Africa’s Emerging Maize Revolution. Lynne No. 42. Overseas Development Institute, Publishers, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 153–172. London, UK, 17 pp. Malawi Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Ritchie, J.M., Abeyasekera, S., Chanika, C.S.M., Development (1995) Guide to Agriculture Ross, S.J., Mkandawire, C.B.K., Maulana, Production. Malawi Government Press, T.H., Shaba, E.R. and Milanzi, T.T.K. (2000a) Lilongwe, Malawi, 135 pp. Assessment of improved pigeonpea varieties Minja, E.M. (2001) Yield losses due to field pests under smallholder management. In: Ritchie, and integrated pest management strategies J.M. (ed.) Integrated Crop Management for pigeonpea – a synthesis. In: Silim, S.N., Research in Malawi: Developing Technolo- Mergeai, G. and Kimani, P.M. (eds) Status gies with Farmers. University of Greenwich, and Potential of Pigeonpea in Eastern and Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK, Southern Africa: Proceedings of a Regional pp. 180–189. Workshop, 12–15 Sept 2000, Nairobi, Ritchie, J.M., Polaszek, A., Abeyasekera, S., Kenya. Gembloux Agricultural University, Minja, E. and Mviha, P. (2000b) Pod pests Gembloux, Belgium and ICRISAT, and yield losses in smallholder pigeonpea in Patancheru, India, pp. 48–54. Blantyre/ Shire highlands. In: Ritchie, J.M. Minja, E.M., Shanower, T.G., Songa, J.M., Ong’aro, (ed.) Integrated Crop Management Research J.M., Kawonga, W.T., Mviha, P.J., Myaka, in Malawi: Developing Technologies F.A., Slumpa, S., Okurut-Akol, H. and Opiyo, with Farmers. University of Greenwich, C. (1999) Studies of pigeonpea insect pests Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK, and their management in Kenya, Malawi, pp. 90–101. Tanzania and Uganda. African Crop Science Rohrbach, D.D. and Snapp, S.S. (1997) Reconnais- Journal 7, 59–69. sance Survey of Cropping Systems and Soil Mumera, L.M. and Below, F.E. (1993) Role of Fertility Management Practices in Case Study nitrogen in resistance to Striga parasitism Villages of Central and Southern Malawi. of maize. Crop Science 33, 758–763. ICRISAT, Lilongwe, Malawi, mimeo, 18 pp. Myaka, F.A. (1994) Pigeonpea agronomy research Sanchez, P.A. (1999) Improved fallows come of in Tanzania: Recent results and future plans. age in the tropics. Agroforestry Systems 47, In: Silim, S.N., King, S.B. and Tuwafe, S. (eds) 3–12. Improvement of pigeonpea in Eastern and Sauerborn, J. (1991) The economic importance Southern Africa Annual Research and of the phytoparasites Orabanche and Striga. Integration of IPM in Integrated Crop Management 167

In: Ransom, J.K., Musselman, L.J., Worsham, Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute, A.D. and Parker, C. (eds) Proceedings of Chatham, UK, pp. 246–255. the 5th International Symposium of Para- Snapp, S.S., Rohrbach, D.D., Simtowe, F. and sitic Weeds. CIMMYT, Nairobi, Kenya, Freeman, H.A. (2002) Sustainable soil pp. 137–143. management options for Malawi: can small- Silim, S.N., Omanga, P.A., Johansen, C., Singh holder farmers growmore legumes. Agri- Laxman and Kimani, P.M. (1994) Use of the culture, Ecosystems and Environment 91 Kenya transect for selecting and targeting (1–3), 159–174. adapted cultivars to appropriate production Songa, W. and King, S.B. (1994) Pigeonpea pathol- systems. In: Silim, S.N., King, S.B. and ogy research in Kenya: progress and future Tuwafe, S. (eds) Improvement of Pigeonpea research strategies. In: Silim, S.N., Tuwafe, S. in Eastern and Southern Africa Annual and Laxman Singh (eds) Pigeonpea Improve- Research Planning Meeting Report. ICRISAT, ment in Eastern and Southern Africa – Patencheru, India, pp. 44–54. Annual research planning meeting 25–27 Silim-Nahdy, M. (1995) Biotic and abiotic factors Oct 1993, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. ICRISAT, influencing the biology and distribution of Patancheru, India, pp. 45–50. common storage pests in pigeonpea. PhD Van de Fliert, E. and Braun, A.R. (1999) Farmer thesis, University of Reading, UK, 260 pp. Field School for Integrated Crop Manage- Snapp, S.S. and Silim, S.N. (2002) Farmer ment of Sweetpotato: Field Guides and Tech- preferences and legume intensification for nical Manual. International Potato Center, lownutrient environments. Plant and Soil Regional Office for East, Southeast Asia and 245, 181–192. the Pacific, PO Box 929, Bogor, Indonesia, in Snapp, S.S., Kamanga, B.C.G. and Simtowe, F. collaboration with: Mitra Tani, Yogyakarta, (2000) Soil fertility options for Malawi Indonesia; Research Institute for legume smallholders: integrated legume systems. and tuber crops, Malang, Indonesia; and In: Ritchie, J.M. (ed.) Integrated Crop Users’ perspective with agricultural research Management Research in Malawi: Develop- and development, c/o IRRI, Philippines, ing Technologies with Farmers. University of 365 pp.

Chapter 15 Integrated Pest Management in South Africa

D.S. Charleston1, Rami Kfir1, N.J. van Rensburg1, B.N. Barnes2, V. Hattingh3, D.E. Conlong4, D.Visser5 and G.J. Prinsloo6 1ARC–Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa; 2ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, Stellenbosch, South Africa; 3Citrus Research International, Nelspruit, South Africa; 4SASA Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa; 5ARC–Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute, Pretoria, South Africa; 6ARC–Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa

Introduction Africa lies within the summer rainfall area, a small belt along the south coast receives The southernmost part of the African rainfall throughout the year, and the south- continent, known as the Republic of South west of the country has a Mediterranean Africa, runs latitudinally from 22°Sto35°S climate with winter rainfall, and dry and longitudinally from 17°Eto33°E. South summers. Almost 50% of South Africa’s Africa borders the Atlantic and Indian water is used for agricultural purposes Oceans and shares borders with Namibia, (Anonymous, 1989). Farming in South Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swazi- Africa involves virtually every type of ani- land and Lesotho. It has nine provinces, a mal, crop, fruit and vegetable production population of approximately 43 million and adapted to weather conditions ranging from a surface area of just over 1.2 million km2, temperate to subtropical. of which approximately 85% is dedicated to agriculture and forestry (van Dyk, 2000). Agricultural land is mainly used for Agricultural Policy grazing, approximately 13% is dedicated to crop production, and a small portion is In the newpolitical dispensation after used for forestry (Anonymous, 1989). The 1994 the country was divided into nine total number of plant species in South provinces (Fig. 15.1), each with its own Africa exceeds 20,000, the richest assembly department of agriculture. The national in the world (Anonymous, 1989). department of agriculture remained as the The most important factor limiting central body overseeing national interest. agricultural production is the availability In 1993 the Agricultural Research Council of water. Only 10% of the country has an (ARC) was established in terms of the ‘Agri- annual precipitation of more than 750 mm. cultural Research Act 86 of 1990’. The The country is divided into three main rain- ARC places an emphasis on agricultural fall regions. Approximately 86% of South research, while the agricultural extension

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 169 170 D.S. Charleston et al.

Fig. 15.1. The nine provinces of South Africa. component remains with the department of Agricultural Legislation agriculture. Agriculture contributes about 3.4% Much of the legislation protects the envi- of the total value of the South African ronment and promotes the use of integrated economy, however it employs 13% of the management strategies. However, there is economically active population (van Dyk, no legislation specific to IPM, but there are 2000). Therefore, agriculture in South Africa various acts in place, which cover certain has a central role to play in building a strong aspects of IPM. There are regulations gov- economy, by reducing inequalities through erning the use of pesticides and herbicides, increasing employment opportunities for the importation and release of biological the poor and by nurturing natural resources. control agents, the improvement of plant The government has three major goals for species, the genetic modification of organ- policy reform: (i) to build an efficient and isms, and the control and removal of prob- internationally competitive agricultural sec- lem plants. These regulations promote the tor; (ii) to support the emergence of more use of IPM in agriculture in South Africa. diverse production with an increase in the Pesticides and other agricultural chemi- number of successful smallholder farming cals represent a very large industry in South enterprises; and (iii) to conserve agricultural Africa. In terms of the law, pesticides have to natural resources and put in place policies be registered prior to sale. The use, sale and and institutions for sustainable resource importation of fertilizers and chemicals in use. The role of the government is based agriculture is under the control of the ‘Fertil- on working as partners with others, includ- izers, Farm feeds, Agricultural Remedies ing the private sector, farmer unions, and Stock Remedies Act 36 of 1947.’ The Act and voluntary organizations (Simbi, 2001). provides for the appointment of a registrar, Although there is still much to achieve, the the registration of pest control operators, past fewyears have seen a rapid change in the registration of fertilizers, farm feeds, the farming sector, allowing South Africa to agricultural remedies (which include pesti- move towards the future with confidence. cides and herbicides), stock remedies and IPM in South Africa 171

sterilizing plants. The Act regulates imports, the water sources and the vegetation and the sales, acquisitions, disposal and use of these combating of weeds and invader plants; and products, and provides for the designation the matters connected therewith’. This Act of technical advisors and analysts. Products plays an important role in the classification must be registered with the registrar before and control of problem plants. The Act also they can be applied, and registration is only lays down certain rules for the protection granted once the material has been proved to of biological control agents. In areas where be effective for the purpose for which it is biological control of weeds is effective, no intended, and if it is in the public interest additional control methods should be used that registration be approved. that would destroy the biological control The main legislation involving bioagents or make them less effective. Provision logical control falls under the ‘Agricultural is made for certain areas to be set aside as Pests Act 36 of 1983.’ The Act provides for biological control reserves, in these areas, no ‘measures by which agricultural pests may measures may be applied that would render be prevented and combated; and for matters the biological control agents ineffective. The connected therewith’. It has particular Act also covers grazing and grazing capacity, relevance for the importation of natural soil conservation (i.e. the prevention of soil enemies. The Act stipulates that live insects erosion) and conservation of water sources or other beneficial organisms may only be on agricultural land. imported on the authority of a permit issued Plant cultivars are controlled by a by the NDA, Directorate: Plant Health and variety of legislation, including: the ‘Plant Quality. Permits are only issued after Improvement Act 53 of 1976’, the ‘Plant consultation with the DEAT and experts in Breeders Rights Act of 1976’ and the ‘Seeds the appropriate fields. After the permit is Act 28 of 1961’. These Acts require the obtained the organism must be kept in quar- registration of newvarieties, of premises antine. The quarantine facility of the PPRI of and of plant breeders. Varieties must also the ARC is the only insect quarantine facility be evaluated and certified. Genetically in South Africa. In quarantine the organism modified organisms are controlled by the is reared for at least one generation to ‘Genetically Modified Organisms Act 15 of prevent the accidental introduction of 1997’. The Act provides for measures to unwanted organisms, and to ensure quality promote the responsible development, pro- control. Once the organism has been duction, use and application of genetically declared clean and viable a release permit modified organisms, including the importa- must be applied for. This is a long compli- tion, production, release and distribution of cated process, which requires approval from these organisms. both the NDA and also from DEAT. The Legislation therefore covers most release of the biological control agents aspects of IPM. Acts cover the importation is further controlled by the ‘Environment and release of biological control agents, Conservation Act 73 of 1989’ which requires including biological control of problem that an environmental impact assessment plants. Pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides, be carried out before the organism can be as well as plant breeding and genetic modifi- released; this often results in a delay, or cation of organisms are carefully monitored may sometimes prevent, the release of bio- and controlled. Protection of agricultural logical control agents. This often impedes resources including water and soil are the implementation of IPM programs. provided for in various Acts. Therefore the The ‘Conservation of Agricultural legislation is already in place to promote Resources Act 43 of 1983’ provides for IPM, however it is dispersed throughout the ‘control over the utilization of the natural various Acts, and may be more effectively agricultural resources of the Republic in implemented if it were included in one Act order to promote the conservation of the soil, that covers all aspects of IPM. 172 D.S. Charleston et al.

IPM Research and Practice in cheap but long-term reliability with the min- South Africa imum of harmful side effects (Dent, 1991). Successful IPM programs can produce many History of IPM in South Africa benefits including: lower production costs, reduced environmental pollution, reduced Before 1895 there were no full time agri- farmer and consumer risks, and ecological cultural entomologists in South Africa. sustainability (Lim et al., 1997). IPM is espe- Biologists were commissioned by the gov- cially suited to subsistence farming in devel- ernment of the Cape Colony to undertake oping countries. Despite this, pesticides entomological investigations, and S.D. dominated attempts to control insect pests Bairstow’s research led to the publication of in most countries. Finally, the negative the first book on South African pests, pub- impact of these chemicals and the increasing lished by E.A. Ormerod in 1889 (Annecke pesticide resistance in a number of pest and Moran, 1982). C.P. Lounsbury was species resulted in the implementation of appointed in 1895 as the first ‘Government IPM in many crops. The earliest and most Entomologist of the Colony of the Cape successful examples of IPM in South Africa of Good Hope’ (Anonymous, 1989). He come from citrus. IPM was initiated in citrus became the first economic entomologist to control ants and thus the red scale infesta- to take an interest in biological control. tions (Ulyett, 1938; Annecke, 1958; Bedford, In the period until his retirement in 1927, 1968a,b). However, IPM suffered a setback economic entomology developed rapidly in in the late 1960s–early 1970s when intensive South Africa (Annecke and Moran, 1982). use of pesticides disrupted the system, Biological control was initiated in resulting in the classical ‘pesticide tread- the late 1800s, early 1900s. One of the first mill’ (Hattingh and Tate, 1996a). Today, successful examples comes from the control however, the reintroduction of IPM in most of cottony cushion scale in citrus in of the crops in South Africa has resulted 1892 (Lounsbury, 1897, unpublished). in some of the most successful pest control Other examples come from the control of programs. The government of South Africa invasive plants, initiated in 1913 with the established the PPRI in 1962 (see more release of cochineal insects, which resulted details on ARC–PPRI in Appendix 15.1). in virtual elimination of the invasive cactus Opuntia vulgaris (Hoffmann, 1991), which had become a major problem in agricultural Successful Implementation of IPM areas. Biological control of insect pests in South Africa in plantations was initiated in 1925 with control of the eucalyptus snout beetle IPM in citrus (Anonymous, 1989). However, many pests could not be adequately controlled by action Citrus is a major fruit crop worldwide of their natural enemies alone. The chal- with global production figures estimated at lenge facing entomologists was to develop a 90 million tonnes annually. In sub-Saharan financially attractive and ecologically sound Africa the majority of the commercial program that integrated biological, insecti- production of citrus occurs in the southern cidal and other methods of control so that African countries of South Africa, Swazi- the greatest benefit could be derived from all land, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. South- components of the control program. ern Africa produces approximately 1.5 IPM represented a complete change in million tons of citrus annually and exports the philosophy of pest control, away from approximately 900 million kg as fresh fruit. pest eradication towards pest management. Although the southern African citrus indus- Instead of a single control technique, try is only the 13th largest citrus producing emphasis was placed on the use of a combi- region globally, it is the third largest nation of techniques aimed at providing volume exporter of fresh citrus. Southern IPM in South Africa 173

African citrus is exported to over 60 coun- pesticides in the northern production tries, including some of the most discerning regions (Georgala, 1975). The crisis that markets of the world and income from such ensued, necessitated the introduction of exports accounts for 90% of the industry’s mineral spray oils as an alternative treat- income. ment, a strategy introduced to the industry Before the late 1970s, the southern by S.S. Kamburov and F. Honiball (Annecke African citrus industry experienced an era and Moran, 1982). There were severe limita- of concentrated classical biological control tions on the times at which these products effort, with great names such as Dr Eric could be used, as well as quantities of prod- Bedford demonstrating what phenomenal uct that could be applied before adverse successes could be achieved with biological effects on yield and fruit quality were expe- control. This started with the first example rienced (Grout, 1993a). Reliance on spray of the potential for classical biocontrol intro- oils for the control of red scale populations ductions in the form of the control of cottony consequently necessitated the conservation cushion scale Icerya purchasi Maskell, of biocontrol populations. Likewise, con- effected through the introduction of the trols applied for another key pest, citrus predator Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) in thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii Faure were also 1892 (Lounsbury, 1897, unpublished). Some potentially disruptive to the populations of other very successful classical biocontrol biocontrol agents for A. aurantii and other projects led to the complete control of the pests (Grout et al., 1997). The situation blackflies Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby became so critical in the northern pro- (Bedford and Thomas, 1965; Bedford, 1998) duction regions in the late 1970s that and Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Quaintance) the development and implementation of (van den Berg and Greenland, 1997). This IPM strategies became a prerequisite for era of classical biocontrol introductions continued economic production of citrus left the industry with a wide diversity of (Grout, 1993b; Hattingh, 1996b). introduced biological control agents, which The pest control environment in the complement the rich diversity of indigenous southern production regions was far sim- biocontrol agents in the region. pler. The cold winters of the Mediterranean The basic foundations for IPM were climate in the Western Cape resulted in established in the southern African citrus slower development rates and populations industry at an early stage (Bedford, 1968a, were more synchronized than in the hotter 1979a,b; Annecke, 1969). Ant control has northern regions (Grout et al., 1989). This been a cornerstone to citrus IPM since it was made control of the pest in these regions promoted by Ulyett (1938), Annecke (1958) possible with far less reliance on pesticide and Bedford (1968a,b). The conservation of usage. Likewise, the presence of an effective biocontrol agents has also been an integral biocontrol agent for citrus thrips in the East- component of citrus IPM for many years ern Cape, in the form of Euseius addoensis since Searle (1963) demonstrated the nega- addoensis (McMurtry), reduced the need for tive impact of dust on the biocontrol fauna reliance on pesticides (Grout and Richards, in citrus orchards. Likewise, the non-target 1992). effects of pesticides on biocontrol agents In the far northern areas, including have received much attention over the years Zimbabwe, production of citrus commenced (Searle, 1961, 1965; Bedford et al., 1992; without initial heavy reliance on pesticides. Grout et al., 1997; Hattingh et al., 2003). This good start, together with the advantages The late 1960s and early 1970s were of having a diversity of habitat structure marked by an increased usage of organo- maintained by virtue of plantations remain- phosphate pesticides, particularly in the ing relatively small and being surrounded northern production regions. In the mid- by large tracts of indigenous vegetation 1970s the key pest, California red scale (Magagula, 1998), has meant that the need Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), developed for intensive chemical intervention has not high levels of resistance to organophosphate arisen in these regions. 174 D.S. Charleston et al.

The forced adoption of IPM in the the development of a standardized system northern regions, and avoidance of a need for quantitatively evaluating the potential to implement intensive chemical control impact of newpesticides on indicator practices in the far northern and southern biocontrol agents of relevance to the local region, ensured that IPM philosophies industry (Hattingh et al., 2003). The need to became an integral component of commer- introduce compulsory evaluation of these cial citrus production in southern Africa risks prior to commercialization of new throughout the 1980s. However, the early products was recognized. The citrus indus- 1990s sawa dramatic increase in the number try developed standardized testing proce- of thripicides introduced onto the citrus pest dures, and in collaboration with the agricul- control market. Several of these newprod - tural chemical industry, had such screening ucts proved to be highly detrimental to the adopted into the registration process for new biocontrol populations of other pests such as citrus plant protection products. A. aurantii and mealybugs (Hattingh and The development of effective scouting Tate, 1996b). Organophosphate pesticides and monitoring systems for key pests pro- used for the control of A. aurantii also provided a valuable basis for limiting chemical vided incidental control of mealybugs. The inputs (Reed and Rich, 1975; Newton and disruption caused by thripicides and the Mastro, 1989; Hofmeyr and Calitz, 1991; reduced use of organophosphate pesticides Grout et al., 1998). The quantitative demon- led to a dramatic increase in the pest status stration of the cost effectiveness of an IPM of mealybugs in the 1990s (Hattingh and strategy (Hattingh, 1996a) highlighted the Tate, 1996b). value of IPM systems to the growers. The Another negative impact on the status of development of a technique whereby plant IPM in the southern African citrus industry systemic pesticides were applied to the stem in the early 1990s came in the form of exten- of the tree instead of foliar sprays, made sive use of the IGRs class of chemistry, as a great contribution towards enabling the an alternative to spray oils for the control realization of the potential of biocontrol of A. aurantii. This class of chemistry was agents in an IPM system (Buitendag and reported to have been successfully adopted Bronkhorst, 1986; Buitendag and Naude, into IPM practices on other crops (Ishaaya, 1992). More recent developments in the 1990). Under the climatic conditions pre- strategy have entailed the development of vailing in Israel, these pesticides were also a bio-intensive form of IPM, whereby key introduced into citrus IPM programs (Peleg, biocontrol agents are mass reared in 1988). However, under southern African insectaries and released into the orchards conditions the introduction of some of these (Newton and Odendaal, 1990; Hattingh, pesticides proved to be highly detrimental 1997). to the stability of the pest–biocontrol popu- The lessons of the past led to adoption lation balance in many areas (Hattingh and of mandatory procedures for screening the Tate, 1995). The southern African citrus potential impact of newcrop protection industry took a leading role in demon- products and have enabled the development strating the IPM incompatibility of this of systems for quantifying the level of IPM class of chemistry under certain conditions implementation by individual producers (Hattingh, 1996b; Grout, 1998). (Hattingh et al., 2003). The consolidation The IGR experience also created an of all these strategies into detailed pest awareness in the local industry of the need management recommendations in the form to protect IPM systems developed over many of comprehensive Integrated Production years. There was a realization that a stable Guidelines for Export Citrus (Grout et al., IPM system could be completely disrupted 1998), made a major contribution towards in one season by the use of a newpesticide the implementation of IPM practices on that had not been adequately assessed for citrus farms. From the late 1990s to date, the IPM compatibility under specific local southern African citrus industry has seen a conditions (Hattingh et al., 2003). This led to reversion back to a stable IPM approach. IPM in South Africa 175

The high level of understanding of the orchards. Effective monitoring systems are intricacies of managing IPM systems that in place for many pests and diseases, allow- have developed in the industry over the past ing growers to make informed decisions on 30 years are paying off admirably for the pest control interventions (Barnes, 1990). industry. As the global fresh produce mar- Pheromone-based mating disruption pro- kets go into an over-supply status, the ability grams are effectively and economically used to differentiate product on the basis of to control codling moth and oriental fruit socioeconomic and environmental con- moth, key pests on pome and stone fruit siderations becomes ever more important. respectively (Barnes and Blomefield, 1997). The southern African citrus industry Disruptive foliar sprays against fruit weevils consequently finds itself today continuing on apples, nectarines and table grapes have to enjoy the status of preferred supplier of been reduced by the use of trunk exclusion fresh citrus to the world’s most discerning barriers (Barnes et al., 1995). Trunk applica- and profitable markets. tions of certain systemic insecticides control root-infesting woolly apple aphid colonies through translocation. Phenology models are used to predict optimum periods for IPM in deciduous fruit orchards insecticide applications against oriental fruit moth and codling moth, resulting in The South African deciduous fruit industry reduced pesticide applications (Blomefield can justifiably claim to be one of the leaders and Kleinhans, 1995; Blomefield and Barnes, in the application of IPM. This is partly 2000). Narrow-spectrum insect growth regu- because it exports to discerning interna- lators and less-hazardous encapsulated pes- tional markets, which increasingly demand ticide formulations form part of some con- commodities produced under sustainable trol and resistance management programs, and ecologically compatible conditions. particularly of codling moth (Blomefield, However, pest management practices have 1994, 1997). Low-volume bait sprays against had to undergo considerable change fruit fly preclude the necessity for full-cover especially during the past 50 years, as sprays which have a greater negative impact the extensive use of pesticides led to the on natural enemies (Barnes, 1999). The use development of pest resistance, and con- of the sterile insect technique against fruit sumer concern for safety, health and the flies has significantly reduced insecticide environment steadily increased. usage on table grapes, and other pests such Today, there is a greater realization than as codling moth and false codling moth are ever before that one of the main keys to being considered for control by this unique sustainable deciduous fruit production is a method (Barnes and Eyles, 2000). Mass- reduction in synthetic pesticide usage, and, reared parasitoids are released in table where possible, a return to more natural grape vineyards to successfully control vine production methods. However, many crop mealybug (Walton, 2000). Fluorescent lights protection scientists and practitioners placed around stone fruit orchards repel believe that fewIPM programs willdevelop nocturnal invasions of fruit-piercing moths without some pesticide input, particularly (Whitehead and Rust, 1972). In addition, with high-value crops such as fruit where sound orchard and vineyard management cosmetic perfection is still a requirement of practices such as weed management, prun- most consumers. Nevertheless, in a success- ing management and orchard sanitation, ful IPM system pesticides are applied only help to reduce the pest infestation pressure when really needed, and using a product (Blomefield, 1991; Riedl et al., 1998). with the least detrimental impact on the As a result of these practices, increasing orchard environment and in the lowest numbers of beneficial arthropod species amounts that will accomplish the task. survive in deciduous fruit orchards. One of A wide variety of IPM strategies are the most striking examples has been the employed in South African deciduous fruit decrease in the status of phytophagous mites 176 D.S. Charleston et al.

in pome fruit orchards. Until about 5 years to high production costs; pest control alone ago, miticides were the most expensive item may amount to 56% of the gross margin on a fruit grower’s pesticide shopping list. above cost for an average yield (van Today, a complex of predators of phyto- Hamburg, 1987). The timing of insecticidal phagous mites keep their populations below application is crucial, as control measures economic injury levels, and the use of are effective against young borer larvae only. miticides has radically decreased. Older larvae penetrate the stalks and are IPM in deciduous fruit orchards was difficult to control with insecticides. Esti- given a considerable boost in the 1990s by mated yield losses from borer damage range the implementation of an integrated fruit between 10% and total loss (van Rensburg production (IFP) initiative. Through this and Bate, 1987). In a study on the effect of approach, fruit growers are guided towards stem borers on growth and yield of maize the a mature and responsible agricultural economic threshold for modern pesticidal community by requiring them continuously application was determined as 40% plants to apply the latest technology in order to showing visible damage (Bate and van protect, conserve and improve the soil and Rensburg, 1992). the ecology, and to place the health and wel- Crop residues are important for carrying fare of people above all else. The responsible over diapausing stem borer larval popu- use of IPM practices plays a major part in the lations from one growing season to the IFP scheme. All registered agrochemicals next (Kfir, 1988). Ploughing in order to are coded into four categories of acceptance bury maize stubble was an effective control according to their fate in soil and water, measure used in South Africa to control B. biodegradation, toxicological profile and fusca early in the past century (Mally, 1920). ecotoxicology. Restrictions are placed on the It was shown in South Africa that slashing use of certain pesticides. This system allows maize and sorghum stubble destroyed 70% fruit growers to select spray programs of C. partellus and B. fusca populations, and having the least negative impact on the that ploughing and disking destroyed a fur- environment, significantly promoting IPM ther 24% of the pest population in sorghum in deciduous fruit orchards. and 19% in maize (Kfir et al., 1989; Kfir, 1990a). Currently this system is not practiced in South Africa due to the advent of minimum tillage and the importance of IPM of cereal stem borers winter grazing of maize to beef farmers (Kfir, 1992a). Manipulation of sowing dates Maize is the most important agricultural is used to avoid severe borer infestations. crop grown in South Africa. It is grown on In the Highveld region of South Africa, the 4 million ha with an annual production of second-generation population of B. fusca is 12 million tons. Sorghum is also an impor- larger and can cause more damage than the tant crop, especially in the marginal grain first generation (van Rensburg et al., 1988). producing areas, because of its drought Farmers sowmaize early in the growingsea - resistant properties (van Rensburg and van son to avoid severe damage. In the lower ele- Hamburg, 1975). It is grown on 300,000 ha vations of South Africa, it is recommended with a yield of 0.5 million tons. The most that sorghum be planted after mid-October important pests of cereal crops in South to avoid infestation from the first moth peak Africa are the indigenous African maize of C. partellus (van Hamburg, 1979). stem borer, Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepido- Based on work on B. fusca by Revington ptera: Noctuidae), and the exotic spotted (1987), pheromone traps for commercial use stem borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) were developed in South Africa. Currently, (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) (Skoroszewski omni-directional pheromone traps are and van Hamburg, 1987). commercially available and are widely The profit margin for maize or sorghum used by farmers to determine the timing of grown in South Africa is relatively low due insecticidal applications against B. fusca. IPM in South Africa 177

The accepted action threshold level for reduction will no doubt result in farmers spraying against B. fusca is when the average planting Bt-maize also in rain-fed lands. catch from three traps per site exceeds two Pesticide applications are still the first moths per week for 4 consecutive weeks. option of control for cereal farmers in South There were early attempts in South Africa. Commercial farmers do not practice Africa to develop maize cultivars resistant cultural control and the stubble, which to B. fusca (Du Plessis and Lea, 1943; harbors the hibernating stem borer larval Walters, 1974). Several lines of maize with populations stays in the fields in winter. some resistance to first-generation (whorl- However, the introduction of synthetic feeding) B. fusca larvae were identified sex pheromones, accurate economic (Barrow, 1989). Van den Berg et al. (1994) threshold levels for chemical control, Bt- showed increased insecticide efficacy transgenic maize and resistant cultivars against stem borers in South Africa in grain were important steps in the implementation sorghum lines showing some resistance. of an IPM program in cereal production in The resistance mechanism that is based South Africa. on antibiosis and antixenosis apparently causes stress in C. partellus and B. fusca, making them more susceptible to the insecticides (van den Berg et al., 1994). IPM in sugarcane Early studies on the natural enemies of B. fusca in South Africa by Mally (1920) and George Morewood, in 1848, planted the first by Du Plessis and Lea (1943), identified sugarcane in South Africa on the Compen- the gregarious larval parasitoid, Cotesia sation Flats, north of Durban in KwaZulu- sesamiae (Cameron) (Braconidae), as an Natal (KZN) (Osborne, 1964). From that important mortality factor. In more recent small start with sugarcane imported from studies the parasitoids of B. fusca (Kfir, Mauritius (Osborne, 1964) has grown an 1990b; Kfir and Bell, 1993) and C. partellus industry, which, in 2001/02, has 426,597 ha (Kfir, 1992b, 1995) were identified, as well under sugarcane (Anonymous, 2001). Rain- as the predators (Watmough and Kfir, 1995) fed sugarcane is nowgrownalong the east and the microbial pathogens (Hoekstra coast of South Africa, from just south of and Kfir, 1997). However, despite high mor- Umzimkulu in southern KZN to Mkuze in tality levels natural enemies were not able northern KZN, and inland of this area to prevent economically significant damage to just west of Pietermaritzburg. Irrigated (Kfir and Bell, 1993). This factor and the sugarcane is grown in the Pongola area of inefficacy of insecticides to control stem bor- KZN, and the Malelane/Komatipoort areas ers in South Africa precipitated a biological of Mpumalanga (Anonymous, 2001). control program using exotic parasitoids. By 1950, southern African sugarcane Parasitoids were introduced from Pakistan, had at least 33 species of indigenous insects Mauritius, Indonesia, Trinidad, Brazil, feeding on it (Dick, 1950). Subsequent Taiwan and the Philippines with emphasis additions to this list are Numicia viridis on Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) from Pakistan Muir (Homoptera: Tropiduchidae) and an (Skoroszewski and van Hamburg, 1987; Kfir, unidentified species of Margarodes (Homo- 1991, 1992a, 1994). ptera: Margarodidae) (Leslie, 1986). Perkin- Several Bt-transgenic maize hybrids siella saccharicida Kirkaldy (Homoptera: are commercially available in South Africa. Delphacidae) is the only exotic pest During the 1998/99 growing season approxi- recorded (Carnegie, personal communi- mately 50,000 ha of irrigated land was cation, cited in Conlong, 1994a). However, planted with Bt-transgenic maize hybrids, an exotic borer, Chilo sacchariphagus Bojer all employing event Mon810 (van Rensburg, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), has recently been 2001). As the price of Bt-maize seed is still confirmed from Mozambiquan sugarcane, substantially higher than regular hybrids it but has not yet been found in South Africa is mainly planted in irrigated land. A price (Way and Turner, 1999). 178 D.S. Charleston et al.

Fortunately, very fewof these insects normal years, the indigenous parasitoids have become major pests in the industry. maintain the populations of N. viridis below During the 1880s it was reported that the economic threshold levels, eliminating the Uba variety of sugarcane was little damaged need for pesticide applications. by white ants or the ‘borer’ (Osborne, 1964). The stem borer Eldana saccharina was The identity of the borer was, however, first reported as a pest of South African unknown. In 1894 locust plagues appeared sugarcane from the Umfolosi Flats of KZN and devastated many cane fields around in 1939 (Naude, 1940), where it attacked Durban (40% of sugarcane crop destroyed) 20-month-old cane of the variety POJ 2725 (Osborne, 1964; Anonymous, 2001). This (Dick, 1945). This variety was known to be was the first report of identified insect relatively soft (Carnegie, 1974). The cane in damage in southern African sugarcane. Only question had a quota restriction imposed on two other insect species have caused serious it, which prevented it from being sent damage to South African sugarcane, necessi- to the mill at the younger correct age tating remedial control measures. These (Naude, 1940). Subsequent knowledge has are Numicia viridis Muir (Hemiptera: shown that older sugarcane is particularly Tropiduchidae) and Eldana saccharina vulnerable to E. saccharina (Carnegie, 1981). Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), both of Initially it was thought that E. sacchar- which are indigenous. ina was a recent introduction into southern The leaf hopper, N. viridis, became of Africa (Dick, 1945), but records from indige- economic importance in 1962, when it was nous plants from various west and east recorded on sugarcane in Swaziland and African countries, and KZN soon revealed South Africa, particularly in inland irrigated it was indigenous to Africa (Dick, 1945; fields (Carnegie, 1966). Most damage is Carnegie, 1974; Atkinson, 1980). It is thus caused by the developing nymphs, of which apparent that this borer is a fairly recent there are five instars. Biological studies invader of sugarcane in South Africa, being showed that it had invaded sugarcane recorded as a localized pest on the Umfolosi fields from adjacent wild grasses and sedges, Flats for the first time in 1939, 26 years after which were its natural host plants (Carnegie, sugarcane was first planted there, and 1967, 1994). There is evidence that it did 91 years after this crop was first grown com- so unaccompanied by its two efficient egg mercially in KZN (Conlong, 1994a). By 1954, parasitoids, Ootetrastichus beatus Perkins however, it had disappeared, a number of (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and Oligosita reasons being given for this (Carnegie, 1974). sp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), The current infestation of southern African which control it well in wild grasses sugarcane began in 1970. Its spread through (Carnegie, 1975, 1980, 1994). Both para- the southern African industry is summa- sitoids subsequently became common in rized by Carnegie (1974) and Atkinson et al. sugarcane, and N. viridis ceased to be a (1981). Currently it is found in all parts of the continuing problem during the early 1970s. industry. Occasional minor outbreaks nowoccur. Control of E. saccharina is multifaceted. Other parasitoids recorded from this insect Initial research advances and recommenda- include two Dryinidae, Dryinus sp. and tions are summarized by Carnegie (1981). By Lestrodryinus sp. An epipyropid (Epipyrops having knowledge of its biology, early field sp.) attacked N. viridis when infestations management control measures were devel- became severe (Carnegie, 1975). oped and recommended to growers. These There are three well synchronized include cutting the cane early, applying generations of N. viridis per year (Carnegie, reduced nitrogen levels, good field hygiene, 1969), and control measures can be timed pre-trashing and selection of varieties (Car- appropriately. Mercaptothion (malathion) negie, 1981). The variety selection program and endosulfan dusts, applied aerially give has developed well, and varieties such as effective control in severe infestations N21 are showing resistance to this borer, and (Carnegie, 1971, 1994). However, during have been released to the industry to plant in IPM in South Africa 179

areas where E. saccharina is a constant prob- in South Africa is the high cost of produc- lem (Leslie and Keeping, 1997). A biological tion, and a major input is attributed to control program has been in operation since pest control. One spray against Helicoverpa 1981. Conlong (1994b, 1997) reviews its armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), progress and constraints since its inception. a key pest of cotton in South Africa, can Recent research has concentrated on the amount to 11% of the profit of a dryland relocation of indigenous parasitoids of E. cotton farmer under normal circumstances saccharina from various habitats in other (Anonymous, 1992). parts of Africa to South Africa (Conlong, Early in the past century damage by 2000; Conlong and Mugalula, 2001), and leafhoppers was neutralized by breeding habitat management practices to lure known more hairy cultivars of cotton from the indigenous local parasitoids out of the indig- imported base stock (Annecke and Moran, enous wetland habitats (Conlong, 1990) 1982). The principle was established that it into sugarcane affected by E. saccharina is essential to destroy all remnants of the (Conlong and Kasl, 2000, 2001). Pesticide previous season’s cotton crop along with research has concentrated on the applica- any ratooning or volunteer plants before any tion of various pesticides at periods of moth newplantings weremade in order to prevent abundance, so as to target the dispersing the carry-over of pests from the previous neonate larvae before they move behind the season. With the advent of the cheap and protective dry leaf sheaths and into the broad-spectrum pesticides it became normal stalk itself (Leslie, 1997, 2001; Leslie and practice to spray mainly preventatively up Keeping, 1997). to 15 times per season (van Hamburg and In years of average and above average Guest, 1997). As a result, H. armigera popu- rainfall, E. saccharina is not a serious pest in lations became resistant to insecticides, sugarcane. However, in years of drought, which led to more frequent spraying and in plant stress situations it does become and ever escalating costs (Witlock 1973; a serious problem. Farmers who have planted Anonymous, 1992). In addition a previously the more resistant cultivars of sugarcane, minor pest, red spider mite (Tetranychus and who implement the published manage- cinnabarinus (Boisduval)), became a major ment control recommendations (Carnegie, pest because its natural enemies had 1981) to their fields are less affected by this been destroyed by the frequent pesticide borer than those who do not. It is thus clear treatments (Botha, 1990). that a combination of resistant varieties and Since 1975, a spray program against management control options, when imple- H. armigera based on scouting for eggs mented do offer some measure of protection was developed. Infested cotton was sprayed against E. saccharina. This measure of con- wherever an average of 0.5 or more eggs per trol will be enhanced by fully researched plant was found. This led to a reduction in biological control and habitat management the average number of insecticidal applica- options, in addition to well-researched and tions from 15 when sprayed preventatively judicious use of pesticides, only at the times to eight when sprayed according to egg when susceptible stages of the pest will be counts (van Hamburg and Kfir, 1982). Later exposed to pesticide treatment. it was shown that egg population is not the best indicator of the damaging larval population, owing to egg inviability and egg parasitism and predation (van Hamburg, 1981). A IPM in cotton newscouting method based on larval counts was developed whereby only 2.3 sprays per The so-called American ‘upland’ cotton, season were needed if sprayed according to a Gossypium hirsutum is grown in South larval index of eight larvae per 12 plants, Africa on about 100,000 ha with an annual without any decline in yield (Kfir and van production of about 115,000 tons of seed Hamburg, 1983). This newsystem resulted cotton. The main factor limiting cultivation in a 60% reduction of pest control costs. 180 D.S. Charleston et al.

A biological control program was (Annecke and Moran, 1982). They included initiated and several egg parasitoids, Tricho- the braconids, Chelonus curvimaculatus gramma spp., and the larval parasitoid, and Orgilus parcus, and the ichneumonids, Cotesia kazak, were introduced into South Diadegma molliplum and Temelucha picta. Africa. The importance of natural enemies Despite the fact that these parasitoids has been widely recognized and to protect attained a percentage parasitism of 80% them restrictions were imposed on the use or higher during the season, losses were of certain insecticides harmful to natural still very high (Annecke and Moran, 1982). enemies, including the prohibition of From 1965 to 1969 two species of para- synthetic pyrethroids on cotton less than sitoids, imported from South America, were 12 weeks old. released in South Africa (Watmough et al., Bt-transgenic cotton has been com- 1973). These two parasitoids, Copidosoma mercially available in South Africa since koehleri and Apanteles subandinus, 1999. In general about 30% of cotton planted replaced the indigenous parasitoids in South Africa is Bt cotton, but in some (Findlay, 1975). During 1978, 50% fewer regions such as the Loskop Irrigation 15 kg potato bags were rejected at the Preto- Scheme about 50% is Bt cotton. With a ‘tech- ria market than would have been expected nology fee’ imposed by the seed companies, before the release of the two mentioned the local price for Bt cotton seed is about four parasitoids (Annecke and Moran, 1982). In times the price of regular seed. one field experiment done in 1994 where The introduction of scouting for insect no insecticides were used, C. koehleri and pests, establishment of economic threshold A. subandinus were responsible for 86% levels, Bt-transgenic cotton, and imposing parasitism at the end of the season, while restrictions on the use of pesticides harmful all other parasitoids together could only to natural enemies brought about a great reach 4.5% (D. Visser, in preparation). reduction in the number of pesticidal In the same fields where insecticides were applications and important progress in used, total parasitism decreased to 23%. implementing an IPM program in cotton The precise effect and value of these production in South Africa. imported parasitoids are extremely difficult to calculate. Parasitoids will only become valuable as a component of an IPM program when softer insecticides are more freely IPM in potatoes available. Parasitoids may be more advantageous to the small-scale farmer The potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea because they often do not have access to operculella, is the most important pest on expensive chemical insecticides. potatoes in South Africa. It is responsible Potato tuber moth pheromones were for losses of up to R40 million/annum. registered for commercial use in South Tubers are attacked both in the field and Africa in 1995. Since then some commercial in stores. Studies on the integrated control farmers have started to use them to calculate of the potato tuber moth have been done, thresholds for the timing of insecticide mostly in the 1960s and 1970s (Broodryk, sprays. Most farmers, however, still start 1967; Zimmermann, 1967; Findlay, 1975). spraying insecticides for tuber moth control A newstudy is currently in progress by as soon as they see the first moth in their the Agricultural Research Council (ARC). fields. Thresholds and parasitoids are Detailed studies on the biology of indige- therefore currently not part of the decision- nous parasitoids have been done (Broodryk making process of the majority of potato 1969; 1971). Before the mid-1960s when farmers. research began in South Africa on the A granulosis virus of the potato tuber biological control of tuber moth, there were moth was discovered and described in a number of parasitoids which sometimes South Africa (Broodryk and Pretorius, 1974). collectively attained high rates of parasitism Although no field tests have been performed IPM in South Africa 181

yet, a current study has shown that the virus aphid, which is controlled by stabilizing remains active at −20°C for at least 9 years selection, causing it to become a sporadi- (D. Visser, in preparation). Extensive tests to cally conspicuous pest only in its native evaluate this virus as an IPM tool in stored areas (Kovalev et al., 1991). The absence of potatoes are in progress. successful natural enemies in South Africa The first trial with Bt-transgenic is probably a prime reason for population potatoes with tuber moth resistance in explosions occurring regularly in South South Africa was conducted by First Potato Africa (Aalbersberg et al., 1989). Dynamics during 2000. Four potato cultivars Initially a chemical control program were transformed by Vitality Biotechnolo- was developed to prevent high yield loss. gies in Israel and tested in the Ceres area of Economic injury levels and thresholds were the Western Cape. Resistance was absolute, determined to encourage farmers to spray expressed in both the foliage and tubers. only once, however some farmers tended to Newtrials are planned in the future, which spray insecticides routinely (Du Toit, 1986, would include transformations of all the 1990). Between 1980 and 1990 commercial major commercial potato cultivars planted farmers in the Free State sprayed up to four in South Africa. times annually. With the exception of two Other IPM components currently under (imidacloprid and thiamethoxam), all insec- investigation by the Agricultural Research ticides registered for the control of RWA in Council for potato tuber moth control South Africa are broad-spectrum systemic include: crude aqueous extracts of the and contact organophosphates (LD50 syringa tree, Melia azedarach, as a bio- 2–70 mg/kg) (Nel et al., 1999) also killing insecticide; the effect of all registered natural enemies that attack RWA. The possi- insecticides against tuber moth parasitoids; ble development of insecticide resistance and the potential of pheromones as a mating could not be ignored especially when farm- disruption technique in potato stores. ers were spraying RWA on a routine basis. As a cultural practice farmers were recommended to eradicate volunteer wheat and Bromus spp. grass as a method of preventing IPM in wheat infestation early after crop emergence. The Small Grain Institute of the ARC Wheat is produced in South Africa in the in South Africa (ARC–SGI) started an inves- winter rainfall regions of the Western Cape tigation into the development of a more and the summer rainfall areas of the Free sustainable integrated control program for State Province (FSP), Northern Cape, North RWA during the early 1980s. In the context West and the Limpopo Province. The FSP is of sustainable pest management for RWA, the largest production area, and is subject host plant resistance and biological control to considerable annual fluctuations due to seemed the most suitable alternative control variable annual rainfall patterns (Marasas methods. et al., 1997). Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Several wheat lines resistant to RWA Diuraphis noxia (Kurdujmov, 1913) were identified (Du Toit, 1987; Harvey (Homoptera: Aphididae) is the most devas- and Martin, 1990; Smith et al., 1991) and a tating of several insect pests of wheat in breeding program to incorporate resistance South Africa (Prinsloo et al., 1999). Since into good quality bread wheat cultivars its detection in 1978 RWA spread rapidly was started. The first resistant cultivar through the country causing yield loss of Tugela-Dn was released during 1993. To up to 90% on susceptible cultivars when date, the ARC–SGI and other seed compa- not treated with chemical insecticides nies have released to farmers in the FSP (Aalbersberg, 1987). 15 cultivars containing different levels of The outbreak of RWA in South Africa plant resistance (ARC–Small Grain Institute, and other countries probably resulted from 2000). More than 70% of the wheat farmers the spread of an aggressive biotype of the in the eastern parts of the FSP nowplant 182 D.S. Charleston et al.

resistant cultivars with good results and replace chemical insecticides, which are insecticide treatment has decreased by necessary to control other sporadic pests 35.8% between 1990 and 1996 (Marasas and therefore will enhance the sustain- et al., 1997). ability of insect pest control in wheat in Although biological control of aphids future. seems to be limited to a fewcases in the The RWA control program has changed world (van Lenteren, 1991), RWA seems to dramatically since the release of RWA resis- be a pest that could be controlled through tant cultivars. As more farmers changed to classical biological control as defined by these cultivars the use of organophosphorus DeBach (1979). This means that it is sprays dropped dramatically. Where farm- typically an insect that invaded a newarea ers are still planting susceptible cultivars, without its effective natural enemies and chemicals such as imidacloprid became became a pest, and therefore could be con- more popular because small amounts are trolled through the introduction of natural applied to the seed, and the cost of applica- enemies from the countries of origin of tion is lower. The use of seed dressing is the pest. Although several natural enemies also more environmentally friendly, giving including ladybirds and parasitoids attack natural enemies a better chance of survival. RWA in South Africa, they are not able to The use of natural control methods, e.g. protect the susceptible cultivars from dam- plant resistance, entomopathogenic fungi, age (Aalbersberg et al., 1988). Therefore the predators, parasitoids and fungi will become introduction of natural enemies was started more important in future. during 1980. Between 1980 and 1994 six natural enemy species were introduced and released (Adalia bipunctata, Hippodamia convergens, Coleomegilla maculata, Leuco- IPM in forestry pis ninae, Aphidius maticariae, Aphelinus hordei). Two species namely the ladybird A. The forestry industry in South Africa is bipunctata and the parasitoid A. matricariae more than 120 years old and is based almost have become established, although not very exclusively on exotic tree species. The actively seen on aphid populations in wheat industry comprises about 1.5 million ha of (G.J. Prinsloo, unpublished data). The para- large, fast-growing monocultures of Pinus, sitoid Aphelinus hordei spread rapidly Eucalyptus and Australian Acacia (wattle) and established in the mountainous north- species. Such man-made monocultures are eastern parts of Lesotho about 200 km from of course particularly susceptible to pest where it was released. Here they were found attack and South Africa was no exception. parasitizing D. noxia on wheat during 1999 Through the years a number of serious and 2000 (Prinsloo et al., 2002). insect pests arrived on the scene. These The parasitoid Aphelinus hordei was could be divided in two groups, exotic pests tested in the field during 1998 and 1999 from the countries where the tree species for compatibility with resistant cultivars originated from, and local insects that (G.J. Prinsloo, unpublished data). RWA adapted to exploit the abundant food source infestation was reduced by approximately provided by the large, healthy plantings 50% on both susceptible and resistant of exotics (van Rensburg, 1984). The local cultivars where A. hordei was released com- pests are mainly species of Lepidoptera leaf pared with the plots where A. hordei was feeders and subterranean fungus-growing absent. This parasitoid shows good potential termites, which cause losses during first as a biological control agent of D. noxia on rotation establishment of eucalyptus and both susceptible and resistant cultivars. wattle in grasslands. Recently the use of entomopathogenic The approach to pest control in South fungi for the control of RWA and other wheat African forestry plantations was based on aphids was initiated. These pathogens could bio-intensive pest management from the not only be used against aphids but could beginning. Biological control played a major IPM in South Africa 183

role, initially because modern pesticides or occurs mainly on galls of the fusiform rust the means of application (aerial spraying) fungus on pine trees. It was first observed in were not available (Tooke, 1953), but later, South Africa in 1974. It attacks all pine trees because of an appreciation of the ecologi- grown commercially in South Africa. The cally sensitive nature of most of our forestry aphid extracts large amounts of sap from the areas. Some of our major exotic pests were host tree and the copious honeydewthat it almost completely eliminated by the intro- secretes gives heavily attacked trees a black duction of exotic natural enemies (Kirsten appearance from the sooty mould fungal et al., 2000). Others were dealt with through growth. When trees are under drought stress, a combination of biological control and silvi- heavy infestations may kill tops or even the cultural procedures, while for some, we had whole tree (van Rensburg, 1981). Owing to to rely on chemical treatments. The latter the high reproductive rate of the aphid, the group included the indigenous defoliators of cost of aerial spraying and the ecologically pine trees and subterranean termites during sensitive nature of most forestry areas, eucalyptus establishment. For these pests chemical control was not considered feasi- our R & D efforts were focused on finding ble. A parasitic wasp, Pauesia cinaravora, the safest formulations and application was introduced in 1983 (Kfir et al., 1985; van methods, both in terms of human safety Rensburg, 1988) and has been effective in and for the environment. The IPM suppressing black pine aphid numbers. approach followed in South Africa can best The eucalyptus tortoise beetle, Trachy- be described by looking at a fewcase studies. mela tincticollis is endemic to southwestern The eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonip- Australia. It appeared in South Africa during terus scutellatus, an Australian curculionid, the late 1970s. Both the adults and the larvae appeared in South Africa early in the feed on the young leaves and shoots of 20th century. Most eucalyptus species are eucalyptus, causing defoliation from the attacked but some are more susceptible to top downwards, severely stunting and even beetle damage than others. Both the adults killing the host trees. The tortoise beetle, and the larvae feed on the growing tips, which threatened to become as serious a pest causing severe stunting or even die-back. By of eucalypts as the snout beetle had been, 1926 the eucalyptus industry was practi- was brought firmly under control by an egg cally on its knees. This situation was rapidly parasitoid, Enoggera reticulata, introduced turned around by the introduction of an egg from southwestern Australia in (1987) parasitoid, Anaphes nitens, which quickly (Tribe, 2000; Tribe and Cillié, 2000). This brought the pest under control in most areas happened in time to prevent the pest from (Tooke, 1953). The exception was for partic- spreading from the Cape to the main ularly susceptible eucalyptus species such eucalyptus areas of the country. as Eucalyptus dunii, E. nitens, E. maideni, The sirex woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, E. viminalis, E. globulus and E. punctata, hails from Eurasia and North Africa and is planted above 1200 m. Today, some of these perhaps the most notorious of all pests of susceptible species are still cultivated for oil pine trees in the world. Sirex appeared in production at high altitudes and here prob- Cape Town, South Africa, in the early 1990s lems with the spring generation of the snout at a time when the pine plantations were beetle persists. Chemical treatments are susceptible to sirex attack after several years sometimes used but it is not generally pre- of drought. Stressed trees are killed when scribed because of the pesticide’s interfer- the wasp injects mucus and a fungus ence with the egg parasitoid, which becomes (Amylostereum areolatum) into the wood very effective from early summer onwards. during oviposition. The mucus causes the Before its successful biological control, stomata to open and the tree to wilt, allowing the black pine aphid, Cinara cronartii,was the dry rot fungus to germinate and spread considered the most serious pest of pine within the tree. The larvae, which feed on trees in South Africa (van Rensburg, 1979). It the fungus, make tunnels in the wood. A tree is indigenous in the eastern USA, where it killed by sirex is a total loss (Tribe, 1995). 184 D.S. Charleston et al.

Chemical control of sirex is not feasible. Several indigenous Lepidoptera species Maintaining the vigour of plantation trees have adapted to feeding on pine trees in and biological control, which was success- South African plantations. The most impor- ful against sirex in Australasia, are the tant of these defoliators are the pine emperor best options. In South Africa, Deladenus moth, Imbrasia cytheria (Saturnidae), the siricidicola, a parasitic nematode, obtained pine brown tail moth, Euproctis terminalis under license from the CSIRO in Australia, (Lymantridae) and the Cape lappet moth, was injected into sirex-infested trees at Pachypasa capensis (Lasiocampidae) Tokai, Cape Town in 1996 and 1997. Three (Webb, 1974). These moths, despite being years later the parasitism rate of emerging heavily attacked by their natural enemies, sirex was over 90%. The nematode makes sporadically become so abundant that the the females sterile and is spread when the trees are totally defoliated, which results in female attempts to lay eggs (Kirsten et al., slower growth and even death of trees. Three 2000). synthetic pyrethroids and one biological Two exotic species of bark beetles, from insecticide are registered for aerial applica- European/Asian origin, sporadically dam- tion against the pine emperor moth but age commercial pine stands in South Africa. because of the presence of natural enemies, The pine bark beetle, Hylastes angustatus, the use of the biological insecticide Bacillus which appeared in 1938, is troublesome thuringiensis var. kurstaki, is recommended. during the establishment of plantations. Silvicultural procedures to limit the effect Hylastes breeds in the trunks and roots of of defoliation include forest hygiene and pine. In clear-felled areas the abundance of thinning the stands to reduce physiological such breeding spaces leads to enormous stress levels in the trees (Kirsten et al., 2000). population build-ups. Newly planted seed- Eucalypts and wattle are attacked by lings are attacked and ring barked by female termites, but pines are not. Transplants are beetles that need the fresh cambium material ring-barked or whittled to a point just below for egg development (Webb, 1974). Before the root collar. Once the canopy has closed being banned, preventative chemical treat- termites are seldom a problem, and rarely ments with chlorinated hydrocarbons pro- attack second rotations. There are resistant duced some results, but the applications had eucalyptus selections suitable for planting to be very well timed to be effective, which in some areas. Chlordane and carbosulfan was often not the case. The best way to avoid for application in the planting holes, are Hylastes attack is to time plantings to avoid registered for use when needed (Atkinson, peak numbers of the beetle. Planting during 1997). good rains also ensures healthy seedlings IPM in forestry is implemented in most able to survive attack. areas, and has had tremendous success. IPM The European bark beetle, Orthotomi- practices in forestry mainly involve the cus erosus, arrived in 1968. It attacks trees use of biological control agents, silvicultural under stress such as during periods of severe practices and correct timing of planting. drought or after fire. Large numbers of fan- Chemicals are only used when necessary. shaped tunnel systems in the inner bark This combination of a variety of control leads to eventual ring-barking. Timber methods provides a good example of IPM. quality is reduced by the introduction of blue-stain fungi into the wood. The beetle is kept under control by maintaining good forest hygiene, denying it opportunities Constraints Facing IPM in South Africa for population build-ups. Good silvicultural practices aimed at maintaining maximum While the South African government is tree vigor are also essential. Beetle numbers committed to the promotion of IPM there can be monitored by using radiator-traps are still a number of constraints facing baited with the commercial pheromone, its implementation. There is no specific Pheroprax (Tribe, 1991). legislation in place governing IPM, and the IPM in South Africa 185

various pieces of legislation that cover some IPM has had a long and mostly success- of the aspects of IPM, are often too prohibi- ful history in South Africa and is currently tive. Insufficient extension workers and the practiced in many crops throughout the lack of training and advice on IPM strate- country. Current political climate empha- gies hamper implementation. Farmers and sizes social upliftment and the support of growers are sometimes slow to adopt IPM small-scale rural farming communities. In due to technical, attitudinal, educational, light of this, IPM has many benefits to offer, management and economic barriers. As a by reducing the reliance on expensive result, it often takes a pest management cri- chemical pesticides, which many small- sis before a high level of IPM is widely scale rural farmers cannot afford and which accepted. However, as the public demands are hazardous to their health. Food security more change from agriculture, it must be is also vital in a country where an estimated prepared to support the research that can 16 million people are living in poverty trigger these changes, and unfortunately the (Simbi, 2001). Emphasis is placed on food funding is often inadequate. More conven- security at the household level, increasing tional methods, such as pesticide applica- the production on small-scale farms will tion, are often less expensive and easier to improve the availability and nutritional implement/apply than IPM technologies, value of food, particularly if IPM strategies and the newtechnology is more compli - are used to growthe crops. In commercial cated than the older more conventional farming, IPM plays a major role in producing methods. Often by reducing pesticide input export crops, which must meet international and relying on IPM the farmer/grower will standards. The increasing demand for initially have higher pest levels, and this is agricultural commodities with minimal not acceptable to most. Finally, the AIDS pesticide residues and consumer demand pandemic may affect the manual labor for ‘ecologically friendly’ products means available in rural communities, therefore that IPM technology will continue to less labor-intensive, but affordable plant be implemented and improved. Other protection practices must be put in place countries on the African continent can (van Dyk, 2000). benefit from the South African experiences and expertise that is available in South Africa. Final Conclusions Important Agricultural Websites South African agriculture developed from modest beginnings. During the past it suf- Sites of main research organizations fered many setbacks, which at times threatened to destroy agriculture, but through Agricultural Research Council: www.arc.agric.za these problems, knowledge and experience Citrus Research International: www.cri.co.za were gained which allow the South African South African Sugar Experimental Station: www. agricultural scientist to compete with lead- sasa.org.za/sasex/ ing experts throughout the world. As part of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research the African continent, South Africa has a (CSIR): www.csir.co.za significant advantage over other nations in Entomological Society: www.up.ac.za/academic/ respect of technical knowledge, as well as entomological-society/entsoc.html social and cultural information. Therefore, South Africa’s strategic position at the southern tip of Africa enables it to make Links to museums and other entomology sites a big contribution towards agricultural development in general. www.nfi.org.za/inverts/Insectlinks.html 186 D.S. Charleston et al.

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Appendix 15.1. strategies. The mechanisms involved in upsurges are therefore investigated in order Plant Protection Research Institute to control harmful and invasive plants. (ARC–PPRI) Beneficial organisms such as biological (website: www.arc.agric.za) control agents, nitrogen fixing bacteria and insect pollinators of plants will be cultured, The ARC–PPRI was established in 1962 nurtured and promoted for increased plant with the amalgamation of the Divisions of production. Entomology and Plant Pathology of the Department of Agriculture. These divisions Mission of PPRI had been in existence since Unification in 1910. In 1981 research on invasive weeds Through research and development, the was formally added to the ARC–PPRI and ARC–PPRI aims to produce sound pest, during 2000 the Agricultural Biodiversity disease and invasive plant management Information Unit joined the institute. This strategies and encourage the utilization multidisciplinary institute follows a holis- of advantageous organisms to strengthen tic approach to the pest, disease and alien agricultural production at all levels. invasive plant problems, in line with the principles of integrated pest management Core competencies as defined in Agenda 21 of the Rio ARC–PPRI is mandated to address plant Convention. protection issues that cut across commodi- ARC–PPRI is one of the Institutes of ties, affecting many crops and regions; thus the ARC and currently employs 230 staff the research impacts on all the provinces of consisting of 68 researchers, 47 technicians South Africa and addresses the needs and 115 support staff. The hub of the of many African countries. Research is research activities is in Pretoria, with directed at commercial, small-scale and campuses at Roodeplaat, Rietondale, and resource-poor farmers to address current Vredehuis. There are satellite units at and anticipated threats. Cedara, Uitenhage and Stellenbosch. The ARC–PPRI provides expertise to 1. Biosystematic services are provided for agricultural and environmental concerns the benefit of researchers, agricultural through research aimed at the promotion of industries and to governments to carry out economic and environmentally acceptable their statutory obligations. To this end the pest management strategies in support of institute is the custodian of the National Col- sustainable land management in the sub- lections of Insects, Arachnids, Nematodes region and many other African countries. To and Fungi. Biosystematic capacity in the this end ARC–PPRI is a center of expertise region is promoted through participation in on biosystematics, ecology and epidemiol- African initiatives such as those on arach- ogy of invertebrates, fungi, pathogenic and nids, pollinators, fruit flies and SAFRINET useful bacteria, viruses and the control (Southern African Network of BIONET of pests and invasive plants through International). Agricultural Biodiversity optimization of pesticidal and biological Information Systems are developed and control strategies in integrated management maintained in keeping with government programs. policy and international conventions. 2. IPM of pests of crops, plantations and Vision of PPRI stored products is a central theme in much of the research of the institute and includes: ARC–PPRI’s vision is to establish an • Classical biological control programs; agricultural production system in South • Quarantining of imported organisms on Africa in which yields are maximized behalf of government and industry; through sustainable integrated management • Cultural practices; IPM in South Africa 195

• Pesticide application and residue with the objectives of the Working-for-Water analyses; Program of the Department of Water Affairs • Monitoring of resistance to pesticides and Forestry, the Water Research Commis- in pest populations; sion, the Landcare Initiatives of the National • Bioprospecting to develop viable Department of Agriculture, the National alternative control methods; Department of Environmental Affairs and • Development of strategies to curb Tourism and industries. Many of the weeds migrant pests in collaboration with occur in other parts of Africa and regional neighboring countries and interna- collaboration, such as for the proposed tional institutions such as DFID, NRI African Water Hyacinth Initiative, gives and FAO. substance to the President’s ‘African Renais- sance’. Consultancies on weed management 3. Plant pathology research and services are provided to various African countries on focus on fungi, bacteria and plant viruses behalf of CABI and FAO. and includes: • Studies of disease epidemiology; 5. Expertise on beneficial organisms • Monitoring of disease resistance in includes: plants in support of plant breeding • Beekeeping for the benefit of com- programs; mercial and resource-poor farmers • Development of diagnostic techniques; for the production of honey and other • Diagnostic services; bee products and the use of bees for • Indexing of virus diseases of banana pollination; and plantain on behalf of INIBAP; • Nitrogen-fixing rhizobia as effective • Development of disease-free seed substitutes for nitrogenous fertilizers; schemes in collaboration with local • Mycorrhizal inoculants that promote industries and protocols of ISTA; nutrient uptake; • Specialization in disease complexes • Natural enemies for the control of such anthracnose and soil-borne pests, diseases and weeds. diseases. 6. Regional training courses for 4. Research on weeds is directed at the extensionists serving both the commercial development of integrated control strategies and resource-poor sectors are undertaken against alien invaders of rangeland, planta- independently and in collaboration with tions, rivers and dams. This is in keeping international partners.

Chapter 16 Integrated Pest Management in China

Zhen-Ying Wang1, Kang-Lai He1, Jian-Zhou Zhao2 and Da-Rong Zhou1 1Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China; 2Department of Entomology, Cornell University, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, USA

Brief History and Evolution of Nongzheng Quanshu (Encyclopedia of IPM in China Agriculture) published in 1639 (Chou, 1980). The red tree ant, Oecophylla History of agriculture in China smaragdina (Fabricius), was used to control citrus pests in AD 304, and is the first known Agriculture has played a central role in the example of using natural enemies against history of China for more than 5000 years. insect pests (Chen, 1962). It is still widely Food production is important in China; used in China today (Yang et al., 1983). reliable and productive agricultural systems are essential because of the large population. Crop pests, floods and drought Development of IPM in China have been the most serious natural disasters throughout the history of agricultural The development of IPM in China has been production in China, and the struggle a gradual but continual process, which can with insect pests dates back for centuries. be roughly divided into the following three For example, the Oriental migratory locust, periods. Locust migratoria manilensis (Meyen), has been known as a notorious insect pest for Early attempts to develop IPM concepts more than 13 centuries. The Emperor of the (1950 to the early 1970s) Tang Dynasty appointed the first full-time officers for locust control in AD 707. Since Efforts to develop integrated pest control then and up to the year 1911, 536 serious tactics were initiated in the early 1950s outbreaks of the locust have been recorded. (Ma, 1976). The goal was to integrate agri- Early literature on pest control includes cultural, chemical, biological, and physical The Etiquette of Zhou Dynasty written in control measures in order to increase the 240 BC, Lushi Chunqiu written in 239 BC, effectiveness of pest control and avoid the and Qi Min Yao Shu (an ancient agricul- weaknesses of using each method alone. tural encyclopedia) written in AD 528–549. This concept is different from the modern Pest control through cultural practices concept of IPM, in that economic injury such as cultivation, rotation, intercropping levels or threshold levels were not yet and irrigation were recommended in the developed, and the use of broad-spectrum ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 197 198 Z.-Y. Wang et al.

insecticides was not especially discouraged Modern IPM in China (1983–present) (Li, 1990). The most notable achievement in pest control during this period was manage- Since 1983, the Chinese government has ment of the locust. No large outbreaks of funded National IPM Technique Research locusts have occurred since the program Projects as one of the State Key Research began. With the development of the Programs in four successive State Five-year national chemical industry during the Plans. This marks the beginning of the era 1950–1960s, DDT and BHC became widely of modern IPM in China (Li, 1990; Guo, used to control crop insect pests, but 1999). Approximately 1000 scientists from eventually these insecticides caused major 50 research institutes, universities and problems such as environmental pollution, extension agencies became engaged in IPM high residue, and pesticide resistance. research and extension programs. The four These problems eventually led the public major research areas included: IPM system to become more concerned about insect for major crops (rice, wheat, maize, cotton, pest management (Piao, 1999). soybean, vegetables, fruit trees), biological control tactics, pesticide resistance management, and specific research on weed and Acceptance of modern IPM concepts rodent management. During 1983–1985, (1974–1982) each one of the main pest groups (pathogens, insects, weeds and rodents) was In 1974, the First Nationwide Conference regarded as a research target. During on Integrated Pest Control for Crop Diseases 1986–1990, the target was changed into and Insect Pests took place in Shaoguan each pest complex on a given crop. Further City, Guangdong Province, under the research on IPM systems during 1991–1995 supervision of the Chinese Ministry of demonstrated significant benefits for pre- Agriculture. This meeting became a mile- venting outbreaks of several important stone in the history of plant protection in pests, especially the cotton bollworm China. During the conference, progress in (Helicoverpa armigera) and the brown plant protection research and implementa- planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens). From tion in China were thoroughly examined, 1996–2000, IPM systems appropriate for emphasizing the problems with high resi- each of the major crops in the main regions due, pest resistance, and pest resurgence. of China were developed, evaluated and The highlight of the conference was the promoted on large scales. introduction of modern IPM concepts in A more comprehensive definition of the China. During the latter part of the con- IPM concept is now in use in China: ference, a newbasic principle for plant IPM is a scientific crop pest management protection in China was suggested with system. It proceeds from the whole the theme of ‘Integrated Pest Control with agro-ecosystem, and is based on the Prevention First.’ This theme was officially relationships between pests and environ- approved in 1975 by the Ministry of Agri- ment, utilizing natural control factors and culture as the guiding principle of national considering local conditions, for keeping plant protection. At the time, the major IPM pests under an economic injury level, and tactics included four methods: changing obtaining optimum economic, sociological the habitats of pests and breaking the and ecological benefits (Li, 1990) food chain or destruction of hibernating sites, using natural enemies, elimination The target of this strategy is not aimed at of insects by attraction with physical or eliminating pests, but using various natural chemical factors, and rational application control factors to reduce the use of chemical of insecticides. Cultural practices were pesticides. It is a long-term strategy that considered the cornerstone of IPM systems requires continuous development for agri- in China (Ma, 1976; Qiu, 1976; Li, 1990). cultural production systems to meet the IPM in China 199

future needs of sustainable agriculture in and Forestry, Zhejiang University, China (Li, 1990). Zhongshan University, and many provincial agricultural universities.

Organizational Structure of the IPM System in China IPM policy in China

Organization The Ministry of Agriculture published the first National Safety Standard for Pesticide Three agencies are involved in IPM Application in 1980. Since 1980, 301 stan- research in China: the Ministry of Agri- dards for 140 pesticides in 19 crops have culture, Chinese Academy of Sciences and been published. Since the first National the university systems. The Institute of Standards for residue limits of DDT and Plant Protection (IPP) and CAAS, and the BHC in grains and vegetables were pub- National Agriculture Technology Extension lished in 1981, the maximum residue limits and Service Center (NATESC), Ministry of for 77 pesticides (including insecticides, Agriculture are the two organizers of IPM fungicides, herbicides and growth regula- research and extension in China. The main tors in rice, vegetables, orange, sugarcane, tasks of IPP–CAAS are to organize and groundnut and vegetable oils) have been coordinate the national crop pests research published (First Editorial Division, 1999). program to avoid major pest outbreaks and The production and use of DDT and BHC to develop sustainable IPM techniques. The ended in China in 1983. On 22 November main tasks of NATESC are to lead the pro- 1995, a regulation banning the use of high vincial Plant Protection Stations in order to toxicity, high residue pesticides on vegeta- extend IPM technology and to take part in bles grown close to urban areas was estab- IPM research activities. The key institutions lished. This included the commonly used involved in national IPM research are: insecticides methamidophos, parathion- methyl, methomyl, and phorate. The State • Institutes of the Chinese Academy of Council issued the Pesticide Administra- Agricultural Sciences. IPP, Biological tion Regulation of China in 1997, which is Control Institute, Cotton Research the guiding principle for the registration, Institute, Institute of Vegetables and production, management and application of Flowers, Institute of Crop Germplasm pesticides in China. Resources, China Rice Research Institute. • Institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Institute of Zoology, Shanghai Institute of Entomology, IPM Research and Practice in China Guangdong Entomological Institute. • Institutes of Plant Protection of Pest monitoring and forecasting in IPM Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the following provinces: A nationwide pest monitoring and forecast- Beijing, Gansu, Guangdong, Hebei, ing system in China is used for all crop Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, protection programs. The first forecasting Jiangsu, Jilin, Qinghai, Shaanxi, station for rice stem borers was established Shandong, Shanxi, Shanghai, Sichuan, in Zhejiang Province in the early 1950s. Xinjiang, and Zhejiang. There have been 8, 68 and 1100 forecasting • Universities. National universities stations at provincial, city and county such as China Agricultural University, levels, respectively, in 13 rice planting Huanzhong Agricultural University, provinces since the early 1970s (General Nanjing Agricultural University, North- Station of Plant Protection, 1988). Since west Sci-Tech University of Agriculture 1983, 90 forecasting regional stations for 200 Z.-Y. Wang et al.

rodent population surveys have been estab- Cultural practices lished (Zhao and Yuan, 1990). The county level forecasting stations report to the pro- Cultural control practices are considered a vincial forecasting center, and then to the major component of IPM in China. Cultural General Forecasting Station of Crop Insect control of the Asian corn borer (Ostrinia Pests and Plant Diseases of China (currently furnacalis) by manipulating the ratio of the Forecasting Department of Crop Insect areas planted to spring maize and other host Pests and Plant Diseases, NATESC of crops has been an excellent example of the Ministry of Agriculture). The system pro- benefits of cultural controls. In the early vides information documenting the trends 1970s, the Asian corn borer caused yield for major pests during the entire year in losses as high as 40–50% and reduced the different regions over the last 40 years. quality of the harvestable grain. The major Data from the Crop Insect Pests and reason for this serious damage was the 4.3:1 Plant Diseases Forecasting database were ratio of the area planted to spring maize compiled by the General Forecasting Station (and other host crops) versus summer of Crop Insect Pests and Plant Diseases in maize. A large number of first generation China and published in 1983. It documented egg masses were laid upon a relatively the historical data of more than 100 major small area of summer maize and resulted in insect pests and plant diseases in different tremendous damage. After changing the regions from 1964 to 1979, including the cropping system into winter wheat rotated time of occurrence, climate factors, host, with summer maize, the area planted for the effect of natural enemies, insect occurrence spring crop significantly decreased and the in relation to migration patterns, losses due area planted for summer maize increased, to insect density or disease severity, epi- resulting in a ratio of 1:40. A chemical con- demic dynamics and the forecasting experi- trol plan for spring maize further reduced ences (General Forecasting Station of Crop the first generation progeny and resulted in Pests of China, 1983). Extensive research on excellent control (Zhou and He, 1995). important migratory insect pests has been Multicropping patterns can influence coordinated nationwide to increase the the occurrence of pests and natural enemies. effectiveness and accuracy of forecasting. Growing rape and sorghum as trap crops The establishment of economic thresh- in cotton fields significantly increased the olds further increased the usefulness of the predator density compared with cotton monitoring and forecasting activities. In the grown in a monoculture cotton field (Zhao 1970s, economic thresholds for important et al., 1991). Natural enemies easily transfer insect pests in major crops were developed from winter wheat to cotton in cotton–wheat (Chiang, 1977). In order accurately to predict intercropping after the wheat is harvested potential pest damage and decide whether (Nan et al., 1987; Wang et al., 1991). Such control measures were warranted, more cultural practices are one of the common research on yield losses and economic IPM components in cotton in the North thresholds for pests of rice, wheat, maize China cotton belts. and cotton in different regions has been conducted. The economic thresholds for most pests have been raised to accommodate the compensatory ability of crops and the Biological control effects of natural enemies (Zeng et al., 1988; Wen et al., 1992). Some single and complex Biological Control in China (Bao and Gu, dynamic action thresholds of the main crop 1998) is an excellent reference book on pests have been developed and used in IPM research and application of biological demonstration regions since the 1980s control in China. Biological control has (Guo et al., 1988, 1994; He et al., 1991; been accomplished using two methods: Lu et al., 1991; Ding et al., 1994; Wang, R.Q. mass culture and release of natural et al., 1994). enemies or microbial/antibiotic agents, and IPM in China 201

conservation and utilization of natural ene- combined with Trichogramma releases mies. Studies on the major natural enemies or microbial insecticide applications, or of important pests on ten major crops were rational application of chemical pesticides carried out from 1979 to 1982, recording (Shi, 1996). the dynamic patterns of pests and natural enemies (Gao, 1983; Hou et al., 1984; Zhao, 1984). There were 1303 species of natural enemies of rice pests, and 633, 434, 361 and Pest-resistant crop varieties 777 species in cotton, soybean, millet and vegetables, respectively (Piao, 1998). Since the 1970s, much research has focused Parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma on plant resistance in four key crops: rice, have been mass cultured and released to wheat, maize and cotton. Rice cultivars control insect pests on a large scale in China. resistant to N. lugens, Sogatella furcifera, C. Twenty-four species of Trichogramma were suppressalis and Cnaphalocrosis medinalis reported, five of which are mass-produced: were discovered, and some insect-resistant T. dendrolimi, T. chilonis, T. ostriniae, T. varieties, such as Zheli 1, Xiangzhong Xian evanesscens and T. japonicum. Mechanized 3, and Zhongxuan 13, have been developed production and standardization of products (Lu and Gu, 1988). From 1973 to 1979, of T. dendrolimi and T. chilonis with artifi- about 11,200 rice cultivars were tested in cial host eggs has been successful (Liu et al., Guangxi rice blast nurseries for resistance, 1980, 1996; Dai et al., 1996). T. dendrolimi 23 of which showed highly to moderately is the most extensively used parasitoid to stable resistance (Lay, 1981). From 1975 to control insect pests such as the Asian corn 1983, a total of 1770 maize samples, includ- borer and sugarcane borers. This parasitoid ing inbred, hybrids, and open-pollinated is applied to an average of 400,000 ha each varieties were screened for resistance to year, up to a maximum of 670,000 ha. the Asian corn borer. Of these, 47 were Microbial insecticides and agricultural highly resistant to whorl infestation and an antibiotics have been used widely to control additional 86 showed moderate resistance insect pests and plant diseases. Formula- (China National Corn Borer Research tions of Bt are commonly used to control Group, 1983). Lepidoptera in cotton, maize, rice, and Since 1983, screening resistant varieties vegetables. Jinggangmycin is effective in for the major plant diseases and insect pests controlling rice sheath blight (Thanate- has been the responsibility of the National phorus cucumeris) and corn sheath blight IPM Technique Research Projects. More (Rhizoctonia solani), the important diseases than 20,000 varieties, hybrids or lines of in rice and maize, respectively, in rice, wheat, cotton and maize have been China (Zeng et al., 1998). The area using screened. More than 2000 varieties have Jinggangmycin to control rice sheath blight been verified to have some resistance, and increased to 16 million ha in 1998 (Piao, over 40% of resistant germplasms have 1998). concurrent or multiple resistance to two Conservation of natural enemies has or more pests (Guo, 1999). gained attention in China. Studies have Transgenic Bt cotton entered commer- documented 227 species of parasitoids and cial use in China in 1998. Two different predaceous insects of 27 families belonging sources of Bt cotton expressing Cry1A insec- to six orders as well as 90 species of spiders ticidal protein were used, one developed in in rice fields of Guangxi Autonomous the USA and the other developed in China Region. In China 283, 204, 23 and 152 spe- by using the pollen tube pathway transfor- cies of spiders have been recorded in rice, mation method (Guo, 1995; Ni et al., 1998). cotton, wheat fields and citrus orchards, Acreage of Bt cotton in China increased from respectively (Zhao, 1998). Many species of 80,000 ha in 1998 to over 0.3 million ha in natural enemies of insect pests in cropland 1999. In the northern China cotton belt, the are conserved through planting trap crops, total cotton acreage in Shandong and Hebei 202 Z.-Y. Wang et al.

provinces in 2000 was over 0.6 million ha, in 1994–1995. The cost of pest control was 90% of which was Bt cotton (Zhao et al., reduced by 30%, and the net benefits 2000). Bt cotton plants have resulted in a increased by US$56/ha (He and Gu, 1996). 60–80% decrease in the use of foliar insecti- The brown planthopper migrates to the cides (Xia et al., 1999). Estimated economic north in summer on the airflowof monsoons benefits averaged US$250/ha in 1998–2000 from the southwest, and back to the south in (Jia et al., 2001). autumn on the northeastern wind (Cheng et al., 1979). In the southern area, the major initial population comes from Southeast Asia outside the China mainland. A long- Successful Examples of IPM term forecasting method for the planthopper outbreak based on the insect origin was In rice developed, and forecasting results were effective in predicting the actual population. The yellowstem borer, rice planthoppers Imidacloprid proved be an excellent insecti- and the rice leaf-folder are the most serious cide in rice IPM, and was used for the control pests in Guangdong Province. Dasha Town- of planthoppers based on forecasting and ship in Guangdong is an experimental base field monitoring (He and Gu, 1996). for rice IPM established by the Institute of Entomology of Zhongshan University. It was the first township in China to implement IPM. IPM teams were formed at village and In wheat township levels and farmer schools were established. Farmers, village technicians, Wheat stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis)isan township extension experts, and university important disease of wheat in China, with professors designed the IPM strategies 31 physiological races of the rust found in jointly. The system includes using varieties the past 40 years (Wu et al., 1993; Wang with multiple pest resistance, cultural prac- et al., 1996). When a newrace appears, tices, sanitary treatments on seed, growing some varieties of wheat resistant to other strong seedlings, planting in rational densi- races may be susceptible to the newrace. ties, fertilizer and water management, con- It is very important to breed wheat resistant servation and utilization of natural enemies, to newraces and to monitor for newraces rational use of chemical pesticides and of wheat stripe rust. For example, a wheat farmer training (Pu et al., 1984; Zhang and stripe rust outbreak occurred on large areas Gu, 1998). By using these strategies, popu- in 1990. One of the key factors was a new, lations of rice insect pests in this township highly virulent race, CY29 (Wu et al., 1993). were lowest in the Zhaoqing City. Rice Another factor was suitable weather for the planthoppers were kept under control in disease. Researchers discovered the occur- 98% of the rice fields, and populations of rence of this race and were able accurately other insect pests also declined due to natu- to forecast that the stripe rust would be ral enemies. Natural enemies in rice fields prevalent in 1990. In an IPM demonstration without chemical control kept populations plot, the fungicide triadimefon was used at of rice planthoppers lower than in those the proper time and efficient cultivation under chemical control. The long-term pres- practices were used, keeping the disease ervation and utilization of natural enemies under control. The average wheat yield was in large rice fields can not only enhance the 40–70% higher than in non-demonstration species and diversity of natural enemies, areas (Guo, 1999). but also promote natural enemies and The stripe rust pathogen cannot survive strengthen biological control of rice plant- the summer in most of the wheat region in hoppers (Zhang et al., 1996). Demonstration China where the mean temperature in mid- and extension areas for the rice IPM system summer is over 20°C. It can only survive the were 73,000 and 6,700,000 ha, respectively, summer in restricted regions at an altitude of IPM in China 203

1450–1650 m. East and south Gansu and strategies have been established for its con- northwest Sichuan are the most important trol. In early spring, piles of infested maize sources of rust infection (Wang et al., 1988). stalks are treated with Beauveria bassiana IPM of wheat was implemented in the preparations to control the overwintering Longnan region (South of Gansu Province), generation. The fungus can kill 82% of the a key source of wheat stripe rust infection. overwintering larvae, significantly decreas- By analyzing the ecology of the wheat ing the number of egg masses in the maize field system, a more complete IPM system field and reducing the percentage of infested was established for control of wheat pests, plants. In addition, intermediate resistant especially wheat stripe rust. The system hybrids were recommended before the changes the deployment of crops, making introduction of highly resistant Bt maize. cultural techniques a foundation, then uses A mass trapping system was also pest-resistant cultivars. By monitoring the developed. During the emergence of overpopulation dynamics of local major wheat wintering moths, a light trap with a high diseases and insect pests, and then applying intensity mercury-vapor lamp and a pool highly effective and selective pesticides trap were spaced 150 m apart in a checker- as auxiliary measurements, the program board pattern in a village where maize stalks proved successful. In addition, the sustain- were stored. From 1987 to 1989, 63% of the able management of wheat diseases and wild population was captured, leading to a insect pests in the Longnan region will not reduction of 71.1% and 66.1% of egg masses only delay the emergence of newraces of the and infested plants, respectively, in the adja- stripe rust, but also reduce the pathogen cent area (Wang et al., 1990). Based on the source and decrease the threat to major dispersal ability and migration possibility of wheat production areas in central and the borer, the ‘minimum effective area’ for a eastern China (Wu et al., 1999). population control program using a trapping system was determined to be not less than 50 km2 surrounding each hibernation site (Wang, Z.Y., et al., 1994). In maize Biological control with mass release of Trichogramma has been used against the Maize is the most important crop in north- Asian corn borer since the 1970s. The most eastern China. Major maize pests are the effective release time was determined by Asian corn borer, stalk rot, northern leaf monitoring the borer pupation rate. When blight and the corn head smut. Utilization the pupation rate of the overwintering of multiple resistant hybrids is considered generation reached 10%, the first release of the most fundamental component of maize Trichogramma was made 10 days later. A IPM. As a result of IPM tactics with resis- second release was made after 7 days. A total tant hybrids, northern leaf blight is under of 150,000–300,000 wasps/ha were released, control for most of the commercial maize which resulted in a parasitization rate of hybrids. In the region where corn head 65–85%. The cost in the areas where one smut is a major problem, use of resistant generation of corn borer occurs was about varieties is the first choice, and a seed- US$1.6/ha, which was US$0.5/ha less than coating agent is also very effective at con- if chemical insecticides were used. In two- trolling the disease with efficacy over 80%. generation areas, additional Trichogramma Maize stalk rot can be kept under control releases were needed when the egg masses by using resistant varieties combined with of the second generation were observed, increasing the potash fertilizer. leading to an average reduction of the Asian corn borer population of 46.3% to 73.6% in Asian corn borer the autumn (Cong et al., 2000; Liu et al., 2000). In areas with continuous large-scale The Asian corn borer is the most important releases of Trichogramma for more than 10 insect pest in maize and a number of IPM years, the number of overwintering larvae 204 Z.-Y. Wang et al.

per 100 stalks decreased from over 150 to References fewer than 10. The mean parasitization rate of borer egg masses was 76% on 72,400 ha Bao, J.Z. and Gu, D.X. (eds) (1998) Biological in 1988 in Yushu City of Jilin Province, Control in China. Shanxi Science and compared with 12% in a non-released area Technology Press, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 644 pp. (Wang et al., 1998). In the case of an outbreak Chen, S.J. (1962) The earliest biological control year, chemical insecticide granules and Bt method in the world – the liberation and formulations are applied when the maize is breeding of the yellowcitrus ant ( Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr.) in citrus orchards and its in the late whorl stage. significance in practice. Acta Entomologica Sinica 11, 401–408. Cheng, S.N., Chen, J.C., SI, H., Yan, L.M., Key Constraints Chu, T.L., Wu, C.T., Chien, J.K. and Yan, C.S. (1979) Studies on the migrations of brown One of the challenges for IPM imple- planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål. Acta mentation in China is the lack of a single Entomologica Sinica 22, 1–21. organization in charge of IPM research and Chiang, H.C. (1977) Pest management in the extension, although there is close collabora- People’s Republic of China. Monitoring and forecasting insect populations in rice, wheat, tion between the different agencies. Also, cotton and maize. FAO Plant Protection most farmer families growcrops on a very Bulletin 25, 1–8. small scale because of the rural reform China National Corn Borer Research Group (1983) policy of the early 1980s. It is difficult to An evaluation of resistance of corn varieties reach millions of small farmers with an IPM to the Asian corn borer. Plant Protection 9(2), extension program because of the many iso- 41–42. lated farms. Further reform in agricultural Chou, I. (1980) A History of Chinese Entomology. education, research and extension systems Entomotaxonomia Press, Wugong, Shaanxi, will have significant influences on IPM in China, 213 pp. the future in China. Cong, B., Yang, C.C., Yang, S.W., Li, Y.Q., Wen, H., Liu, W., Yi, Y.Q., Fu, B. and Chen, G. (2000) Establishment, development and perspective of IPM of maize diseases and Important Websites and Publications pest insects in Liaoning Province. Journal in China of Shenyang Agricultural University 31, 413–417. Information on IPM in China is usually Dai, K.J., Ma, Z.J., Pan, D.S., Xu, K.J. and Cao, A.H. in Chinese, although there are abstracts (1996) Standardization on mechanized in English for the papers in the academic production of artificial host eggs of Tricho- gramma and technique of propagating wasp. journals. Some important websites are: In: Zhang, Z.L., Piao, Y.F. and Wu, J.W. (eds) www.ipmchina.net www.nasesc.gov.cn Proceedings of the National Symposium on www.weeds.net.cn Important publications IPM in China. China Agricultural Scientech include: Acta Phytophylacica Sinica, Acta Press, Beijing, pp. 1138–1139. Entomologica Sinica, Scientia Agricultura Ding, H.J., Ni, H.X., Sun, J.R., Chen, J.L., Li, S.J., Sinica, Acta Phytopathologica Sinica, Plant Ma, Q.X., Liu, H.Y., Zhang, Z.S. and Protection, Chinese Journal of Biological Wang, J.L. (1994) Applicationof accumulated Control, Natural Enemies of Insects, Plant insect/disease/day value for determining the Protection Technology and Extension, Ento- mixed damage and the dynamic economic mological Knowledge, Journal of Weed threshold. In: Li, G.B. and Guo, Y.Y. (eds) The Key Techniques of IPM on Cereal Crops Science, Pesticides, and Pesticide Science and Cotton in China. China Science and and Administration. There are also journals Technology Press, Beijing, pp. 267–275. published by agricultural universities First Editorial Division, China Standard Press and provincial/regional agricultural acade- (1999) Collection of National Standard for mies of different provinces with articles Pesticide Residue Limits in China. China on IPM. Standard Press, Beijing, 213 pp. IPM in China 205

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and propagation of natural enemies of cotton transgenic Bt cotton in Northern China. insect pests. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica 18, Resistant Pest Management Newsletter 11(1), 339–343. 28–31. Zhao, J.Z., Rui, C., Lu, M., Fan, X., Ru, L. and Zhou, D.R. and He, K.L. (1995) Asian Corn Borer Meng, X. (2000) Monitoring and manage- and Its Integrated Management. Golden ment of Helicoverpa armigera resistance to Shield Press, Beijing, 102 pp.

Chapter 17 Integrated Pest Management in India

Amerika Singh1, Saroj Singh1 and S.N. Rao2 1National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, India; 2A.N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra Pradesh, India

Introduction adopting the sustainable IPM, which is ecologically safe, cost-effective and farmer India’s population is about 1 billion people. friendly. More than 70% of India’s population lives It has been proved beyond doubt that in rural areas where the main occupation IPM is a valid solution leading to sustainable is agriculture. Agriculture engages around production and food security. The greatest 66% of the total work force and contributes challenge is to do this without harming 25% to the gross domestic product of the the environment and depleting the resource country. base for future generations. IPM is expand- Insect pests and diseases are dynamic ing in the Indian subcontinent also, but components of ecosystems. Changes in crop- with less vigor. A rapid adoption of IPM is ping pattern and other production inputs now called for, so that the goal to achieve have resulted in major changes in pest com- long-term sustainable systems of crop plexes during the post Green-Revolution protection and production can be achieved years. It is now well understood that the before it is too late. For this, education, an pests continue to be the major constraints in effective information dissemination system, stabilizing crop yield and also in realizing motivation and mass production of the IPM the full potential of research findings. It has program need to be developed. been estimated that on average 18% of the Recent pest-related disasters in cotton crop production worth more than rupees (whitefly in 1983 and 1984, Helicoverpa 292,400 million (US$8600 million) is lost armigera in 1987 and 1988) caused major annually due to pests (insect pests, plant public concern. Because of these disasters, pathogens, nematodes, rodents and weeds, cotton growers and extension workers are etc. (Dhaliwal and Arora, 1996). The losses now more aware of problems associated are likely to mount with increasing monoc- with excessive insecticide use. Studying ropping, fertilization, irrigation and other the underlying causes of pest outbreaks and important features of intensive agriculture modifying management systems to prevent which may intensify further in coming years them has become the focus of pest manage- to produce more and more food and fiber to ment. New technology, biotechnology and meet the growing demands of the increasing improved chemical pesticides are being population. At least half of the total developed to accelerate the adoption of IPM losses due to pests can be avoided by and increase its potential application.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 209 210 A. Singh et al.

Losses Due to Pests and Emerging for transmission of several viral diseases, Pest Problems e.g. aphids are reported to transmit about 160 viruses. The major constraints limiting higher Newpest problems have appeared productivity are the onslaught of insect owing to intensive crop production tech- pests and diseases, which are favored by nologies and changing cropping patterns. intensive agriculture. It is estimated that A change in the host scenario of the pest herbivorous insects eat about 20% of the is noticed. The serpentine leaf miner crop grown for human consumption. The (Liriomyza trifolii), spiraling white fly development of resistance, secondary pest (Aleurodicus disperses), coffee white stem outbreaks and emergence of newpest prob - borer (Xylotrechusm quadripes) and mango lems had amounted to increased monetary borer (Deonalis albizonalis), cotton root losses. The annual crop losses due to insect rot (Rhizoctonia solani) and leaf curl virus pests and diseases in India vary up to 38% disease on cotton are some of the newpest (insect pests and diseases 26%, weeds 10% problems that need priority attention and and birds 1–2%). Reports indicate that the warrant immediate management to prevent losses caused by the specific major pests further spread. may be higher. Helicoverpa in cotton causes yield losses of up to 20–25%. Raheja and Tiwari (1997) had reported that losses Pesticide Use – Indian Scenario due to American boll worm alone may be around rupees 10,000 million annually while the losses due to insect pests and Pesticides will remain a key means of diseases in rice (18.6%) amounted to intervention of most IPM strategies and rupees 55,120 million (US$1102.4 million) their injudicious use represents the greatest (Table 17.1). The overall losses due to threat to IPM, and yet has provided the insect pests were estimated to be rupees catalyst for virtually all IPM programs 60 billion (US$1.2 billion) in 1983 (Rao (Singh and Dubey, 1996). Krishnamurthy and Murthy, 1983), rupees India is the second largest manufacturer 200 billion (US$4 billion) in 1993 (Jayaraj of basic pesticides in Asia with 165 and Regupathi, 1993) and rupees 290 registered pesticides in the country and it billion (US$5.8 billion) in 1996 (Dhaliwal accounts for less than 2.5% of the world and Arora, 1996). In recent years, the leaf markets in value terms. Consumption is curl disease of cotton has been reported in also lowin India at 288 g/ha compared the states of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana with 12,000 g/ha in developed countries. in virulent form and more than 100,000 ha Insecticides account for nearly 76% while of cotton have been infected with this herbicides account for only 10% of the disease in Rajasthan alone. Insect pests pesticides usage in India. inflict direct losses and also act as vectors The peculiar feature of this sector is that the use is skewed in favor of a few cash crops (Table 17.2). Table 17.1. Estimated crop losses in important Regional variation is also evident in crops. (Source: Lal, 1996.) pesticide use in India. The states of Andhra Crop Loss (%) Rupees (million) Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat account for 65% of the total pesticide use, with 33.6% in Rice 18.6 55,120 (US$1102.4 million) Andhra Pradesh alone. In the state of Tamil Wheat 11.4 14,150 (US$283 million) Nadu, pesticide use has decreased by more Jowar 10.0 1,732 (US$34.64 million) than 50% during the last 7 years. A decreas- Pulses 7.0 4,840 (US$96.8 million) ing trend is also evident in Andhra Pradesh Oilseeds 25.0 41,800 (US$836 million) and Karnataka. In contrast, pesticide use Cotton 22.0 20,000 (US$400 million) Sugarcane 15.0 13,360 (US$267.2 million) continues to rise rapidly in the states of Punjab and Rajasthan (Table 17.3). IPM in India 211

Table 17.2. Pesticide use on major crops in to act as catalysts and experiment stations India. for IPM programs. These centers educate Major crops Market share (%) state extension workers and farmers through training and demonstrations. But since these Cotton 40 centers can reach only 5% of the crop area, Rice 14 it has been proposed by the Ministry of Vegetables 8 Agriculture to add 228 IPM centers to be Wheat 6 established by state governments. Half of Pulses 5 Tea 5 the cost would be borne by the central Others 22 government. In the near future, there should be about 550 such centers in India. The ICAR has established NCIPM Table 17.3. Total pesticide use in different in NewDelhi to plan and coordinate the States. (Source: Directorate of Plant Protection IPM research and development programs Quarantine & Storage.) in collaboration with the SAUs and other State Consumption (million t) ICAR institutions (Appendix 17.1). A project Directorate of Biological Control has Uttar Pradesh 7459 been created to support biological control Punjab 6972 programs. Haryana 5025 Andhra Pradesh 4054 Easily adoptable and economically Gujarat 3646 viable IPM strategies have been developed Maharashtra 3614 for the control of major pests in rice, cotton, West Bengal 3370 pulses, oilseeds and sugarcane. Conserva- Karnatka 2484 tion of biological control has been especially Tamil Nadu 1685 successful, by either selective use of pesticides or their avoidance. Augmentative release of biological control agents has Origin and Evolution of IPM in India successfully controlled pyrilla and top borer of sugarcane, mealybug of coffee, and lepid- The government conducted pilot projects opterous pests affecting cotton, tobacco, on IPM from 1975 to 1980. Pest surveillance coconut and sugarcane. The development activities begun in 1980 soon after India of mass-rearing technology for biotic agents became part of the FAO Inter-country IPC such as Trichogramma spp., Chrysoperla Rice Program, and have nowbeen extended spp. and NPVs of Helicoverpa armigera to all major crops. Since then, Indian scien- and Spodoptera spp. has been a major tists have made many contributions to the achievement. development of IPM systems in India. Bio- IPM is also an integral component of logical control, the development of resistant crop improvement research. The various crop varieties, cultural controls, and the use disciplines are incorporated in crop of botanicals such as neem are all used research institutes and the All India Co- in Indian agriculture. Crop diversity, inter- ordinated Crop Improvement Projects of the cropping, and the small size of most farms ICAR. are the factors that favor the implementation of IPM. Indian scientists and extension workers are now well aware of problems that can result from improper use of National IPM Policy in India pesticides, and the concept of an economic threshold justifying pesticide use is well In 1985, the Government of India adopted recognized. IPM as the official guiding principle of The Ministry of Agriculture has estab- plant protection strategies in government- lished 32 IPM centers under the Directorate sponsored crop production programs. The of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage Government of India is also a signatory 212 A. Singh et al.

to Agenda 21 of the United Nations Con- Tomatoes ference on Environment and Development, which promotes IPM to reduce the use Entomologists at the Indian Institute of of pesticides in agriculture. Overall, the Horticultural Research in Bangalore devel- Government of India has taken a number oped an IPM system for the management of initiatives for the promotion of IPM of tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera. (Paroda, 1997). Notable initiatives taken by Trap cropping using marigold after every the Government of India for the promotion eight rows of tomato plants attracts most of IPM include: of the ovipositing tomato fruit borers. Mechanically destroying the trap crop 1. Infrastructure development usually eliminates the pest population, • Enhanced budgetary provisions for but the use of conventional insecticides promotion of IPM. reduces its attractiveness. The residual • Assistance to 30 states for establishing pest populations on the tomato crop can biocontrol laboratories. be reduced through the application of 2. Human resource development nuclear polyhedrosis virus. However, this • Organizing season-long training pro- recommendation does not work in all situa- grams for IPM trainers. tions. In temperate regions of the country, • Establishing FFS to train agricultural marigold does not attract H. armigera. extension officers and farmers. 3. Policy support Maize • Phasing out pesticide subsidies and diverting the savings to promotion of Sorghum, if interplanted with maize, can IPM programs. • effectively trap Chilo suppresalis as it Emphasis on production and release of is a preferred host and does not require biological control agents. chemical treatment. • Phasing out, banning, or restricting the use of hazardous pesticides. Host plant resistance

IPM Strategies Used by Farmers Host plant resistance has been used successfully in India. In a study on rice, Trap cropping higher mortality of leafhoppers and plant hoppers occurred on resistant varieties than Cabbage on susceptible varieties (Heinrichs, 1994). Mortality of brown planthoppers reared on A successful example of IPM in cabbage moderately resistant ASD7 or highly resis- is the use of trap crops for the control of tant Sinna Sivappu was higher than on a diamondback moth. Growing Indian mus- susceptible TN1 cultivar. The integration of tard in paired rows at the edge and after host plant resistance and insecticides has a every 25 rows of cabbage attracts 80% of the cumulative effect on Nephotettix virescens, diamondback moth and entire populations the vector of rice tungro virus, and in of leaf webber, stem borer, bugs and aphids. at least one case, there was no tungro Control of remaining diamondback moth virus infection on a resistant cultivar IR28 can be achieved with 4% neem seed kernels without application of insecticides. applied at the head-initiation stage of the crop. This can be repeated two or three times at 10–15 day intervals if necessary. This treatment is safe for Cotesia plutellae, Biological and cultural controls a dominant natural enemy of diamondback moth. Irrigating in the evening can also help An IPM program based on a combination of to control diamondback moth. biological and cultural controls has been IPM in India 213

developed for the management of rhino- the HaNPV, Bt and Trichoderma are ceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros, a major becoming popular among farmers. pest of coconut palm. Two pathogens affect rhinoceros beetle: a baculovirus and a fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae. Release of New ways of using pesticides baculovirus-infected beetles has been successfully used, but this approach occasion- Pesticides will continue to be an important ally fails due to development of resistance. part of IPM programs, although currently, Therefore, cultural control methods have the availability of selective pesticides is been developed, such as planting legumes very limited. To reduce exposure, broad- to cover potential breeding sites and leaving spectrum pesticides can be applied as seed some dead standing palm to aid the spread treatments, granules, stem injection or leaf of disease. In addition, beetle-breeding axial application to avoid injury to natural areas are treated with M. anisopliae. Virus- enemies. Sprays can be timed to avoid bee infected beetles are released in case the activity and adult natural enemies (Jayaraj pest population increases (Pillai et al., et al., 1994). For example, a single spray 1993). of systemic insecticide can easily control Another successful example is mechan- peach leaf curl aphid at the pink bud stage ical control of cockchafer beetles (Holo- when natural enemies are scarce. trichia spp., Adoretus spp., Schizonycha spp., and Anomala spp.). These beetles are Botanical pest repellents found throughout the country and have a wide host range. They are controlled by Plant extracts of some rice varieties are shaking host trees vigorously at night, and highly toxic to important rice pests such as collecting them on a sheet of cloth. This Chilo suppressalis, Nilaparvata lugens and collection method works best if started with Sogatella furcifera, but safe to predators the onset of pre-monsoon showers, when the such as Cyrtorhinus lividipennis (Arora beetles emerge, and continued for 5–6 days. and Dhaliwal, 1994). Extracts of Mentha This is the cheapest and the most effective arvensis, M. sylvestris and Adhatoda vasica method of control. Cultural methods also can help control ants on potato. Mentha,if can be successful, by plowing frequently grown with potatoes, has a repellent effect. and exposing beetles to predators. Beetles are attracted by lowintensity light and can be killed in kerosenized water. Many Examples of Successful IPM in India host plants such as Moringa oleifera, Carissa caranda, Azadirachta indica, and Ziziphus Several organizations, including pesticide mauriliana can act as trap plants. The adults companies, have been actively involved in are attracted to heaps of manure and plant developing IPM techniques for adoption debris for egg laying, where they can by farmers. Consequently, comprehensive be treated with pesticides. Other cultural IPM programs are developed for rice, methods include careful timing of planting. cotton, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds and In sunflower, early sowing favors important vegetables. predators such as the green lacewings, Chrysopa spp., and ladybird beetles. This method has been successful against green jassid, cabbage semi-looper and head bug. Sugarcane Similarly a number of microbials such as HaNPV, Bt, Beauveria, Nomuraea, Two notable examples of successful bio- Verticillium, Aspergillus, Trichoderma, logical control in India are control of Gliocladium, Bacillus and Pseudomonas the sugarcane top borer, Scirpophaga have proved efficient, however, only a few excerptalia, with an indigenous larval para- could be used commercially. Among these site, Isotema javensis, and the control of 214 A. Singh et al.

sugarcane pyrilla, Pyrilla perpusella, with 2 years, this year the natural enemy popula- Epiricania melanoleuca. tion was recorded in abundance and insect Inundative releases of Trichogramma pest incidence was also found to be com- chilonis and T. japonicum have been found paratively less. Some improved crop man- to control borers effectively. The technology agement practices helped in improving the for mass-production of Trichogramma spp. plant vigor and stand, such as planting of and their field release is also available two or three seedlings per hill, planting of (ICAR, 1991). ‘Dhaincha’ (Sesbania sp.) for green manure before transplanting of rice and judicious use of fertilizer with addition of potash Cotton at 40 kg/ha. Regular pest surveillance and monitoring along with natural enemies of insect pests helped in reducing the IPM The IPM technology for rain-fed cotton was interventions to a bare minimum, which first formulated by NCIPM and tested in included seed treatment with carbendazim collaboration with cotton research station at 2 g/kg of seed, and one release of para- Nanded of Marathwada Agricultural sitoids Trichogramma japonicum when the University, Parbhani. Initially three incidence of leaf folder was found to be modules, namely bio-intensive, biocontrol on the increase. Pesticide interventions + intercrop, biocontrol + insecticide were included the use of carbendazim against evaluated in comparison to farmers’ prac- sheath blight in a fewinfected patches (total tices over 10 ha during 1997/98. The most area less than 10 acres) and streptomycin promising module, namely bio-intensive, against bacterial leaf blight in some fields, was taken up for large-scale validation and not exceeding an area of 5 acres in total. promotion in 200 ha during 1998/99 and Spraying of monocrotophos was done in a was continued for 4 years. The main IPM fewfields (in about 2 acres) against gundhi interventions of this module were seed bug and pollen beetle Chiloloba sp. treatment with imidacloprid, scouting, Thus, from an average of five or six placement of pheromone traps for monitor- pesticide applications during earlier years, ing, two releases of the egg parasitoid the farmers have come down to less than one Trichogramma chilonis, one spray of spray. The farmers under the IPM program HaNPV and two or three sprays of Neem with negligible pesticide use harvested an Seed Kernal Extract (NSKE). average of 5740 kg/ha in contrast to non-IPM The IPM module resulted in substantial farmers who harvested 4560 kg/ha with four reduction of pesticide use and conservation or five sprays of pesticides. of natural fauna. The IPM technology provided higher net returns and yields over the farmers’ practices (non-IPM) were 1:1:76 and the increase in monetary gains were to Rapeseed–mustard the tune of 62.3%/ha. The IPM program on rapeseed–mustard was initiated by NCIPM in 1995. A study with Basmati rice three treatments was undertaken: (i) IPM; (ii) chemical control measures; and (iii) NCIPM initiated an IPM program in basmati farmers’ usual practices. The major compo- rice in 1994 with a few acres of land area nents of IPM treatments included: timely during kharif 2001. Later an entire village sowing of the crop (15–25 October), seed (Shikohpur) was taken for IPM validation treatment with Trichoderma viride at 2 g/kg in basmati rice, with a total of 400 acres seed, judicious use of fertilizers, mechani- of land under Pusa Basmati-1. With the cal removal of aphid infested twigs at the negligible use of pesticide during the past initial stage of attack etc. This module was IPM in India 215

validated in village Bhora Khurd district plan (1997–2002) for promotion of IPM. In Gurgaon, Haryana during 1995 to 2001 on addition, the Department of Agriculture large area of 100 acres. Due to timely sow- and cooperation under various crop ing, i.e. 15–25 October, the crop completely improvement programs are also giving escaped from the incidence of mustard substantial funds to various states for IPM aphid (Lipaphis erysimin) white rust training and demonstration (Rajak, 2001). (Albugo candida) and Alternaria leaf spot The Department of Biotechnology is during all the years of trial. also providing financial assistance to vari- The farmers were educated about ous SAUs and research centers for dev- the concept of IPM, identification of crop eloping and producing biopesticides and insect pests, benefits of regular monitoring biocontrol agents such as NPV, granulosis of insect pests through ‘FFS of IPM’ virus, Trichogramma, Chrysopa and Tricho- regularly. derma. Presently, ten biopesticide pro- As a result of this, a higher yield average duction units are able to cover an area of 2100 kg/ha was obtained as compared to 1 million ha/annum in ten crops. Under this farmer’s practices (control) 1700 kg/ha. No program, biopesticide production units and chemical pesticide application was done in plant protection clinical centers at regional the IPM plots after 1995 (Singh and Kumar, research stations have also been established. 2001). State governments

Chickpea State governments have intensified their efforts to promote IPM through demonstrations and training for extension personnel An eco-friendly IPM program in chickpea at and farmers. The Central Government, four locations in three states was initiated ICAR, and SAUs are extending technical by NCIPM. The main IPM components were assistance. seed treatment with Trichoderma + Vitavax (carboxin), chloropyrifos and Rhizobium, pheromone traps for pest monitoring and ICAR foliar spray of HNPV and NSKE and one ICAR Crop Institutes and SAUs have spray of endosulfan (need based). In farm- focused on developing IPM programs with ers’ practice (FP) around three foliar sprays emphasis on: of insecticides were applied as mixture and or alone (parathion methyl, dichlorvos • breeding resistant varieties; and monocrotophos). The average yield • developing improved agronomic prac- obtained in IPM trials was 2700 kg/ha as tices; and against 1500 kg/ha in FP fields. • identification of potential biocontrol agents.

Funding and Linkages of IPM Programs Private sector/NGOs

National A fewprivate agencies have set up commer - cial insectaries for mass rearing and supply Central government of egg parasites and pathogens to farmers. However, these are far from meeting the The IPM program in India is funded by the demand. With assistance from the Depart- Central, State and International organiza- ment of Biotechnology, a fewNGOs have tions like UNDP. A provision of rupees started Agricultural Development Centers. 447.1 million (US$8.9 million) has been Private Plant Clinic Centers also help to made by the Government of India during IX promote IPM programs. 216 A. Singh et al.

International Infrastructure development

FAO–ICP program in rice IPM is knowledge-based, so coordination between research institutes and farmers FAO–ICP has pioneered the IPM program in is essential. Lack of a reliable database rice, which has been widely accepted by has hampered progress of IPM programs. state extension workers. Based on the suc- Technology development for IPM involves cess of nine season-long training programs, 29 SAUs, one Central Agricultural many states have suggested extending University and other National Institutes, the scope of the training to other crops, Crop Research Institutes, National Research especially cotton and vegetables. The FAO- Centers and a network of All India sponsored training programs have helped to Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects, build a core of IPM trainers. besides traditional universities. Synthesis of IPM modules, their evaluation and UNDP–IPM project socioeconomic impact analysis are being carried out at NCIPM. Development and strengthening of IPM has been implemented in India since 1994 with an outlay of US$2.37 million mainly for consultancy (project personnel), development Commercialization of biocontrol agents of master training programs, training (fellow- and biopesticides ship, study tour, international workshop, master training, national workshop), pur- Efforts are being made to use biodegradable chase of equipment, and impact assessment. and renewable organic materials in IPM whenever possible. The government of India is providing financial assistance for Research Efforts on IPM in India 30 state biological control laboratories to promote the use of biological control The ICAR is a premier research organiza- agents. The Registration Committee has tion at the national level with the NCIPM decided to promote use of biopesticides and a network of 13 crop-based institutes, such as Bt, and allowtheir commercializa - which are engaged in IPM-related research. tion to promote IPM. Requirements for These institutes have developed IPM mod- registration of these pesticides have ules for rice, cotton, and some horticultural been simplified in order to boost their crops. In collaboration with SAUs, these production and import. institutes are also developing IPM strategies for other crops including pulses and oilseeds. The NCIPM emphasizes region-wide Registration and quality control crop-based IPM programs (Appendix 17.1). Other institutions including the Department About 139 commercial insecticides have of Biotechnology and some NGOs are also been registered so far and 35 are widely developing and promoting IPM technology. used. The Government has already A network of IPM centers has been banned 11 insecticides and has restricted established throughout the country for the use of several others. Historically, the organizing IPM field demonstrations and government subsidized pesticides by as training of farmers and extension workers. much as rupees 580 million. To promote Over 10,000 demonstrations have already IPM, this subsidy has been withdrawn, the been conducted and 9000 extension officers money diverted to promote IPM (Rajak, have been trained in IPM. 2001). IPM in India 217

IPM publicity being used nowmay need to be modified to achieve the goal of wider adoption of IPM. To promote and implement IPM, links with national and international agencies, SAUs, NGOs and the private sector have to be strengthened. Joint efforts of the national Conclusion and state Departments of Agriculture, ICAR and SAUs are needed to publicize IPM on a The most important aspect of the IPM pro- wide scale. gram in India is the community approach. Both national and state research organizations, along with SAUs, have been actively involved in developing IPM technology for Major Constraints to IPM in India farmers. As a result, a comprehensive package of IPM practices has been developed for A major limitation is the lack of trained rice, cotton, mustard, chickpea, pigeon pea personnel. Many farmers are not trained and sugarcane crops. The Indian Council adequately in augmentative biological of Agricultural Research and Department of control, leading to misunderstanding of its Agricultural Research and Education of potential efficacy. Logistical problems such the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of as improper timing and delays in shipment India are fully committed to the develop- can alter the effectiveness of natural ment and promotion of IPM in the country enemies. Farmers often believe that natural as evident from the fact sheets of allocations enemies do not work well, and that low pest and crop/pest priorities. It is the top prior- populations will cause losses. The use of ity mission of the ICAR and Government of biopesticides is limited due to moderate India to provide safe and effective technolo- toxicity, slowaction, host specificity and gies to protect against unacceptable losses photo-instability as well as a higher cost. caused by weeds, diseases and insect pests. Many farmers are not yet aware of the There is urgent need for decision support proper usage and available suppliers of software to be developed so as to allow IPM biocontrol agents and biopesticides. practitioners to estimate cost/benefit for a A number of botanicals such as karanj, variety of management inputs and examine mahua, nuxvomica, custard apple, ipomoea, profitability of a system. Genetic engineer- garlic and tobacco have been found to be ing to enhance the potential of LMOs also effective against insect pests and diseases, needs priority in order to ensure a clean however in absence of detailed scientific environment and food security. The ICAR data, except for neem, most of them are and SAUs are continuing to develop IPM localized to rural pockets. programs for other crops such as vegetables, Botanicals, particularly neem, have not oilseeds and pulses. However, IPM efforts found much favor with farmers. The neces- have so far remained restricted to the sity for repeated applications, lowtoxicity research activities of ICAR, the SAUs, and and persistence, cumbersome procedures of the Central IPM Centers of the Ministry of collection and extraction coupled with low Agriculture. Even though some successful yields have discouraged wide use of neem. non-chemical methods for control of crop IPM adoption is influenced by the cost ver- insect pests and diseases have been devel- sus efficacy of products, need for sophisti- oped, the transfer of this knowledge to the cated information for decision making, abil- farmers and extension officers has been ity to integrate newproducts and techniques relatively slow. into existing farm management practices Ideally, the IPM approach seeks to and managerial skills. Strategies that are understand the causes of pest outbreaks and 218 A. Singh et al.

modify the design and management system Countries. Commonwealth Publishers, New to prevent them. Coordinated efforts of Delhi, pp. 335–363. research institutes and extension personnel Jayaraj, S., Ananthakrishnan, T.N. and Veeresh, will continue to educate the farming com- H.K. (1994) Biological Pest Control in India: Progress and Perspectives. RGICS munity on IPM practices. Active participa- Project No. 2, Rajiv Ghandhi Institute of tion of the farmers, quick dissemination Contemporary Studies, New Delhi. of the technology, area-wide approach and Lal, O.P. (ed.) (1996) Recent Advances in Entomol- timely supply of inputs including quality ogy. APC Publications, New Delhi, 392 pp. biocontrol agents along with new technol- Paroda, R.S. (1997) Towards Food Secure India – ogy such as precision farming, i.e. broad a Policy Prospective. Paper presented at the combination of hardware, software, infor- India–IRRI Dialogue, New Delhi. mation technology and newproduct tech - Pillai, G.B., Sathiamma, B. and Dangar, T.K. (1993) nologies (biotechnology/bio-rational and Integrated control of rhinoceros beetle. In: newselective chemicals) willcontinue to Nair, M.K., Khan, H., Gopalsundaram, H.P. and Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V. (eds) Advances in increase the adoption of IPM. Coconut Research and Development. Oxford and IBH Publishing, NewDelhi, pp. 455–463. Raheja, A.K. and Tiwari, G.C. (1997) Awareness References Programme on Pesticides and Sustainable Agriculture. ICAR Publication, 69 pp. Arora, R. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (1994) Botanical pes- Rajak, R.L. (2001) Promotion of activities under ticides in insect pest management: ecological IPM. IPM Mitr 1, 9–17. prespectives. In: Dhaliwal, G.S. and Kansal, Rao Krishnamurthy, B.H. and Murthy, K.S.R.K. B.D. (eds) Management of Agricultural Pollu- (1983) Proceedings of National Seminar on tion in India. Commonwealth Publishers, Crop Losses due to Insect Pests. Indian New Delhi, pp. 213–245. Journal of Entomology (Special Issue), Vols 1 Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, R. (1996) Principles and 2, Hyderabad. of Insect Pest Management. National Agri- Singh, S. and Dubey, O.P. (1996) Integrated pest cultural Technology Information Centre, management beyond 2000. IPM and Sus- Ludhiana, India, 374 pp. tainable Agriculture – an Entomological Heinrichs, E.A. (1994) Development of multiple Approach 6, 29–32. pest resistant crop cultivars. Journal of Singh, S. and Kumar, S. (2001) Evaluation of Agriculture Entomology 11, 325–353. eco-friendly integrated pest management ICAR (1991) Integrated Pest Management in Sug- module on mustard crop. In: National arcane with Special Emphasis on Biological Symposium on Plant Protection Strategies for Control. Sugarcane Breeding Institute (Indian Sustainable Agri-Horticulture, 12–13 Oct. Council for Cotton Research), Coimbatore, 2001, held at S.K. University of Agricultural India. Sciences and Technology, R.S. Pura, Jammu, Jairaj, S. and Regupathi, A. (1993) Novel concept India. and future of pesticides in third world. In: Vaidya, K. (1992) Aurevedic pest management Dhaliwal, G.S. and Singh, B. (eds) Pesticides: in Nepal. In: Regenerative Agriculture Their Ecological Impact in Developing Technology for the Hill Farmers of Napal. IPM in India 219

Appendix 17.1. National Center for Missions of NCIPM Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) • Development and promotion of biologi- LBS Building, Pusa Campus, NewDelhi – cal and cultural control components in 110 012, India IPM. • Synthesis and validation of region- The ICAR established the NCIPM in specific IPM systems for rice, wheat, February 1988 to meet emerging plant maize, cotton, pulses, oilseeds and protection needs in India. The activities vegetables. of NCIPM extend across disciplines and • Creation of IPM database system and agencies to partnerships with SAUs, Pest Management Information Systems government agencies, industries, NGOs and for major crops. farmers. NCIPM plans and conducts IPM • Development of models for forewarn- research and development programs to ing of key pests of major crops. promote sustainable agriculture. NCIPM is nowmaking efforts to develop computer-based programs for storage and Significant achievements of NCIPM retrieval of information on IPM. Programs for developing and promoting environmen- • Rice IPM technology has been demon- tally sound IPM technologies for different strated successfully on 300 acres of crops are underway. The center is striving farmers’ fields. for effective cooperation with: All India • IPM in rain-fed cotton has been Coordinated Crop Improvement Programs; successfully demonstrated for 3 years, Crop Research Institutes; State Agricultural using the FFS approach. Biodiversity Universities; Departments of Science and in cotton fields increased, and the pro- Technology, Environment and Biotechnol- gram created some jobs. IPM adoption ogy of Government of India; National was high and the technology has Remote Sensing Agency; Indian Meteoro- spread to adjoining villages. logical Department; National Informatics • Key pests of mustard (aphids and white Center; Directorate of Plant Protection Quar- rust) could be effectively controlled antine and Storage; NGOs and industries. by timely sowing and use of bioagents (Trichoderma viride) as seed and soil treatments. Mandate of NCIPM • IPM of chickpea as well as pigeonpea has been successfully demonstrated. • To develop and promote IPM tech- Yields were substantially increased nologies for major crops so as to without the use of chemical pesticides. sustain higher crop yields with The use of locally available neem seeds minimum ecological implications. as biopesticides is encouraged. Rural • To develop an information base on unemployed youths have been trained all aspects of pest management and in production of HaNPV to meet local to advise on related national priorities demands of a village. and pest management policies. • A forewarning system has been devel- • To establish collaborative programs oped and validated for potato aphid. with other national and international • A rule to predict Helicoverpa armiger institutes in the area of IPM. population in the Deccan region has • To extend technical consultancies. been developed. 220 A. Singh et al.

Appendix 17.2. IPM Technologies/Tools cover large areas. However, the potential Available in India of these agents is continually improving. Microbial pesticides (Bt, fungi, and viruses) Several technologies are available for offer high potential for avoiding the the implementation of IPM, many of development of resistance. These are more them refined through testing and actual effective when used in combination with demonstration. They aim to provide an chemical insecticides. Entomopathogenic ecologically sound pest management pro- fungi and bacteria paralyze or kill their gram with sustainable use of renewable hosts by adversely affecting growth and natural resources. development of host insects. Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae are nowcommercially available, but total Host habitat management consumption is only 15–20 t, or rupees 100–150 million (US$2–3 million) in a total pesticide market of rupees 25 billion This involves modification of the environ- (US$0.5 billion). ment to lower pest population densities. NPV is effective against Helicoverpa The strategy relies on enriching bio- armigera and Spodoptera litoralis. The diversity of natural enemies in and around Department of Biotechnology has provided the cropping environment. financial support to establish units for mass production of NPV at SAUs and ICAR institutes. Overall 14 central and 20 state Botanicals biocontrol units have been established. Another group of biological control agents Plants are the richest source of renewable, includes pheromones, which can be used natural insecticides. As many as 2121 plant for mass trapping, mating disruption and species have been reported to possess pest monitoring. Pheromones have been control properties, 1005 species have insec- identified for more than 800 species of ticidal, 384 anti-feedants, 297 repellents, 27 insects. However, host specificity, photo- attractants and 31 with growth inhibiting degradability, lowpersistence, timing of properties. application, and difficulties in mass India has an estimated 18 million neem production need to be overcome for their trees, with a potential to produce 0.7 t of use on a large scale. fruit. On average, four neem trees planted on the border of a 1 ha field should yield enough neem seeds to protect the crop. Biotechnology Approximately 67 commercial neem-based formulations are currently available. How- Host plant resistance is a unique approach ever, necessity for repeated applications, to pest management, using molecular lowtoxicity, rapid biodegradability, techniques to identify, qualify and monitor standard formulations and lack of standard- the genetic content of the pest population. ized bioassay procedures have prevented The important contribution of biotech- widespread use. nology is the capacity to express pesticidal proteins within transgenic plants. Trans- genic plants in tobacco, tomato, potato and Biopesticides cotton hold promise in the management of pests. Efforts are underway to produce Bt Currently, the production of biocontrol brinjal (aubergine), Bt cotton and transgenic agents and biopesticides is not sufficient to mustard. IPM in India 221

Novel compounds reduced by improving the application equipment available to farmers. Several novel compounds have been synthesized for management of pests and diseases. Avermectins and mylebimycins Information technology having antibiotic properties have been developed. Acetylene and furanocoumarins Information technology is key to developing that act at novel points of insect decision support systems to manage pests neurotransmission hold promise. and pesticide resistance and integrate these with other crop management practices, such as irrigation and fertilizer regimes. Personal computers are nowimportant Pesticide application technology tools for management of pests and diseases. Databases are available to help diagnose The equipment used for application of pest problems, for genetic cataloging and insecticides plays an important role in to provide a quarantine support system for reducing the use of pesticides and ensuring pest risk analysis. proper coverage. Different types of nozzles User friendly software packages on IPM and application equipment are nowavail - are being developed. National Center for able to provide better coverage, improve the IPM, NewDelhi, has released a first version efficiency of the spray and reduce risk to of software on cotton IPM, which provides the operator. Electrodyne sprayers, ultra easy identification of pests and outlines lowvolume applicators, and controlled management options. Models to forecast and release droplet applicators are some recent monitor blast disease have been developed introductions. Many problems resulting by Madras University, Guindy (Tamil from the misuse of insecticides can be Nadu).

Chapter 18 Integrated Pest Management in Indonesia: IPM by Farmers

Ida Pedanda Gde Nyoman Jelantik Oka IRRI Liaison Office, Jalan Merdeka, Bogor, Indonesia

Country Profile short period of Japanese occupation, major rice shortages occurred. Rice shortages have People vs. food persisted during the country’s independence. Two to three million tons of rice were Indonesia is currently the fourth most pop- imported from the global market each year to ulous nation in the world after the Peoples’ meet the demand, placing a drain on the Republic of China, India, and the USA. In nation’s economy. the 1980s a national family planning program began, which reduced the population growth rate from 2.4% to 1.8%. During the Attempts to boost rice production years 1991 to 2000, the population growth rate was estimated at about 1.4%. By 2000, In the early years of Indonesian independ- the population numbered approximately ence, the Indonesian government attempted 206 million people. By the year 2025, the to boost rice production, but the increases Indonesian population is predicted to num- could not keep up with the growing popu- ber 265 million. Indonesia’s population is lation. One reason for the rice shortage expected to stabilize at approximately 353 was the lack of high-yield technology. For million in the future (World Development example, the Indonesian-bred rice varieties Report, 1993). (Bengawan, Dewi Tara, etc.) yield only 2.4 The high population presents a difficult tons/ha under favorable conditions. They challenge for the country. Basic needs do not respond to chemical fertilizers, and such as food, housing, clothing, health, need a relatively long 140 days to harvest. education, and employment have become In the late 1960s, President Soeharto’s progressively more difficult to meet. The government addressed the rice problem. rice supply is an example of the urgent need A comprehensive food production program for food in Indonesia. Rice is the staple food was launched in 1969 with the following of the Indonesian diet, supplying nearly objectives: 60% of the total caloric intake of the average person, and even more for the poor. Indone- • to achieve and maintain self- sia has suffered chronic rice shortages since sufficiency in food production; the days of Dutch colonialism. During the • to increase farmers’ income;

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 223 224 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

• to provide job opportunities and Between 1951 and 1961, production alleviate poverty; increased by 3478 t, from 9336 to 12,084 t • to increase foreign earnings through (Table 18.1). This was before the large- exports of agricultural products; scale implementation of the intensification • and to provide strong support for the programs. From 1971 to 1981, rough rice heavily expanding industrial, business production jumped from 20,058 to 32,774 t, and service sectors. a significant increase in only 10 years (Table 18.1). This showed that the intensification To achieve these objectives, four pro- program was effective. Increases in rice grams were organized: rehabilitation, expan- production continued for several years. sion, diversification, and intensification. For the first time in the history of the country, self-sufficiency in rice production was achieved during the 1983/84 season with Rehabilitation, expansion, and diversification an output of 38,134 t. This achievement encouraged policymakers to continue to The rehabilitation and expansion programs work for self-sufficiency in rice production. included rehabilitating outdated irrigation To reach that goal, a yearly increase of rice systems and neglected fields, and bringing yields of at least 2% was needed. Indonesia new areas under cultivation. maintained this level until 1993/94. Rice The diversification program promoted production in that year was 48,181 t. The the production of food crops other than rice, following year, rice production declined such as maize, groundnuts, soybean, cas- owing to extreme drought, compelling the sava, potato, sweet potato and other tubers. government to resume importation of rice.

Intensification of food production Economics of rice production in Indonesia

The intensification program covered both After the fall of Soeharto’s government in technical as well as socioeconomic aspects. 1997, significant changes took place. Rice It initiated large-scale planting of modern production continued to decline, forcing food crop varieties, increased use of chemi- the government to import 2–3 million tons cal fertilizers (N, P, K and micronutrients), of rice annually. The market price of and the expansion of irrigation networks. imported rice fell to rupees 1500/kg, below Economic stimuli included improved price the minimum profitable price for domestic policies for rice, supporting farmers’ coop- rice of rupees 2500/kg. The globalization eratives, expanding agricultural extension policies for Indonesia’s economy meant programs, and intensive use of pesticides. Table 18.1. Rice production in Indonesia. (Source: IRRI (1990); Statistik Indonesia (2001).) Improvements in rice production Year Rice production (tons)

The IRRI and the FAO provided assistance 1951 9,336 with the development of the programs. The 1961 12,084 IRRI introduced two modern rice varieties, 1971 20,058 (MV) IR 5 and 8. Under good management 1981 32,774 practices, each variety yields 5–8 tons of 1991 44,688 rough rice per hectare, but both are highly 1996 51,102 1997 49,377 susceptible to most rice pests. Therefore, 1998 49,237 heavy use of pesticides became necessary. 1999 50,866 The intensification program contrib- 2000 51,899 uted the most to increased rice production. IPM in Indonesia 225

that the government could not levy import Poor harvest technology and inadequate duties for imported rice, a policy which grain storage caused appreciable grain threatened the economic viability of Indo- losses. Poor handling of production inputs nesian rice production. The same was true made some of them useless. In particular, for fruit and vegetables. Approximately 100 canned liquid pesticide formulations were million people depend on agriculture as a sometimes left unused and stored inade- source of income in Indonesia. The price quately, leading to corrosion and leakage policies and marketing strategies for har- into the environment. vested rice needed re-evaluation to make rice production profitable for farmers but still economically acceptable to consumers. Pesticide use before IPM

An unexpected problem with the Alternative control methods by necessity intensified rice production programs was the emergence of various insect pests and Increasing costs of production inputs such diseases causing concern to both the as chemical fertilizers and pesticides forced government and farmers. At the time, pest many farmers to search for inexpensive problems were regarded as separate from alternatives. For example, in parts of central the health of the rice ecosystem. The belief Java and in North Bali, farmers used organic was that pests can and should be easily fertilizers exclusively (compost, dung, etc.). eliminated with regular applications of Many farmers’ groups used botanical pesticides, at least three to four times pesticides such as leaves of neem trees to during the season. If insect pests were prevent insect pests from infesting the rice still observed after regular insecticide crop. Finely chopped leaves of the neem applications, farmers were urged to apply tree were mixed with water, and the filtrate more insecticides, even by increasing the was sprayed on the plant. Farmers reported application rate. Often, pesticides were that this method does not kill insect pests, sprayed prophylactically even if no pests but acts as a repellent. were observed in the field. In the future, it is anticipated that In rice production centers, such as on botanicals and microbial pesticides will the northern plain of West Java, rice fields be increasingly in demand because of their were aerially blanketed with ultra low effectiveness, relative safety to humans and volume (ULV) formulations using small the environment, and the lowcost. For fixed-wing aircraft. Chemical insecticides example, the microbial insecticide Bacillus were regarded as effective tools to maintain thuringiensis is nowextensively used to the health of the rice fields. This ad hoc combat the diamondback moth, Plutella philosophy of pest control led the govern- xylostella, a major insect pest of cabbage in ment to subsidize pesticides for use in mass Indonesia. rice intensification programs by as much as 80%, costing from US$100–150 million/ year. Pesticides and the Environment

Logistical problems lead to Effects of pesticide use on human health environmental threats and the environment

Various technical and socioeconomic prob- Because almost all pesticide formulations lems surfaced during the early years of the were broad spectrum and applied exces- intensification program, such as availability sively they caused various environmental of production inputs (rice varieties, fertiliz- problems. They not only killed pests, ers, pesticides) in the rice-growing centers. but also beneficial organisms (such as 226 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

parasitoids, predators, bees, earthworms, Some causes of pest problems in and birds), and fish in irrigated rice–fish Indonesian rice production ecosystems. Chemical insecticides polluted irrigation water, eventually reaching the Based on field observations and research, rivers. Village people who used these several factors have been identified that waters for bathing, cooking and other needs contributed to increasing pest problems were exposed to health hazards (Oka, 1997). in rice production centers. These include Human poisonings and pesticide- the following (Oka, 1997). related deaths were also reported from the • Continuous and staggered planting in highly intensified rice production centers. rice production allowed pests to build In 1976, 450 insecticide poisoning cases up continually, frequently reaching were reported, with 26 deaths. Ten years epidemic proportions. This happened later, 404 insecticide poisoning cases were with both insect pests and other pests reported and 32 deaths occurred (Mustamin, such as field rats and the rice tungro 1988). Most likely, many more cases went virus. unreported because of poor communication • Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applica- systems in remote and isolated places. tion tended to make the rice plant more susceptible to many pest species. • Reduction of genetic diversity in rice Pesticide resistance: the brown and fields by planting only one or two green planthoppers modern rice varieties over wide areas caused decreased stability of the rice ecosystem. The brown planthopper, Nilaparvata • lugens Stahl, developed resistance to most Not all modern varieties possessed chemical insecticides (Laba and Soeyitno, resistance to all pests, therefore, pest 1987; Sutrisno, 1987). The brown plant- species to which the varieties are susceptible could multiply unchecked. hopper changed from a minor and • occasional rice pest to the most feared Modern varieties with a small genetic insect pest in most Asian countries (Dyck base for resistance could trigger devel- and Thomas, 1979). During the 1976/77 opment of newbiotypes/races of insect rice season, the brown planthopper caused pests capable of breaking down the extensive damage to the rice crop, affecting resistance of the rice varieties. at least 450,000 ha. Conservative yield loss estimates were approximately 364,500 tons of milled rice, enough to feed 3 million Fighting the brown planthopper with people for an entire year (Oka, 1979b). host plant resistance The green leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens Distant (Tandiabang, 1986), also This was the case with the brown plant- developed resistance to most chemical hopper. After the outbreaks of brown insecticides. N. virescens is an effective planthopper in the 1970s, the rice varieties transmitter of the rice tungro virus. As the IR 5 and 8 were replaced with IR 26, 28, N. virescens population increased owing to and 30. These newvarieties contained a developed resistance, the rice tungro virus monogenic dominant gene for resistance to spread rapidly in 1970 causing damage to up brown planthopper, designated as Bph 1. to 70,000 ha of rice fields in South Sulawesi. These rice varieties were highly resistant to In the 1980s, the virus broke out in Bali, the existing population of brown planthop- causing damage to at least 12,000 rice fields. per, which dramatically reduced the plant- Since then, the disease has become endemic hopper population. However, after five or in most of the rice centers throughout the six rice seasons (2–3 years), these varieties country. became susceptible to the pest. To attempt IPM in Indonesia 227

to protect the rice crop, pesticides were with air before they reach the rice plant and applied more often, but the problem persis- the water in rice fields. In the air, pesticides ted. In many rice centers the brown plant- may be blown by wind. Depending on hopper population nearly doubled 2 or 3 the wind speed and direction, the pesticide weeks after heavy insecticide application. particles may be deposited far from the It was suspected that the brown plant- source. Or, they may followthe air per - hopper population had developed a new colation and be photodecomposed by the biotype or race capable of attacking resistant sun’s ultraviolet radiation. In the irrigation rice varieties. This was soon identified as water, they might be biodegraded and Biotype 2. Newrice varieties resistant to diluted. After pesticides reach the plant, Biotype 2 (IR 32, 36, and 42) were requested they often kill the pests but also beneficial from IRRI to control the spread of Biotype 2. organisms such as predators, parasitoids, Of these, IR 36 was most widely distributed, the hyperparasitoids and other non-target because it was most in demand for its organisms. high yield and field performance. Even with widespread planting, IR 36’s resistance to the newbrownplanthopper biotype has remained stable, presumably it has a broader Biomagnification genetic base for resistance. The only draw- back is that its taste is inferior to newer Highly persistent pesticides, such as DDT modern varieties with better cooking quality and other organochlorines, do not degrade and a broad base for resistance to the brown quickly in water or soil. Microplankton planthopper biotypes, such as IR 56, 64, in rivers and oceans may absorb small and 70. amounts of pesticides while feeding. Zooplankton feeding on microplankton will have higher concentrations of pesticides in their bodies, depending howmany An ecological approach to pesticide use microplankton they feed on. In turn, these microanimals will serve as food for small Heavy reliance on chemical pesticides often fish, and these small fish will be eaten by creates pest resistance, resurgence of resis- larger fish. Finally, humans may catch and tant pests, secondary pest outbreaks and eat the larger fish. The concentrations of other environmental problems. A thorough pesticide increase at each level of the food understanding of the intricate interrelation- chain. Persistent pesticides such as DDT are ships of the crop ecosystem should be stored in fat and passed on at each level. the basis for sound control strategies. This Humans and other top-level consumers philosophy is the basis of IPM (Oka, 1987). can accumulate the highest concentration It is most likely that in the future, chem- of pesticide in their bodies. ical pesticides will still be widely used, In the soil, persistent pesticides may with the potential for causing unwanted side remain for years and be absorbed by plants effects. The first step to preventing adverse and earthworms; in turn, these worms might effects of pesticide use is education about be picked up by chickens and ducks. The their behavior in the environment. Farmers eggs of these chickens are believed to con- and other pesticide applicators are often tain some amount of pesticide. For example, unaware of the potential effects of pesticide the milk of nursing women was reported use, and education at this level is essential. to contain traces of DDT in Yogyakarta Figure 18.1 presents a model of the path (Untung, 1995, personal communication), of pesticides in the environment after probably because they regularly consumed application (Oka, 1995). the eggs of free-range chickens. This may Pesticides applied as emulsifiable con- be harmful to nursing infants, although the centrate, dust, or ULV formulations mix effects are not well studied. 228 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

Fig. 18.1. Qualitative model of the behavior of pesticides in the environment, in particular broad- spectrum and persistent pesticides (Oka, 1995).

The ultimate cost of pesticide use: human life In light of these concerns, researchers in Indonesia sought to develop alternative Cases of death from DDT poisoning have methods to minimize crop pest problems, been reported from Boyolali regency in which would be environmentally sound, central Java, where three out of 386 people sustainable and economical. The IPM died after eating locally prepared food, program was begun. including ‘limpung’ and fried soybean cakes, in 1982 (Mustamin, 1988). Worldwide human poisonings and deaths from pesticides are reported by Introducing IPM as an Alternative Pest WHO/UNEP (1989, in Pimentel et al., Control Strategy 1992). An estimated 1 million people each year are poisoned by pesticides, including Early obstacles to implementing IPM approximately 20,000 fatalities. Most deaths from pesticide poisoning occur in Third Early on, the major challenge faced by the World countries. The greatest costs of IPM program was convincing the govern- pesticide use are outside the economic ment to adopt an IPM approach. Supporters realm. of IPM lobbied policymakers to consider IPM in Indonesia 229

the newapproach. Several meetings debat - public unrest, heightened because of the ing the issue were held, often involving importance of rice as a staple food for most heated discussions of the pros and cons. Indonesians, especially the poor. Some newspapers became interested in the Resuming large-scale importation of IPM approach and covered the issue. rice would drain the country’s economy Finally, IPM was mentioned in official and present an embarassing situation for documents in the Third Five-Year Plan the government. This greatly concerned (1979–1984), but its implementation was the National Agency for Planning and still limited by the existing plant protection Development (BAPPENAS). To solve the directorate within the Ministry of Agri- problem as quickly as possible, yet culture. Technical aspects of IPM, such as effectively and in the long term, the agency cultural controls (synchronized planting, sought advice from the Department of crop rotation, and sanitation), extensive use Agriculture and leading universities. Their of resistant plant varieties, and an extensive recommendation was to implement IPM pest monitoring system to encourage more strategies at the grassroots level, by training judicious use of pesticides were endorsed farmers to practice IPM in their fields. This and implemented on a wide scale. was a major departure from the traditional However, the implementation of alter- method of telling farmers what to do, rather native pest control strategies had to than teaching them the theory behind the face many obstacles. Pesticide subsidies newapproach. This newprogram became remained in effect, which encouraged known as ‘IPM by Farmers’. farmers to continue using the inexpensive pesticides. Massive advertising campaigns by pesticide companies also encouraged the use of pesticides. At the time, a systematic Recommendations of the IPM by program for educating farmers about IPM Farmers program and training them to use it did not yet exist. Extension workers were not yet trained in Other recommendations included reducing the IPM approach, so their pest control pesticide use to a minimum, and banning recommendations to farmers often did not the use of pesticide formulations which had change. Worse, the authorities were doubt- caused pest resistance. Also, it was sug- ful about the effectiveness of the new gested that farmers should be educated approach. Many were concerned that the through field training to implement IPM in newapproach wouldnot be able to control their own rice fields. In addition, the num- pest outbreaks. In addition, there were exter- ber of field observers should be doubled nal pressures from pesticide manufacturers from 1500 to 3000, and be thoroughly to promote certain pesticide formulations. trained in IPM before they were permitted to train farmers. Meanwhile, reports from several rice centers indicated that the brown plant- Political and economic crises spur hopper epidemic had spread quickly to introduction of IPM cover wide areas, in spite of farmers’ efforts to intensify pesticide sprays. At the time, the A newIPM program to address these Department of Agriculture was still con- problems did not emerge until 1986, vinced that the threat of brown planthopper when a massive outbreak of brown plant- was not serious enough and could be hopper occurred in Central Java, destroying overcome by conventional control methods. 75,000 ha of rice fields. This threatened the Despite these concerns, the recommen- self-sufficiency in rice production which dations of the scientists to the BAPPENAS had been achieved at great cost only a few were accepted and became a new policy. years earlier. Rice shortages triggered price In 1986, a Presidential Decree was pro- increases, which in turn caused widespread mulgated to support the IPM by Farmers 230 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

approach. The three objectives of the Decree What is IPM by Farmers? were as follows. By definition, IPM is a comprehensive 1. Develop manpower at the grassroots approach to pest control, utilizing compati- level, both farmers and field staff, to expand ble control tactics in one unified program education and awareness of IPM. (such as cultural controls, host plant 2. Increase efficiency of input use, in resistance, biological control, pheromone particular of pesticides. disruption, and mechanical/chemical con- 3. Improve environmental quality and trols) to maintain pest populations below prevent unwanted side effects on human economically damaging proportions, in an health. environmentally sound and safe manner. In The Decree banned 57 broad-spectrum essence, it is an ecological approach to pest insecticides formerly approved for use in control. But in practice, this definition is rice. Only the use of a fewinsecticides witha not enough. Social, religious, and cultural relatively narrowspectrum wouldbe per - practices must be taken into account when mitted, and their use would be based within planning and executing the program. Other- the IPM program. Another important step wise, it is difficult to convince farmers to was gradual withdrawal of the pesticide accept and practice IPM. For example, on subsidies, from 75–80% early in 1986 to the island of Bali, rat control through 40–45% in 1987. By January 1989, the subsi- regular mass hunting by the farmers before dies were totally withdrawn. In addition, planting is only undertaken after prayers pesticide companies were challenged to and offerings are given at the temple. change their orientation from a profit stand- Participation in the ceremony would gain point to showing more concern for the credibility for IPM trainers. environment and human health (Oka, 1997). These policies necessitated a change in the mentality and orientation of government IPM practices employed in the IPM by officials. They were required by law to move Farmers program from a pesticide-oriented pest control program to a comprehensive one, i.e. IPM, to Cultural control be carried out by farmers in their own rice fields. This represented a shift from Growing a healthy crop by using good seed, the ‘top-down’ approach to a ‘bottom-up’ proper soil preparation, and good crop philosophy of program implementation. management practices such as balanced The government charged BAPPENAS fertilizers, mulching, proper distance with both planning and implementing between plants, sanitation, and timely the ‘IPM by Farmers’ program. This policy irrigation is recommended. A healthy crop was controversial, since the mission of is the first defense against pest attacks BAPPENAS was development planning, because it can withstand pests better than a not program administration. The previous poorly growing crop. IPM program had been administered by The customary practice of continuous the Department of Agriculture. This policy or staggered planting throughout the year was meant temporarily to bypass the slow- had been shown to cause a buildup of pests moving bureaucracy of the Department. In such as field rats, brown planthopper, and addition, several Department of Agriculture the rice tungro virus. Crop rotation was officers with direct responsibility for crop recommended to prevent this by rotating protection were not yet ready to adopt the rice with other annual crops or fallowing newIPM approach. When the program was between two rice seasons. Annual crops established in 1994–1995, its management used in the rotation cycle should be non- was transferred to the Department of hosts such as mungbean, soybeans, or sweet Agriculture. potatoes. One recommended rotation cycle IPM in Indonesia 231

included two rice plantings followed by solution was to replace the susceptible another crop, then another rice crop rice varieties with new varieties that were followed by a non-rice crop, then three resistant to Biotype 2. Newvarieties had rice crops followed by a fallow season been developed that possessed a monogenic (Oka, 1979a,b). Crop rotation cycles varied recessive gene for resistance called Bph-2. depending on the availability of irrigation Of course, these varieties might also become water and local customs (Oka, 1979a,b). susceptible after the next fewcrop seasons as newbiotypes developed. Replacing sus - Biological control ceptible varieties with resistant ones over large areas was time-consuming. A quick Conserving natural enemies of insect pests, and effective method for detecting the such as parasitoids, predators, and insect brown planthopper biotypes was needed. pathogens, is important for pest control. Natural enemy conservation is environmen- A field method for detecting biotypes of tally safe and relatively stable as a method brown planthopper of control. For example, the brown planthopper has about 80 species of parasitoids Detecting the different biotypes of brown and predators (Chiu, 1979). Field obser- planthopper in the field was difficult vations and research showthat spiders, because the populations were usually especially the wolf spider, Lycosa pseudo- mixed, consisting of several biotypes. New annulata, play an important role in keeping biotypes were usually confirmed after the brown planthopper populations at low pest had spread rapidly over wide areas. levels. Another challenge was determining which rice varieties were planted in the area. Host plant resistance: the case of the These factors made it difficult to choose the brown planthopper appropriate rice variety to plant the next season. During the early years of the intensification A method for identifying the biotypes of program a number of pest species became brown planthopper was developed for use in more and more abundant, especially the the field. Two rice varieties susceptible to brown planthopper. The IRRI provided mod- all brown planthopper biotypes are used as a ern varieties of rice resistant to this pest. standard for comparison. Two other variet- Their resistance was due to a single gene, ies susceptible to Biotype 2, but resistant to called Bph-1. Perhaps due to this narrow Biotypes 3 and 1 are used, and two other genetic base, the resistance broke down after varieties susceptible to Biotype 3 but resis- only five or six cropping seasons. Over this tant to Biotypes 2 and 1 are used. Seeds of short amount of time, the strong selection the different varieties are glued between two pressure exerted by the resistant varieties sheets of absorbent tissue paper. The variety allowed the brown planthopper to develop names are copied opposite each row. This a newbiotype, called Biotype 2, capable of method of seed preparation simplifies the attacking the resistant rice varieties. work of field personnel and minimizes Another problem with the brown plant- errors. About 1 cm of soil is placed in a hopper was the widespread application of plastic tray. Urea is mixed with the soil at the broad-spectrum insecticides, which exerted rate of 90 kg N/ha before the planting sheet is another strong selection pressure on the set on the soil surface. The plastic tray is population and encouraged the develop- then placed in an insect proof cage. The ment of insecticide resistance in the brown cages are placed under sunlight and watered planthopper. The resulting increase in the as necessary. population of insecticide-resistant Biotype 2 Three or four days after seeding, the planthoppers posed a serious threat. Since plants are infested with brown planthoppers insecticides were no longer effective, the collected from the surrounding area. About 232 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

100 to 150 adults are released into each box. species. Selective pesticides favoring natu- Assuming that about half are females, they ral enemies of pests and beneficial insects should produce about 2000 nymphs per box. are most effective. For example, pyrida- Each tray contained about 500 seedlings. phenthion and tetrachlorvinphos are highly When nymphs are present in the area, plants selective, favoring the wolf spider, Lycosa are infested with second, third or fourth pseudoannulata, but toxic to their prey, the instar nymphs. Number of nymphs per plant green leafhopper. is maintained at an average of four to five. Molting inhibitors like buprofezin were Each of the infested seedlings is evaluated as reported to be highly effective against brown soon as the universally susceptible plants planthopper and safe for its natural enemies. die (according to IRRI Standard Evaluation This chemical has been widely used in System for Rice, 1980). The results are sent the IPM program. It should be applied only to the Directorate of Crop Protection in once, at the time when the planthopper Jakarta and Central Research Institute of population is predominantly in the nymph Agriculture in Bogor for analysis, and used stage. Factors such as time of application, to recommend the best rice varieties to plant formulation, methods of application, dos- the next season. This monitoring system is age, and biodegradability are important in carried out once or twice a year. increasing pesticide selectivity. Maps of brown planthopper biotype Pesticide formulations determine the distributions are made to guide the field method of application. Spray and dust for- extension workers in recommending the mulations increase the risk of poisonings, correct rice varieties to plant in each area. because the fine particles can be inhaled, This method also makes it possible to follow contaminate the skin and clothing and the biotype shifts and the distribution of the penetrate into the body. The advantage of pest (Oka, 1978, 1980). the ‘emulsifiable concentrate’ formulations is that they are easy to transport and can be Mechanical/physical control applied at any time. Dust formulations, on the other hand, are bulky and difficult Mechanical methods are used to control to transport. Systemic pesticides as seed field rats. In areas with synchronized plant- treatments are recommended to control ing and crop rotation, the farmers usually downy mildew, Sclerospora maydis Butler, organize a hunt for field rats a fewdays on maize. For example, only about 5 g of the before planting. Rat holes found in dykes fungicide Ridomil (metalaxyl) is needed and along the canals are plugged with mud, for 1 kg of maize seed. and a feware left open and filled withsul - Spot treatments use much smaller fur gas. Escaped rats are found with the aid amounts of pesticide and reduce the risk of hunting dogs and killed. This method of contaminating the environment. For can reduce the initial rat population by example, during the early stage of the brown almost half. If it is done regularly the rat planthopper outbreak, spot treatments on population may remain low. local populations with molting inhibitors proved to be effective. Rat control may be Pesticides effectively carried out by the ecologically sound method of baiting with the anticoagu- The Presidential Decree still allows the use lant rodenticide, Klerat RM (brodifacoum) of pesticides in the IPM program, but only (Oka, 1988). The use of pesticide mixtures those with high selectivity and little or no should be discouraged because, in general, side effects on non-target animals and pests will develop simultaneous resistance plants. For example, in rice–fish culture, to the chemicals (Metcalf, 1980). selective pesticides are needed. However, A strong pesticide regulation program such ideal pesticides are not available for and its enforcement are critical to the every situation. Usually, their selectivity is success of the IPM program. Indonesia limited to only a fewgroups of non-target has developed a set of pesticide regulations, IPM in Indonesia 233

Decree No. 7 1974, dealing with various The group of directives was charged aspects of pesticide management, such as with tackling policy issues, setting priori- registration, permits, safe handling and use, ties, identifying problems, coordinating storage, transport, disposal, and sanctions activities with foreign assistance, and iden- to violators. The Pesticide Commission is tifying the right personnel to guarantee the chaired by the Director of Plant Protection success of the program. The working group within the Department of Agriculture. Its assisted with working out the details of the members are experts from research institutes directives and ensuring that the program ran and the Departments of Health, Labor, Trade according to plan. When problems emerged and Environment. Although the formation during the implementation of the program, of this committee is an important step, sev- alternative solutions were developed and eral barriers still remain to adequate enforce- offered to the group of directives. ment. This is due to factors such as a lack The program was supported by USAID of adequately trained personnel, inadequate from 1989 to 1992. During the 1992/93 fiscal facilities to check pesticide residues and year, the program was funded by a World quality control, and a lack of public aware- Bank loan. The program was intended to ness of the dangers of pesticides. Many farm- terminate in 1998, but was again funded ers still see pesticides as effective medicines by the World Bank loan. FAO provided to heal their crops from pest damage, and technical assistance from the beginning, banned pesticides are still available in many including program design, curriculum, areas. Reporting of imports and exports of training methodology, and field studies pesticides and of human poisonings and related to IPM, such as habitat studies and fatalities is still relatively weak (Oka, 1988). effects of pesticides on the environment and The IPM by Farmers program included farmers’ health. training the farmers to get them more acquainted with pesticide issues, particularly on their unwanted side effects to human health and the environment. The program scope

During the first year of the program (1989/90), it was limited to six provinces Organization of the National IPM by (West, Central, and East Java, Yogyakarta, Farmers Program North Sumatra and South Sulawesi). Those provinces provide approximately 70% of Administration and funding the rice production in Indonesia. Pest problems in the rice centers in those The National Agency for Planning and provinces were also very serious. After the Development (BAPPENAS) took the lead first successful year, other provinces also to initiate the IPM by Farmers program, wanted to be included in the program, but including program design, organization, due to budget limitations and a shortage of and implementation in fields. The thrust field trainers, only six other provinces of the program was to develop manpower could be added (Aceh, Bali, West Sumatra, capabilities at the grassroots level through West Nusa Tenggara, North Sulawesi and intensive training in IPM. To do this, Lampung). These provinces were second in BAPPENAS established an organization rice production. The next year, the Minister consisting of three groups: (i) an advisory of Agriculture requested that a similar group; (ii) a group of directives; and (iii) a program be initiated for high altitude working group. The membership of these vegetable crops (cabbage, potatoes and groups was chosen from the Departments chili) and soybeans. These vegetables of Agriculture, Domestic Affairs, Health, received 16–20 insecticide applications in Environment, Bureau of Statistics, leading one season, while soybean received at least universities, FAO, and BAPPENAS. 4–5 applications/season. 234 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

Developing the FFS program Each year each facility provided IPM training for 50–60 field pest observers by the The most critical part of the newIPM pro - Field Leader I and assisted by two Field gram was establishing a training program Leader IIs, until all the field pest observers in that would ensure accurate replication of the provinces were trained. The training was IPM principles at each level, from extension the same as that given in Yogyakarta: rice agents to farmers, and result in farmers IPM, socialization, and non-rice IPM. After capable of teaching each other the new this, they were capable of training farmers in IPM methods. During the first year of the IPM for 12 weeks. They would stay with the program, 22 senior field pest observers were farmers in their villages. Farmers located in selected from major provinces to receive the rice centers received highest priority. intensive IPM training in Yogyakarta. The Within the first 2 years of the program training facility was equipped with a labo- (1989–1991), 1000 field pest observers and ratory for studying insects and diseases, 2000 field extension workers underwent and 2 ha of rice field to carry out field intensive IPM training, along with 100,000 activities. First, participants underwent farmers. From 1992 to 1998, approximately 4 months of field training, starting from soil 600,000 farmers, 3000 field pest observers preparation, seeding, transplanting, manag- and 6000 field extension workers were ing the crop, observing the occurrence and trained in IPM. During the last year of the dynamics of pests, natural enemies, and program, a total of 800,000 farmers received their interactions. They also studied the IPM training. This number of farmers was effects of some insecticides to pests and thought sufficient to diffuse the knowledge their natural enemies and non-target spe- of IPM to other farmers. For this a special cies (i.e. frogs, fish), and performed field program named Farmer to Farmer Training cage studies on the effect of the wolf was devised. spider on brown planthopper populations. Finally, they learned howto estimate rice yield after harvest. The next 4 months they were taught how to train farmers’ groups in Farmer to Farmer Training: the FFS program the rice centers. Then they went back to the facility in Yogyakarta to be trained in Farmers’ IPM training was designed to be non-rice crop IPM, particularly soybean, a ‘learning by doing’ process (Dilts, 1985; for 4 months. Lastly they entered a social- Anonymous, 1989). Each participant was ization stage of IPM to farmers in the first encouraged actively to observe pests and six provinces. They were called Pemandu natural enemies in rice fields, carry out lapang (PL I) = (Field Leader I). simple experiments, discuss their findings At about the same time as training the with fellow trainees, and draw their own 22 Field Leaders, the program also trained conclusions. In this process, no difference another 90 senior field pest observers from was made between the trainers and the various provinces in IPM for 2 weeks. After trainees. Each person contributed to teach- their training they were called Pemandu ing and learned along the way. The trainers lapang II (PL II) = (Field Leader II). They acted more as facilitators than as traditional were sent to the provinces to assist the Field extension agents, to whom the farmers Leader I in devising an IPM training program were expected to only listen carefully. The for the province. Local authorities helped atmosphere was relaxed to encourage the provide field training facilities, including participants to freely express their opinion. 2 ha of rice land. Large provinces with This participatory process of learning by extensive rice acreage needed more than one doing was based on the assumption that the facility, such as West, Central and East Java, farmers already had many years of experi- which needed three, three and two facilities, ence as rice farmers. They were familiar respectively. with farming rice and other food crops IPM in Indonesia 235

following traditional methods, so they were also commented on the appearance of the readily able to make comparisons among crop, such as good, yellowish, stunted, or different management practices, including too weedy, and included their suggestions. pest problems. This approach helped to Following this discussion, each group sharpen their analytical skills, allowing presented its findings to the rest of the them to arrive at more informed farmers. Heated debates and disagreements conclusions and act accordingly. among them were common, which were Participants in field schools were usually settled by the trainer. members of existing farmers’ groups. Since Simple experiments were performed in one farmers’ group included 75–100 farm- the laboratory to demonstrate some of ers, the persons selected to participate in the the ecological principles inherent in IPM. IPM field school served as representatives One simple experiment included caging a and were responsible for teaching and planthopper-infested rice plant with a wolf passing on information to the rest of the spider, and comparing it to a control with no group. All participants were active farmers, wolf spider. In the cage with a wolf spider, owners, tenants or sharecroppers. the planthopper population declined During the field school program, the sharply, while it increased in the other farmers were provided with brochures cage. The farmers were impressed to observe containing colored pictures of insect pests firsthand the effect of the wolf spider. and their natural enemies, plant diseases, Another experiment demonstrated the effect and weeds. These were designed to encour- of an insecticide on two non-target species, age analytical thinking, rather than simply fish and frogs. They put fish and frogs in providing descriptions. For example, a bro- each of two plastic jars, and added a few chure would ask the farmer about the effects drops of insecticide to one jar. After an hour of factors such as irrigation, sunlight, soil, or so, they observed that those animals fertilizers, and pests on the crop. The train- were dead, while those in the jar without ers also encouraged the farmers to observe insecticide remained healthy. This discov- insects and discover their function in the ery demonstrated to the farmers firsthand ecosystem based on their observations. that spraying the fields with insecticides Field training was conducted on 2 ha of could kill beneficial species. rice land. The field was divided into two Exercises in working as a team rather treatments: the rice crop in one hectare was than individually were also included. The managed following conventional methods, purpose was to show that working together and rice in the other hectare was managed as a group can produce better results than following IPM principles. One Field Leader working alone, such as organizing the mass managed four farmers’ groups consisting of hunting of rats. At the close of the training, 25 farmers each. Each farmers’ group was the participants were tested on IPM field required to come to the field once a week for skills. Following the test, they were awarded 12 weeks. On these field days, each group a certificate of achievement in a simple was divided into a smaller group of five ceremony. The certificate was especially farmers. After discussing the topic of the meaningful, since many of the farmers had day, each small group went into the field, not even received primary schooling. carefully observed plant growth, counted the tillers, and looked for pests and natural enemies. They took notes on what they Effects of the national IPM by found and recorded their observations. Farmers program After a period of observation in the field, each small group came together to Significant reduction of insecticide use discuss their findings. They drewa rice plant on paper and showed the pests and Field studies in 1991 and in 1993 revealed natural enemies they had observed. They that insecticide applications were reduced 236 I.P.G.N.J. Oka

by as much as 56.2% and 55.8% in some New philosophy of extension work areas (Pincus, 1991; Anonymous, 1993). The same was true for IPM on high altitude The old ‘visit and training’ methodology vegetable crops. Surveys conducted in vari- practiced by the extension workers was ous cabbage centers in North Sumatra and modified using the IPM by Farmers Java revealed that the number of insecticide approach, to include a more interactive and applications in IPM and non-IPM fields hands-on teaching philosophy. averaged 4.01 and 10.57 respectively. The number of fungicide applications averaged The FFS program has served as a model 0.07 and 2.74 respectively. For potatoes, the for other countries number of insecticide applications in IPM fields and non-IPM fields averaged 3.09 and Neighboring countries have become inter- 8.49 (Kusumah, 1994). ested in Indonesia’s rice IPM program. The amount of illegal insecticide use Policymakers and field officers from Sri on rice in field studies before and after the Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, IPM FFS training program was significantly Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines reduced by 78% and 81% in two separate have visited Indonesia to observe the field studies. This indicated that after the training school program firsthand. Many countries was implemented, many farmers abandoned have sent their field technicians to Indone- the illegal use of insecticides. sia to undergo a 3-week IPM training. Indonesian field staff have also been sent to other countries to conduct IPM training Careful scouting for pest:predator ratios sessions. The IPM-trained farmers would apply insecticides only after they carefully investigated the presence of pests and predators Challenges and future needs in the field. If the two were in balance (for example, five planthoppers and two The IPM by Farmers program met with great or three ladybugs or spiders) they decided success. By the end of the field school not to spray, a marked departure from the program, over 807,000 people had been traditional methods. trained in IPM. This included 800,000 farmers, more than 2000 field pest observ- A follow-up program encouraged retention ers, 4000 field extension workers, 208 field of IPM principles extension leaders, 16 village heads, 95 sub- district heads, 333 primary school teachers, To prevent farmers from reverting to older 202 field laboratory workers, and more methods of pest control, a follow-up than 800 people from different branches program was organized, called institution- of village organizations. The continuing alization of the program. Groups of farmers education of farmers through farmer-to- who had completed the IPM training were farmer training has likely added many more revisited to test them on what they had farmers to these numbers. learned and survey what they were doing in But this achievement is just a beginning. the field. Indonesia supports approximately 19 million farmers, creating a need for continuing The training methods developed for the IPM outreach, education, and training. The IPM program are applicable to other programs program can only be sustained through the dedicated efforts of both farmers and The organization of the IPM by Farmers policymakers. Active extension programs program gained importance as an example are needed to support the farmers in training of developing human resources at the grass- each other. In addition, government policy roots level, a valuable asset for developing should continue to be informed by IPM countries. principles. IPM in Indonesia 237

References to Rice Production in Asia. IRRI, the Philippines, pp. 359–369. Anonymous (1989) Educare ‘to Head Out’ Oka, I. (1979b) Feeding populations of people (Mengajak Keluar). Materi Pelatihan versus populations of insects: the example of Pengendalian Hama Terpadu, Bappenas. Indonesia and the rice brown planthopper. Anonymous (1990) World Rice Statistics. In: Commendahl, T. (ed.) Proceedings Sym- International Rice Research Institute, the posium IXth International Congress of Plant Philippines, 320 pp. Protection. Vol. I. Fundamental aspects. Anonymous (1993) The Impact of IPM Training on UAS, Washington, DC, Aug. pp. 23–26. Farmers’ Behavior: a Summary of Results Oka, I. (1980) Brown planthopper survey From the Second Field School Cycle. IPM technique. Rice improvement in China and National Program Monitoring and Evaluation other countries. IRRI and China Academy of Team, August 1993, National Intergrated Agricultural Science, pp. 287–291. Pest Management, Jakarta, 30 pp., with Oka, I. (1987) Pest management in Southeast appendices. Asia, problems and prospects. Proceedings Anonymous (1993–94) World Rice Statistics. International Congress of Plant Protection. International Rice Research Institute, the Manila, the Philippines, 5–9 October, Philippines, 260 pp. pp. 7–10. Chiu, Shui-chen (1979) Biological control of the Oka, I. (1988) Future needs for pesticide manage- brown planthopper. In: Brown Planthopper ment in Southeast Asia. Proceedings Pesti- Threat to Rice Production in Asia. IRRI, the cide Management and Integrated Pest Philippines, pp. 335–355. Management in SEA Workshop, 23–27 Feb., Dilts, R. (1985) Training: reschooling society. pp. 1–11. Prisma 38, 79–90. Oka, I. (1995) Pengendalian Hama Terpadu dan Dyck, V.A. and Thomas, B. (1979) The brown Implementasinya di Indonesia. Gadjah Mada planthopper problem. In: Brown Planthopper University Press, Bulak Sumur, Yogyakarta, Threat to Rice Production in Asia. IRRI, the Indonesia, 255 pp. Philippines, pp. 13–17. Oka, I. (1997) Integrated crop pest management IRRI (1980) Stand Evaluation Systems for Rice. with farmer participation in Indonesia. Los Baños, the Philippines, 44 pp. In: Reasons for Hope. Instructive Experiences IRRI (1990) World Rice Statistics. 320 pp. in Rural Development. Kumarian Press, Kusumah, E. (1994) Dampak ekonomi penerapan pp. 184–199. konsep PHT pada petani sayuran dataran Pimentel, D., Aquay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., tinggi. Lokakarya Dampak Sosial Program Silva, M., Nelson, J., Lipner, V., Giordano, S., PHT Pusat Penelitian Sosial Ekonomi Horowitz, A. and D’Amore, M. (1992) Pertanian, Bogor, 7–9 Maret, 10 pp. Environmental and economic costs of Laba, I.W. and dan Soejitno, J. (1987) Resistensi pesticide use. BioScience 42(10), 750–760. pada wereng coklat (N. lugens Stal)> Pincus, J. (1991) Farmers Field School survey: Edisi khusus no.1 Wereng coklat. Balai impact of IPM training on farmers’ pest con- Penelitian Tanaman Pangan, Bogor, trol behavior. Integrated Pest Management pp. 69–76. National Program, 36 pp., with figures and Metcalf, R.L. (1980) Changing role of pesticides tables. in crop protection. Annual Review of Statistik Indonesia (2001) BPS, Jakarta, 608 pp. Entomology 25, 219–256. Sutrisno (1987) Resistensi wereng coklat, N. Mustamin, M. (1988) Hazards due to the use lugens (Stal), terhadap insektisida di of pesticides in Indonesia: data collected Indonesia. Edit. Khusus no. 1 wereng coklat. and surveys. Proc. SEA Pesticide Balai Penelitian Tanaman Pangan, Bogor, Management and Integrated Pest Manage- pp. 55–68. ment Workshop. 23–27 Feb., Thailand, Tandiabang, J. (1986) Tingkat resistensi wereng pp. 301–309. daun hijau, Nephotettix virescens Distant Oka, I.N. (1978) Quick method for identifying terhadap insektisida pada empat tempat brown planthopper biotypes in the field. di Sulawesi Selatan. Bull. Pen. Pert. Maros International Rice Research Newsletter 3(6), 1(1), 4. 11–12, IRRI, PO Box 933, the Philippines. World Development Report (1993) Investing in Oka, I. (1979a) Cultural control of the brown Health, Table 26, Population Growth and planthopper. In: Brown Planthopper, Threat Projections. The Bank, Oxford University Press, 328 pp.

Chapter 19 Integrated Pest Management in the Philippines

Pio A. Javier1, Maria Lourdes Q. Sison2 and Reynaldo V. Ebora2 1National Crop Protection Center, University of the Philippines, Los Baños College, Laguna, the Philippines; 2National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Philippines, Los Baños College, Laguna, the Philippines

History of IPM in the Philippines During the M-99 program, a cost reduction technology known as IPM was pilot tested Early IPM efforts in strategic rice production areas in the Philippines by the International Rice IPM in the Philippines in the early 1940s Research Institute (IRRI), state colleges began with individual farmers who planted and universities and the Bureau of Plant pest or disease resistant crops, practiced Industry Crop Production Division (Callo, crop rotation and intercropping and used 1990). Economic demonstration plots tested botanical repellents such as tobacco and old and newmanagement techniques that papaya extracts, tubli (Derris sp.) and would be economically feasible. kakawati (Glyricidia sepium), or used In 1986, President Corazon Aquino biological control agents (Trichogramma)to issued a policy declaring IPM the core of control pests (Baltazar, 1963). Tricho- crop protection policy (Adalla, 1986). This gramma japonicum Ashmead was intro- directed agricultural programs to incorpo- duced in the late 1940s for the control of rate development, dissemination and trans- yellowstemborer ( Scirpophaga incertulas fer of IPM technology to important agricul- Wlk.) in rice (Sumangil et al., 1991). Simi- tural crops such as rice, maize, vegetables, larly, microbial control agents like Bt, banana, sugarcane and root crops. The Min- baculoviruses, Metarrhizium anisopliae istry of Agriculture and Food created multi- and other entomopathogens were also used sector IPM technical working groups, the for insect control. Research and Development Committee and In the early 1970s, a nationwide rice the Training and Extension Committee to shortage prompted the government to inten- support the country’s newagricultural sify rice production with the ‘Masagana 99 policy. Rice Program’ (M-99). Under this program, The emphasis on IPM was based on the package of technology included pesti- its ability to provide desired economic, as cides as a part of production loan. The well as social and environmental benefits. production guide recommended the Farmers’ profit was stressed over gross calendar application of pesticides from production. It was strongly regionalized six to nine times per cropping season. The with high dependence on various sectors heavy use of pesticides led to pest outbreaks. (government, private and non-government

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 239 240 P.A. Javier et al.

organizations) to solve problems. Both donor institutions such as the AVRDC, IIBC farmers and trainers learned by practical and the FAO through the Intercountry experience in rice fields over an entire Program for IPM in Rice and Vegetables. season. Through IPM adoption the country Other international collaborators are also was able to save more than US$3.5 million included (Table 19.2). in rice production (Davide et al., 1990). The National Program Office oversees In 1993, President Fidel V. Ramos implementation of KASAKALIKASAN on created the Philippine National IPM Pro- a day to day basis. The Regional Program gram (Dar, 1994). The program was named Committee coordinates programs in all KASAKALIKASAN (acronym for Kasa- regions of the country. State colleges and ganaan ng Sakahan at Kalikasan – Prosper- universities located in different regions of ity of the Farm and Nature) and established the country are also involved in regional IPM as the standard approach to crop pro- IPM research and development. duction. Based on techniques developed in The Provincial Program Committee the Indonesian IPM program, the program oversees the IPM field-related tasks per- trains farmers to understand the crop– formed by the training team in each field agroecosystem interactions that affect province. The IPM training team consists plant growth. Farmers are trained to make of two full-time IPM-trained field workers informed decisions in crop management. who conduct the FFS. The Department Together with field technicians and workers of Agrarian Reform and the Department from other organizations, farmers learn IPM of Education, Culture and Sports also skills in FFS. Conservation biological con- collaborate with the IPM program. trol is the program’s ecological foundation.

Pesticide policy Organizational structure The FPA is the government agency con- The Department of Agriculture defined cerned with pesticide regulation and safety the structure of the National IPM Program in the Philippines. Created in 1977 by Presi- (Fig. 19.1). The Central Program Manage- dent Ferdinand Marcos, the FPA controls ment Organization oversees activities such the importation, manufacture, formulation, as research, training and extension, registration, distribution, sale, transport, communication, policy formulation and storage, labeling, use and disposal of advocacy, and supports local IPM pro- pesticides. The FPA has codified its grams. The National Management Commit- pesticide registration requirements in tee sets policies and operating guidelines accord with the international standards for the National IPM Program. It also pro- set by FAO and WHO (Bayani, 1998). vides funds in support of locally based IPM A Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee programs. Under the National Management evaluates and reviews the toxicology, Committee, the KASAKALIKASAN became efficacy, environmental fate and residue an integral part of the Department of data, and recommends registration of Agriculture system. pesticides to the FPA. The Program Working Group supervises In addition to registration of new all conceptual, technical and operational pesticide products, the FPA is also man- aspects of KASAKALIKASAN, directs dated to restrict or ban the use of hazardous program operations and approves annual pesticides or pesticide formulations, issue IPM budgets. It includes representatives of licenses to pesticide handlers, educate 15 government organizations, agencies and the public on safe and judicious use of state universities (Table 19.1). pesticides, and protect the public against The Program Working Group also col- the potential hazards of pesticide residues laborates with international agencies and on food (FPA, 1985). IPM in the Philippines 241

Fig. 19.1. Organizational structure of national IPM program (KASAKALIKASAN) in the Philippines. (Source: Medina and Callo, 1999.)

In 1991, the Secretary of Agriculture The 2000 revision of pesticide policies created a Pesticide Policy Task Force to pro- incorporated newdevelopments in pesti - vide recommendations on ways to improve cide legislation, policies and guidelines to pesticide policy. Analysis by the task force safeguard human health and the environ- revealed a need to integrate an improved ment. Two new topics were included: policy pesticide regulatory system with the broader guidelines on the fast developing group of goals of pest management (Versteeg, 1992). biorational pesticides, and the principles of To this end, health and environmental product stewardship and responsible care concerns are nowintegrated by encouraging (FPA, 2000). Biorational pesticides include the reduced use of synthetic pesticides. The semiochemicals (pheromones and similar development of alternative pest manage- substances), biochemical plant control ment strategies complements the reduction agents (phytohormones and enzymes) and in pesticide use. Farmer training programs microbials (naturally occurring or improved that focus on the safe use of pesticides are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses). based on IPM principles. The principle of product stewardship and 242 P.A. Javier et al.

Table 19.1. Composition of the Philippine IPM Program Working Group. (Source: Department of Agriculture Special Order No. 70 Series of 1997.)

Designation Position/Agency

Chairman Undersecretary of Agriculture for Field Operations Vice Chairman Assistant Secretary of Agriculture for Irrigation, Soils, Research and Training Members Director, Bureau of Agricultural Research Director, Agricultural Training Institute Administrator, Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority Executive Director, National Agricultural and Fishery Council Director, Bureau of Plant Industry Director, Bureau of Soil and Water Management Director, National Crop Protection Center Director, Philippine Rice Research Institute President, Benguet State University President, University of Southern Mindanao Executive Director, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and National Resources Research and Development National Program Officer, KASAKALIKASAN Deputy Administrator, Philippine Coconut Authority

Table 19.2. International collaborators for the Philippine IPM Program. (Source: Medina and Callo, 1999.)

Agency Nature of Collaboration

UNDP/FAO/CARE International Rice Technical assistance in training of trainers provided by IPM Trainor Exchange Program KASAKALIKASAN rice IPM specialists to Bangladesh, Cambodia, India (from 1995 to date) IIBC DA-IIBC-ADB Technical Assistance Technical assistance in the development of vegetable Grant for Vegetable IPM in the Highlands IPM in Benguet and Mt Province (1995–1996) Centro International de la Papa Training of potato farmer – trainers and LGU extension (CIP)UPWARD Lowlands Potato workers and conduct of potato FFS in Bukidnon (1996 IPM Program to date) SEAMEO SEARCA Networking of IPM knowledge capital that can be reused ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network and shared by National IPM Program in the ASEAN Region FAO Inter country Program in Rice and Provide capability-building expertise in education and Vegetables IPM training, equipment for national office and paying for participation of senior government staff in international meetings and workshops responsible care requires pesticide manu- to the Indonesian FFS approach. In 1993, facturing companies to ensure human health 13 rice farmers from Pila, Laguna (Luzon) and safety of pesticide workers, dealers and participated in an experiment to evaluate end-users. whether early season insecticide use was necessary. Each farmer allotted a small portion of his land to a treatment of no insecticide in the first 40 days after trans- Research and Extension Focus planting. After five planting seasons, all 13 farmers were convinced of the importance IPM in rice: a FFS approach of IPM (Cadiz and Suva, 1995). From June 1993 to December 1994, the NCPC The Philippine IPM program in rice conducted a farmer training program in employs a farmer training program similar Infanta and General Nakar, Quezon IPM in the Philippines 243

(Luzon), consisting of three phases, with participants, 83% have already shared the each phase extending for one cropping sea- knowledge they gained from the training. son or about 5 months (Medina et al., 1995). Based on the problem solving and decision- making skills learned in IPM training, the Phase I: experiential learning farmers were able to develop their own approach and move toward self-reliance in Many naturalenemies have been shown pest management (Seminiano et al., 1996). to regulate insect pest populations in In addition, an IPM Collaborative rice (Shepard et al., 1987). These include Research Support Program supporting predators, parasitoids, spiders and micro- innovative IPM research in rice–vegetable organisms. In Phase I, farmers were taught systems in Asia has been operating in the to recognize naturalenemies and incorpo - Philippines for the past 4 years. It is funded rate them into sustainable pest management by the United States Agency for Inter- strategies. The training was conducted in national Development with collaborative the farmers’ own fields, focusing on crop efforts of scientists at the Philippine Rice protection and pest dynamics. Research Institute, University of the Philip- pines at Los Baños, the CentralLuzon State Phase II: application University, the Visayas State College of Agri- culture, IRRI, the Asian Vegetable Research The current IPM program for rice relies on and Development Center, Pennsylvania conservation of naturalenemies and need- State University, Ohio State University, and based insecticide applications. Phase II Virginia Tech. Results of research activities allows the participating farmers to apply during the past year have been very encour- what they have learned in Phase I and aging (Gapud et al., 1999). enables them to develop their own site- specific crop production and pest management strategies. IPM in maize Phase III: replication Next to rice, maize is the second most In Phase III, the farmers learn to teach researched crop in the Philippines. others to use the IPM strategies they have Research is primarily focused on the Asian learned in Phases I and II. Trained farmer corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee), participants introduce IPM concepts to the most destructive insect pest of maize in farmers in other areas. Farmers are encour- Asia. Asian corn borer can reduce maize aged to redesign their farm environment to yield by as much as 20–80% (Gabriel, 1971; favor naturalcontrolof the ecosystem. This Sanchez, 1971; Morallo-Rejesus et al., learning process is facilitated by the NCPC 1982a,b). Basic research on its biology, scientists, while the farmers choose the ecology, yield loss, and control tactics had technology they will use based on the already been conducted before the National results of their experiments (Medina et al., IPM Program. Studies such as these are pre- 1995). requisites for the development of rational An evaluation of the program in January and sound pest management strategies. 1995 showed that after the IPM training The major management strategy (two rice cropping seasons), the percentage employed against Asian corn borer is field of pesticide users dropped to almost none. releases of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma The percentage of inorganic fertilizer users evanescens West; an especially effective also declined, from about 80% to 10%. controlbecause it prevents the corn borer All the participants shifted from the from reaching the destructive larval stage. conventional distance of planting (less Successfulcontrolof Asian corn borer than 40 × 10 cm) to the recommended hinges on the area-wide use of Tricho- 40 × 10 cm distance. Of the training gramma by maize growers. Trichogramma 244 P.A. Javier et al.

are made available to farmers at rearing labo- anti-coagulant rodenticides has been ratories located throughout the major maize effective in reducing losses (Bato, 1990). growing regions. Releases of Trichogramma are based on threshold levels determined by monitoring corn borer egg masses starting 20–25 days after planting. If there are 3–5 egg IPM in cabbage masses/100 plants, 70–100 Trichogramma cards (containing 1500–2000 parasitoids per The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella card) are released per hectare. If the percent- (L.), is the most destructive insect pest of age of egg mass parasitism is less than 20%, crucifers such as cabbage, broccoli, pechay, field releases of Trichogramma are contin- cauliflower, radish, kale and mustard. The ued for 2–3 times at weekly intervals. If larvae feed on the foliage in all stages of 30% of maize plants showsymptoms of plant growth and are capable of destroying corn borer damage, then granular/systemic the crop if left uncontrolled. In a 1992 study insecticides are applied directly into the in Atok, Benguet, a crucifer-growing area whorl or the plants are sprayed with Bt. in Luzon, all of the farmers interviewed Detasseling is also used as a mechanical depended on the use of chemical pesticides control method. Immediately after tassel for controlling diamondback moth (Cardona, emergence or before pollen shedding, 75% 1992), spraying an average of 12 to as many of the tassels (three rows are removed for as 32 times per season. Mixtures of two or every four rows) are removed. Detasseling more insecticides and high dosages were contributes to a 40–50% reduction in the applied frequently, often on a calendar corn borer population (Morallo-Rejesus and schedule irrespective of the diamondback Javier, 1985). moth population. In some cases, insecticides The FFS program has contributed to the were applied until harvest to preserve the success of IPM in maize. Several research cosmetic value of the crop (Magallona, projects at the University of the Philippines 1986). The indiscriminate use of synthetic are addressing the effectiveness of the FFS insecticides resulted in the development approach. One study showed that IPM was of resistance to many insecticides. Other highly effective in controlling Asian corn problems included the rising cost of insecti- borer in six regions of the Philippines (Javier cides, elimination of natural enemies et al., 2001). Other biological control agents and pollinators, toxicity hazards, and con- are also known to affect Asian corn borer. tamination of soil, water and food chains. Earwigs, Euborellia annulata (Fab) and An IPM program for diamondback moth flower bugs, Orius tantillus (Motschulsky) was developed that proved successful in can be effective natural enemies and can reducing the population belowETLs. The be conserved in the field, helping to main- major components of the program included tain the corn borer population belowdamag - field releases of parasitoids and the use of ing levels (Javier and Morallo-Rejesus, microbial insecticides. Economic thresh- 2000). olds were defined for diamondback moth at two stages of the crop: from seedling up to Other pests of maize the mid-vegetative stage, the ETL is two larvae per plant, and from the pre-heading The most important disease of maize, stage until harvest, the ETL is five larvae per downy mildew, is controlled with a combi- plant. The endoparasitoids Cotesia plutellae nation of the use of resistant varieties, (Kurdj.) and Diadegma semiclausum cultural control and seed treatment with (Hellen), imported from Taiwan in collabo- Ridomil (metataxyl–m+ mancozeb) ration with the Asian Vegetable Research (Exconde and Molina, 1978). For weed and Development Center, are capable of reg- management, a combination of cultural ulating the moth population. Cotesia attacks and chemical control is used. To the second instar larva of diamondback control rodents, sustained baiting with moth. It is more effective at elevations less IPM in the Philippines 245

than 800 m above sea level, with tempera- and cabbage yield increased from an aver- ture above 25°C. Diadegma attacks all instars age of 11.9 t/ha to 13.3 t/ha (wet season) of diamondback moth, especially the and 14.3 t/ha to 15 t/ha (dry season). In second instar. Diadegma is more suited addition, most farmers sustained lower pro- to elevations higher than 800 m above sea duction costs after attending the FFS (due level, at temperatures below 24°C. to lower inputs for maize, rice and cabbage Tangible benefits of the IPM program for farmers, respectively). Economic returns diamondback moth include a 75% increase due to the FFS increased significantly. in yield and income, a 41% reduction in pro- The net income of farmers on per hectare duction costs, an 86% reduction in pesticide basis for the different crops increased as application, and fewer health hazards posed follows: by pesticide residues (Morallo-Rejesus et al., • Rice – US$401 (wet season) and 2000). US$438 (dry season); • Maize – US$198 (wet season) and US$269 (dry season); Impact of KASAKALIKASAN on • Cabbage – US$716 (wet season) and Agricultural Production US$2598 (dry season).

The impact of FFS Benefits of increased genetic diversity in rice In 1997, the KASAKALIKASAN Program was evaluated by the SEAMEO SEARCA With effective pest management, newrice (Medina et al., 1998). One of the objectives varieties can be used longer, and the pos- was to determine the impact of FFS on rice, sibility of bringing back older varieties is maize and cabbage farmer-participants. The increased because resistance to pests is not results showed that a majority of the farm- as critical. This is an important contribu- ers applied most of the IPM principles they tion to genetic diversity in rice. In addition learned during the field schools. Farmers to the great diversity of the rice varieties, stated that they practiced sound cultural rice paddies harbor a tremendous diversity management in their crops, such as land of both pests and beneficial organisms. preparation, and water, nutrient and pest Many rice growing areas are in diverse management. In addition, farmers indicated landscapes, with rice paddies interspersed that they practiced agroecosystem analysis among forests, other crops and grassy dikes in assessing the status of their crops and in (Mew and Cohen, 1995). making management decisions, especially The most outstanding achievement of for insect pest management. The National the KASAKALIKASAN Program is a shift IPM Program was able to improve farmer in the paradigm of agricultural extension. pest management practices in several areas: Through the FFS approach, farmers in rice, greater reliance on biological and cultural maize and cabbage have been taught to make control, reduced insecticide use, less fre- informed decisions. The higher yield and quent insecticide application, and greater profits obtained by FFS farmers have sub- use of less toxic insecticides (Medina et al., stantially improved their economic condi- 1998). tions. The risks of pesticides to humans and the environment have been substantially reduced. Another outstanding achievement Economic impacts of the KASAKALIKASAN Program is the creation of a group of skilled, highly The economic impact of the National motivated farmers working together with IPM Program was also evident. Rice yield local government units to mobilize increased by an average of 0.5 t/ha, maize resources for the national IPM program yield increased by an average of 0.8 t/ha, (Medina et al., 1998). 246 P.A. Javier et al.

Constraints and Challenges enemies that cannot be differentiated by most farmers because they are too small Supply and demand issues for field identification. Also, the complex monitoring system used by farmers, AESA, The use of biological control agents is is time-consuming. AESA requires farmers the most important component of IPM for to regularly visit the field on a predeter- several crops including rice, maize, and mined schedule and sample the pest vegetables. However, in some cases the population or count damaged plants, then availability of biological control agents is calculate the infestation levels. Although limited. In maize, for example, the supply this is necessary for IPM, practicing farmers of Trichogramma cards can be a major bot- have little time to spare. Of course, a farmer tleneck in the biological control of Asian who practices IPM should know the level of corn borer. If the government or other agen- pest damage in order to implement control cies can not supply sufficient quantities of strategies and avoid yield loss. Trichogramma cards at the necessary time, ETLs are a basic part of the definition of farmers are compelled to use pesticides. IPM. Recently, however, the ETL concept When this occurs, natural enemy establish- has been challenged, because a fixed injury ment is limited. Therefore, there is a need threshold may not be valid when several to coordinate the mass production of pests affect a crop, and the response of a biological control agents to ensure the crop to injury may depend on its physiology sustainability of the IPM program. (Rubia et al., 1995). Newand more practical ETLs must be developed to meet the changing needs of farmers. Emerging secondary pests

Financial concerns In some areas, secondary pest outbreaks have become a concern. In crucifers, diamondback moth has been effectively Insufficient financial support is a major reduced to non-damaging levels because of constraint to the successful implementation the release of highly effective parasitoids. of IPM. The budget for IPM research and However, these parasitoids are highly spe- development is chronically low. In general, cific to second instar diamondback moth the policy on R&D has been fragmented and larvae, which can result in outbreaks of under financed (http://www.da.gov.ph). secondary pests such as the cabbage moth However, despite this limitation, the (Crocidolomia binatolis Zeller), common implementation of IPM in the Philippines cutworm (Spodoptera litura Fab.) and other has been generally successful due to hard species. While some of these are still con- work and determination of the government. sidered minor pests, research is needed (i.e. life history studies, crop loss assessment, identification and evaluation of associated Philippine IPM Information Websites natural enemies, etc.) so that if they become major pests, management strategies will be Information on IPM practices and experi- at hand. ences (published or unpublished) in the Philippines are accessible from the following websites: Challenges for the farmer using IPM www.da.gov.ph – for information about KASAKALIKASAN Farmers generally find it difficult to differ- www.uplb.edu.ph/institutes.html – for entiate between pests and natural enemies. information about NCPC-UPLB In the rice agroecosystem, for instance, www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph – for information there is a complex of pests and natural about pest management programs IPM in the Philippines 247

http://asean-ipm.searca.org – ASEAN IPM Callo, D.P. Jr (1990) The Department of Agri- Knowledge Network. culture’s training program in the extension of integrated pest management technology. In: The ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network, Proceedings of the National Conference and based in the Philippines, includes informa- Workshop on IPM in Rice, Corn and Selected tion from the Association of Southeast Major Crops. 1–3 March, 1990. National Crop Asian Nations (ASEAN) member countries Protection Center, University of the Philip- (ASEAN IPM, 2000). It is a knowledge pines Los Baños, College of Agriculture, watershed of all current IPM technologies, College, Laguna, Philippines, pp. 135–141. reference libraries and case studies of Cardona, E.V. (1992) Field releases of Diadegma semiclausum in Benguet (highland), Philip- proven IPM concepts and best management pines. Paper presented at the AVNET practices. For IPM-Philippines, about 250 Workshop, Lembang, Indonesia, 21–27 references are listed in the ASEAN IPM September 1992, 24 pp. Center. Dar, W.D. (1994) The KASAKALIKASAN: the Philippines’ national IPM effort. In: Techno- trends April–September 8 (2 & 3), 11–14. Bureau of Agricultural Research, Quezon References City, Philippines. Davide, R.G., Litsinger, J.A., Paller, E.C. and Adalla, C.B. (1986) Integrated pest management Rola, A.C. (1990) Evolving concepts, as a national crop protection policy – are principles and problems of IPM. Paper we ready for it? 2nd Diamond Jubilee presented at the 21st Conference of the Pest Professional Chair Lecture in Entomology, Control Council of the Philippines. Bacolod University of the Philippines College of City, Philippines, 7–10 May 1990. Agriculture, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, Department of Agriculture Special Order No. 17 December, 1986, 21 pp. 70 Series of 1997 (1997) Strengthening ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network (2000) Gateway the Central Program Management Organiza- to Farmer Empowerment. SEAMEO Regional tion of KASAKALIKASAN. Quezon City, Center for Graduate Study and Research in Philippines. Agriculture (SEARCA), College, Los Baños, Exconde, O.R. and Molina, A.B. Jr (1978) Laguna, Philippines, 8 pp. Note: Ridomil (Ciba-Geigy) a seed dressing Baltazar, C.R. (1963) Import and export of fungicide for the control of Philippine downy biological control agents in the Philippines mildew. Crop Science Journal 3, 60–64. (1952–1960). Philippine Journal of Agri- FPA-Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (1985) culture 28(1–2), 1–30. Pesticide Regulatory Policies and Imple- Bato, S.M. (1990) Integrated pest management menting Guidelines and Procedures. Manila, research and development status on corn Philippines, 30 October 1985, 304pp. in the Philippines. In: Proceedings of the FPA-Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (2000) Pes- National Conference on Integrated Pest ticide Regulatory Policies and Implementing Management in Rice, Corn and Selected Guidelines 2nd edn. Manila, Philippines, Major Crops. National Crop Protection August 2000, 337 pp. Center, University of the Philippines Gabriel, B.P. (1971) Insect pests of field corn in Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines, the Philippines. Technical Bulletin No. 26. pp. 15–20. College of Agriculture University of the Bayani, E.M. (1998) Fertilizers and pesticides: aids Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, to growth. In: Dy, R.T. (ed.) The Food and Philippines, 60 pp. Agriculture Centennial Book 100 Years Gapud, V.P., Obien, S.R., Norton, G.W. and of Philippine Agriculture. University of Rajotte, E. (1999) Integrated Pest Manage- Asia and the Pacific, Manila, Philippines, ment Collaborative Research Support Pro- pp. 120–123. gram (IPM CRSP). Philippine Rice Technical Cadiz, M.C.H. and Suva, M.M. (1995) Success Bulletin 4, 35–40. Stories of IPM Farmer-cooperators: Partici- Javier, P.A., Gonzales, P.G., Rosales, A.M., patory Research in IPM Implementation. Tividad, J., Labios, R.V., Tamisin, L.L. Jr, Institute of Development Communication, Ocampo, E.P., Miciano, D.M. and Yadao, L.A. University of the Philippines Los Baños, (2001) On-farm verification of developed College, Laguna, Philippines, 27 pp. IPM technologies against the Asian corn 248 P.A. Javier et al.

borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) in San corn plant in Malaybalay, Bukidnon. Annual Jose, Occidental, Mindoro. Paper presented Report. National Crop Protection Center, during the 32nd Annual Scientific Confer- University of the Philippines Los Baños, ence of the Pest Management Council of the College, Laguna, Philippines, p. 6. Philippines, 2–5 May 2001, Pili, Camarines Morallo-Rejesus, B., Sayaboc, A.S. and Sur, Philippines, 12 pp. Malabanan, J.M. (2000) Guide to control Javier, P.A. and Morallo-Rejesus, B. (2000) Con- diamondback moth. PCARRD Farm Primer servation methods for the natural enemies No. 4-A/2000. Philippine Council for of Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis Agriculture and Natural Resources (Guenee), Annual Report of DA-BAR Funded Research and Development, Los Baños, Project. University of the Philippines, Laguna, Philippines, 15 pp. College of Agriculture, College, Laguna, Mew, T.W. and Cohen, M.B. (1995) Future Philippines, 15 pp. research priorities in international plant Magallona, E.D. (1986) Development of diamond- protection – focus on rice. Agriculture and back moth management in the Philippines. Rural Development, pp. 24–27. In: Diamondback Moth Management. Asian Rubia, E.G., Santiago, G.F., Barroga, C., Heong, Vegetable Research and Development Center, K.L., Justo, H.D., Gapud, V.P., Benigno, E.A., Taiwan, pp. 157–171. Teng, P.S., Fernandez, R. and Barroga, R.F. Medina, J.R. and Callo, D.P. Jr (eds) (1999) Empow- (1995) Improving regional decisions in rice ering Farmers: the Philippine National Inte- pest management. Proceedings of a National grated Pest Management Program, 2nd edn. Workshop, 18–20 October 1995, Philippine SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study Rice Research Institute, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Philippines, 93 pp. College, Laguna, Philippines, 146 pp. Sanchez, F.F. (1971) The economics of corn borer Medina, J.R., Magsino, G.L., Javier, P.A., Peralta, control in the Philippines. Proceedings of G.A., Hautea, R.A., Bariuan, J.V. and Zorilla, the 7th Inter-Asian Corn Improvement R.A. (1995) Sustainable agriculture program Workshop. University of the Philippines for resource-poor communities. Proceedings College of Agriculture, College, Laguna, of the 26th Annual Conference of the Pest Philippines, 1–16 January 1971, 272 pp. Management Council of the Philippines.La Seminiano, S.C., Valencia, G.Z., Lalican, N.M. Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines, pp. 35–49. and Bariuan, J.V. (1996) Evaluation of Medina, J.R., Catelo, S.P., Callo, D.P. Jr and technology dissemination for integrated pest Calumpang, S.M.F. (1998) Implementation management towards sustainable agriculture of IPM: the Philippine experience. RIS in irrigated lowland rice. The Philippine Biotechnology Review, pp. 72–87. Agriculturist 79(1), 81–95. Morallo-Rejesus, B. and Javier, P.A. (1985) Shepard, B.M., Barrion, A.T. and Litsinger, J.A. Detasseling technique for controlling (1987). Friends of the Rice Farmers – Helpful corn borer, Ostrinia furnicalis (Guenee). Insects, Spiders and Pathogens. International Philippine Entomologist 6(3), 287–306. Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Morallo-Rejesus, B., Javier, P.A., Gabriel, B.P., Philippines, 13 pp. Costales, C.C. and Baniqued, F.C. Sr (1982a) Sumangil, J.P., Dancel, A.J. and Davide, R.G. The corn borer population in relation to sow- (1991) National IPM in the Philippines: ing date and stage of corn plant at Villaverde, a country report. Conference on IPM in the Nueva Vizcaya. Annual Report. National Asia Pacific Region. 23–27 September 1991. Crop Protection Center, University of the Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 55 pp. Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Versteeg, H. (1992) Recommendation on Ways to Philippines, p. 5. Improve Pesticide Policy in the Philippines. Morallo-Rejesus, B., Zabate, P., Javier, P.A. and College, Laguna, Philippines and Halifax, Robles, R.P. (1982b) The corn borer popula- Nova Scotia, Environment and Resource tion in relation to sowing date and stage of Management Project (ERMP), 30 pp. Chapter 20 Integrated Pest Management in the USA

Larry Olsen1, Frank Zalom2 and Perry Adkisson3 1Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 2Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, California, USA; and 3Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

Introduction environment had become well known (Smith, 1969). The crop and environmental IPM has over a 40-year history in the USA. disasters caused by the misuse and overuse This chapter provides a glimpse of that of pesticides led several entomologists to history, current USDA programs and fund- a different and less chemically dependent ing and case examples of IPM programs in approach to crop protection. These California and Michigan. The states provide entomologists believed that more effective, a brief history of their program structure, profitable, sustainable and environmentally management, funding, implementation safer methods of suppressing crop pests networks, successful programs and inter- could be achieved through integrated actions with each other. A discussion of management systems combining cultural, the 2001 completed Government Account- biological and chemical control techniques ing Office reviewof IPM summarizes their in an ecologically sound context. findings and recommendations. Although IPM was born in mid-century as a consequence of pesticide-induced disasters, it was conceived much earlier by Historical Perspective on IPM the philosophies and concepts of a number in the USA of early entomologists. Foremost among those who advocated an ecological approach IPM arose owing to the ecological problems to controlling agricultural arthropod pests caused in the late 1950s and 1960s by the were S.A. Forbes (Illinois), L.O. Howard unilateral use of insecticides for controlling (USDA), C.W. Woodworth, A.E. Michel- several major crop and orchard pest insects. barger and Harry Smith (California), and By this time the limitations of pesticides, Dwight Isely (Arizona). These men not only including the development of pesticide- had a great impact on the insect control resistant pest strains, destruction of natural practices of their era, they also had great enemies leading to key pest resurgence and influence later through their students (e.g. secondary pest outbreaks, direct hazards Ray Smith, H.T. Reynolds, Robert van den to humans and other non-target organisms, Bosch, P.L. Adkisson, and many others) on pesticide residues in food, water and air; the development of future IPM programs. and their overall adverse impact on the That their legacy has long survived them ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 249 250 L. Olsen et al.

becomes apparent if one reads papers such use. Smith and van den Bosch (1967) further as one by Hoskins, Borden and Michelbarger elaborated the integrated control philoso- (1939) which states: phy and expanded its concepts in a second paper ‘Integrated control’ published in 1967. biological and chemical control are considered as supplementary to one another or as These were the key papers in establishing the two edges of the same sword which is the integrated control concept. raised for the protection of man’s food from The concept of integrated control was his insect rivals . . . it is undoubtedly true first based on an approach that applied that nature’s own balance provides the ecological principles in utilizing biological major part of the protection that is required and chemical control methods against insect for the successful pursuit of agriculture . . . pests. It was subsequently broadened to insecticides should be directed only against include all control tactics (Smith and specific pests which are known to need Reynolds, 1966). The idea of ‘managing’ chemical control . . . (use of insecticides insect pest populations was proposed by may be decreased by) determination of the time at which most effective control of the Geier and Clark (1961), and the term ‘pest pest may be secured and the least injury management’ was advocated by Geier (1966) done to its natural enemies. in preference to integrated control. From these presentations, the term integrated pest These sentences present the major management (IPM) has evolved and nowhas concepts for modern integrated control. been broadened to include the management Also, several early entomologists of all classes (arthropods, pathogens, weeds developed ecologically oriented multi-tactic and nematodes) of crop pests. For detailed approaches for managing insect pests which discussions see Smith et al. (1976) and had all the components of an IPM system. Frisbie and Adkisson (1985). Notable among these is the multi-tactic An early accepted definition of IPM is strategy developed in Texas in the early the one coined by the FAO/UNEP Panel of 1900s for control of the boll weevil, Experts on Integrated Pest Control in Agri- Anthonomus grandis Boh. on cotton by Fred culture which defines integrated control as: Malley, W.D. Hunter, W.E. Herids, B.R. Coad and others. This system continued to a pest management system that, in the provide the basic foundation for cotton IPM context of the associated environment in Texas (Bottrell et al., 1972). Isely also and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques pioneered modern crop pest control in the and methods in as compatible a manner as 1920s by utilizing systematic field inspec- possible and maintains the pest population tion, economic thresholds, trap crops and at levels below those causing economic insecticides to control the boll weevil in injury. Integrated control achieves this ideal cotton (Newsom, 1974). The term ‘integrated by harmonizing techniques in an organized control’ was first used in entomological way by making control practices compatible literature by Michelbarger and Bacon (1952) and by blending them into a multifaceted, in their research report on the chemical flexible, evolving system. control of walnut insects and spider mites (FAO, 1966) in California. The first discussion of the con- The most accepted definition today is: cept of integrated control was presented in a paper by R.F. Smith and W.W. Allen (1954). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a sustainable approach to managing pests This was followed by more comprehensive by combing biological, cultural, physical presentations in their seminal publication and chemical tools in a way that minimizes ‘The Integrated Control Concept’ in the economic, health and environmental risks. October 1959 issue of Hilgardia (Stern et al., (Anonymous, 1994) 1959). They presented the first detailed concepts for integrated control, defined eco- IPM is probably one of fewscientific nomic injury levels and economic thresh- terms to be redefined by a US President. In a olds and established the principles for their 1979 environmental message to Congress, IPM in the USA 251

President Jimmy Carter described IPM as ‘a from USAID for the University of California systems approach to reduce pest damage to Pest Management project which later tolerable levels through a variety of tech- evolved into a 12 university-USDA CICP. niques, including predators and parasites, This group sponsored workshops, con- genetically resistant hosts, natural environ- ferences and intensive training programs mental modifications and when necessary on IPM, pesticide management, safety and and appropriate, chemical pesticides’. IPM pesticide residue analysis. is nowthe most widelyaccepted term used with reference to integrated control (Smith The Huffaker Project et al., 1976; Frisbie and Adkisson, 1985). In the early 1970s, the US Environmental Protection Agency was under increasing public pressure to ban most uses of DDT, The IPM movement especially on major crops such as cotton. This pressure was counterbalanced by farm Although the conceptual basis for IPM was organizations who feared that a DDT ban developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, would be followed by bans on other pesti- the philosophy was accepted and integrated cides making crop protection more difficult control programs for major crops were and expensive. developed in the late 1960s and 1970s. The The Nixon Administration, caught in a IPM movement began in the 1960s when a dilemma, sought ways to satisfy both groups number of major pests developed such and eventually made a decision to couple a high level of resistance to chlorinated the ban on DDT with expanded research on hydrocarbon and carbamate insecticides alternative methods of crop insect control. that they could no longer be controlled. One of the top administrators of the This was particularly acute in cotton where NSF US International Biological Programs production was in a crisis in the Lower Rio approached Carl Huffaker about developing Grande Valley of Texas, the Imperial Valley a research proposal in biological control of California, Egypt, The Sudan, Peru and as an alternative to broad-spectrum toxic Colombia (Adkisson, 1969, 1973; Smith chemicals for insect pest control. Soon et al., 1976). At the same time there was an thereafter, with the support of Vice Presi- increasing concern and awareness that DDT dent Gerald Ford of Michigan, a Presidential and other insecticides were having a disas- initiative was issued directing NSF, EPA trous effect on many species of birds and and USDA to develop and fund a major fish. Also, many farm workers and pesticide national research initiative focused on applicators were being exposed to danger- alternative methods for controlling crop ous levels of pesticides. These concerns insect pests (Huffacker Project). were amplified in the general public by The research phase of the Huffaker Rachel Carson (1962) in her famous book Project began in March 1972 and continued Silent Spring and led to the banning of most until 1978, with federal funding of uses of DDT in the USA by the EPA in 1972. approximately US$14 million. The research Several very successful early IPM centered on five major crops and pine systems were developed for a number forests. The crops and their sub-project of crops including cotton, lucerne, certain directors were: cotton (P.L. Adkisson), fruits, sorghum and groundnuts. These early lucerne (E.J. Armbrust), pome and stone successes provided the impetus and encour- fruits (B. Croft), soybeans (L.D. Newsom), agement needed to convince a fewkey citrus fruits (L. Riehl) and pine (W.E. government officials of the wisdom for Waters). Multidisciplinary teams of agrono- funding a large national IPM project. Out of mists, ecologists, economists, entomologists, this the Huffaker project was born. plant pathologists and systems analysts, Concurrently with the above activities, were formed at 18 major land-grant universi- Smith in the early 1970s obtained funding ties. The goals of the subprojects depended 252 L. Olsen et al.

on the crops. For example, larger amounts of (Sprott et al., 1976; Kogan, 1977). IPM insecticides were used in cotton and fruit systems also helped to avoid the long-term so their goal was to reduce use without problems of pesticide-resistance (Armbrust, adversely affecting yields. In contrast, the 1978; Georghiou and Taylor, 1986). use of insecticides on lucerne, soybeans and On its termination in 1978, the Huffaker pine forests was relatively low and their goal Project improved integrated insect control was to keep it that way. programs that lessen the dependence on The Huffaker Project was an application chemical insecticides, especially on cotton of applied ecology using a holistic systems and apples. Several computer simulation approach to agroecosystem management plant–insect growth models and insect designed to maintain pest numbers below forecasting models were developed and crop damaging levels. Integrated strategies system science was recognized as a good were developed based on accurate, up-to- way for organizing agricultural research. date information of the crop ecosystem, Also, the benefit of economic analysis for including its pests, their parasites and crop protection was demonstrated. predators, the weather, crop plant growth and development and howall of these The Adkisson Project influence one another. The project was the first agricultural Concurrent with the Huffacker Project, research project in the USA to use computer five states were provided with Adkisson technology and system analysis intensively Extension funds to complement the to build models of crop ecosystems. These research funds. These were 3-year ‘pilot models developed by A. Gutierrez, W. projects’ to deliver the research results that Ruesink, D. Hayes, J. Stamic, L. Brown, were renewed for an additional 3 years as G. Curry, P. Sharpe, A. Hartstack, etc., ‘implementation projects’. The goals were provided researchers, extension specialists to refine, test and evaluate available tech- and farmers with reliable information on nology to limit the use of pesticides while controlling insect pests and other aspects of maintaining crop yield and quality. These crop management. This part of the project demonstration projects were structured so had a significant impact on future inter- that participating farmers would help pay actions between Michigan and California, as the cost of scouts during the first 3 years of evidenced by systems science publications the demonstration project, then assume full by Bird and Thomason (1980) and Caswell costs (Fitzner, 2002). The ultimate result et al. (1986). of the Adkisson project was Extension for- The Huffaker Project made great mula funding beginning in 1978 to all states progress in clearly identifying research gaps and territories to implement educational and furnished leads to developing a better IPM programs. A much more detailed dis- system for conducting agricultural research cussion of the history and development of (Huffaker and Messenger, 1976). During the these projects and IPM policy development project much improved, but only partial is discussed in Fitzner, 2002. or preliminary systems of integrated insect control were developed for lucerne, apples, National IPM Initiative of the Cooperative cotton, citrus and soybeans. The Project Extension Service demonstrated that the arthropod pests of these crops can be controlled with much less The Adkisson Extension IPM programs were use of insecticides, while maintaining as expanded in the USA and by 1979 included good or higher yields. Farmers who used all 50 states and three protectorates, cover- IPM increased their profits and reduced their ing 45 commodities (Blair and Edwards, use of energy resources, with less damage to 1979). These federally funded programs the environment and less hazard to people emphasized field inspection to monitor when compared with those whose methods pest densities and advised the application were completely dependent on chemicals of pesticides only when economically IPM in the USA 253

damaging pest populations were present. IPM has reshaped crop protection They later included educational and tech- philosophies here and abroad. Across the nical assistance to producers on varietal world, farmers are more receptive to selection, cultural practices, biological using ecologically sound crop protection control, economic evaluations of crop methods. More emphasis is being placed on management practices, pesticide-resistance the use of pest resistant varieties, cultural management and pesticide safety. practices, field monitoring and preservation In addition to the federally funded of natural control agents and less on the program several states developed large IPM unilateral use of chemical insecticides. programs for commodities of major impor- Acomprehensive evaluation of univer - tance which were supported by a cadre of sity-led IPM programs revealed that the well-trained pest management specialists adoption of IPM methods resulted in lower who worked directly with producer groups. pesticide use for seven out of eight commod- As of 1982, 42 states had developed Exten- ities, production costs decreased or were sion IPM education programs. Currently, all unchanged in four out of five commodities, states have IPM education programs. The yield increased for six out of seven crops and two most successful technology transfer risks of crop loss decreased in all three cases programs were established in Texas for which it was evaluated (Norton and and California. Both states made large Mullen, 1994). This report studied 61 appropriations in support of these programs. economic evaluations of IPM programs to Other notable programs were developed in reach their conclusions. Another report Michigan and New York. estimated that the use of IPM strategies Success in implementing IPM pro- saves US agricultural producers more than grams, as is demonstrated in Texas, Califor- US$500 million/year due to reductions nia, New York and Michigan, depends on in pesticide use and better management two important elements. First, farmers must practices (Rajotte et al., 1987). be shown that new practices will be more profitable than the old ones being displaced before they will be implemented. Second, farmers need technical assistance and The future of IPM encouragement from extension specialists and others while gaining knowledge and The greatest impact of IPM is still in the confidence in their ability to make pest man- future and will likely occur in the develop- agement decisions based on new practices. ing and less developed countries. IPM has been designated by the United Nations agencies, The World Bank and Allied Banks and most donor countries as the preferred Impact of IPM option for crop protection. IPM technology is gaining wider acceptance in developing IPM has had major impacts on science and countries where simple IPM systems are agricultural production. The science of IPM being used by producers of rice, cotton, evolved to a state where Pimentel published sorghum, soybeans, groundnuts, maize, a 2271 page (three volume) Handbook of pulses, cassava and certain vegetables. IPM Agricultural Pest Management in Agric- is a technology that is still being developed ulture in 1991. Scientifically, IPM research and perfected and its application is being has expanded knowledge of basic ecologi- directed towards all pest species – insects, cal and physiological principles governing diseases, weeds and nematodes – of a crop. pest population dynamics, pest behavior, Results produced for funds invested have and crop–pest interactions. It has pioneered been excellent and show the need for the use of systems research to improve continued investment in developing and agricultural production and environmental implementing new IPM technologies, espe- quality. cially those needed to counter or manage 254 L. Olsen et al.

pesticide resistance. For those involved in of the PAMS components. USDA’s National the IPM movement, it is gratifying to see Agricultural Statistics Service used this that at last it has become the most common definition in a survey to measure adoption option for managing crop pests. of IPM in the 1997–2000 growing seasons. In 2000 (Table 20.1) they found that IPM practices had been adopted at some level on Organizational Structure, Evaluation and approximately 70% of crop land, just less Funding of IPM Programs in the USA than the stated goal (USDA–NASS, 2001). Eisley et al. (2001) developed a more USDA IPM organizational structure specific definition and point system on 20 commodities to define the continuum. Within USDA, a National IPM Coordinating Growers were urged to accumulate 80% of Committee was established to provide the available points to be considered a high interagency communication and guidance level IPM grower. This can be used as an on policies, programs, and budgets. In 1988, educational tool and as a measure of IPM the committee published a brief summary adoption by an industry. of the current state of IPM, and sponsored a national IPM Workshop held in the spring Producer workshops of 1989 (Bird, 1989). The committee The benefits of IPM are well understood, nowgives staff from eight agencies an but the adoption rate of IPM has not opportunity to develop policies and reached the level anticipated. To under- strengthen coordination of programs that stand the constraints to adoption of IPM form the IPM Initiative. and moving away from chemically based pest control and to define ways to overcome them, a series of workshops were held Evaluation of IPM around the USA in 1992 and 1993. USDA and EPA brought together about 40 pro- Grower adoption ducers at five sites to identify factors constraining adoption of IPM (Sorensen, The prevailing method to evaluate IPM pro- 1993). Some of the major impediments to grams measures grower adoption along a adoption were: continuum as stated in the USDA report 1. Lack of incentives to use IPM or a ‘Adoption of Integrated Pest Management perception that the economic benefits of in the United States’ (Vandeman et al., IPM programs did not justify the increased 1994). Charles Benbrook (1996) supported demands on management. and refined this concept in his book Pest Management at the Crossroads. This concept recognizes that IPM in any production Table 20.1. Percentage of acres under IPM system has a number of tactics, and farmers practices, crop year 2000 (USGAO, 2001). adopt them based on numerous factors. The continuum recognized that the more tactics USDA IPM Crop estimate adopted, the higher level of IPM practiced. USDA (1998a) developed a ‘working defini- Cotton 86 tion of what growers must do to be consid- Fruits and nuts 62 ered IPM practitioners. Where appropriate, Vegetables 86 each site should have in place a manage- Soybeans 78 ment plan for Prevention, Advoidance, Maize 76 Monitoring and Suppression of pest Barley 71 Wheat 65 populations (the PAMS approach)’. In order All other crops and pasture 63 to qualify as IPM practitioners, growers Lucerne hay 40 should be utilizing tactics in three or more IPM in the USA 255

2. Differing agendas and conflicting pesticide data programs, and by strengthen- messages from governmental agencies. ing communication with the existing net- 3. Loss of funding for applied research. work of grower organizations and crop 4. Lack of funding for IPM education and specialists at land-grant universities’ (USDA, research programs. 1998b). The activities coordinated by OPMP 5. Slowness of the EPA pesticide should help increase USDA’s responsive- registration system. ness to pest management needs and inter- 6. Lack of availability of pesticides, thereby face with EPA, FDA, growers and interest limiting control options for growers and groups. The office, in cooperation with reducing the flexibility that IPM programs CSREES, is nowdeveloping a document need to respond quickly to pest outbreaks. called the IPM Roadmap that proposes a 7. Commodity programs that discourage detailed course of action for the next 5 years crop rotation which is a key IPM tactic. to improve coordination and integration of 8. The need to market IPM more IPM efforts in the USA. The final draft of the effectively. IPM Roadmap was be presented at the Fourth 9. Problems with Delaney Clause restric- National IPM Symposium/Workshop in tions which may limit pesticide availability. Indianapolis, Indiana on 8–10 April, 2003. 10. Lack of understanding by producers about the total production system approach Progress reporting under the IPM Initiative to IPM. As a result of the IPM Initiative, USDA IPM Initiative developed a process to measure progress that is mandated under the Government One outcome of the regional Producer Work- Performance and Results Act (Public Law shops was a renewed commitment to IPM. 103-62). States provide to the federal gov- In September 1993, USDA, EPA and FDA ernment a 4-year Plan of Work called Per- announced to Congress an IPM Initiative formance Planning and Reporting System to develop tools needed to adopt IPM pro- indicating state areas of emphasis, indica- grams, and set a national goal to have some tors for the programs they deliver, target IPM methods implemented on 75% of the numbers of audiences they will reach, and US crop acreage by the year 2000 (USDA, howthey willmeasure the impacts. After 1994). The Initiative was designed to each year of the plan, states report on their develop newtechnologies to implement bio - progress at the website (www.pprs.info). logically based pest management to reduce reliance on broad-spectrum pesticides. GAO report evaluates the IPM Initiative The plan offered a description of howthe Departments would manage the Initiative, The US General Accounting Office establish a process for setting IPM priorities (USGAO) conducted an in-depth audit of locally, link research and educational efforts the IPM Initiative announced in 1994. This to meet those priorities, and coordinate joint USDA and EPA goal stated that ‘the effort across agencies. The IPM Initiative agricultural producers would implement recognized that successful achievement of IPM practices on 75 percent of the nation’s its goals is dependent on producer involve- crop acreage by the year 2000’. Their ment in priority setting of research and report Agricultural Pesticides: Management education activities, and improved agency Improvements Needed to Further Promote and producer cooperation. Integrated Pest Management (USGAO, Another outcome to the Producer 2001) released 17August 2001 and found at Workshops was that the USDA Office of Pest http://www.gao.gov/gao-01–815, said that Management Policy was formed in Septem- ‘although 70% of the acreage has imple- ber 1997 to ‘improve USDA’s ability to mented some level of IPM, the implementa- address the FQPA by improving integration tion rate is a misleading indicator of the and coordination of pest management and progress made toward an original purpose 256 L. Olsen et al.

of IPM – reducing chemical pesticide use’. respond to GAO and promote the positive The report also said that ‘federal efforts impacts of the results. to support IPM adoption suffer from shortcomings in leadership, coordination, and management’. More detailed evaluations Funding stated: The IPM initiative is missing several USDA-CSREES is responsible for providing management elements identified in the coordination and leadership to land-grant Government Performance and Results Act universities where many research programs that are essential for successful implemen- are conducted and extension programs del- tation of any federal effort. Specifically, no ivered. CSREES provides funding to state one is effectively in charge of federal IPM land-grant universities through formula efforts; coordination of IPM efforts is lacking among federal agencies and with the funds and competitive grant programs. private sector; the intended results of these efforts have not been clearly articulated or Extension prioritized; and the methods for measuring IPM’s environmental and economic results CSREES continues to provide formula funds have not been developed. Until these to states based on the dollar value of pesti- shortcomings are effectively addressed, cide sales. States and territories receive a the full range of potential benefits that IPM total of US$10.75 million annually for IPM can yield for producers, the public, and the extension programs. The funds are used to environment is unlikely to be realized. link the state programs with the federal Recommendations to improve IPM partner, and to develop and help coordinate adoption in the USA included: IPM research and extension programs. They are leveraged with funds from other 1. Establish effective department-wide leadership, coordination, and management agencies, state budgets, commodity organi- for federally funded IPM efforts. zations and other private funds nearly 4 to 1 2. Clearly articulate and prioritize the to manage state and local programs. results the department wants to achieve from its IPM efforts, focus IPM efforts and Research resources on those results, and set measurable goals for achieving those results. IPM has been fortunate to receive new 3. Develop a method of measuring the federal funding the last several years for progress of federally funded IPM activities competitive grants to conduct research and toward the stated goals of the IPM educational programs to respond to pest initiative. 4. If the Secretary of Agriculture determines management issues that have arisen due to that reducing the risks of pesticides to the implementation of the 1996 FQPA. FQPA human health and the environment is requires the EPA to re-evaluate the use of an intended result of the IPM initiative, pesticides beginning with the most risky we also recommend that the Secretary organophosphate and carbamate insecti- collaborate with EPA to focus IPM research, cides and B2 carcinogens. The criteria outreach, and implementation on the pest incorporate risk from aggregate sources of management strategies that offer the greatest exposure including both dietary and non- potential to reduce the risks associated with dietary; accumulate exposures for all types agricultural pesticides. of pesticides with a common mode of action; The significance of the GAO report to and incorporate up to an additional 10× the national and state IPM programs is that safety factor to protect children’s health. the goals need to be clarified and how to The regulatory decisions made under FQPA measure progress toward those goals needs greatly restrict or eliminate many pesticide to be determined. Once this is determined uses that growers have relied on in the past and implemented, then IPM programs can to manage their pests. Below are some of the IPM in the USA 257

newfunding sources administered by existence since 1980. This program CSREES to help US agriculture adjust to allows regional prioritization and peer changes resulting from FQPA decisions. reviewpanel into the annual competi - tive research and education programs • RAMP – The Risk Avoidance and to ensure relevancy to local problem Mitigation Program is funded at US$4.9 solving and addressing newor emerg - million/year. This program funds ing pest management threats. Federal longer term proposals that show project funds total US$2.4 million multidiscipline and multistate or annually. regional cooperation that minimize • Regional Pest Management Centers – pesticide residues of concern on CSREES established four regional foods, in drinking water and in the centers in 1999 to provide leadership environment. Funded projects involve and coordination of both urban and research, education and extension and agricultural IPM issues. The centers cooperation between the public and have Advisory Committees composed private sectors. Projects are funded up of stakeholders who assist in priority to US$625,000/year for up to 4 years. setting and increasing communication • CAR – The Crops At Risk program between the numerous agencies and supports intermediate-term pest man- groups conducting IPM programs. The agement research and extension efforts centers integrate research, extension, with at-risk crops, usually minor crops and education programs; promote or major crops with minor pesticide multistate activities within regions; uses. Its goal is to develop new and bring together multidisciplinary multiple tactic IPM strategies to assist teams for problem solving. The centers in the transition period for agriculture. are funded competitively for 3–5 years It is competitively funded at US$1.5 with US$4.5 million total. These million/year and projects up to centers provide to states competitive US$200,000 are typically for 2–4 years funds to establish an information net- in duration. work that responds to USDA and EPA • MBT – The Methyl Bromide Transitions questions related to pest management program supports the discovery and and pesticide issues. The state Project implementation of practical pest man- Leaders also develop information to aid agement alternatives for commodities in the FQPA reassessment decisions. affected by the phase-out of methyl bromide. These projects focus on short-to intermediate-term solutions. A total of US$2.5 million is available annually Case Studies of IPM Programs with each project funded for up to in the USA 2 years. • PMAP – Pest Management Alternatives California case study Program currently provides US$1.6 million annually for a national compe- Historical development tition that supports projects that help farmers respond to the environmental California has a rich history in biological and regulatory issues resulting from control dating back to the introduction of EPA decisions. The aim is to fund the vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis, into effective alternative pest manage- southern California citrus orchards from ment tactic projects that are already Australia in 1888. Within a year, this preda- developed and need demonstration to tor controlled the cottony-cushion scale, farmers to have them quickly adopted. Icerya purchasi, an ‘invader’ from Australia • RIPM – The Regional Integrated Pest which was devastating the citrus crop. This Management program has been in was the first successful introduction of 258 L. Olsen et al.

a predaceous insect into any country to economic thresholds by using a variety of control a pest species. Soon thereafter, the control approaches including biological and California Horticultural Department estab- chemical controls. lished a state insectary for research and Although the IPM research base release of biological control organisms. In gradually expanded in the 1960s, IPM was the 1920s, this insectary was transferred not widely utilized in practice. A few pio- to the University of California’s Citrus neering crop consultants actively practiced Experiment Station (nowUniversity of IPM for many years, but their employment California Riverside), and a second Univer- by growers was not common. To gain wider sity of California insectary and biological acceptance, growers needed to understand control unit was established at University the benefits of pest and beneficial monitor- of California Berkeley in 1945. Research on ing, and the results of practicing a more biological control in particular helped to ecological approach to managing pests. establish the ecological basis for pest control The need for professional crop consul- that provided a groundwork for what was to tants, formally trained in the pest manage- become IPM in California. ment sciences, who could regularly meet The development of synthetic pest with and advise growers in IPM strategies control chemicals during World War II, in was officially recognized when the state of combination with improvements in applica- California initiated licensing of pest control tion technology, increased the potential for advisers (PCAs) in 1971. In order to use pest control dramatically. The rapid expan- a pesticide in California, growers were sion of California’s agriculture and growers’ required to obtain a written recommenda- ability to produce a variety of high value tion from a state-licensed PCA. This action fruits and vegetables made pesticides an institutionalized pesticide-use decisions. It important and economical way of reducing also created the challenge of providing these production risks and increasing yields. individuals with suitable tools for monitor- Entomologists in California and elsewhere ing pest populations, and with reliable, soon began to recognize problems associated science-based IPM information. By law, with reliance on applications of these new anyone (except for some public sector repre- synthetic pesticides to control insect pests sentatives specified by law) who offers a including secondary pest outbreaks, pest grower a recommendation to use a pesticide resurgence, and pest resistance to the or any other pest control method or device pesticides. University of California entomol- must be licensed by the CDPR as a PCA. ogists addressing problems associated with pesticide applications were among the first University of California IPM Program to use the terms ‘integrated control’ and ‘integrated pest management’ in scientific An Environmental Assessment Team was literature. Michelbacher and Bacon (1952) established within California’s Department called for ‘integrated control’ in their article of Food and Agriculture by then-Governor to describe the judicious use of chemicals to Jerry Brown in the mid-1970s to determine control the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, howto reduce the impacts of pesticides in in walnut orchards so as to preserve the California’s agricultural system. It identi- walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola, fied a need to implement existing IPM parasite, Trioxys pallidus. The walnut practices that were not being fully utilized, aphid, formerly under good biological con- to support the newly formed PCA licensing trol by the imported parasitoid, had become program by developing training materials an important pest as a result of being dis- and practices, and by supporting the devel- rupted by applications of broad-spectrum opment of newIPM systems for California’s insecticides. Stern et al. (1959) used ‘inte- major agricultural crops. In 1979, with grated pest management’ in a groundbreak- strong support from University of California ing article in which they described the Vice President for Agriculture and Natural concept of managing insect pests below Resources, Dr J.B. Kendrick, Jr, the California IPM in the USA 259

State Legislature established the UCIPM integral part of the university’s IPM efforts, project in part to address these identified and its activities and scope have expanded needs. The Legislature specified that in addi- considerably over the years. tion to sponsoring short-term (5 years or In 1987, the UCIPM commodity-focused less) research on eight commodities (lucerne, Workgroups, which set priorities for the almonds, citrus, cotton, grapes, rice, toma- research program, were restructured to toes, and walnut), other activities should emphasize broader areas of IPM research, include implementing IPM locally through including biological controls, cultural con- Cooperative Extension (CE) IPM Farm trols, commodity pest interactions, decision Advisors, writing a series of IPM manuals, support, and systems applications. Much of and developing a computer network for the commodity-focused research involved delivering pesticide registration informa- more fundamental studies about when and tion, pest control guidelines, and predictive under what condition organisms become models. Its mission was to reduce the pesti- pests. Researchers emphasized the develop- cide load in the environment, increase the ment of simulation models to help them predictability and thereby effectiveness of understand the relationships between crops pest control techniques; develop pest control and pests. With the newWorkgroup struc - programs that are economically, environ- ture, research emphasis shifted more to bio- mentally and socially acceptable; marshal logical and cultural alternatives to pesticides, agencies and disciplines into IPM programs; and better understanding of pest biology. and increase the utilization of natural These focus area Workgroups have been pest controls. Among its primary external reviewed using a facilitated process at 5-year clientele were the state-licensed PCAs, and intervals by ad hoc research advisory com- its initial efforts primarily targeted those mittees consisting of stakeholders including individuals. The program had no regulatory commodity boards and organic growers, function, and was never intended to consultants, agencies, environmental and become the only focus for IPM research and consumer groups and agrochemical and extension within the University of Califor- biotechnology industry groups. In its first 20 nia. Its intent was to facilitate research and years, over 200 individuals served on UCIPM education that might not otherwise occur. research Workgroups. These Workgroups Because it was not linked to a disciplinary recommended funding of 374 research grants department, it supported activities across (e.g. Grieshop and Pence, 1990; Klonsky and disciplines. Because it was a statewide pro- Shouse, 2000). These grants targeted 45 dif- gram supporting both research and exten- ferent crops or sites, but about 15% of pro- sion activities, it was designed to foster jects dealt with general techniques. Most linkages between these activities across research projects (69%) had two or more theUniversity and between the University, researchers as principal investigators, and government agencies and the private sector. 25% involved principal investigators from Dr I.J. Thomason, a Professor of Nematology different institutions. About 19% involved at UC-Riverside, was appointed as the first researchers from two different agricultural Director of the UC Statewide IPM Project. disciplines. The UCIPM research projects Under Thomason’s leadership, including resulted in over 1000 publications, 324 of a 1980 sabbatical leave to study Systems which were accepted in peer-reviewed jour- Science at Michigan State University, a cat- nals at the time of the Klonsky (a Michigan alytic and long-term two-state IPM relation- State University IPM Program graduate in ship was initiated between California and Agricultural Economics) and Shouse (2000) Michigan1. The UCIPM Program became an study.

1 As continuing evidence of the interactions between Michigan and California, Dr Kendrick was the keynote speaker for a Michigan Governors Conference on Pesticides, Benefits, Risks and Alternatives held at Michigan State University on 4 December 1987. Highlights of this landmark assessment of IPM are included in The Integrated Pest Management Experience (Bird, 1989). 260 L. Olsen et al.

The UCIPM Project employs a group of IPM Computer System was initially created CE Area IPM Advisors who are located in to support research and extension staff state- important agricultural regions of California. wide with various tools for improving their Their goal is to adapt and implement productivity, and as a vehicle to transfer research-based IPM practices in the field research models to county-based CE staff. working with and through county CE Farm The system was the first readily available Advisors and licensed PCAs. They are closely computing resource for many California linked with the UCIPM research program extension staff. It included common statisti- and its publications and computer units. cal tools and data entry utilities, weather This close link to the field serves to maintain data, and several types of models. A degree– IPM implementation as a major program goal. day program made it simple for many people The UCIPM Publications unit lead by to apply phenology models for many pest Dr Mary Louise Flint produces books, manu- species for the first time. The IMPACT sys- als and guides on pest management, and tem evolved with available technology from content for the UCIPM World Wide Web its initial configuration of terminals linked (http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu). During its directly to a central computer, to a dial-up initial years UCIPM publications empha- central database and processing system sized the creation and expansion of a series accessible by users with accounts from vir- of IPM manuals for major California tually any terminal or microcomputer. The commodities. The manuals were produced user base also expanded from campus-based through consultation and reviewof research researchers affiliated with the UCIPM Pro- and extension staff, and quickly received ject and CE Farm Advisors in 11 counties, national recognition for their quality, style, to all University of California agricultural excellent color photographs, and clear and scientists and over 500 agency employees concise presentation of IPM information for and private individuals. field use. Many of the manuals are in their Today, the primary focus is delivery via third or fourth editions. A variety of other the UCIPM website which is accessible by IPM publications are nowproduced which anyone on the Internet. Website usage has include the University of California Pest increased dramatically with the user base Management Guidelines, a series of Pest expanding from about 7000/month in 1997 Notes on urban and garden pest problems for to over 350,000/month in 2002. Primary homeowners, and books intended for home- features of the UCIPM website are the Pest owners and for those taking the state PCA Management Guidelines and Pest Notes licensing examination. The UC Pest Man- databases (illustrated with over 5000 color agement Guidelines, written by a UCIPM images), weather database, various degree– Project staff writer, are companion publica- day and management models, PestCast dis- tions to the IPM manuals and contain peer- ease forecasting, reports of UCIPM-sponsored reviewed suggestions from research and research grants, and databases of pesticide extension staff for various pest specific registrations and total pesticide use report- controls including pesticides, alternatives to ing summaries developed in cooperation pesticides, sampling and monitoring meth- with the CDPR. Weather data are important ods, treatment thresholds, and organically- to drive phenology and various other types acceptable approaches where they are known. of pest and crop models. The IPM Project’s The major distribution method is via the weather database is the largest online collec- UCIPM website, but camera-ready copies are tion of quality-controlled current and his- also sent to county Cooperative Extension toric weather data available for California, offices for reprinting and distribution. and is linked to the predictive tools on Computers and their application to crop the system. The database includes over 400 and pest management has been an important stations in agriculturally important areas focus for the UCIPM Program since its with historic weather data available for inception (Zalom and Strand, 1990). Ori- many stations dating from 1951. Over 70 of ginally known as the IMPACT system, the the stations are accessed electronically from IPM in the USA 261

automated weather stations. Although the the USA. It is administered by the CDPR, weather database was developed primarily and is almost half the size of the US for research, it has become important to EPA’s pesticide programs. The challenge government agencies and pest management to CDPR is to enforce the pesticide laws consultants as well. and regulations of the most populous of US Implementation of a number of monitor- states without significantly increasing ing methods and phenology models has production costs or reducing efficacy of been a documented IPM success. For exam- pest control methods for the state’s US$25 ple, a 1987 survey of California PCAs (Flint billion agricultural industry. Along with and Klonsky, 1989) indicated a substantial licensing of PCAs and certifying pesticide number used pheromone traps or bait traps, applicators, the agency has a state pesticide degree–day calculations to predict insect registration process, a use reporting process, phenology, and University of California and a food pesticide residue monitoring guidelines to make treatment decisions program. For example, growers must file for various pests. The survey indicated that a notice of intent with the county Agri- 93.8% and 87.1% of PCAs working in pome cultural Commissioner before a pesticide is fruit crops and walnuts, respectively, used applied, and a use report after the applica- pheromone or bait traps, degree–day calcu- tion. Since 1990, pesticide use reports have lations, and UC guidelines for codling moth. been required for all agricultural pesticide Similarly, 71.5% and 66.1% of almond and applications and commercial applications stone fruit PCAs used these practices. A in urban situations. It seems likely that national survey of tree fruit and nut growers California pesticide regulations create an by the USDA Economic Research Service incentive for growers to use consultants to (Vandeman et al., 1994) indicated that assist them in pest management decision the percentage of growers using IPM and making and use reporting. employing professional scouting exceeded CDPR actively promotes the philosophy 50% in many California crops including of IPM through its Innovators Program grapes, oranges and pears. which recognizes organizations that are trying to practice IPM. This is a competitive Crop consultants research grants program called Pest Management Alliance Program which The large number of consultants in directs funding of up to US$100,000/year California can be attributed to the state’s to commodity-board led partnerships of regulatory and enforcement system which university, industry, agency and non- licenses and regulates their activities. PCA governmental organizations. This govern- licensing has had a far-reaching effect on ment agency model has led to the formation implementation of IPM, and for most crops of a number of other stakeholder alliances a higher proportion of acres are scouted in formed through increasingly available grant California than elsewhere in the USA. In support from Federal and state sources, and spite of this, it has been suggested (e.g. from private foundations. Wearing, 1988) that the licensing of pest control advisors in California has not reached Grower organizations and food its potential for reducing pesticide use in industry groups practice because the licensing program does not distinguish private consultants from the California produces over 250 commercial majority who are employed by farm supply crops, and over 40 of these are represented dealers or other chemical retailers. by commodity boards or marketing orders which support research and extension CDPR activities of university and USDA scientists. Through their grower research advisory California has the most comprehensive committees, these commodity organizations state-level pesticide regulatory program in help to identify important pest management 262 L. Olsen et al.

issues for their growers. They often play an for processing. Historically, concerns for important part in updating their growers on meeting high quality standards for branded IPM-related research, and in dealing with products created a situation where the pesticide regulatory issues. Several of these buyer had little tolerance for damage and commodity boards have been quite consequently growers were afraid of taking proactive in encouraging IPM research the chance that any damage might occur in and implementation, particularly in recent their fields or vineyards. While both the years. They can be especially effective in company and the cooperative maintain facilitating discussion and setting priorities high quality standards, good communica- with growers and researchers, advisers, tion between the processor and grower have regulators and others interested in IPM. led to greater IPM adoption by growers of One particularly notable grower group these crops and reduced use of pesticides. with regard to IPM is the Lodi-Woodbridge Winegrape Commission which was created Status of California IPM by a grower referendum in 1991 (Klonsky et al., 1998). A significant commission activ- California has a well-developed infra- ity has been its establishment of an IPM pro- structure for effective development and gram which conducts on-farm research and implementation of IPM systems. The IPM demonstration projects in cooperation with philosphy has become generally embraced, university scientists and growers, holds a decidedly positive shift over the past 20 regular educational meetings, produces years. Unfortunately, in practice most grow- an IPM newsletter and other publications. ers and their advisers use IPM tactics which The commission employs a PhD level IPM typically target one or a limited number of Coordinator to supervise these activities. related pest species, and chemicals remain Perhaps the very best example of a a primary means for pest control. This grower-initiated IPM program in California means that although the level of IPM adop- is the Fillmore Citrus Protective District tion of a fewpractices might be high, the which was established in 1922 (Graebner biological intensity of IPM being practiced et al., 1984) as a community effort to control remains fairly lowfor many crops. Tech- the California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii. nical, financial, institutional and social Area growers created the district hoping to challenges remain which inhibit further gain economically by acting as a collective movement of California growers to higher rather than as individuals in the purchasing levels of integration or toward more bio- and application of pest controls. Both chem- logically intensive IPM approaches. As a ical and biological controls are used by the description of the current state of IPM, District to control the red scale, and the a prognosis and continuing evidence of the scope has expanded to target a number two-state interaction between Michigan and of other citrus pests as well. The District California, Norris, Caswell-Chen (Michigan employs pest managers who monitor area native and MSU graduate) and Kogan citrus orchards and implement biological published a textbook entitled, Concepts in control and other IPM practices. The District Integrated Pest Management (2003). owns insectaries for rearing required biological control agents. Campbell’s Soup Company and the Michigan case study Sun-Maid Growers cooperative have made significant progress in promoting IPM to Historical development their growers through well organized demonstration and educational programs led by Michigan State University (MSU) has a IPM coordinators employed by each organi- 30-year tradition of developing innovative zation (e.g. Bolkan and Reinert, 1994). This pest management programs and informa- model has proven very successful for imple- tion. Its strength has been in the fruit area menting IPM practices on products intended as Michigan is a leading state in fruit crop IPM in the USA 263

production, and has a significant number (PMFA) who were mostly non-thesis of insect and disease pests. MSU was Masters of Science students who worked as very successful in obtaining Hoffacker and interns for District Horticulture Extension Adkisson project funds to implement IPM agents in the growing season. They provided research and Extension programs in the supervision for scouts but also had their own early 1970s (Jones and Croft, 1981). The insect pheromone trap lines and disease research projects were notable in develop- and weather monitoring stations. These ing practical approaches to manage pests, individuals were invaluable assistants to the and MSU was exceptionally strong in the District Horticulture agents and advisors to principles of system science and modeling growers. They conducted applied research for predicting pest occurrences and out- and had demonstration plots. They main- breaks (Haynes et al., 1973; Welch et al., tained code-a-phone 3 minute prerecorded 1978; Jones et al., 1980). IPM experts telephone messages to update growers around the USA received their training in pest management recommendations, at MSU. Researchers developed integrated harvest timing and storage conditions for mite control in the early 1970s (Croft, 1975) their respective commodities. Many of these and it is still implemented in nearly every individuals have progressed into leadership apple orchard in the state. Plant pathol- positions in the University and private ogists established apple scab monitoring industry. This highly successful program is networks that monitor spore release and being partially replicated today through a weather parameters to predict disease Professional Masters in IPM at MSU where infection periods (Sutton and Jones, students have seasonal internships similar 1976). Resistance management programs for to the PMFA while completing a non-thesis insects and diseases were established early Masters of Science. (Jones, 1981), and are still the major topics in educational programs with farmers and PROJECT GREEEN In more recent years, pest managers. A comprehensive overview Project GREEEN (Generating Research and of the first 20 years of the MSU IPM Education to meet Economic and Environ- program was presented by Bird et al. (1990), mental Needs) is a unique aspect of the and the process of IPM described by Bird Michigan case example that has major and Berney in Michigan Field Crop Ecology implications for the MSU IPM program. (2000). Research and extension specialists Project GREEEN is a state-funded initiative developed educational materials to aid pest to MSU of over US$6 million annually with monitoring and decision making including about half of the funds going to competitive Common Tree Fruit Pests by Howitt, 1993, projects every year. Its mission is to boost the Diseases of Tree Fruits in the East by Jones state’s economy by expanding Michigan’s and Sutton, 1996, and A Pocket Guide plant-based agriculture and processing for IPM Scouting in Michigan Apples by systems through research and educational Epstein and Gut, 2000. programs while protecting and preserving The apple scouting program was strong the quality of the environment and the safety and influenced growers all over the state. of our food supply. It has also had a significant impact on the Project GREEEN provides significant overall evolution of the pest disciplines. For funds for ongoing programs and staff, and example the role of nematodes in IPM was for competitive basic and applied research, described by Bird (1987), and by Duncan value added, extension and education and Noling (1998). The book by Barker et al. activities. For the IPM program, the funds (1998) also included a phytopathological pay the salary and benefits for the IPM chapter on concomitant pathogen inter- Coordinator, four district ICM agents, half- actions by Abawi and Chen (1998). In the time for two Crop Integrators and operating mid-1970s growers paid for the MSU trained funds for each of these individuals. The and supervised scouts. Federal funds paid project makes Michigan unique in the USA for Pest Management Field Assistants by generating funds to assist growers solve 264 L. Olsen et al.

plant agriculture problems. It is through includes newsletters, useful links to com- grower and commodity leadership foresight modity-specific resources and information that this initiative was developed and for the general public on topics like the funded by the legislature, and they are Asian multi-colored lady beetle and West still receiving its benefits. Nile virus. The program meets urban and homeowner needs by producing materials Michigan State University IPM program such as What’s Bugging You? by Ellis and Landis (1999), and has a cooperative pro- The IPM program at MSU is well recog- gram on IPM in schools with the Michigan nized within the College of Agriculture and Department of Agriculture. Natural Resources departments and across the state. This is a result of continual fed- IPM PROGRAM OFFICE/STAFF The MSU IPM eral and state funding, and a commitment to program and its affiliates have staff on the goals of the IPM program which are to: campus and located throughout the state in key areas where the commodities for which • research methods to prevent pest they have pest management responsibilities problems; are grown. Figure 20.1 shows an organiza- • teach IPM practitioners; tional chart. Photos of these people and their • convince pest managers to adopt IPM position responsibilities are found at the practices; website under Publications-IPM Report, • create and distribute useful IPM Spring 2002. information; The IPM Coordinator has a full-time • measure the level of IPM adoption; and faculty rank which has reporting lines to • secure adequate resources to solve new the departments of Entomology and Plant problems and enhance support services. Pathology, MSU Extension and Michigan The staff are dedicated to these goals, Agricultural Experiment Station. The Coor- and we are continually developing programs dinator manages on-campus staff and their and materials, conducting training sessions activities, and serves as a liaison that links and seeking funds to meet them. MSU Extension field staff and campus The current IPM program continues to faculty with growers, consultants, public stress basic and applied research and dem- agencies and private organizations. His onstrations along with delivering programs overall responsibility is to coordinate the that emphasize biological and meteorologi- development and implementation of cal monitoring. It produces print, Internet, IPM programs, but he has reporting and and video resources to aid in commodity mentoring responsibilities as well. specific pest management decisions. Recent The Communications/Publications projects have included pocket-size scouting Specialist and Assistant IPM Coordinator guides (Epstein and Gut, 2000; Brown- is responsible for publications and other Rytlewski, 2002) and annual reports on communication resources produced by the nursery research/extension activities at IPM Program. The specialist is the editor and MSU (Nursery and Landscape Research Pro- program coordinator of the Crop Advisory jects and Educational Programs). The staff Team (CAT) Alert newsletters and has have cooperated with the sustainable agri- responsibilities for producing educational culture program at MSU to develop several resources both in print and on the Internet, publications that include IPM within eco- including management of the Program’s logically based cropping systems (Michigan website. As assistant coordinator, some Field Crop Pest Ecology and Management by administrative responsibilities involving Mutch et al. (2000a); Fruit Crop Ecology and organization, reporting, and public relations Management edited by J. Landis et al. (2002); are shared with the IPM Coordinator. and Ecologically-Based Farming Systems The Publications/Internet Specialist edited by Harwood et al. (2003)). The pro- assists with print publishing and promo- grams website (www.msue.msu.edu/ipm) tional materials for the IPM program. This IPM in the USA 265

Fig. 20.1. Table of organization of the Michigan State University IPM Program. position is a joint appointment with the • write grants to fund programs; Pesticide Safety Education Program, and • analyze data and evaluate programs; provides publication design assistance for • communicate the benefits of newIPM the program. technology to industry; Crop Integrators are full-time, non- • produce resource materials; tenured staff who take a broad ICM • share program results. perspective to help address critical crop The IPM program also has staff located management needs that enhance adoption of around the state key agricultural areas. The ICM and IPM strategies. They are paid half District Field Crops IPM Agent is located at by MSU Project GREEEN funds (see below) the W.K. Kellogg Biological Station where and half by their industry. They have an his area of specialty is cover crops and industry advisory committee and university carbon sequestration. He teams with local mentoring committee to direct and prioritize agents to coordinate field crop IPM activities their efforts. Their performance is jointly in southwest Michigan as well as statewide evaluated by the IPM Coordinator and the demonstrations and educational opportuni- industry Executive Director with input from ties for sustainable agriculture and organic their advisory committees. Currently there production. The District Fruit IPM Agent are two integrators, one working in tree fruit is based at the Northwest Michigan Horti- crops and the other in nursery and land- cultural Research Station in Traverse City. scape crops. Additional integrators may He coordinates similar activities in the be added in the future for vegetables, field northwest region of the state along with crops, specialty field crops, turfgrass and some statewide training sessions. small fruit if these industries obtain funds The MSU IPM Program is affiliated with to match GREEEN funds for their salaries. and cooperates with activities of Integrated Their specific duties are to: Crop Management agents funded through • coordinate multi-disciplinary teams Project GREEEN. These District agents have that enhance linkages between crop-specific assignments and are located industry and the university; at county extension offices. They include • identify key program needs; agents assigned to work with vegetables, • prioritize programs to address industry fruit, floriculture/greenhouse, and Christ- identified problems; mas trees. They coordinate with growers, 266 L. Olsen et al.

agents and campus specialists to conduct CAT ALERTS PROVIDES IPM INFORMATION AND integrated crop management projects on STRENGTHENS TEAMWORK Crop Advisory their respective crops (Fig. 20.1). Team Alerts are newsletters published during the growing season to provide cur- INFORMATION SHARING AND COOPERATION rent advice on pest management for insects, THROUGH AREA OF EXPERTISE (AOE) TEAMS nematodes, weeds and plant diseases. There AOE teams were first created at MSU by the are five separate editions of the newsletter: Director of Extension in 1994 (Leholm et al., fruit, vegetable, field crop, landscape/ 1999). These teams are modeled after self- turfgrass/Christmas tree, and greenhouse. directed teams in private industry. At MSU Most editions have 18–20 issues. Each alert they have these common features: has a team of extension faculty and field staff that combine their observations and • largely self-directed and link exten- expertise to provide timely articles based sion, research and stakeholders; on current conditions. During a morning • share self-developed vision, mission conference call, the agricultural meteorolo- and goals, are mutually and individu- gist discusses weather forecasts and data, ally accountable for performance, and county-based extension agents provide are directly engaged with clientele; regional reports, and specialists offer spe- • given responsibility, authority and res- cific pest and crop management recommen- ources to design and conduct programs; dations. Articles are written, edited, and • are co-chaired by on- and off-campus formatted with graphics added and posted extension staff members and rotate on on the Internet at http://www.msue.msu. alternate years; edu/ipm/aboutcat/htm Current season and • members are both from campus and searchable archives issues are available on- off-campus; line. The same day as the conference call the • teams are composed of agents, special- newsletter is printed and mailed to those ists, researchers and industry in some who purchase a print subscription. This cases. newsletter is an excellent method for pro- One of their objectives is to identify IPM viding current and long-term pest manage- issues and concerns with the clients they ment recommendations to clients through- serve. The teams then design research and out the state and in the Great Lakes region. extension activities to address these con- It provides a framework where unusual cerns. IPM staff serve on all the plant AOE crop and pest developments can be quickly teams to assist in the coordination of pro- addressed and information delivered to gram efforts. There are seven plant-based those who need it. AOE teams that are actively conducting IPM research and education. They are COMMODITY SCOUTING INFORMATION The the field crops, fruit crops, forestry, for- Michigan IPM program develops and ages, landscape/ornamentals, vegetable, and delivers scouting information in several pro- Christmas tree teams. duction systems including commercial fruit; These teams are not expensive to form, field crop production; turfgrass for lawns, and the limited funds provided to them by golf courses and athletics fields; Christmas extension has provided significant new tree production; commercial vegetable funds to MSU to carry out research and production; nursery plant and landscape education programs that solve industry- maintenance; and home and urban pest identified problems. The AOE team concept management. This website (http://www. has worked well at MSU and has been msue.msu.edu/ipm/scoutingIPM.htm) pro- adopted at other US land-grant universities vides links to cropping systems and then and can be adopted internationally to specific pests and howto monitor for them. enhance cooperation among universities, A fewpests have action thresholds and man - agencies and commodity groups working to agement practices. All sites have links to solve agricultural problems. additional sources of information including IPM in the USA 267

historical and current issues of the MSU year 1, 25% in year 2 and 30% in year 3 by Crop Advisory Team Alert newsletters, reducing their reliance on these products other information within MSU and at other and increasing the use of mating disruption universities. for lepidopteran control and pest models for better timing of applications. Pest damage was reduced and the percent of marketable Successful programs fruit was increased. The project also created a very effective industry network, conducted FOOD SAFETY MSU and Michigan Depart- numerous workshops, improved overall ment of Agriculture with commodity groups pest management skills of participating realized a public concern of pesticide resi- growers and consultants, trained seven dues in food and a potential loss of pesticide newconsultants, and produced several new uses due to the implementation of the FQPA. educational fact sheets and manuals. The Studies were initiated in 1998 to analyze final report is found at http://www.cips. fresh and processed produce for residues. msu.edu/maipmip/ It can be used as an The study compared samples taken fresh example of cooperation to solve grower from the field with those taken after the identified problems. produce had gone through processing. After 3 years of sampling, it was discovered that AOE–FIELD CROP TEAM DEMONSTRATIONS The processing reduced the amount of pesticides AOE–Field Crops Team has for several years in processed foods in almost every case. This written an On-Farm Research and Demon- data has been provided to EPA to aid in the stration (Mutch et al., 2000b) report edited reassessment and re-registration of specific by the District IPM agent. These booklets pesticide uses. To viewthose reports, visit report on the results of on-farm IPM field the following website: http://www.cips. trials conducted across Michigan. These msu.edu/share/MIFQPAresidue1999.pdf trials are large plots, replicated, taken to yield when appropriate and statistically MAIPMIP The Michigan Apple IPM Imple- analyzed. The team is striving to assist those mentation Project is an excellent example involved in Michigan crop production with of private foundation, university, processor, current, research-based information that private consultant and grower cooperation is agronomically sound, profitable and to increase the adoption of IPM. The apple environmentally responsible. industry faces many challenges in pest management with loss of many pesticides due to IPM INSTRUCTION The MSU IPM program the FQPA, pest resistance and secondary has conducted IPM schools for agents, pests becoming damaging again, marketing industry, chemical company representa- and labor issues, and negative public opin- tives and growers for many years. The ion of pesticide residues and E. coli in apple annual fruit school has over 120 participants cider. The goal of this project was the wide- and has in-state and out-of-state speakers scale implementation of an economically to provide newinformation. Classroom viable and environmentally sound pest instruction in entomology, plant pathology, management and production system that crop and soil sciences and horticulture significantly reduced reliance on broad- provides IPM information. The Professional spectrum pesticides and reduced the poten- Masters in IPM curriculum includes tial for residues on both rawand processed traditional technical classes and capstone products. This program began in 1999 with seminars. Students in this non-thesis degree 47 growers participating on 877 acres and program also have an internship with increased by 2001 to 106 growers with 8300 industry to complete their broad-based acres or 20% of the state acreage. On those experiential learning. A description of the acres growers reduced their use of organo- degree program can be found at http://www. phosphate insecticides compared with their ent.msu.edu/dept/docs/ipm-ms.htm IPM conventionally treated blocks by 49% in staff have assisted with the International 268 L. Olsen et al.

IPM Short Course since 1995, providing Adkisson, P.L. (1973) The principles, strategies speakers and field site visits for the and tactics of pest population regulation and international participants. control in major crop ecosystems: the cotton system. In: Geier, P.W. (ed.) Studies in Population Management, Vol. 1. Memoirs of the Ecological Society of Australia, Canberra, Summary Australia, pp. 274–282. Anonymous (1994) Integrated Pest Management The MSU IPM program has strengths in Practices on 1991 Fruits and Nuts. RTD Updates: Pest Management. USDA:ERS, the areas of newinformation development 8 pp. and delivery through CATS Alerts, other Armbrust, E.J. (1978) Alfalfa weevil pest manage- publications and the Web; and planning ment system for alfalfa. In: Smith, E.H. and delivery through AOE teams, extension and Pemitel, D. (eds) Pest Control Strategies. agents and private consultants. The current Academic Press, New York, pp. 85–99. state of the philosophy, principles and Barker, K.R., Pederson, G.A. and Windham, G.L. practices of the MSU IPM program are (eds) (1998) Plant Nematode Interactions. expressed in the 2002 publication entitled Agronomy Series No. 36. American Society Fruit Pest Ecology and Management (Landis of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, 771 pp. et al., 2002), published as the third in a Benbrook, C.M. (1996) Pest Management at the Crossroads. Consumers Union, Yonkers, series of books designed for use by educa- New York. tors and farmers in their progress towards Bird, G. (1987) Role of nematology in IPM. an economically viable, socially acceptable In: Veech, J. and Dickenson, D. (eds) Vistas and environmentally sound agriculture for in Nematology. Society of Nemotologists. both current and future generations. Painter Publishing, DeLoin Springs, Florida, pp. 114–121. Bird, G.W. (1989) The integrated pest management experience. Reform and innovation of Acknowledgment science and education: Planning for the 1990 Farm Bill. In: 101st Congress. Senate The authors wish to thank the following Committee Print 101–61. US Senate Commit- persons for reviewing this chapter: Dr Mike tee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry. Fitzner, National Program Leader for IPM, pp. 31–41. USDA, CSREES; Dr Arlen Leholm, past Bird, G.W. and Berney, M.F. (2000) Pest ecology and management. In: Cavigelli, M.A., Director of Extension, Michigan State Deming, S.R., Probyn, L.K. and Harwood, University; Dr George Bird, Professor, R.R. (eds) Michigan Field Crop Ecology. Entomology, Michigan State University, Michigan State University Extension and Ms Joy Landis, Assistant IPM Bulletin, E-2646, 86 pp. Coordinator, Michigan State University. Bird, G.W. and Thomason, I.J. (1980) Integrated pest management: the role of nematology. Bioscience 30, 670–674. Bird, G.W., Edens, T., Drummond, F. and References Groden, E. (1990) Design of pest management systems for sustainable agriculture. In: Abawi, G.S. and Chen, J. (1998) Concomitant Francis, C.A., Flora, C.B. and King, L.D. pathogen and pest interactions. In: (eds) Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Barker, K.R., Pederson, G.A. and Zones. John Wiley & Sons, NewYork, Windham, G.L. (eds) Plant Nematode Inter- pp. 55–95. actions. Agronomy Series No. 36. American Blair, B.D. and Edwards, C.R. (1979) The Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, Development of Integrated Pest Management pp. 135–158. Programs in the United States. Science Adkisson, P.L. (1969) Howinsects damage and Education Administration, Extension. crops. In: How Crops Grow – a Century Later. USDA, Washington, DC. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Bolkan, H. and Reinert, W. (1994) Developing Bulletin (New Haven) No. 708. and implementing IPM strategies to assist IPM in the USA 269

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Klonsky, K. and Shouse, B. (2000) IPM research Nazionale dei Lineci (Rome), 1968. 366(128), profiled: 10 year trends. California Agri- 21–30. culture 54(6), 20–21. Smith, R.F. and Allen, W.W. (1954) Insect Klonsky, K., Zalom, F., Chandler, M., Ohmart, C., control and the balance of nature. Scientific Elmore, C. and Tourte, L. (1998) The American 190(6), 38–42. Lodi-Woodbridge Winegrape Commission: Smith, R.F. and Reynolds, H.T. (1966) Principles, a framework for implementing IPM. definitions and scope of integrated pest con- Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3, trol. Proceedings FAO Symposium in Inte- 243–255. grated Pest Control 1, 11–17. Landis, J.N., Sanchez, J.E., Bird, G.W., Edson, C.E., Smith, R.F. and van den Bosch, R. (1967) Isaacs, R., Lehnert, R.H., Schilder, A.M. Integrated control. In: Kilgore, W.W. and and Swinton, S.M. (eds) (2002) Fruit Crop Doutt, R.L. (eds) Pest Control: Biological, Ecology and Management. Michigan State Physical and Selected Chemical Methods. University Extension Bulletin E-2759. Academic Press, New York, pp. 295–340. Leholm, A., Hamm, L., Suvedi, M., Gray, J.I. and Smith, R.F., Apple, J.L. and Bottrell, D.G. (1976) Poston, F. (1999) Area of expertise teams: Origins of integrated pest management the Michigan approach to applied research concepts for agricultural crops. In: Apple, J.L. and extension. Journal of Extension 37(3). and Smith, R.F. (eds) Integrated Pest Eugene, Oregon. Management. Plenum, New York, pp. 1–18. Michelbarger, A.E. and Bacon, O.G. (1952) Walnut Sprott, J.M., Lacewell, R.D., Niles, G.A., Walker, insect control in northern California. Journal J.K. and Gannaway, J.R. (1976) Agronomic, of Economic Entomology 45, 1020–1027. Economic, Energy, and Environmental Mutch, D.R., Cavigelli, M.A., Deming, M.A., Frost, Implications of Short-Season, Narrow-Row L.A. and Probyn, L.K. (2000a) Michigan Field Cotton Production. Texas Agricultural Crop Pest Ecology and Management. Michi- Experiment Station, MP-1250C. gan State University Extension Bulletin Sorensen, A.A. (1993) Regional Producer E-2740. Workshops: Constraints to the Adoption of Mutch, D.R., Kells, J.J. and Poindexter, S. (2000b) Integrated Pest Management. National Foun- AOE-Field Crops Team: On-farm Research dation for IPM Education, Austin, Texas. and Demonstration – Annual Report. IPM Stern, V.M., Smith, R.F., van den Bosch, R. and Program, Michigan State University. Hagen, K.S. (1959) The integrated control Newsom, L.D. (1974) Pest management: history, concept. Hilgardia 29, 81–101. current status and future progress. In: Sutton, T.B. and Jones, A.L. (1976) Evaluation of Maxwell, F.G. and Harris, F.A. (eds) Proceed- four spore traps for monitoring discharges ings of the Summer Institute on Biological of ascospores of Venturia inaequalis. Control of Plant Insects and Diseases. Phytopathology 66, 453–456. Mississippi State University Press, pp. 1–18. USDA (1994) USDA’s Integrated Pest Norris, R.F., Caswell-Chen, E.P. and Kogan, M. Management (IPM) Initiative. Office of (2003) Concepts in Integrated Pest Manage- Communications, News Backgrounder, ment. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 586 pp. Release No. 0942.94. Washington, DC. Norton, G.W. and Mullen, J. (1994) Economic USDA (1998a) Determining the Practice of Evaluation of Integrated Pest Management Integrated Pest Management: a Working Programs: a Literature Review. Virginia Definition for the year 2000 goal. USDA Polytechnic Institute and State University, Integrated Pest Management Committee, Blacksburg, Virginia, Extension Publication October, 1 page. 448-120. USDA (1998b) Report on Integrated Pest Manage- Pimentel, D. (1991) Handbook of Pest Manage- ment and Related Activities Supported by the ment in Agriculture, 2nd edn, vol. 1–3. CRC USDA. Submitted to the House Agricultural, Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2271 pp. Rural Development, Food and Drug Adminis- Rajotte, E.G., Norton, G.W., Kazmierczak, R.F., tration, and Related Agencies Appropriation Lambur, R.F. and Allen, W.A. (1987) The Subcommittee, 18 May 1998. National Evaluation of Extension’s Inte- USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service grated Pest Management (IPM) Programs. (2001) Pest Management Practices: 2000 Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Summary. Sc Cr 1(01). Blacksburg, Virginia. [USGAO] United States General Accounting Smith, R.F. (1969) The newand the old in pest Office (2001) Report to the Chairman, control. In: Proceedings of the Accadimi Subcommittee on Research, Nutrition, and IPM in the USA 271

General Legislation, Committee on Agricul- Wearing, C.H. (1988) Evaluating the IPM ture, Nutrition and Forestry, US Senate: Agri- implementation process. Annual Review of cultural Pesticides: Management Improve- Entomology 33, 17–38. ments Needed to Further Promote Integrated Welch, S.M., Croft B.A., Bunner, J.F. and Michels, Pest Management. GAO 01-815, August M.F. (1978) PETE: An extension phenology 2001, 36 pp. modeling system for management of a multi- Vandeman, A., Fernandez-Cornejo, J., Jans, S. and species pest complex. Environmental Lin, B.H. (1994) Adoption of integrated pest Entomology 7, 482–494. management in U.S. agriculture. Agricultural Zalom, F.G. and Strand, J.F. (1990) Expectations Information Bulletin No. 707, United for computer decision aids in IPM. AI Appli- States Department of Agriculture Economic cations in Natural Resource Management 4, Research Service, Washington, DC. 53–58.

Chapter 21 Integrated Pest Management in Mexico

David Mota-Sanchez1,2, Francisco Santos Gonzalez2, Benito Alvarado-Rodriguez3, Ovidio Diaz-Gomez4, Hiram Bravo Mojica1, Guillermo Santiago Martinez5 and Rafael Bujanos6 1Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agricolas, Montecillo, México; 2Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA; 3Independent Consultant, Sinaloa, México; 4Universidad Autonoma de San Luis, México; 5Direccion General de Sanidad Vegetal, México City; 6Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (INIFAP), Guanajuato, México

Introduction training courses were taught at the National School of Agriculture and Veterinary The major Mexican agricultural exports are (nowUniversidad Autonoma Chapingo). coffee, cotton, sugar, fresh vegetables and Forty years later, the Mexican government tropical fruits, for a total value of US$5.6 created a Commission of Plant Protection to billion/year. Imported agricultural com- assist farmers with pest management issues modities include maize, sorghum, beans, (Rodriguez, 2000). In 1924, the first law oilseeds, wheat, barley, and fresh and dried related to pest control was created follow- fruits, totaling US$2.3 billion (Agri-Food ing a devastating outbreak of the Central Trade Service, 1998). Although 23% of American locust, Schistocerca piceifrons Mexico’s population of 100 million is rural, Walker. The Commission of Plant Pro- agriculture makes up a relatively small tection published the regulations of plant share of the country’s economy. In 1990, protection. Further, the Commission signed agriculture comprised 6.2% of the Gross an agreement with the USDA to control the Domestic Product. By 2000 this had pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella lessened to 5% (Ruiz-Funes, 2001). Total (Saunders), an introduced pest from Egypt, Mexican territory is about 1.96 million km2, and to study Mexican fruit flies (Rodríguez, from this area 21.8 million ha are arable. 2000). As early as 1927 and 1928, the first About 4.8 million ha of the arable land is pest quarantine laws were passed in Mex- irrigated (INEGI, 2002). ico. In the 1930s, several parasitoids were successfully introduced to control sugarcane borers and the citrus blackfly, Aleuro- History of IPM in Mexico canthus woglumi Ashby (Rodríguez, 2000). In 1935, the Department of Plant Protec- Mexico has a long history of proactive pest tion was founded at the National School of management. In 1854, the first pest control Agriculture in Chapingo. In 1959, the first

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 273 274 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

graduate program in agriculture was offered Organizational Structure of IPM at the National School of Agriculture. Grad- in Mexico uate research programs cover a broad range of topics in plant protection. In addition, The SENASICA, under the Secretary of the Graduate Program of the ITESM and the Agriculture, is the main body for all aspects University Agraria Antononio Narro offer related to pest control in the country. The similar programs, contributing to scientific SENASICA includes General Direction of and technological developments in Mexican Plant Protection (DGSV), General Direction agriculture. In the past 50 years, several of Animal Health (DGSA), and the General societies related to plant protection Direction for Animal and Plant Health were founded including entomology, plant Inspection (DGIF). The SENASICA pro- pathology, and weed sciences. In 1991, the vides support to comply with all inter- Mexican Society of Biological Control was national agreements, including the NAFTA created, indicating the growing interest in (Trujillo, 1998). developing biological control methods. The DGSV develops pest control regula- In the early 1960s, the first successful tions including: (i) certification of special- cotton IPM program was developed in ists in plant protection and diagnostics; (ii) northern Mexico. Integrated management of phytosanitary programs for the prevention major cotton pests such as pink bollworm, and control of pests; (iii) regulation of bollworm, and cotton boll weevil included pesticide dealers and applicators; and mandatory planting and harvest dates, (iv) certification of diagnostic laboratories. destruction of cotton residues after harvest, More than 1100 specialists have been scouting of pest populations and natural accredited as national agents. Areas covered enemies, release of Trichogramma, and by the specialists include the fruit fly pro- careful use of insecticides. These measures gram, seed certification, IPM in vegetables, notably reduced pest populations and quarantine treatments, verification of free damage. This successful demonstration fruit pests in the country of origin, and IPM of IPM stimulated the creation of several in avocados (Carreón, 1998). facilities for mass-rearing biological control agents. About 64 Mexican companies now mass-rear more than 55 species of beneficial IPM Policy in Mexico organisms for biological control (Rodriguez del Bosque and Arredondo, 1999). The top The second chapter of the Federal Law ten biological control agents sold in Mexico of Plant Protection has as objectives to are listed in Table 21.1. maintain product quality, to reduce cropping damage, and to be competitive Table 21.1. List of the top biological control at national and international levels (Reyes, agents produced and sold in Mexico. 1994). A common approach to pest control in Mexico is designing programs that can be Number of carried out at regional and national levels. Natural enemies companies Organized campaigns for the control of Trichogramma pretiosum 33 karnal bunt, coffee borer, coconut palm Chrysoperla carnea 25 lethal yellowing, white fly, fruit flies, Beauveria bassiana 17 cotton pests, and the Central American Metarrizium anisoplie 10 locust have all been developed from Paecilomyces fumosoroseus 7 specific regulations imposed by state and Muscidifurax raptor 7 federal governments. The primary purpose Chrysoperla rufilabris 5 of these programs is to prevent the further Trichogramma exiguum 4 spread of pests. Resistant host plant Spalangia endius 4 Encarsia formosa 3 varieties and biological control techniques are often used as strategies. IPM in Mexico 275

When an agricultural pest warrants a National Institute of Research in Forestry, nationwide or regional campaign, the DGSV Agriculture and Animal Sciences (INIFAP) sets policies for a control program. The first has established more than 81 experiment step in this process is the detection and stations throughout Mexico. These stations evaluation of the pest problem. Second, the are responsible for research and technology control program is put in place with the transfer. The research programs carried cooperation of growers. Throughout the out in the areas of entomology and plant process, the organization, coordination and pathology are IPM oriented. supervision of the effort is under the administration of the DGSV. The execution of programs includes training of specialists Successful IPM Case Studies and growers, and coordination with growers, technicians, government and non- Impact on international trade governmental agencies (Cárdenas, 1994). In 2000, about 1000 local, regional and state In recent years, IPM has become even more committees provided support in plant pro- important as trade regulations have begun tection. These committees plan, organize, to restrict the amounts of pesticide residue finance and evaluate the programs. In or insects that may be present on produce addition, committees acquire equipment exported to the USA and Canada. In order and other supplies, and assign resources for to maintain the extensive trade in fresh research, diagnostic laboratories, pesticide fruits and vegetables, these commodities residue detection, and production of bio- must comply with strict regulations that logical control agents. The National Farm are difficult to meet with conventional pest Program, together with state and local gov- control methods. In many cases, IPM has ernments, supports grower organizations in become the only viable option for growers Plant Protection, one of 26 programs it man- intending to export their products. In this ages. This program also receives financial section we will focus on three unique cases support from The World Bank and the FAO. of IPM in Mexico representing principal Most Mexican growers believe that IPM agricultural commodities. reduces costs of production and that it is vital to plant protection programs against polyphagous pests including the silverleaf IPM in tomatoes whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring. In northwest Mexico, mandatory In the state of Sinaloa, tomatoes, including planting and harvesting dates, postharvest both processing and fresh-market tomatoes, sanitation, and host-free period, together are annually grown on more than 50,000 ha with the use of selective insecticides with a total value of US$1.1 billion. Insects are important factors to control whiteflies feeding on tomatoes are the principal pests. (Ellsworth and Martinez-Carrillo, 2001). In the 1980s, the tomato pinworm, Keiferia One of the constraints of IPM implementa- lycopersicella (Walsingham), emerged as tion is the lack of communication among the the most important insect pest of tomatoes agencies. in Mexico. Other important pests included the tomato fruitworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), the tobacco budworm, Helico- Research and Extension Focus verpa virescens F., and the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner). At that time, Most Mexican universities nowhave IPM the percentage of damaged tomatoes ranged curricula at both the undergraduate and from 25% to 100%, despite frequent graduate levels. Each of the 31 states in use of broad-spectrum insecticides such Mexico has at least one university with as methamidophos, methomyl, permethrin an agronomy department. In addition, The and fenvalerate (Alvarado-Rodriguez and 276 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

Rivera-Rubio, 1990). During this period, the done primarily with pheromone traps from tomato industry in Mexico faced serious planting to harvesting. Monitoring of eggs problems due to newquality standards for is done by sampling leaves from below tomatoes and tomato paste exported to the the inflorescence. The larval population USA. High levels of insect fragments and is assessed by inspecting complete plants. pesticide residues in tomato paste threat- Cultural control methods include plowing ened the entire processing industry. In under crop residues promptly after the late 1980s, Campbell’s Sinalopasta and harvesting, cleaning drainage ditches and other tomato industry companies initiated irrigation canals where alternate hosts an IPM program for commercially grow, and establishing a tomato-free period grown tomatoes used for processing during summer or winter to break the cycle (Alvarado-Rodriguez, 1988). of tomato pinworm reproduction. Fresh-market tomato growers also faced Conservation biological control is also many of the same problems related to important. The parasitoid wasp, Tricho- the excessive use of broad-spectrum gramma pretosium is the only native egg insecticides. These problems included the parasitoid of tomato pinworm, and levels resurgence of insect pests, outbreaks of of parasitism can reach up to 35% in late secondary pests, insecticide resistance, plantings. Other parasitoids include the adverse effects on natural enemies, and high braconids Apanteles scuttelaris and Pseudo- pesticide residue levels causing the denial apanteles dignus that attack the larval stage. of export to the USA, as well as the risk of The synthetic pheromones ((E) 4 Tridecen-1 effects on human health and the environ- and 1-Acetate and (Z)-4 Tridecen-1 and ment (Oatman and Kennedy, 1976; FDA, 1-Acetate) (Consep Inc., Bend, Oregon) have 1979; Johnson et al., 1980a,b; Oatman et al., been used as an effective mating disruption 1983; Trumble, 1985; Brewer et al., 1990; technique. Due to the overuse of insecticide Brewer and Trumble, 1991; Trumble and applications, the tomato pinworm has Alvarado-Rodriguez, 1993). developed resistance to conventional Fresh-market tomato growers in Sinaloa insecticides. However, selective insecti- supported research to develop an IPM cides including abamectin, spinosad and program for fresh-market tomatoes. The modified abamectin are still effective on objective of the IPM program was to develop tomato pinworm larvae. Combined use of efficient and economical pest management pheromones, biological control and selec- alternatives, comply with quality standards tive insecticides have reduced damage and for export established by the USA, and number of insecticide applications. minimize adverse effects on the environment and human health (Trumble and The tomato fruitworm Alvarado-Rodriguez, 1993). The tomato fruitworm (H. zea and H. The tomato pinworm virescens) is a widely distributed pest on tomatoes, cotton and chickpeas. Damage A successful management program for from tomato fruitworm can reach up to tomato pinworm includes careful scouting, 15% in tomato fruit. Control with a single cultural control, biological control, mating method is not usually effective, so the most disruption, and the use of selective insecti- effective control is achieved with a combi- cides. The tomato pinworm has developed nation of tactics. IPM of tomato fruitworm resistance to most commercial insecticides. combines pest monitoring, biological Selective application of control measures is control, and use of biopesticides. Egg important, as infestations tend to start along density is monitored by sampling leaves field edges. Therefore, control measures located belowthe inflorescences, while need to be directed to edges where fruit damage is assessed by inspecting fruits infestations are just beginning. Scouting is in the center of the field. IPM in Mexico 277

The tomato fruitworm has been the season. Parasitism rates naturally occur- effectively managed with mass releases of ring in the field are lower early in the season Trichogramma wasps, when natural parasit- and increase as the season progresses, reach- ism is lower than 60%. Naturally occurring ing up to 60%. These mortality factors acting parasitism rates range from 35% to 96%, in concert are generally able to reduce popu- increasing as the season progresses. In the lations belowthe economic injury level. state of Sinaloa, natural parasitism by T. However, the role of these natural enemies pretiosum on eggs of tomato fruitworm com- at fruiting stage is of partial value because monly occurs at high levels such as 90% on even parasitized larvae feed on fruit, and both processing and fresh-market tomatoes. parasitoid cocoons can reduce fruit quality. Naturally occurring parasitism by the Although an economic threshold for Bt braconids Cotesia marginiventris and application has not yet been developed, the Meteorus laphygmae ranges from 35% to recommended level is an average of 0.25 40% on tomato fruitworm larvae, but para- young larvae per plant at any time after the sitism does not necessarily mean a reduction beginning of the fruiting stage until harvest. in pest damage, since parasitized larvae feed on fruit, and cocoons of parasitoids can Secondary pests reduce fruit quality. Biopesticides (Bt) are effective and do not interfere with the bio- Important secondary pests in tomatoes logical control. In contrast, applications of include the vegetable leafminer, Liriomyza conventional insecticides reduced natural sativae, the western flower thrips, parasitism. However, sprays around edges of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), the tomato fields reduced their impact in natu- green peach aphid, Myzus persicae and ral enemies (Alvarado-Rodriguez, 1988). whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci and Bemisia argentifolii. Sprays with abamectin reduce The beet armyworm damage by leafminers, and soaps control whiteflies and thrips. Entomopathogenic Spodoptera exigua is also an important pest fungi, e.g. Paecelomyces fumosoroseus of tomatoes, reaching damage levels in fruit reduce both species of whiteflies, and of 25%. In addition to tomatoes, this insect Verticillium lecanii is very effective against has several host plants including wheat, several species of aphids. sorghum, soybeans, lucerne and weeds. Larvae usually feed on foliage, but they may Implementation of tomato IPM also damage fruit. The tolerance level for direct feeding damage in fruit is 4%. IPM of The Mexican tomato industry has widely beet armyworm is based on careful monitor- adopted the IPM program (Alvarado- ing of pest populations and damage, biolog- Rodriguez, 1988; Trumble and Alvarado- ical control, and the use of Bt. Monitoring of Rodriguez, 1993). The major motivation is Spodoptera eggs involves inspection of the compliance with the standards for export to whole plant for presence of egg clusters and the USA. These standards were achieved larvae. Data are gathered from plants in the during the first year of the IPM program. center of the field. The critical monitoring From 1988 to 1991, the amount of active time for beet armyworm is at the fruiting ingredient applied to tomato fields, the per- stage. centage of insect damage and control costs Beet armyworm has several natural were all noticeably reduced (Table 21.2). enemies that can have a significant effect IPM reduced control costs by 45% and on pest populations. Parasitoids and an NPV the quantity of i.a./ha by more than 30%. attack S. exigua larvae (Alvarado-Rodriguez, In addition, insect damage in IPM-managed 1988). NPV is the major mortality factor fields was reduced by as much as 76%. IPM affecting S. exigua larvae, with multiple epi- adoption by fresh-market tomato growers zootics occurring at different times during has been steadily increasing. 278 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

Table 21.2. Comparison of the IPM program and conventional insecticides in commercially grown tomatoes at Campbell’s-Sinalopasta in Sinaloa, Mexico.

Growing Control Area Active ingredient Overall insect Cost/ha season strategy (ha) (kg/ha) damage (%) (US$)

1988–1989 Conventional insecticides 2300 2.45 8.5 350.00 1989–1990 IPM 3000 0.99 2.2 96.95 1990–1991 IPM 1800 0.77 2.7 75.00 2000–2001 IPM 1200 0.55 2.4 55.00

IPM in crucifers: the diamondback moth Bajio created the Frozen Food Packers Association and a Technical Committee Crucifer production in Mexico has grown composed of members representing several significantly during the last 25 years. More industry and research institutes. These than 30,000 ha of broccoli and cauliflower organizations shared research and field are grown in the state of Guanajuato. Of observations, identified and supported key these crucifers 95% are grown for export by research projects, organized technical and the frozen food industry in the states of professional training seminars, supported Guanajuato and Queretaro. Currently, 50% technical extension publications, and of the broccoli consumed in the USA is generally promoted IPM of broccoli and imported from Mexico. cauliflower (Laborde, 1992). The diamondback moth, Plutella xylo- Coordination at the regional level for stella (L.), is a major insect pest of crucifers, education and training of extension agents along with Trichoplusia ni (Hubner) and and growers was vital to the success of Brevicoryne brassicae (L.). Reasons for this the IPM program. The education program include the expanding acreage of crucifer included pest identification, pest scouting, production, year-round crop production, use of economic thresholds, cultural control and the destruction of natural enemies by methods, microbial control and use of broad-spectrum insecticides. In 1986, con- selective pesticides. Pests were identified trol of the diamondback moth was very criti- and monitored by farmers’ consultants; in cal and it was necessary to apply up to 15 addition, the crop’s maturity and health, insecticide sprays per season, as compared weather conditions, and population level to four in 2000 after establishment of IPM. of beneficial organisms were monitored. Sampling methods included the inspection Economic importance of plants and the use of pheromone traps, color traps, and light traps (Vargas, 1993; In 1986, the diamondback moth became a Hoy, 1999). Pheromone traps indicated both severe problem, although it had been pres- the local population level and also revealed ent at lowlevels since 1970 (Domínguez the change in patterns of the population over and Carrillo, 1976; Laborde, 1992). As a time (McCully and Salas, 1992). result, a regional plan for IPM in crucifers In the processing industry, pests are was organized in 1987. Results of this classified as contaminants of harvested program were not immediately effective product and secondaries. This first term is because a zero tolerance policy for used to define the presence of immature diamondback moth larvae or pupae in stages on the harvested products. Among the crucifers exported to the USA led to a first are: P. xylostella, T. ni and B. brassicae; 16% rejection rate of shipments in 1989. the second are: Artogeia rapae (L.), Lepto- Economic losses during the period from phobia aripa (Boisduval), Spodoptera 1988 to 1992 were estimated at US$3 exigua (Hübner), Copitarsia consueta billion (Martinez-Castillo et al., 2002). (Walker), Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and In response, the processing industry in the Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach), different IPM in Mexico 279

species of Diabrotica and Murgantia Biological control histrionica (Hahn) (Bujanos et al., 1995). A key factor for the conservation of parasitoids and predators relies on the use of Action thresholds and crop phenology formulations of Bt at the beginning of the The crucifer plant is divided into three season and the reduction of broad-spectrum developmental stages: seedling, repro- pesticide use. To avoid resistance, Bt is ductive stage, and harvest. At the seedling recommended for use on only one stage, control is recommended when the generation per crop season and should density of larvae is over 0.5 larvae/plant. be rotated with groups of insecticides with At the second and third stages, control other modes of action including spinosad, is needed at over 0.2 larvae/plant. The emamectin benzoate, and indoxacarb application of these thresholds reduced (Shelton et al., 1999; Díaz-Gomez et al., the number of insecticide applications per 2000). Biological control also includes season. As a result of this reduction in pes- the identification and assessment of native ticide use, the risks of worker poisoning parasitoid species and the introduction of and high pesticide residue levels were sig- effective exotic species. In the Bajio region, nificantly reduced. In addition, populations Diadegma insulare, an introduced species, of natural enemies increased (Díaz-Gomez parasitoid of the last instar of diamondback and Jasso, 1989; Bujanos et al., 1995). moth, has been found at high levels (57% in San Luis Potosi and 10–30% in Guanajuato) (Martinez-Martinez et al., 1996). Other Control strategies introduced species of parasitoids include Effective cultural control methods included Cotesia plutella and various species of plowing to eliminate crop residue, and Trichogramma. Natural enemies of Tricho- rotation with non-host crops. In addition, plusia ni larvae such as Voria ruralis, careful inspection of nursery plants for Copidosoma truncatellum, Microplitis sp., diamondback moth eggs and larvae and Hyposoter sp. have also been found helped to prevent accidental introduction (Bujanos, 2000), while Diaretiella rapae of diamondback moth into the field and Aphidius testaceipes are specific to (Bujanos et al., 1993). Another tactic Brevicoryne brassicae in the region. In included a ‘host-free season’ in which addition, an important group of predators neither crucifers nor other hosts of including Hippodamia convergens, Chryso- diamondback moth were planted. This perla spp., Allograpta sp. and Orius reduced pest densities for the following sea- spp. contributed to suppression of pest sons and slowed the potential development populations. of pesticide resistance. The diamondback moth is ranked third Chemical control in resistance development to insecticides in the world (Mota-Sanchez et al., 2002). Due Ultimately, the justification for heavy to the ability of diamondback moth to adapt insecticide use in recent decades has been to several insecticides, and the necessity consumer demand for high quality and of use effective insecticides, a common prac- flawless products. At first, the new syn- tice in the Bajio valley region is monitoring thetic insecticides dramatically reduced the resistance of P. xylostella to insecticides. pest damage and yield loss. However, over This procedure is by the use of discriminat- time the frequent use of broad-spectrum ing concentrations. The current data not insecticides has become less effective and only established a resistance/susceptibility has led to a host of other problems. In some database that includes several pests and cases, however, the use of chemical insecti- insecticides, but have been also used for cides is still necessary for growers to meet quick diagnosis of resistance or any shift to market demands, but guidelines for more tolerance (Díaz-Gomez et al., 2000). judicious use of insecticides have been 280 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

developed. Recommendations for the use of in the world for mass production of the chemical insecticides now include: Mediterranean fruit fly in 1978. By 1980, 1000 million sterile flies were produced 1. Analysis of insecticide use and weekly. Although this program was largely evaluation of effectiveness; successful, migrant flies are still detected 2. Monitoring for insecticide resistance sporadically at the Mexican–Guatemalan and determining the mechanisms of border. resistance (Díaz-Gomez et al., 1994); However, outside of the Mediterranean 3. Use of economic thresholds; fruit fly eradication project, native fruit flies 4. Eliminating the use of pesticide continued to cause serious damage. Impor- mixtures; tant resources to study the ecology of fruit 5. Restricting the use of pyrethroids to the flies, identification, population dynamics, end of the season; and strategies of control were allocated. 6. Stricter laws regarding registration and In 1982, a national campaign against these use of pesticides and verification of the native fruit flies was established (Gutierrez MLOs established by EPA; and et al., 1992). In 1992, the national campaign 7. Use of diversified tactics to reduce against fruit flies was revived. Agreements chemical control (Bujanos et al., 1993, 1995; were established between the federal and Díaz-Gomez and Rodriguez, 2000). state governments and farmers to control, IPM in crucifers has been fully or suppress or eradicate four species of partially adopted by almost all Mexican economic importance: the mango fruit fly, growers in the Bajio region. IPM has proved Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart), the Mexi- to be critical for compliance with strict can fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), the international standards for pest damage sapote fruit fly, Anastrepha serpentina and pesticide residues. The IPM program for (Widemann) and the guava fruit fly, diamondback moth in Mexico is one of the Anastrepha striata Shiner. These species most successful examples of crucifer IPM in caused an estimated US$710 million in the world (Talekar and Shelton, 1993). This damage per year. Additional losses were successful program has allowed sustainable caused by increased costs of control and production of broccoli and cauliflower and loss of international markets due to strict reduced economic and ecological costs. quarantine restrictions

Key points to implement areawide fruit fly IPM IPM of fruit flies Areawide fruit fly IPM involved activities that should be realized continuously and Fruit flies (both native and introduced) are permanently. Some important points are: the most important pest in the production of tropical fruits. Mexico is the third pro- 1. Delimitation of the areas, taking into ducer and the first exporter of mangoes consideration the fruit system production, in the world (158,000 ha and 207,000 tons, ecology, number of species of fruit flies and respectively) (SAGARPA, 2002 unpub- number of hectares under fruit fly IPM. lished) and provides 5% of the world citrus 2. Technology for the control, suppres- production. Guava, papaya, and mamey are sion, and eradication of fruit flies. also important fruits in Mexico. In 1975, the 3. Determining of the technical, economi- Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata cal and operational feasibility of the program Widemann was introduced to Mexico from in the areas. Guatemala. This sparked a major multi- 4. Legislation of the IPM of fruit flies. national effort to eradicate the flies. A 5. Tight collaboration between all sterile insect release program coordinated participants in the IPM, particularly the by the Mexican government, the USDA, farmers with the federal, state and local and Guatemala built the largest facility government. IPM in Mexico 281

Legislation and participation of producers adults of fruit flies were caught in McPhail traps. The decision to apply control mea- In 1995, Mexico passed legislation estab- sures is based on the results of trapping. lishing mandatory procedures for plant pro- The number of flies per trap per day (FTD) tection and the national campaign against is used as an index to determine the level of fruit flies. The objective was to create infestation. This index is applied at several certified and protected pest-free orchards, spatial scales: per orchard, county, state, at least temporarily (SAGAR, 1999). per fruit fly species and the sexual propor- Participating growers registered their tion. Control is applied when the FTD is orchards and made a coordinated regional equal or more than 0.0100. However, IPM effort to apply IPM strategies, including is applied to an area that is free of fruit flies both commercial and non-commercial areas as soon as the first fruit fly is caught. An (back yard fruit trees with alternate hosts emergency plan to eradicate the pest is then nearby). In addition, they contracted with established quickly. certified plant protection specialists to In 1992, the Mexican government built supervise and monitor the progress of each facilities to produce sterile fruit flies and grower. Each year, a regional IPM plan was parasitoids as a means of control and eradi- defined, listing the goals, methodology, cation of fruit flies. Every year, about 153 responsibilities, and financial funds for each million A. ludens and 21 million parasitoids participant. Evaluation and follow-up was are produced each week. Since 1994, A. also part of the plan. Both growers and ludens and the parasitoid Diachamimorpha specialists participated in IPM workshops longicaudata (Ashmead) have been released organized by the Secretary of Agriculture in both infested areas and non-commercial and various universities. Extension workers areas (organic production areas and urban actively promoted IPM through radio, areas where chemical control is not applied) newspapers, and bulletins (SAGAR, 1999). to suppress or eradicate fruit flies (Reyes et al., 2000). Additional control methods Management strategies in fruit fly have been used, including the destruction IPM programs of fallen or leftover fruit and tillage to eliminate weeds and pupae in the soil. Trap IPM of fruit flies relies on early detection cropping is also used by planting especially and identification. Correct identification of attractive fruit varieties. Chemical control the species is important to design manage- with a mixture of malathion, hydrolyzed ment programs. Reduction of the fly popu- protein and water is used as a selective lation includes strategies such as cultural bait. This bait is applied with either a control, application of selective baits, the ground sprayer or aerially, leaving some production and release of parasitoids and areas untreated to reduce development of sterile fruit flies, and strict limitations on resistance (Gutierrez et al., 1992). Research fruit movement out of infested areas. Adult is currently being done on environmentally fruit flies are monitored using glass friendly compounds such as Spinosad as a McPhail traps baited with hydrolyzed substitute for malathion. protein at a density of one to five traps IPM of fruit flies is nowmandatory per hectare depending on the species. Fruit for farmers, brokers, transport, exports and sampling is complementary to the trapping packaging industries in Mexico. In addition, and is useful for the detection of larvae. compliance with the 1998 quarantine Fruit sampling starts as soon as the regulations governing the movement of orchards and areas outside of the orchards fruit from infested areas is required. Infested (fruit trees in yards of houses or other areas are defined according to the results hosts in non-commercial areas) have fruits of the grower’s application for orchard big enough to be infested by fruit flies. One registration. The area-wide results are used to five samples of 1 kg of commercial fruits, to determine the category of each region. or wild hosts are collected in places where There are three categories (SAGAR, 1999): 282 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

1. An infested area, or with an FTD index Conclusions higher than 0.0100 at any period of the year. It also applies to areas with no IPM record. IPM has been tremendously important 2. Lowinfestation, or an FTD index equal to tomato, crucifer and fruit production to or lower than 0.0100 for at least 6 months. in Mexico. Significant reductions in In addition, this area must be under IPM. insecticide use, pesticide residues and 3. Completely free of infestation – the FTD enviromental contamination have been index must be equal to zero during the past important benefits of IPM. The economic 12 months under IPM. Movement and mar- impact of IPM is most clearly demonstrated keting of fruit from this category has many by the acceptance of these commodities on advantages over fruit produced in the two the international market. other categories. Mexico has many research institutes In 1998, the SAGARPA declared three and universities that are actively involved states (Baja California, Baja California Sur, in research and training activities in IPM. Chihuahua and Sonora) free of the species Regulation in plant protection has made A. ludens, A. obliqua and A. serpentina.It possible close links among growers and fed- also categorized the states of Sinaloa (center eral, state and local governments. Scientific and south), Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas societies in entomology, biological control (north and center) as lowinfestation. In and plant pathology, specialists in plant pro- 2001, the state of Coahuila and five muni- tection, graduate colleges and industry work cipalities in the state of Sinaloa were pro- together to set goals for sustainable crops nounced free of fruit flies, and the states of and fruit production. However, Mexico is a Durango and Aguascalientes were declared country of contrasts where 50 million people a low-infestation area. In 2002, 48 munici- live in poverty including poor farmers palities in the state of Zacatecas were also who cannot afford to implement IPM. Some declared as fruit fly low-infestation areas. As government programs have been dedicated a result of this program, insecticide use was to improve conditions of poor farmers. reduced by as much as 35,000 kg of a.i./year. For additional protection, a contingency plan is ready in case of an outbreak of fruit References flies. Elimination of trade barriers is one of Agri-Food Trade Service (1998) Mexico-Agri- the most economically important benefits of Food Export market assessment report. IPM. The international recognition of areas http://atn-riae.agr.ca/public/htmldocs/ declared free of fruit flies is a successful e0098.htm#1 Alvarado-Rodríguez, B. (1988) Manejo Integrado example. In 1999, the USDA recognized cer- de Plagas en Tomate Industrial en Sinaloa. tain area in the State of Baja California Sur, In: Ramirez, D.J.M. and Alvarado-Rodríguez, Sonora and Chihuahua as demonstrably free B. (eds) Taller sobre el Manejo Integrado of fruit fly infestation (USDA, 1999). The de Plagas en Tomate. CAADES, Culiacán, total area of these counties was 35,000 ha, Sinaloa, México, pp. 33–41. with fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, tanger- Alvarado-Rodriguez, B. and Rivera-Rubio, E. ines, apples, peaches and persimmon. In (1990) Tomato pinworm (Lepidopera: 1999, a trade agreement allowed Mexico to Gelechiidae) an increasing pest on tomatoes export oranges from Baja California Sur and in Sinaloa, Mexico. Florida Entomologist 73, Sonora to the USA without quarantine 677–680. Brewer, N.M. and Trumble, J.T. (1991) Classifying treatments. This is an important and resistance severity in field populations: tangible cost-saving benefit. Fruit from a Sampling inspection plans for an insecticide lowinfestation area can also be exported, resistance-monitoring program. Journal of but must undergo a fumigation or hot water Economic Entomology 84, 379–389. quarantine treatment and IPM orchard Brewer, N.M., Trumble, J.T., Alvarado-Rodriguez, certification. B. and Chaney, W. (1990) Beet armyworm, IPM in Mexico 283

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) adult and larval insecticides. Southwestern Entomology 19, susceptibility to fenvalerate permethin, 403–408. and methomyl in managed habitat and Díaz-Gomez, O., Rodriguez, J.C., Shelton, A.M., selection experiments. Journal of Economic Lagunes-Tejeda, A. and Bujanos, M.R. (2000) Entomology 83, 2136–2146. Susceptibility of Plutella xylostella (L.) Bujanos, M.R. (2000) Manejo integrado de plagas (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) populations in en cruciferas. In: Bautista, M.N., Suarez, Mexico to commercial formulations of V.A.D. and Morales, G.O. (eds) Temas Bacillus thuringiensis. Journal of Economic Selectos en Fitosanidad y Producción de Entomology 93, 963–970. Hortalizas. Instituto de Fitosanidad, C.P., Domínguez, R.Y. and Carrillo, S.J.L. (1976) Lista Montecillo, Estado de Mexico, pp. 47–61. de Insectos en la Colección Entomologica del Bujanos, M.R., Marin, J.A., Galvan, C.F. and INIA.2°. Suplemento INIA. SAG. México. Byerly, M.K.F. (1993) Manejo integrado Folleto Miscelaneo 29, 245 pp. de la palomilla dorso de diamante (Plutella Ellsworth, P.C. and Martinez-Carrillo, J.L. (2001) xylostella (L.) Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) IPM for Bemisia tabaci: a case study from en el Bajio México. INIFAP Asociación de North America. Crop Protection 20, 853–869. Procesadores de Frutas y Vegetales en Gen- FDA (1979) Results of FDA surveillance of Mexi- eral A.C. Publicacion Especial No. 4, 36 pp. can produce for pesticide residues (compli- Bujanos, M.R., Marin, J.A., Galvan, C.F. and ance program 7305.008). Bureau of Foods Byerly, M.K.F. (1995) Plagas de los Cultivos and Office of Association Committee for Reg- de Cruciferas en el Bajio. INIFAP Asociación ulation Affairs, FDA Administration, Wash- de Procesadores de Frutas y Vegetales en ington, DC. General A.C. Publicacion Especial No. 5, Gutierrez, S.J., Reyes, J.F., Villasenor, A.C., 25 pp. Enkerlin, W.H. and Perez, A.R. (1992) Man- Cárdenas, M.J. (1994) Campañas fitosanitarias. ual para el Control de Moscas de la Fruta. In: CONACOFI (ed.) Memoria de la Primera Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Asamblea Anual del Consejo Nacional Hidraulicos. Serie Sanidad Vegetal, Mexico, Consultivo Fitosanitario. CONACOFI-SARH. DF, 34 pp. Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo, Hoy, C.W. (1999) Making the connections between Mexico, 98 pp. pest management and agroecosystem Carreón Z.M.A. (1998) Comentarios y recomen- management. In: Proceedings of Integrated daciones al programa de trabajo del Pest Management of Cole Crops International Consejo Nacional Consultivo Fitosanitario. Workshop. SAGAR, INIFAP, CESAVEG, In: CONACOFI (ed.) Memoria de la Cuarta SDAyR, Asociacion de Procesadores de Reunión anual de CONACOFI. CONASAG, Frutas y Vegetales en General, Guanajuato, Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Mexico, 57 pp. Desarrollo Rural, Mexico, DF. INEGI (2002) Anuario estadistico de los Estados Díaz-Gomez, O. and Jasso, P.I. (1989) Evaluación Unidos Mexicanos. http://www.gob.mx/ de insecticidas para el control de Plutella difusion/espanol/fnuevo.html xylostella (L:) (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) Johnson, M.W., Oatman, E.R. and Wyman, S.A. en col en la región de Pozos S.L.P. In: (1980a) Effect of insecticides on populations Memorias del XXIVCongreso Nacional of the vegetable leafminer and associated de Entomologia. Sociedad Mexicana de parasites on summer pole tomatoes. Journal Entomologia. Oaxtepec, Morelos, México, of Economic Entomology 73, 61–66. SME, pp. 363–364. Johnson, M.W., Oatman, E.R. and Wyman, S.A. Díaz-Gomez, O. and Rodriguez, J.C. (2000) (1980b) Effect of insecticides on populations Resistencia a insecticidas: conceptos y of the vegetable leafminer and associated procedimientos generales para su manejo. In: parasites on fall pole tomatoes. Journal of Bautista, M.N., Suarez, V.A.D. and Morales, Economic Entomology 73, 67–71. G.O. (eds) Temas Selectos en Fitosanidad y Laborde, C.J.A. (1992) Palomilla dorso de Producción de Hortalizas. Instituto de diamante en el Bajio, control mediante un Fitosanidad, C.P., Montecillo, Estado de programa integral regional. In: Anaya, R.S., Mexico, pp. 91–100. Bautista, N.M. and Dominguez, B. (eds) Díaz-Gomez, O., Lagunes-Tejeda, A., Sanchez, Manejo Fitosanitario de las Hortalizas A.H. and Alatorre, R.R. (1994) Susceptibility en Mexico. CP-SARH. Chapingo, Mexico, of Plutella xylostella (L.) to microbial 412 pp. 284 D. Mota-Sanchez et al.

Martínez-Martínez, L., Díaz-Gómez, O. and Experimental Rio Bravo. Folleto Tecnico Benrey, B. (1996) Parasitism on Plutella xylo- Numero 23. Tamaulipas, Mexico, 147 pp. stella (L.) on wild and cultivated crucifers. Rodríguez, V.J. (2000) Historia de la Fitosanidad In: VI Congreso Internacional de Manejo en México, siglo XX. Universidad Autónoma Integrado de Plagas and VTaller Lationo - Chapingo, Departamento de Parasitología americano sobre Moscas blancas y Gemini- Agrícola, Chapingo, Mexico, 180 pp. virus. Acapulco Gro. México. SAGAR, Ruiz-Funes, M.M. (2001) Perspectivas economi- UACH. Departamento de Parasitología,p. 34. cas, agropecuarias y politicas. Claridades Martinez-Castillo,M., Leyva, J.L., Cibrian-Tovar, J. Agropecuarias 93, 1–16. and Bujanos, M.R. (2002) Parasitoid diversity SAGAR (1999) Norma Oficial Mexicana and impact on populations of the diamond- NOM-023-FITO-1995, por la que se establece back moth Plutella xylostella (L.) on Brassica la Campaña nacional contra Moscas de la crops in central Mexico. Biocontrol 47, Fruta. Diario Oficial de la Federación.11 23–31. de febrero de 1999. Talleres de la Nacion, Mota-Sanchez, D., Bills, S.P. and Whalon, M.E. México, DF, pp. 10–26. (2002) Arthropod resistance to pesticides: Shelton, A.M., Sances, F.V., Hawley, J., Tang, J.D., Status and overview. In: Wheeler, W. (ed.) Boune, M., Jungers, D. and Farias, J. (1999) Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environ- Susceptibility of standard (Ambush, Lannate ment. Marcel Dekker, Gainesville, Florida, and Javelin) and novel (Success, Proclaim pp. 241–272. and Alert) insecticides in California popula- McCully, J.E. and Salas, A.M.D. (1992) Seasonal tions of diamondback moth. In: Proceedings variation in populations of the principal of Integrated Pest Management of Cole Crops insects causing contamination in processing International Workshop. SAGAR, INIFAP, broccoli and cauliflower en central Mexico. CESAVEG, SDAyR, Asoc. de Proc. de Frutas y In: Talekar, N.S. (ed.) Diamondback moth Vegetales en General, 57 pp. and other crucifer pests. Proceedings of the Talekar, N.S. and Shelton, A.M. (1993) Biology, Second International Workshop. AVRDC, ecology and management of the diamond- Tainan, Taiwan, 603 pp. back moth. Annual Review of Entomology 38, Oatman, E.R. and Kennedy, G.C. (1976) Methomyl 275–301. induced outbreak by Liriomyza sativa on Trumble, J.T. (1985) Integrated Pest Management tomato. Journal of Economic Entomology 69, of Liriomyza trifolii: influence of avermectin, 667–668. cyromazine, and methomyl on leafminer Oatman, E.R., Platner, G.R., Wyman, J.A., van ecology in celery. Agriculture Ecosystems Steenwyk, R.A., Johnson, M.W. and Browing, and Environment 12, 181–188. H.W. (1983) Parasitization of lepidopterous Trumble, J.T. and Alvarado-Rodriguez, B. (1993) pests on fresh market tomatoes in southern Development and economic evaluation of an California. Journal of Economic Entomology IPM Program for fresh market tomato produc- 76, 452–455. tion in Mexico. Agriculture Ecosystems and Reyes, F.J., Santiago, M.G. and Hernández, M.P. Environment 43, 267–284. (2000) The Mexican fruit fly eradication Trujillo, A.J. (1998) Programa anual de la programme. In: Tan, K.H. (ed.) Area-Wide Dirección General de Sanidad Vegetal. Control of Fruit Flies and others Insect Pests. In: CONACOFI (ed.) Memoria de la Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Cuarta Asamblea anual de CONACOFI. pp. 377–380. CONACOFI-CONASAG, SAGAR, México, Reyes, P.H. (1994) Ley federal de sanidad vegetal y DF, 339 pp. su aplicación. In: CONACOFI (ed.) Primera USDA (1999) Importation of fruit and vegetables. Asamblea anual del Consejo Nacional Animal and plant health. Final rule, 7CFR Consultivo Fitosanitario. CONACOFI-SARH. part 319. Docket No. 97-197-3; Vol. 64. Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias No. 12. Washington, DC, pp. 2993–2995. Agrícolas, Montecillo, Mexico, 98 pp. Vargas, L.A. (1993) Monitoreo de Plagas en el Rodriguez del Bosque, L.A. and Arredondo, B.H.C. Cultivo de Brócoli y Coliflor. Birds Eye (1999) Quien es quien en Control de Mexico SA de CV, Guanajuato, Mexico. Biologico en Mexico. INIFAP-CIRNE. Campo (Bol. Inform. No. 1. 11 pp.) Chapter 22 Integrated Pest Management in Brazil

C.B. Hoffmann-Campo1, L.J. Oliveira1, F. Moscardi1, D.L. Gazzoni1, B.S. Corrêa-Ferreira1, I.A. Lorini2, M. Borges3, A.R. Panizzi1, D.R. Sosa-Gomez1 and I.C. Corso1 1Embrapa Soja, Londrina, PR, Brazil; 2Embrapa Trigo, Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil; 3Embrapa Recursos Geneticos e Biotechologia, Brazilia, DF

History and Evolution of Integrated Pest Wheat Management in Brazil Until 1977, control of wheat aphids in Following World War II, a myriad of new Brazil relied heavily on insecticides, with chemical products became available. In an average of three insecticide applications Brazil, as in the rest of the world, newly per year in the state of Rio Grande do Sul available chemical pesticides were regarded (Salvadori, 1990; Parra, 2000). At the time, as a dramatic and effective solution for pest the major pest species included Schizaphis control, and were widely used after the war graminum, Metopolophium dirhodum and (Kogan and Turnipseed, 1987). Eventually, Sitobion avenae. These European and negative effects of indiscriminate pesticide Asian species were highly invasive in usage became apparent, such as pesticide Brazil (Parra, 2000). In 1978, the Wheat Pest resistance, pest resurgence, worker poison- Management program from Embrapa (Bra- ing, and ecological imbalances. zilian Agricultural Research Corporation) Brazilian scientists started paying (http://www.embrapa.br/english.units/ attention to problems caused by the indis- centers/wheat.htm) began a classical bio- criminate use of pesticides (Crocomo, 1990). logical control program for wheat aphids In addition, research was carried out on sam- with support from the FAO and the Univer- pling methods on pests and natural enemies, sity of California (Gassen and Tambasco, use of threshold levels, and the correct 1983; Salvadori, 1990). timing for insecticide application (Parra, Fourteen hymenopteran parasitoids 2000). Highly successful IPM programs were from Europe, the Middle East and Chile and developed for several crops including sugar- two coccinellid predators from the USA cane, tomato, wheat, and soybean. IPM pro- and Israel were mass-produced in Brazil grams in Brazil are based on careful scouting and released (Gassen and Tambasco, 1983). for pests and natural enemies, and using The parasitoids Aphidius rhopalosiphi, biological control methods when control A. uzbekistanicus and Praon volucre is warranted. In soybean, a combination of became established and effectively reduced several control tactics is used (Parra, 2000). the aphid population, largely exceeding the

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 285 286 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

goal of 10–15% parasitism (Salvadori, 1990). manual, an illustrated list of key pests and a In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, the number guide to IPM procedures were distributed. of insecticide applications was reduced The program also included a newwebsite from three on the entire area to one on providing information on IPM practices in less than 5% of the cultivated area (Gassen stored grains (http://www.cnpt.embrapa.br/ and Tambasco, 1983). Other tactics of wheat armazena/). The success of the stored grain aphid IPM include the careful use of selec- IPM program led to a national policy by tive insecticides based on action threshold the Ministry of Agriculture of Brazil is levels. Maintaining crop diversity and planned to be issued, overspreading the avoiding the use of fire to destroy crop Stored-Grains IPM in the country. residues can also help to conserve natural enemies (Salvadori, 1990). Sugarcane

Stored grain In the 1970s, high infestation levels (10% or more) of the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis caused losses of US$100 mil- In 1999–2000, Embrapa Wheat established lion in the state of São Paulo alone. The an IPM program for stored grain on a parasitoid Cotesia flavipes (Braconidae) growers’ cooperative in the state of Paraná. was imported from Trinidad and Tobago to After the use of IPM treatments, the grain control D. saccharalis in the southeast showed no noticeable insect damage. This of Brazil (Parra, 2000). Laboratories were successful IPM management program saved established to rear the parasitoids. From US$10/ton/year for the growers’ coopera- 1981 to 1996, this biological control tive. According to Lorini (1999, 2000), program reduced pest infestation levels by methods of the stored grain IPM program 0.4%/year (Almeida et al., 1997). Currently, included: there are 60 rearing facilities in Brazil, and • training storage facilities personnel; as many as 2 billion parasitoids are released • inspection of the entire storage facility; on 360,000 ha each year. Parasitoids are • thorough cleaning of the equipment and released (at the rate of 6000/ha) when the premises followed by application of a sugarcane-borer population reaches 3% persistent insecticide in empty bins; to 4% infestation. Currently, the average • correct identification of stored grain sugarcane-borer infestation is around 2%. pests to ensure appropriate insecticide In the northeast of Brazil, the spittlebug use; Mahanarva posticata is the key pest of sugar- • avoiding the development of pest cane. A fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, resistance to chemical pesticides; is nowused as a substitute for chemical • predicting the level of potential pest insecticides (Parra, 2000). The fungus is damage; well established in the region, with infection • protecting stored grain with an levels ranging from 70% to 80%. Before appropriate insecticide after drying using this fungus to control M. posticata, and cleaning; 17% of the saccharose content was lost, • fumigating infested grain with phos- reducing the value of the crop (Parra, 2000). phine for at least 5 days; • continually monitoring grain in storage silos for pest infestation. Tomatoes The first step, training personnel and providing reference materials for follow-up, The pyralid Tuta absoluta is the major pest was a critical part of the IPM program. of tomatoes in the São Francisco River Embrapa Wheat held 14 training sessions for Valley, the most important irrigation area 437 stored grain operators. An IPM program in Brazil. In 1989, T. absoluta caused 50% IPM in Brazil 287

reduction in tomato yield (Haji, 1997). effects on biological control agents (para- Several methods are used in tomato IPM sitoids, predators and entomopathogens). to T. absoluta. Cultural practices (tillage, Researchers at universities and research fertilization, irrigation, a concentrated sow- institutes also play an important role by ing period, destruction of crop residues, continually updating and improving IPM crop rotation), microbial control (applica- techniques. NewIPM recommendations tion of Bacillus thuringiensis), legislative are issued annually for each crop, with an action, pest monitoring with sexual phero- emphasis on achieving adequate pest control. mones, and cleaning storage boxes and Official crop protection institutes maintain transportation vehicles are all components permanent programs of agricultural health of the tomato IPM program (Haji, 1992). training and education for technical staff. IPM technology using the parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum was developed in Colombia and adapted by Embrapa Semi- International Cooperation in IPM Arido for use in Petrolina and Pernambuco (Garcia Roa, 1989; Haji, 1997). Following The NARS, responsible for the develop- a program of ten T. pretiosum releases per ment and implementation of agricultural season a significant reduction in fruit dam- research in Brazil, is coordinated by age was achieved. This parasitoid release Embrapa. In 1998, Embrapa became part of program is one of the largest tomato IPM an international collaborative effort (called programs in the world (used on about Labex) with the US ARS on five major areas 1500 ha) (Parra, 2000). Despite this success, of mutual interest, i.e. Precision Farming, the program has faced challenges in recent Soil Resource Management, Integrated Dis- years from a virus vectored by thrips and ease and Pest Management, Integrated Con- the occurrence of Bemisia tabaci, biotype trol of Animal Diseases, and Intellectual B (synonym B. argentifolii) requiring a Property Rights and Biotechnology (http:// large number of insecticide applications, www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may00/br thus preventing systematic releases of the azil0500.htm). The ARS–EMBRAPA/Labex parasitoid. program began in the USA in 1998, focusing on integrated pest and disease management IPM Policy (http://www.embrapa.br/labex). The mission of this joint commitment is to maxi- Brazilian government policy on IPM is mize food production, provide healthy food not collected under one major piece of for the consumer, maintain minimum pro- legislation, but falls under several programs duction costs and conserve non-renewable that collectively involve aspects of IPM. For natural resources. example, official agricultural development programs always have an IPM component. Cotton growers from the central region of Case Study: Soybean IPM the country and tropical orchard farmers must followofficial IPM guidelines in order Before the soybean IPM program, soybean to be eligible for credit lines and tax reduc- insect pests were controlled exclusively by tion advantages. Several government IPM chemical insecticides, often on a preventive programs also involve important quarantine or calendar basis. On average, five insecti- pests, such as the star-fruit fly (Bactrocera cide applications were done per year, vary- carambolae) on the northern border of the ing from three to ten per soybean season country. For the registration of pesticides, (Gazzoni, 1994). Broad-spectrum insecti- stringent testing protocols must be followed, cides such as endrin, DDT, toxaphene, including assessment of environmental parathion-methyl and mixtures of these impact and effects on non-target organisms. were commonly used. The problems Special attention is given to possible adverse resulting from this high rate of insecticide 288 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

use led to the development of a diverse damage caused by each pest. In the first 4 soybean IPM program. years, 250 lectures were presented to about 100,000 participants. During the program, 70,000 ground cloths and 500,000 recording sheets were distributed to the growers to History of soybean IPM in Brazil help them with scouting activities. In 1978, a national awareness campaign During the 1974/75 season, an IPM pilot involving mass media was conducted to program was conducted in cooperation encourage farmers to use IPM strategies with Clemson University, University of (Gazzoni and Oliveira, 1984). Researchers Illinois, IAPAR, National Soybean and extension workers gave talks and wrote Research Center (Embrapa Soybean) and articles promoting IPM. Interviews describ- FECOTRIGO, an agricultural cooperative ing successful IPM experiences were given located at Cruz Alta, RS. The IPM program by leading growers and broadcast on tele- was tested on nine farms in two major vision, radio or in newspapers. Current pest soybean-producing areas (Kogan et al., population levels, determined by field 1977), using information from similar scouting, were transmitted by radio and soybean IPM programs in the USA (for television to growers in the regions covered review see Moscardi, 1993; Gazzoni, 1994). by the program. As a result of this successful The pilot program was designed in IPM campaign, the accumulated production paired plots so IPM control strategies and costs of soybean were reduced in 25 years conventional methods could be compared. to about US$3 billion and the number of IPM plots were monitored weekly for pest insecticide applications dropped to less populations, incidence of the entomopatho- than two per season (Gazzoni, 1994). genic fungus Nomuraea rileyi, and native The soybean IPM program is continu- natural enemies of the major soybean ally being updated as the research focus defoliator, velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia changes to meet consumer demands. An gemmatalis) and stinkbugs. Defoliation extensive survey in several regions of Brazil level and stage of plant development were described the population dynamics of major assessed weekly to dictate pest control deci- soybean insects and their natural enemies sions. Action threshold levels were deter- (Corrêa et al., 1977). Updated publications mined based on insect pest density, defolia- with recommendations for pest manage- tion level and stage of soybean development. ment and general information about IPM in When necessary, minimum effective rates of Brazil are released as soon as newinforma - selected insecticides were used. At the end tion becomes available (Panizzi et al., 1977b; of the season, insecticide sprayings in the Gazzoni et al., 1981). IPM plots were reduced by 78% compared The fauna associated with soybean has with conventional fields, without a reduc- increased from ten species at the end of the tion in soybean yield (Kogan et al., 1977). 1960s to 60 species in 1997 (Panizzi and In the following year, IPM training Corrêa-Ferreira, 1997). Currently 37 species programs were conducted in several states. of insects and other organisms are consid- Particular focus was placed on technology ered primary, secondary or sporadic soy- transfer and implementing IPM at the grow- bean pests (Table 22.1). A fewof them can be ers’ level. Demonstration fields were coordi- considered major pests of soybean in certain nated by Embrapa Soybean in partnership regions, e.g. Anticarsia gemmatalis and with official extension services and growers’ the stinkbug complex (Euschistus heros, cooperatives. Extension workers responsi- Nezara viridula and Piezodorus guildinii). ble for training farmers were instructed by Embrapa researchers and received audio- Action thresholds visual materials describing the program, as well as pictures to facilitate the identification In the initial phase of the program, action of pests, natural enemies and the type of thresholds for lepidopterous defoliators IPM in Brazil 289

Table 22.1. Pests of soybean, part of the plant attacked and its relative importance (Hoffmann-Campo et al., 2000).

Part of plant Pest attackeda Importance

Anticarsia gemmatalis Le Main pest Epinotia aporema Le, Lb, Po Secondary, some importance in restricted areas Omiodes indicatus Le Secondary, usually occurring at the maturation, when defoliation is no longer important Pseudoplusia includens Le Secondary Rachiplusia nu Le Secondary Cerotoma sp. Le(A), No(L) Secondary, in soybean areas, preceded by beans Diabrotica speciosa Le(A), No(L) Secondary, in soybean areas, preceded by autumn season maize Aracanthus mourei Le, Pe Secondary, occurring at the beginning of soybean development Maecolaspis calcarifera Le Secondary Megascelis sp. Le Secondary Chalcodermus sp. Le Secondary, regionally important pest Bemisia argentifolii Le Secondary, with high potential of damage Grasshoppers Le Sporadic Thrips Nl Secondary, important in restricted areas as vectors of the virus that causes bud blight disease Nezara viridula Po, Se Main pest Piezodorus guildinii Po, Se Main pest Euschistus heros Po, Se Main pest Dichelops spp. Po, Se Secondary Edessa meditabunda Po, Se Secondary Thyanta perditor Po, Se Secondary Acrosternum sp. Po Secondary Etiella zinckenella Po Secondary, with some importance in restrict areas Spodoptera latifascia Po Sporadic Spodoptera eridania Po Sporadic Maruca testulalis Po Sporadic Sternechus subsignatus St Regionally important pest Elasmopalpus lignosellus St Sporadic, usually important in seasons with extended dry period, in the initial phase of the crop Myochrous armatus Ha Sporadic Blapstinus sp. Sd, Ha Sporadic Miriapods Sd, Sp Secondary, important in no-till areas Snails and slugs Sd, Co, Yl Secondary, important in no-till areas Phyllophaga spp. (white grubs) Ro Regionally important pest Scaptocoris castanea Ro Secondary, important in no-till areas Scales Ro Secondary, important in no-till areas

Lb, leaf bud; Co, cotyledons; Yl, young leaves; Le, leaves; St, stems; No, nodules; Pe, petioles; Sd, seedlings; Sp, small plant; Ro, roots; Se, seeds; Po, pods. (A), adult, (L), larvae. and stinkbugs were the same as practiced 1979) and the curculionid gall maker in the USA (Kogan et al., 1977). Studies in stem borer Sternechus subsignatus Brazil confirmed and/or refined the action (Hoffmann-Campo et al., 1990). thresholds for these pests (Panizzi et al., 1977a; Gazzoni et al., 1981; Villas-Boas Sampling et al., 1990). Thresholds (Fig. 22.1) were also established for the shoot and axil borer Sampling of defoliators such as caterpillars, Epinotia aporema (Gazzoni and Oliveira, stinkbugs and beetles is done with the 290 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

Fig. 22.1. Injury threshold levels for key pests of soybean. shake–cloth technique (Boyer and Dumas, N. rileyi is responsible, especially in rainy 1969). For assessment of other insects such seasons, for maintaining A. gemmatalis and as E. aporema, pod borers, leaf rollers and Plusiinae populations under control, and S. subsignatus, the examination of ran- virtually eliminate the requirement of domly selected plants is the standard insecticide use to control these pests. Other method. Soil samples are recommended to natural enemies are produced for release in estimate the population of root insects such the field, such as the nuclear polyhedrosis as white grubs (Phyllophaga cuyabana) and virus (AgNPV) of A. gemmatalis (Moscardi, burrowing bugs (Scaptocoris castanea and 1999) and the parasitoid of stinkbugs Atarsocoris brachiariae). Soil sampling is eggs, Trissolcus basalis (Corrêa-Ferreira also used to estimate the potential popula- and Moscardi, 1995). tion of S. subsignatus for the next season, helping farmers to decide if crop rotation is Cultural practices necessary (Silva, 1996). Cultural changes in cropping systems affect Biological control the dynamics of soybean pests (Kogan and Turnipssed, 1987). Some cultural practices, Natural enemies are important components such as manipulating planting dates, of the soybean IPM program (Corrêa et al., modifying tillage systems, crop rotation and 1977; Corrêa-Ferreira, 1980; Gazzoni et al., mulch management can be used to reduce 1981). Seven species of predators (carabids, the pest population. Early planting dates geocorids and nabids), eight species of para- are currently being used as a powerful sitoids (microhymenopterans and tachi- strategy to avoid synchrony between high nids) and six species of entomopathogens pest populations and the most susceptible (virus and fungi) are the most common nat- stage of the soybean plant. Early-maturing ural enemies of soybean pests (Hoffmann- soybean cultivars that can escape stinkbug Campo et al., 2000). The entomopathogen, damage are preferred by growers in the IPM in Brazil 291

south of Brazil, lowering costs and reducing sodium chloride. Growers are successfully the need for insecticide application adopting this technique to control stinkbugs (Panizzi, 1985). However, after these short- (Moscardi and Sosa-Gómez, 1996). cycle cultivars are harvested, the stinkbug population can migrate to late-maturing fields and reach high levels, requiring fre- Velvetbean caterpillar quent insecticide applications. Crop rota- (Anticarsia gemmatalis) tion also has some disadvantages, primarily by the difficulty of persuading growers to Control of A. gemmatalis with NPV use it specially when soybean prices are high; in such years, tend to plant soybean AgNPV is a naturally occurring nuclear over large areas. The lowcost of some polyhedrosis virus of A. gemmatalis.In insecticides also limits the use of cultural Brazil, this virus was first detected in 1972, practices; sometimes growers prefer to risk and was found in several areas by 1976 insect populations build up and later apply (Allen and Knell, 1977; Corso et al., 1977; low cost insecticides. Gatti et al., 1977). But in spite of its widespread range, the natural incidence of Chemical control A. gemmatalis baculovirus was low (less than 10%). The potential of AgNPV to Chemical control is an important tool control A. gemmatalis was demonstrated in in IPM systems. However, broad-spectrum field experiments (Moscardi et al., 1981). insecticides can have an adverse effect on Basic studies at Embrapa Soybean focused natural enemies and result in pest resur- on the development of a microbial insecti- gence after frequent application (Oliveira cide to control A. gemmatalis (Moscardi, et al., 1988; Silva et al., 1988). With the 1993). From 1980 to 1982, a pilot program implementation of IPM tactics in Brazil, for AgNPV was tested on 21 soybean farms, the number of insecticide applications in partnership with extension services decreased, and the next step was to seek and growers’ cooperatives (Moscardi and more selective products. In 1988, selectivity Corrêa-Ferreira, 1985). Three plots (virus- of insecticides became a major criterion for treated, insecticide-treated and untreated recommendation by regional entomology control), measuring 1 ha each, were com- committees. These committees are res- pared at each site. AgNPV was applied at ponsible for annual revision and recom- the rate of 1.5 × 1011 polyhedral inclusion mendation of insecticides for soybean IPM. bodies per ha, when A. gemmatalis were One major result of this action was a at an early instar (length <1.5 cm) and significant reduction in the number of the population was under 20 larvae/m. One insecticides that were recommended for AgNPV application successfully controlled velvetbean caterpillar (A. gemmatalis). A. gemmatalis in each trial, but on the Empirical field observations had insecticide-treated plots an average of 1.3 suggested that stinkbugs were attracted by insecticide applications were necessary. sweat (Corso and Gazzoni, 1998). Sodium Yield in the virus-treated and insecti- chloride was the most likely sweat compos- cide-treated plots was similar, but yield in ing substance to exert such effect. However, untreated plots was significantly reduced tests indicated that salt was not attractive (Moscardi and Corrêa-Ferreira, 1985). in itself, but affected stinkbug behavior by causing them to remain still on treated Production of AgNPV plants, resulting in longer exposure time to the insecticide (Corso and Gazzoni, 1998). In 1982, 2000 ha were treated with NPV Adding salt allows a reduction in dosage produced by Embrapa Soybean, following without a loss of effectiveness. Some the methodology described by Moscardi insecticides are currently recommended at (1989). Extension workers collected and half of their former rates mixed with 0.5% distributed frozen NPV-killed larvae to 292 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

growers. The next year, other institutions private Brazilian companies under contract and growers’ cooperatives began mass pro- with Embrapa Soybean (Moscardi and duction of NPV. AgNPV was used widely, Sosa-Gómez, 1992). reaching a total area of 200,000 ha by 1984 (Moscardi, 1993). Early on, most NPV were Limitations of AgNPV use produced under laboratory conditions by private industries, but this practice was dis- Despite the advantages of using NPV to continued because of the high cost of labor, control A. gemmatalis, some factors can equipment, and diet (Moscardi et al., 1997). limit its use by growers. First, demand for Until 1985, a preparation of filtered NPV is potentially higher than the available macerated AgNPV-killed larvae was used supply. The disadvantage of field collection (Moscardi and Corrêa-Ferreira, 1985). In of AgNPV is its reliance on an adequate pest 1986, a kaolin-based wettable powder was population. If the abundance of the pest developed (Moscardi, 1989). Virus-killed population is low(due to factors such as larvae were collected and stored at −4to weather), the production of AgNPV can be −8°C until processed and formulated as seriously affected (Moscardi et al., 1997). a wettable powder. Embrapa Soybean From 1990 to 1998 an average of 10% of provided quality control by comparing the the soybean-cultivated area (1.2–1.4 million amount of viral polyhedra per gram and bio- ha) in Brazil was treated with AgNPV logical activity on A. gemmatalis larvae in (Moscardi et al., 1999). Currently, around laboratory tests (Moscardi and Sosa-Gómez, 1.6 million ha/year are treated with this 1992, 1996; Sosa-Gómez and Moscardi, biological insecticide. Potentially, approxi- 1996). Currently, the production of virus in mately 4.0 million ha could use AgNPV the field is the only method used commer- treatment. To meet such a demand, produc- cially (Moscardi, 1999). Growers also collect tion would have to be increased fourfold and freeze NPV-killed larvae, so they can be without significantly increasing the cost of used in the following season and eliminate the final product (Moscardi, 1999). Large- the expense of purchasing formulated virus. scale laboratory production of AgNPV is When fields are highly infested with A. currently being implemented. Recent gemmatalis, this provides a ready source of results indicate that the cost of laboratory- inoculum for mass production. From 1991 to produced virus is competitive with the 1999, virus production was enough to treat cost of many chemical insecticides. from 650,000 to 1,750,000 ha. An average of Second, growers must know how to 1.8 kg of AgNPV-killed larvae/person/day use the virus correctly, and understand its was collected. In the 1996/97 growing delayed mode of action. Lack of information season, approximately 35 t of virus-killed is the primary cause of unsuccessful AgNPV larvae were collected, enough to treat 1.75 application. For example, most growers are million ha with AgNPV. As technology unprepared for the careful monitoring of A. continued to improve, the use of AgNPV gemmatalis phenology necessary to ensure to control A. gemmatalis increased rapidly, effective application of NPV (Moscardi, reaching 1.4 million ha in the 1997/98 sea- 1989; Moscardi and Sosa-Gómez, 1996). In son (Moscardi, 1999). Since the beginning of 20 years of virus usage, grower education by the program, over 18 million ha have been research and extension services has been the virus-treated, saving more than US$150 mil- single most important factor in increasing lion in production costs and reducing insec- AgNPV use in Brazil. In regions where the ticide application by a volume of over 20 extension program is weak, the use of virus million l (Moscardi and Sosa-Gómez, 1996). is negligible (Moscardi, 1999). The cost of formulated AgNPV is currently One characteristic of AgNPV is the lon- US$0.40/ha, at a retail cost of US$0.70–1.00, ger time-to-death (average 7 days) compared lower than that of chemical insecticides. with most chemical insecticides. This is a In 1991, the formulated AgNPV started hurdle for growers accustomed to fast-acting to be produced and commercialized by five chemical insecticides. In regions with lower IPM in Brazil 293

mean temperature, the time-to-death of Stinkbugs NPV-treated larvae can be even longer, prompting growers to apply insecticide Biological control with egg parasitoids after 7–8 days. Formulations of virus with enhanced viral activity and speed of action Thirty-two species of stinkbug pests are are being investigated (Moscardi, 1999). The associated with soybean in Brazil (Panizzi addition of a very lowconcentration of and Slansky, 1985). Among them, N. viridula, additional substances, such as boric acid P. guildinii and E. heros represent 98% and optical brighteners of the stilbene group, of the total stinkbug population (Corrêa- can increase viral activity and speed up Ferreira and Moseardi, 1996). Over 20 larval death (Shapiro, 1995; Morales et al., species of stinkbug egg parasitoids have 1997, 2001). been reported by Corrêa-Ferreira (1991). The most important are T. basalis, that preferentially attacks N. viridula eggs, and Potential for resistance to AgNPV Telenomus podisi, that prefers eggs of E. heros and P. guildinii. However, these para- The possibility of resistance developing to sitoids tend to occur in high populations AgNPV has been raised as a potential cause when the stinkbugs have already reached of virus failure in some regions. However, threshold levels. For this reason, a program A. gemmatalis populations collected in sev- for laboratory production and inoculative eral regions of the country and submitted release was developed at Embrapa Soybean to 3–8 years of AgNPV application have (Corrêa-Ferreira, 1993). Before IPM imple- shown high susceptibility (Abot et al., mentation, only a fewspecies of stinkbug 1996). But under some laboratory condi- egg parasitoids were present in the fields tions with high selection pressure, A. (Panizzi and Slansky, 1985). After the gemmatalis is capable of developing resis- IPM program, 90% (N. viridula), 65% tance to AgNPV (Abot et al., 1996). Such (P. guildinii), and 78% (E. heros)of resistance can be rapidly lost (in four gener- stinkbug eggs were killed by egg parasitoids ations) when resistant insects are crossed (Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1995). with susceptible wild-types (Abot, 1993), After 4 years of field experiments, suggesting that immigration of susceptible a pilot program was developed in colla- insects to virus-treated areas may act as boration with the extension service of a mechanism to decrease the risk of resis- Paraná (Emater-PR) using Trissolcus basalis tance development by field populations. (Corrêa-Ferreira and Moscardi, 1996). To In addition, stilbenes can in some cases protect the early-season population of prevent the resistance of A. gemmatalis T. basalis, only biological agents such as to its baculovirus (Fuxa and Richter, 1998; AgNPV, Bt, or highly selective insecticides Moscardi, 1998; Morales et al., 2001). such as IGRs were used to control A. gemmatalis and other early season insects. Reducing insecticide dosage with AgNPV When stinkbugs began to colonize the field, or no later than the end of flowering, 5000 Most insecticides can be mixed with parasitoid eggs were released per ha. The AgNPV at rates up to one-quarter to one- egg parasitoids successfully lowered and sixth belowthe usual recommended dose maintained the stinkbug population below (Moscardi, 1999). When a sublethal dosage the threshold level. The quality of seeds, of insecticide is used, the virus can attack as evaluated by the tetrazolium test, was the remaining insects and serve as source similar in parasitoid release areas and of inoculum for the next generation. This IPM plots (Corrêa- Ferreira, 1993). Follow- strategy can be effective when A. gemma- ing the successful results of the pilot talis larvae have exceeded the threshold program, the technology was implemented level used for AgNPV application alone at the farm level in the 1993/94 soybean (Moscardi and Sosa-Gómez, 1992). season. In 1994/95, a modified program 294 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

was implemented in micro river basins cultural strategy that has been successful is (Corrêa-Ferreira et al., 2000). to incorporate this leaf litter, or to apply insecticides on the overwintering sites Production of Trissolcus basalis (Corrêa-Ferreira and Panizzi, 1999).

Trissolcus basalis is multiplied in the laboratory on N. viridula eggs produced all over The gall maker stem borer (Sternechus the year at Embrapa Soybean facilities subsignatus) and white grubs under laboratory and glasshouse conditions (Corrêa-Ferreira, 1993). Egg masses frozen The gall maker stem borer, S. subsignatus, or stored in liquid nitrogen remain viable rose from a minor to an important pest as for up to 1 year (Corrêa-Ferreira and soybean fields expanded to newareas and Oliveira, 1998). About 1500 parasitized eggs cultivation systems changed. The adult S. are glued to cardboard and covered with subsignatus typically inhabits the lower nylon screen to protect them from preda- third of soybean plants, protected by leaves tion. These cards are sent to farmers for and out of reach of insecticide sprayings release along the edges of soybean fields. (Silva et al., 1998). Larvae develop inside a The cards are hung on soybean plants at stem gall (Hoffmann-Campo et al., 1991). the beginning of the flowering period when White grubs are root feeders and are also stinkbugs are just starting to colonize the difficult to reach with insecticides. Before field. An average of 5000 parasitoids/ha are the IPM program, more than five applica- recommended. Some limitations to the use tions per month of broad-spectrum insecti- of T. basalis include parasitoid availability cides were used against the gall maker stem and the amount of labor involved. Another borer. These applications were done early constraint is the reluctance of many in the season and often resulted in growers to adopt T. basalis in lieu of more increased pest problems. Recently, seed conventional control methods. treatment with systemic insecticides has been successfully used, preserving natural Host plant resistance enemies. A border strip of 30–50 m width sown with treated seeds has maintained Host plant resistance is a highly desirable the pest population belowthreshold levels. IPM tactic, as its adoption does not require Currently, insecticide applications have users to adopt complex changes in their been reduced to only one per season. routine. Soybean cultivars resistant to stinkbugs have been developed in Brazil (Rosseto, Cultural control methods 1989; Hoffmann-Campo et al., 1996). The soybean cultivar ‘IAC-100’ released by The population of S. subsignatus usually the breeding program of the Instituto becomes apparent in November, reaching Agronômico de Campinas (São Paulo State) a peak after mid-December (Hoffmann- presents double resistance to stinkbugs and Campo et al., 1991). Early planting of defoliators, as well as good agronomic traits soybean (mid to late October) can prevent (Rosseto, 1989). At Embrapa Soybean, the the peak population of S. subsignatus from breeding program has been incorporating coinciding with the most vulnerable resistant genes from identified genotypes plant stages. Crop rotation is also an effec- (PI 171451, PI 227687, PI 229358 and PI tive cultural control strategy, especially 274454) into advanced genotypes present- for oligophagous and long-cycle insects ing good agronomic traits and high yields. such as S. subsignatus and white grubs. Populations of S. subsignatus have been Cultural control adequately controlled by rotation with non-legumes such as maize, sunflower, Euschistus heros overwinters as diapausing or cotton (Hoffmann-Campo et al., 1999). adults under leaf litter (Panizzi, 1997). A During crop rotation, one-third to one-half IPM in Brazil 295

of the previous soybean area is planted with AgNPV, and large areas outside of river other crops. This strategy is essential for basins started to be treated with AgNPV as S. subsignatus control, and particularly well (L. Morales, unpublished data). efficient when it is used along with soybean When pest populations were high, seed treated in the border strip. Cotton, AgNPV was often applied together with Crotalaria juncea and C. spectabilis are reduced dosages of insecticides, especially options for crop rotation in areas infested Bt and IGRs (Moscardi, 1999). A significant with white grubs, especially P. cuyabana, increase in the use of more selective since these plants affect insect biology insecticides was a successful hallmark of (Oliveira et al., 1997). The timing of tillage the river basin IPM program. Before the can also be used as a strategy to aid in white IPM program, 97% of insecticides used grub control (Oliveira et al., 2000). Proper were broad-spectrum and highly toxic. After timing of tillage can be an effective 4 years of the river basin IPM program, component of IPM for soil dwelling insects, microbial insecticides and IGRs accounted although further studies are needed to for about 75% of insecticide use. recommend its use for other species.

Conclusions Soybean IPM in micro river basins Most IPM programs in Brazil utilize the The soybean IPM program was modified production and release of biological control slightly for implementation in environmen- agents and strongly emphasize the reduc- tally sensitive river basins. The pilot pro- tion of broad-spectrum insecticide use. New gram took place in the Rio do Campo basin. IPM programs for several crops are being Laboratory rearing facilities were estab- developed, with an emphasis on conserva- lished in the river basin by farmers’ association and augmentative biological control, tions in cooperation with county and state cultural practices and host plant resistance. organizations. Strategies used in the river IPM programs under development include basin IPM program included: (i) weekly vegetables (tomato, cole crops), fruit crops pest monitoring; (ii) using action thresh- (citrus, apples, etc.), maize, cotton, coffee, olds to dictate control decisions; (iii) use of and forests, as well as the control of wide- AgNPV or other highly selective products spread polyphagous pests such as the white against A. gemmatalis; (iv) releasing T. fly B. tabaci. Continuous improvement basalis throughout the river basin for ade- of these programs is necessary to achieve quate dispersion and control of stinkbugs; wider use of IPM tactics against major pests, and (v) application of insecticides only in and to develop appropriate control tactics border rows or at a reduced dosage mixed against newly emerging pests. Considerable with sodium chloride to control stinkbugs improvements are expected in the methods (Corso and Gazzoni, 1998). of production and release of indigenous A dramatic change in pest control entomopathogens, parasitoids, and preda- practices occurred in the Rio do Campo tors. Some systems are exploring classical basin after 4 years of the IPM program biological control, a method with wide (Corrêa-Ferreira et al., 2000). The average potential for application in several crop- number of insecticide applications in IPM- ping systems. Organic farms are a growing treated fields dropped by 56%, from 2.80 to sector in Brazil, with an increasing demand 1.23/season. In non-participating fields, the for pest control methods that can be used on average number of insecticide applications organic crops. ranged from 2.09 to 2.74 (Corrêa-Ferreira Farmers are increasingly using safer et al., 2000). The use of microbial insecti- and more selective insecticides, such as the cides also increased. In the 1997/98 season, biologicals, the IGRs and nicotinoids. Most 62% of the river basin was treated with likely this trend will continue, as private 296 C.B. Hoffmann-Campo et al.

companies release newproducts, and since Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade the public is demanding more high quality Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil. food and fewer chemical pesticides used in Abot, A.R., Moscardi, F., Fuxa, J.R., Sosa-Gómez, food production. In addition, the policies for D.R. and Richter, A.R. (1996) Development of resistance by Anticarsia gemmatalis from registration and use of insecticides in the Brazil and the United States to a nuclear country have become more stringent. polyhedrosis virus under laboratory selec- There is no legislation prohibiting OGM tion pressure. Biological Control 7, 126–130. use in Brazil. According to the Brazilian Allen, G.E. and Knell, J.D. (1977) A nuclear poly- legislation, presently in force, the Biosafety hedrosis virus of Anticarsia gemmatalis: Commission (Comissão Ténica Nacional de I. Ultrastructure, replication, and patho- Biosseguranç (CTNBio)) has the authority to genicity. Florida Entomologist 60, 233–240. decide upon cultivation and commercializa- Almeida, L.C., Arrigoni, E.B. and Rodrigues Filho, tion of OGM crops. Meanwhile, a consor- J.P. (1997) Modelo de análise econômica para tium of NGOs argued on the Brazilian Court avaliação do controle biológico da cana-de- açucar, Diatraea saccharalis. In: Anais do that the environmental impact data pro- VII Seminário Cooperçucar de Tecnologia vided for the Roundup Ready Soybean was Agronômica. Fealq, Piracicaba, pp. 95–104. not enough and consistent to assure the Boyer, N.P. and Dumas, B.A. (1969) Plant-shaking absence of negative impact of the technology methods for soybean insect survey in Arkan- on the environment. Once the matter is sub sas. Survey Methods for Economic Insects, judice, no OGM can be cultivated (except USDA–ARS 81-31, pp. 92–94. for research purposes) or commercialized in Corrêa, B.S., Panizzi, A.R., Newman, G.G. and Brazil. Presently research on the application Turnipseed, S.G. (1977) Distribuição of genetically modified crops to IPM pro- geográfica e abundância estacional dos grams is underway. Several aspects of genet- principais insetos-pragas da soja e seus predadores. Anais da Sociedade ically modified crops are being evaluated, Entomologica do Brasil 6, 40–50. especially their impact on natural enemies, Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. (1980) Controle biológico de non-target insects, and other arthropods that pragas da soja. In: Ramiro, Z.A., Grazia, J. and feed on these crops, as well as the possibility Lara, F.M. (eds) Anais do XI Congresso of pest resistance. Thus, if genetically modi- Brasileiro de Entomologia, Campinas, SP, fied crops are approved, it is likely that IPM Fundaçao Cargill, pp. 277–301. programs will need to be re-evaluated and Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. (1991) Parasitóides de ovos modified to account for this change. de percevejos: incidência natural, biologia e Although continuous development and efeito sobre a população de percevejos da improvement of IPM programs in Brazil is soja. PhD Thesis, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil. important, improved technology transfer Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. (1993) Utilização do Parasit- and outreach to growers is fundamental. óide de Ovos Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) IPM tactics must be made widely available no Controle de Percevejos da Soja. to farmers through research institutions, EMBRAPA-CNPSo, (EMBRAPA-CNPSo. official and private (farmer’s cooperatives) Circular Técnica, ll), Londrina, PR, Brazil. extension services, and private companies. Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. and Moscardi, F. (1995) It is only by educating farmers on the impor- Seasonal occurrence and host spectrum of tance and benefits of using IPM tactics for egg parasitoids associated with soybean stink pest control that IPM programs can have a bugs. Biological Control 5, 96–201. broader impact on agriculture in Brazil. Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. and Moscardi, F. (1996) Bio- logical control of stink bugs by inoculative releases of Trissolcus basalis. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 79, 1–7. References Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. and Oliveira, M.C.N. (1998) Viability of Nezara viridula (L.) eggs for Abot, A.R. (1993) Avaliação da resistência de parasitism by Trissolcus basalis (Woll.) Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner 1818 under different storage techniques in liquid (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) ao seu vírus de nitrogen. Anais da Sociedade Entomológica poliedrose nuclear, Baculovirus anticarsia. do Brasil 27, 101–108. IPM in Brazil 297

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Lorini, I. (1999) Pragas de grãos de cereais Moscardi, F., Leite, L.G. and Zamataro, C.E. (1997) armazenados. Embrapa Trigo (Comunicado Production of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Técnico, 17). Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil. Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Lorini, I. (2000) Manejo integrado de pragas de Noctuidae): Effect of virus dosage, host grãos armazenados. Embrapa Trigo (Comuni- density and age. Anais da Sociedade cado Técnico, 17). Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil. Entomologica do Brasil 26, 121–132. Morales, L., Moscardi, F., Sosa-Gómez, D.R., Paro, Moscardi, F., Sosa-Gómez, D.R. and Corrêa- F.E. and Soldorio, I.L. (1997) Enhanced activ- Ferreira, B.S. (1999) Soybean IPM in ity of Anticarsia gemmatalis Hüb. (Lepido- Brazil, with emphasis on biological control ptera: Noctuidae) nuclear polyhedrosis virus tactics. World Soybean Research Conference by boric acid in the laboratory. Anais da VI, Proceedings, Chicago, Illinois, Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil 26, pp. 331–339. 115–120. Oliveira, E.B. de, Gazzoni, D.L., Corso, I.C., Villas Morales, L., Moscardi, F., Sosa-Gómez, D.R., Paro, Boas, G.L. and Hoffmann-Campo, C.B. (1988) F.E. and Soldorio, I.L. (2001) Fluorescent Pesquisa com inseticidas em soja: sumário brighteners improve Anticarsia gemmatalis dos resultados alcançados entre 1975 a (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) nucleopoplyhedro- 1987. (CNPSo-EMBRAPA, Documentos 30) virus (AgMNPV) activity on Ag MNPV- Londrina, PR, Brazil. susceptible and resistant strains of the insect. Oliveira, L.J., Garcia, M.A., Hoffmann-Campo, Biological Control 20, 247–253. C.B., Farias, J.R.B., Sosa-Gómez, D.R. and Moscardi, F. (1989) Use of viruses for pest control Corso, I.C. (1997) Coró-da-soja Phyllophaga in Brazil: the case of the nuclear polyhedrosis cuyabana (Embrapa-CNPSo. Circular virus of the soybean caterpillar, Anticarsia Técnica, 20), Londrina, PR, Brazil. gemmatalis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Oliveira, L.J., Hoffmann-Campo, C.B. and Garcia, Cruz 84, 51–56. M.A. (2000) Effect of soil management on Moscardi, F. (1993) Soybean integrated pest the white grub population and damage in management in Brazil. FAO Plant Protection soybean. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira Bulletin 41, 91–100. 35(5), 887–894. Moscardi, F. (1998) Resistance of Anticarsia Panizzi, A.R. (1985) Dynamics of phytophagous gemmatalis to its nucleopolyhedrosis virus pentatomids associated with soybean in (AgNPV) and evaluation of substances that Brazil. In: World Soybean Research Confer- enhance viral activity. In: Simpósio De ence III. WestviewPress, Boulder, Colorado, Controle Biológico, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, pp. 674–680. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, pp. 421–425. Panizzi, A.R. (1997) Wild hosts of pentatomids: Moscardi, F. (1999) Assessment of the application ecological significance and role in their pest of Baculoviruses for control of Lepidoptera. status on crop. Annual Review of Entomology Annual Review of Entomology 44, 257–258. 42, 99–122. Moscardi, F. and Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. (1985) Bio- Panizzi, A.R. and Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S. (1997) logical control of soybean caterpillars. World Dynamics in the insect fauna adaptation to Soybean Research Conference 3, 703–711. soybean in the tropics. Trends in Entomology Moscardi, F. and Sosa-Gómez, D.R. (1992) Use of 1, 71–88. viruses against soybean caterpillars in Brazil. Panizzi, A.R. and Slansky, F. Jr (1985) Review In: Copping, L.G., Green, M.B. and Rees, R.T. of phytophagous pentatomids (Hemiptera: (eds) Pest Management in Soybean. Elsevier Pentatomidae) associated with soybean in Applied Science, London, pp. 98–109. Americas. Florida Entomologist 68, 184–203. Moscardi, F. and Sosa-Gómez, D.R. (1996) Panizzi A.R., Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S., Newman, G.G. Soybean in Brazil. In: Persley, G.J. (ed.) and Turnipseed, S.G. (1977a) Efeito de Biotechnology and Integrated Pest Manage- insecticidas na população das principais ment. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pragas da soja. Anais da Sociedade pp. 98–112. Entomologica do Brasil 6, 264–275. Moscardi, F., Allen, G.E. and Greene, G.L. (1981) Panizzi A.R., Corrêa-Ferreira, B.S., Gazzoni, D.L., Control of the velvetbean caterpillar by Oliveira, E.B., Newman, G.G. and Turnip- nuclear polyhedrosis virus and insecticides seed, S.G. (1977b) Insetos da soja no Brasil. and impact of treatments on the natural (CNPSO-EMBRAPA, Boletim Técnico 1), incidence of the entomopathogenic fungus Londrina, PR, Brazil. Nomuraea rileyi. Journal of Economic Parra, J.R. (2000) Manejo integrado de pragas. Entomology 74, 480–485. In: Paterniani, E. (ed.) Agricultura Brasileira IPM in Brazil 299

e a Pesquisa Agropecuária. Embrapa Silva, M.T.B. da, Corso, I.C., Belarmino, L.C., Link, Comunicação para Transferência de D., Tonet, G.L., Gomez, S.A. and Santos, B. Tecnologia, Brasilia, pp. 92–105. (1988) Avaliação de inseticidas sobre Rosseto, C.J. (1989) Breeding for resistance to stink predadores das pragas da soja, em dez anos bugs. In: Pascale, A.J. (ed.) Actas Proceedings agrícolas, no Brasil. Trigo e Soja 96, 3–16. of IVWorld Soybean Research Conference . Silva, M.T.B. da, Neto, N. and Hoffmann-Campo, Asociación Argentina de la Soja, Buenos C.B. (1998) Distribution of eggs, larvae, and Aires, pp. 2046–2060. adults of Sternechus subsignatus Boheman Salvadori, J.R. (1990) Manejo integrado das on soybean plants under a no-till system. pragas do trigo no Brasil: situação ataul e Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil perspectivas. In: Fernades, O.J., Corrêa, 27(4), 513–518. A.C.B. and Bortoli, S.A. (eds) Manejo Sosa-Gómez, D.R. and Moscardi, F. (1996) integrado de pragas e nematóides. Unesp, Producción de virus patógenos de ácaros y Jaboticabal 1, pp. 237–253. insectos. In: Lecuona, R.E. (ed.) Microrganis- Shapiro, M. (1995) Radiation protection and mos Patógenos Empleados en el Microbiano activity enhancement of viruses. In: Hall, F.R. de Insectos Control Plaga. Talleres Gráficos and Barry, J.W. (eds) Biorational Pest Control Mariano Mas., Buenos Aires, pp. 223–236. Agents: Formulation and Delivery. American Villas-Boas, G.L., Gazzoni, D.L., Oliveira, M.C.N. Chemical Society, Washington, DC, de, Costa, N.P., Roessing, A.C., França pp. 153–164. Neto, J.B. and Henning, A.A. (1990) Efeito de Silva, M.T.B. da (1996) Influência da rotação Diferentes Populações de Percevejos sobre de culturas na infestação de Sternechus os Rendimentos e seus Componentes, subsignatus Boheman (Coleoptera: Características Agronômicas e Qualidade Curculionidae) em plantio direto. Ciência de Soja. (EMBRAPA-CNPSo, Boletim de Rural 26(1), 1–5. Pesquisa 1), Londrina, PR, Brazil.

Chapter 23 Integrated Pest Management in Peru

María Palacios Lazo1, Alfonso Lizárraga Travaglini2, Ricardo Velásquez Ochoa3, Enrique Carranza Hernández4 and Isaías Segovia5 1Centro Internacional de la Papa, Lima, Perú; 2Red de Acción en Alternativas al Uso de Agroquímicos and Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, Lima, Perú; 3Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agraria, Lima, Perú; 4Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agraria, Lima, Perú; 5Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima, Perú

History and Evolution of IPM in Peru the elimination of natural enemies. In 1955–1956, cotton production collapsed, Peru was the site of one of the first large- and the Farmers’ Association of the Cañete scale IPM programs. In the early 1950s, the Valley organized an IPM program with German–Peruvian entomologist Johannes technical support from the government. Wille developed the concept that agri- This program banned the use of synthetic cultural entomology was a branch of insecticides and initiated a program for applied ecology, and recommended that biological restoration of the valley (Herrera, insecticides be used only as a last resort 1961). The biological restoration program (Wille, 1952). IPM in Peru began in the was facilitated by the fact that cotton, its mid-1950s in response to problems caused insect pests and the complex of natural by the use of organochlorines on crops enemies are all native to Peru. The IPM such as cotton, citrus, olives and sugar- program was soon expanded to all coastal cane (Risco, 1954, 1960; Herrera, 1961; valleys of the country. In each valley, Beingolea et al., 1969; Beingolea and farmers’ associations were promoted and Salazar, 1970). plant protection services were established.

Cotton Citrus

An IPM program for cotton in the Cañete By 1961, insect pests in citrus had become a valley began in the mid-1950s after a period major problem due to the use of organo- of intensive use of organochlorines (DDT, phosphate insecticides. Initially, alterna- BHC, toxaphene and aldrin) from 1949 to tive strategies for managing citrus pests 1956. Problems resulting from the overuse included the use of selective insecticides of insecticides were the development of and the release of natural enemies insecticide resistance, pest resurgence, (Beingolea, 1961). Since citrus and many and appearance of newpests due to of its insect and mite pests had been

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 301 302 M.P. Lazo et al.

introduced into the country, the lack of significantly impaired due to newgovern - effective natural enemies was under- ment policies (Pollack, 1994). standable. Several beneficial insects were introduced successfully, as demonstrated in the rehabilitation of an 8-year-old citrus IPM education orchard in the Chincha valley (Central Coast of Peru) that had been severely In 1971, graduate programs (MSc level) infested by pests after frequent applications in entomology and plant pathology were of insecticides (Beingolea et al., 1969). initiated at the National Agrarian Univer- sity ‘La Molina’. Important concepts of IPM were taught, for instance, Cisneros (1980) Olives defined IPM as integrating insect pest, disease, and weed management, and empha- Biological control of olive pests began in sizing the inclusion of two or more pest 1937 with the first introductions of natural control techniques based on economic enemies of the black scale, Saissetia oleae damage level. Pest control techniques (Wille, 1952). This system, with some should be ecologically and economically fluctuations, was maintained until 1954. In sound, minimizing undesirable effects. that year, major outbreaks of the black scale occurred in some olive-producing areas, induced by the intensive use of insecticides Policies and legal issues related to IPM such as parathion and azinphos-methyl. Following these outbreaks, an integrated As early as 1909, Peru passed a lawrelated management system was established for to Plant Protection. This lawwasmodified olives. Integrated management of olive and expanded in 1949. In 1976, a newly cre- pests was based on the action of predators ated Ministry of Food issued a Plant Sanita- and cultural measures to increase mortality tion Regulation for importation and expor- and improve the effectiveness of para- tation of plant products. In 1993, a plant sitoids. An effective monitoring system, sanitary certificate from the country of ori- mass-rearing of natural enemies and the gin became a requirement for the introduc- use of high-pressure sprayers were all part tion of plant products. A lawissued in 1997 of the integrated program, among other promotes IPM as the major policy in agri- practices (Beingolea, 1993). culture. Several other policies also affect IPM implementation directly or indirectly. In recent years, the Government of Peru Sugarcane has reinitiated technical assistance to farmers through special programs that included Significant losses from the sugar cane borer, the extension of IPM. These programs Diatraea saccharalis in 1949 induced farm- include PRONAMACHCS (a national pro- ers to try newmeasures for the management gram for the management of soils and water- of this pest. In 1951, the parasitoid, sheds), and SENASA (the national service Lixophaga diatraea was introduced into the for plant and animal health). country. However, this species was not successfully established. Conversely, the mass release of a native parasitic fly Paratheresia Organizations Involved in IPM in Peru claripalpis reduced by 83% the damage in sugarcane as a result of high levels of Three types of institutions develop IPM parasitism (88%) (Risco, 1954, 1960). research and extension in Peru: public During the Agrarian Reform in the 1970s, institutions and universities, farmers’ large sugarcane farms became cooperatives associations, and private organizations and the pest management program was (Table 23.1). IPM in Peru 303 X X X X X X X X X X X X IPM X X X X X X X Legal X X XX X X X X X X X X botanical Chemical or X X X X X X X X X Physical or mechanical X X X Plant breeding X XX X X XX X X X X X Use of varieties Methods of control X X X X X X X X X Behavioral X XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X Biological X X X X X X X X X X Cultural Institutions University CIP Cotton Citrus Potatoes INIA University CIP NGOs SENASA SENASA Industry CIP NGOs INIA Institutions that do research, extension and set regulations for IPM techniques in Peru. Research INIA FarmersasIPM clients Institutions involved in IPM extension Regulatory InstitutionInstitutions providing IPM inputs SENASA X X X X X X Table 23.1. 304 M.P. Lazo et al.

Public institutions control of whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci and Aleurodicus cocois) in cotton, cowpea, Research institutes cucumber, melon, watermelon, and mango. Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria The first experiment station was estab- bassiana were used for the control of the lished in La Molina in 1946, with several diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, departments including entomology and and the antagonistic fungus, Gliocladium plant pathology (Vilchez, 2000). In 1981, a roseum for the control of the strawberry gray National Institute for Agricultural Research rot, Botrytis cinerea. and Promotion was created with a research program in entomology. Later on, this program has since been superseded by an Universities INIA with four major research programs, Research conducted at the universities one of which is the National Research focused on the development of IPM compo- Program for IPM. nents. Sixteen agronomy faculties through- In 1989, research began on the use of out the country are involved in basic and hydrothermal treatments of export mangos applied research related to IPM (Arroyo, for the immature stages of the Mediterranean 1988, 1989). These projects are most often fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata. As a result, the related to thesis research required to obtain USA approved the importation of mangos undergraduate degrees. For instance, in from Peru in 1991. Research on the control 1995, 75% of thesis research projects were of the fruit flies Ceratitis capitata and related to the chemical control of insect Anastrepha fraterculus has continued with pests at the Agrarian University at La techniques such as mass releases of sterile Molina (Lizárraga et al., 1995). However, flies, use of traps for monitoring, biological in the past 5 years, research on biological control, cultural control, and chemical con- control, host plant resistance, and other trol. Other research programs have included non-chemical measures has been given testing the efficacy of sticky yellowtraps for more importance. leafminer flies and whiteflies, and the identification of several entomopathogenic fungi including Neozygites, Verticillium lecanii, Pandora neoaphidis, Entomophthora plan- Farmers’ associations choryana, Conidiobolus, Erynia spp., Erynia dipterigena, Zoop Tera phalloides in crops Research in agriculture was initiated by the such as coffee, citrus, tomato, potato, farmers belonging to the National Agrarian cucumbers and beans. Society. In 1926, farmers of the Cañete The biological control work has been valley founded an experiment station conducted in two geographic areas: in designed to increase productivity in export the mountains and in the coast area. In crops such as cotton and sugarcane. The the mountains, research and extension pest resistance in cotton inspired research activities were carried out on the utilization to explain the factors associated with of entomopathogens including Beauveria increased pest populations and to develop bassiana and B. brongniartii for the control newmethods of control. This work of the Andean potato weevil; Baculovirus for established a foundation for IPM in Peru. the control of potato tuber moths; rearing In the 1970s, due to change in the and release of Campoletis sp. for control of government policy, the Agrarian Reform larvae of Lepidoptera; Copidosoma koehleri truncated this unusual system of ‘farmers for the control of tuber moth; and Pachy- promoting research for the control of pests’. crepoideus spp. for fruit flies. In the coast Currently, only large agricultural enter- area, research was concentrated on the prises with adequate economic resources use of entomopathogenic fungi; Verticillium can provide facilities for research related to lecanii and Paecilomyces farinosus for the the development of IPM. IPM in Peru 305

International programs and local NGOs the FFS approach, sponsored by FAO, as a training method. FAO and NGOs Until 1990, CIP’s research findings were transferred to the National Potato Program of In 2000, a special IPM project known as the INIAA for on-site testing and demonstra- ‘Integrated Pest Management in Major Food tion of management strategies. Since 1992, Crops of Peru’ was implemented. This pro- these functions have been passed to other ject has been sponsored by FAO and run by organizations, primarily NGOs. NGOs work- several governmental and non-governmental ing in rural areas have partially replaced the organizations, including SENASA, INIA, role of the Peruvian Government in technol- PRONAMACHS, UNALM, Catholic Agency ogy transfer among farmers. Several organi- For Overseas Aid and Development, CARE zations are involved in these activities. In (Network of relief and development organi- general, NGOs are not involved in research, zations) and RAAA. The major objective of except for those that are working on specific this program is to improve the quality of life projects in collaboration with universities or of small farmers in Peru, by increasing their other research institutions such as CIP. income, reducing pesticide exposure and To raise awareness of IPM programs and promoting sustainable production. The management strategies, CIP produces a vari- program was patterned after the highly ety of materials (bulletins, videos, posters, successful FFS approach. As a result of and portfolios). Major components of these this training, many farmers, especially management programs include cultural potato and cotton producers, will be able practices, use of sex pheromones, colored to implement IPM in their fields. traps, shelter and food traps, and the introduction and protection of natural enemies The CIP (Cisneros et al., 1995). In 1971, the CIP was created to generate improvements in potato production. CIP Successful Cases of IPM has contributed to the development of potato IPM, particularly in the management Peru has a long history of successful IPM of nematodes, fungi and insects. Initially, programs. The most well-known is the inte- research emphasized the development of grated management of cotton pests, begun resistant plants. From 1978 until 1990, in the mid-1950s and still in practice today. CIP’s entomological research was focused More recently, integrated management of on the management of three key pests: potato pests has been implemented with the the Andean potato weevil, Premnotrypes support of the CIP. spp., the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella and the leafminer fly, Liriomyza huidobrensis (Raman and Palacios, 1983; Ramau, 1984, 1987, 1988a,b). Integrated management of cotton pests In 1988, CIP organized the first IPM Pilot Unit, and within 2 years Pilot Units Cotton has been grown in Peru for over 5000 were established in several areas of the years. On the northern coast, the varieties country. Pilot Units demonstrate the use of Pima and del Cerro are grown. On the cen- IPM strategies in farmers’ communities, and tral and southern coasts, the most common help train farmers, extension workers and variety is Tangüis, which is resistant to professionals involved in potato cultivation. wilting disease. In the north and central Since 1998, newresearch findings have been jungle, a native white to red colored cotton incorporated into the system to improve (algodón áspero) is cultivated in small IPM implementation. In 1999 CIP initiated a areas. Cotton in the coast is irrigated study of alternatives for the management of (surface irrigation), whereas cotton in the potato late blight and the possibility of using jungle is grown under rainfall conditions. 306 M.P. Lazo et al.

In recent years, cotton production has predators and entomopathogens are varied between 145,000 t and 268,000 t. important pest mortality factors. It would The area under cultivation has also varied, be impossible to cultivate cotton without from 73,000 ha to 137,000 ha (Perú Acorde, the regulating action of beneficial insects 2000). Currently, most cotton is grown (Herrera, 1998). The implementation of an on small farms of 1–3 ha. Only a few IPM program in cotton including the release producers grow 50–500 ha. of Trichogramma spp. and use of pheromone traps for the Indian pink bollworm Major cotton pests reduced by 70% the use of pesticides on more than 500 ha of small farms in the Ica Major pests of cotton in Peru are the cotton valley (Castro et al., 1997). stainer, Dysdercus peruvianus, the cotton In recent years, the populations of the leaf perforator, Bucculatrix thurberiella, the silver leaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii, has Peruvian bollweevil, Anthonomus vestitus increased due to climatic changes linked to and the Indian pink bollworm, Pectino- the El Niño phenomenon. Fortunately, the phora gossypiella. Other pests include whitefly population was reduced by an mites, Eriophyes gossypii, armyworms, the epizootic due to two fungi, Paecilomyces cotton plant crown weevil, Euthinobotrus fumosoroseus and P. farinosus. gossypii, the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, In organic cotton in the Canete Valley, and other insects that feed on leaves, squares, the use of good cultural practices together flowers and bolls (Anomis texana, Alabama with sprays of Bt, rotenone, oils, phero- argillacea, Mescinia peruella, Pococera mones, sulfur and release of Trichogramma atramentalis, Heliothis virescens). wasps reduced cost of production by 50% (Van Elzakker, 1999). Control methods

Pest management in cotton is primarily Integrated pest management of potato pests applied against insects, since disease and weed problems are minimal. Control meth- Geographical distribution of the potato crop ods used in the integrated management of cotton pests vary, but emphasis is placed The potato was first domesticated near Lake on cultural, legal and biological control. Titicaca (between Peru and Bolivia). It is a Management strategies for the cotton pests staple food for about 8 million Peruvians in Peru had been reviewed by Herrera and a source of income for farmers. The (1998) and González (2000) (Table 23.2). potato is grown from sea level to altitudes Cotton IPM is based on the knowledge higher than 4200 m. The potato growing of plant phenology, use of biological control area varies from 200,000 to 320,000 ha. agents, correct timing, planting deadlines About 80% of this area is located in and managing of the irrigation. This program the higher sierra (above 3000 m), 15% has allowed cotton to be grown without the at medium altitude (500–3000 m) and 5% at use of pesticides (i.e. organic production). the coast (0–500 m). IPM for organic cotton production also uses measures such as a fallowperiod, use of HIGH ALTITUDES Small-scale farmers at local varieties, certified seed, and adequate higher altitudes have the lowest yields use of irrigation and fertilization (Morán (3–4 t/ha). The production technology is et al., 1999). Other treatments include largely traditional, but some farmers are the use of Bt, rotenone, natural oils, beginning to use modern techniques. At pheromones, copper sulfate, sulfur, and high altitude, potato production occurs dur- releases of Trichogramma. ing the rainy season (September to June). Scouting is essential for decision The major pest is a complex of Andean making and for using preventive measures. potato weevil species (Premnotrypes In cotton agroecosystems, parasitoids, latithorax, P. suturicallus and P. vorax). IPM in Peru 307

Table 23.2. Components of the Peruvian model of IPM for cotton pests (adapted from González, 2000).

Pest

Common name Scientific name Control measure

Armyworms Agrotis ypsilon Roll Poisoned baits Prodenia eridania Cramer Heavy irrigation Prodenia ochrea Hampson Minimum tillage Spodoptera frugiperda Sm Light traps

Whiteflies Bemisia tabaci Entomopathogens B. argentifolii Irrigation management Oil and rotenone Not planting near infested fields Organic fertilizers Not planting hybrid cotton

Cotton crown weevil Eutinobothrus gossypii Pier. Avoiding ratoon cotton (SENASA supervision) Domestic quarantine Light traps

Aphids Aphis gossypii Glov. Protection of natural enemies: predators and parasitoids

Peruvian weevil Anthonomus vestitus Bohm. Avoiding ratoon cotton Deadline for crop residue destruction Avoiding excessive foliage Destruction of pest-hosting weeds Topping (Piura); goat feeding (Pisco) Deadlines for planting Picking infested squares and placing them in cages to recover parasitoids

Leafworms Anomis texana Riley Use Bacillus thuringiensis Alabama argillacea (Hub) Protect natural enemies: predators Release Trichogramma spp. Light traps

Small bollworm Mescinia peruella Schauss Protect natural enemies Picking of dried flowers Light traps

Boll-end worm Pococera atramentalis Protect natural enemies Picking of dried flowers Avoid maize fruiting at the time of cotton fruiting Light traps

Bollworm Heliothis virescens (Fab.) Protect natural enemies Apply Bacillus thuringiensis in terminals Release Trichogramma spp. Irrigation management Light traps

Pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella S. Release of Trichogramma bactrae Light traps continued 308 M.P. Lazo et al.

Table 23.2. Continued.

Pest

Common name Scientific name Control measure

Cotton leaf perforator Bucculatrix thurberiella B. Protect natural enemies Organic fertilization

Cotton stainer Dysdercus peruvianus Guer Frequent hand picking (remaining populations) Destroy host plants Comply with ‘clean field’ regulations Poisonous baits with crushed cotton seed Light traps (migratory populations) Destroy focal infestation in the upper valley Comply with ‘clean field’ regulations Destroy host plants (guava, loquat, aubergine, tomato, etc.)

MEDIUM ALTITUDES (INTER-ANDEAN VALLEYS) In wheat, barley or other plant debris. Larvae the inter-Andean valleys, potato yields are tunnel inside the tubers and then pupate highest (50–60 t/ha). Irrigated potato in the soil. The adult has two phases: a production occurs from July to February. diapausing phase in the soil and an active The potato tuber moth complex (Symme- phase on the crop. The diapausing phase trischema tangolias and Phthorimaea lasts about 4 months. Adults start emerging operculella) is the predominant pest. from the soil after the first rains and live from 4 to 5 months. LOW ALTITUDES (THE COAST) Yields on the coast average 25 t/ha. Potato production POTATO TUBER MOTH The tuber moth, is irrigated and uses modern technology, Phthorimaea operculella, is an important including high chemical inputs (Ewell et al., pest in warm areas of the world where potato 1990; Egúsquiza, 2000). The most important is cultivated. In Peru, this pest occurs at pest is the leafminer fly, Liriomyza huido- a wide range of altitudes. During the last brensis. At the coast and at the mountains, decade, populations of another tuber moth the most important disease is the late blight, species, Symmetrischema tangolias, have Phytophthora infestans. increased significantly at altitudes between 2500 and 4000 m (Palacios and Cisneros, Potato pests 1997). Both species damage tubers in the field and in storage. Tuber damage is around ANDEAN POTATO WEEVIL The Andean potato 30% in the field and above 50% in storage. weevil is endemic to the high areas of the The larvae also damage the stems and leaves. Andean region (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Damage caused by P. operculella has no Colombia and Venezuela). The larva is the significant effect on yield, but tunnels most damaging stage of this pest. When produced by S. tangolias in potato stems infestations are high, losses of more than can reduce yield depending on the potato 50% have been reported (Raman, 1984; variety. The populations of both species can Alcázar and Cisneros, 1997). In areas of increase significantly under dry and warm intensive potato production where insecti- conditions. Farmers use toxic chemicals cides such as carbofuran, parathion, aldicarb against this pest such as parathion, and methamidophos are used, damage can aldrin, foxim, malathion, methamidophos, reach 20–30% (Alcázar and Cisneros, 1997). propoxur and deltamethrin (Ewell et al., In Peru, the Andean potato weevil has 1990; Palacios and Cisneros, 1997). only one generation per year. Adult weevils The duration of the potato tuber feed on leaves. The female lays eggs on moth life cycle varies with environmental IPM in Peru 309

conditions. At high and medium altitudes, Cisneros, 1997; Palacios and Cisneros, the life cycle takes 2–4 months, with three to 1997; Cisneros et al., 2001). five generations per year. At lower altitudes, the life cycle is shorter and six to ten IPM technology transfer to farmers: Pilot Units generations may occur in a year. The CIP has defined phases of development THE LEAFMINER FLY The leafminer fly, for IPM programs, from initial evaluation to Liriomyza huidobrensis, has become a pest application by farmers in the field (Cisneros particularly in the Cañete valley, where et al., 1995). IPM training in Pilot Units is the crop is grown intensively outside of designed to first identify farmer knowledge its native range. This pest damages gaps in relation to pests and control meth- the leaves by larvae feeding or female ods, so that training is focused on filling oviposition. Larvae feed on the parenchyma these gaps and reinforcing prior knowledge and make serpentine tunnels. Mined leaves (Ortiz et al., 1997). The implementation of dry out and photosynthesis and yields are IPM in Pilot Units and its extension by CIP affected. Yield loss due to this pest is around and collaborating NGOs had resulted in 30–40%. To control this pest, farmers the training of 37,702 farmers covering in the Cañete valley typically make 8–13 15,098 ha, which corresponds to about insecticide applications. This intensive use 6% of the potato growing area (Alcázar, of chemicals has caused the development Palacios and Ortiz, personal communica- of insecticide resistance to carbamates, tion). IPM in Pilot Units has resulted in a organophosphates and pyrethroids. significant reduction of key potato pest damage and a reduction in the use of insec- SECONDARY PESTS Secondary pests includ- ticides (Cisneros et al., 1998). Currently, the ing the budmidge, Prodiplosis sp., the white IPM strategies developed by CIP to manage mite, Poliphagotarsonemus latus, and potato pests are being expanded to all the whiteflies have been observed in recent country by various institutions. These IPM years in several crops, including potato programs have been used as models in the (Mujica and Cisneros, 1997). The whitefly Andean region (Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia is a polyphagous pest, with four to five and Venezuela) and the Caribbean region generations per year, that infests a great (Dominican Republic). number of cultivated and ornamental plants and weeds, which favors the presence of the pest the whole year. Final Comments

Integrated management The successful Peruvian cotton IPM program, begun in the 1950s, has now Potato IPM is based on the knowledge been extended to various other countries. of biology and pest behavior, seasonal Currently, IPM in export crops such as occurrence, spatial distribution and plant cotton, citrus, sugarcane, mango and phenology. The principal strategies rely on asparagus has improved marginal profits for cultural, behavioral, and biological control Peruvian producers. In crops for domestic methods. These methods have to be applied consumption such as potato, IPM has preventively to avoid economic damage improved the food supply for the Andean both in the field and storage, pest migration population. In addition, it has reduced from the field to the storage area, multi- the risk of pesticide exposure, pesticide plication of the pest in plant residues, residues in food and in the environment. volunteer potatoes and alternate hosts Potato IPM has also socially impacted the (Table 23.3). In the design of IPM, several resource-poor farmers on Peruvian moun- IPM strategies are available for farmers tains. Many of these mountain communities according to their needs (Cisneros, 1995; are nowpracticing IPM strategies adapted Alcázar and Cisneros, 1997; Mujica and to local conditions. 310 M.P. Lazo et al.

Table 23.3. IPM strategies for key pests of potato in Peru.

Andean potato weevil Potato tuber moth Leaf miner fly

Population reduction in the field Crop protection: planting – harvest Population reduction in the field

Early planting Good plowing Good quality seed Healthy seed Planting timely Yellow sticky traps Weevil hand picking Good coverage of seed Appropriate irrigation Destroy volunteer plants High hilling Increase natural enemies Harvest timely Pheromone traps Use selective insecticides Frequent irrigation Destroy harvest residues Use selective insecticides

Interruption of weevil migration Protection of harvested tubers Interruption of fly migration

Plant barriers Harvest timely Avoid neighboring fly-host Chemical barrier Tuber sorting crops Perimeter trenches Cover harvested tubers Bait traps Destroy harvest residues Use sheets at harvest Store in diffuse light

Reduction of wintering population Protection of stored tubers

Plowing soil where tubers piled Cleaning and disinfestations of up at harvest stores Winter plowing of harvested field Use baculovirus Use repellent plants Store in diffuse light Check stored tubers periodically

Several organizations, both public and Arroyo, B.O. (1989) Generación y Transferencia private, participate in the development de Tecnología Agropecuaria en América and transfer of IPM strategies in Peru. Com- Latina. Serie Técnica. Instituto Nacional de munication and coordination between these Investigación Agraria, Lima, Peru, 44 pp. Beingolea, G.O. (1961) El valle de Palpa como groups is occasionally limited. The lack ejemplo de las posibilidades de integrar of farmer organizations also limits a rapid medidas de control químico y biológico en IPM implementation, leaving pesticides as a las plagas de los árboles de cítricos. Revista major management strategy. In Peru, IPM is Peruana de Entomología 4(1), 1–4. a model that despite some social and Beingolea, G.O. (1993) Situación actual del control economic constraints has evolved to offer integrado de plagas en el Peru. Presentado several pest management alternatives. en la Reunión sobre Código Internacional de Conducta (FAO/ONU). Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima, Peru. Beingolea, G.O. and Salazar, T.J. (1970) References Experiencias en el control integrado de las plagas del olivo. Revista Peruana de Alcázar, J. and Cisneros, F. (1977) Integrated Entomología 13(1), 45–63. management for andean potato weevils Beingolea, G.O., Salazar, T.J. and Murat, I. (1969) in pilot units. International Potato Center La rehabilitación de un huerto de cítricos Program Report 1995–96. Lima, Peru, como ejemplo de la factibilidad de aplicar pp. 169–176. sistemas de control integrado de las plagas de Arroyo, B.O. (1988) Políticas y Estrategias de los cítricos en el Peru. Revista Peruana de Generación Tecnologías para el Desarrollo Entomología 12(1), 3–45. Agrícola y Rural del Perú. Instituto Nacional Castro, Z.J., Loayza, C.F., Castro, M.T., Meza, P.M., de Investigación Agraria, Lima, Peru, 15 pp. Peña, V.L. and Molinari, N.E. (1997) Control IPM in Peru 311

Integrado de Plagas y Producción de Morán, C., Ugás, R., Lizárraga, T.A. and Gomero, L. Controladores Biológicos en el Valle de Ica y (1999) Organic cotton in the Cañete Valley el Callejón de Huaylas. CEDEP/RAAA, Lima, of the Peruvian coast. In: Mayers, D. and Peru, 149 pp. Stolton, S. (eds) Organic cotton ‘From Field Cisneros, F. (1980) Principios del Control de to Final Product’. Intermediate Technology las Plagas Agrícolas, 1st edn. Centro Publications, London, 267 pp. Internacionalde la Papa, Lima, Peru, 189 pp. Mujica, N. and Cisneros, F. (1997) Developing Cisneros, F. (1995) Control de Plagas Agrícolas, IPM components for leafminer fly in the 2nd edn. Centro Internacional de la Papa, Cañete Valley. International Potato Center, Lima, Peru, 313 pp. Program Report 1995–96. CIP Lima, Peru, Cisneros, F., Alcazar, J., Palacios, M. and Ortiz, O. pp. 177–183. (1995) Una estrategia para el desarrollo Ortiz, O., Alcázar, J. and Palacios, M. (1997) La e implementación del manejo integrado de enseñanza del manejo integrado de plagas plagas. CIP Circular 21, 1–7. en el cultivo de la papa: la experiencia del Cisneros, F., Alcázar, J., Palacios, M. and Mujica, CIP en la zona Andina del Perú. Revista N. (1998) Implementación de Programas de Latinoamericana de la Papa 9/10, 1–22. Manejo Integrado de Plagas del Cultivo Papa Palacios, M. and Cisneros, F. (1997) Integrated en Áreas Específicas de la Región Andina. management for the potato tuber moth in Informe Técnico Final. Proyecto Especial pilot units in the Andean region and the Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo – Centro Dominican Republic. International Potato Internacional de la Papa, Lima, Peru, 88 pp. Center, Program Report 1995–96. CIP, Lima, Cisneros, F., Alcázar, J., Palacios, M. and Mujica, Peru, pp. 162–168. N. (2001) Implementación de programas de Peru Acorde (2000) Estudio Económico manejo integrado del Gorgojo de los Andes, Productivo del Peru, 2nd edn. Perú Acorde, Polilla Guatemalteca y Mosca Minadora. In: Lima, Peru, 104 pp. Taller Manejo Integrado de Plagas (MIP) en el Pollack, M. (1994) Manual de Plagas de la Caña de Cultivo de la Papa. Centro Internacional de la Azúcar. Red de Acción en Alternativas al uso Papa, Lima, Peru. de Agroquímicos, Lima, Peru, 79 pp. Egúsquiza, B.R. (2000) La Papa Producción, Raman, K.V. and Palacios, M. (1983) Control of Transformación y Comercialización. Uni- major potato insect pests in Peru. Annals of versidad Nacional Agraria La Molina/ADEX Plant Resistance Newsletter 9, 69–72. – USAID, Lima, Peru, 192 pp. Raman, K.V. (1984) Evaluation of a synthetic Ewell, P., Fano, H., Raman, K.V., Alcazar, J., pheromone funnel trap for potato tuber- Palacios, M. and Carhuamaca, J. (1990) worm moths (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Farmer Management of Potato Insect Pest Environmental Entomology 13, 61–64. in Peru. International Potato Center, Lima, Raman, K.V., Booth, R.H. and Palacios, M. (1987) Peru, 77 pp. Control of potato tuber moth Phthorimaea González, B.J. (2000) Manual de Evaluación y operculella (Zeller) in rustic potato stores. Control de Insectos y Ácaros del Algodonero. Tropical Science 27, 175–194. Boletín Técnico No. 1, 3rd edn. FUNDEAL, Raman, K.V. (1988a) Control of potato tuber moth Lima, Peru, 80 pp. with sex pheromones in Peru. Agricultural Herrera, A.J. (1961) Problemas entomológicos Ecosystems Environment 21, 85–99. en el cultivo de los algodones Tangüis y Raman, K.V. (1988b) Integrated insect pest Pima en el Perú. Medidas de control y management for potatoes in developing su organización. Revista Peruana de countries. CIP Circular 16, 1–8. Entomología 4(1), 58–66. Risco, S.H. (1954) La Mosca Indígena Paratheresia Herrera, A.J. (1998) Control biológico de plagas en claripalpis W. en el Control Biológico de el algodonero. In: Lizárraga, A., Barreto, U. Diatraea saccharalis Fabr. en el Perú. and Hollands, J. (eds) Nuevos Aportes del Sociedad Nacional Agraria-Comité de Control Biológico en la Agricultura Productores de Azúcar. Lima, Peru, 5 pp. Sostenible. RAAA, Lima, Peru, 397 pp. Risco, S.H. (1960) La situación actual de los Lizárraga, T.A., Reyes, M., Ayala, L., Murrugurra, barrenadores de la caña de azúcar del género A., Montoro, I. and Hollands, J. (1995) Diatraea y otros taladradores en el Perú, Situación de los bioplaguicidas en el Perú. In: Panamá y Ecuador. Revista Peruana de Sabillóu, A. and Bustamante, M. (eds) Primer Entomología 3(1), 6–10. Taller Latinoamericano sobre Bioplaguici- Van Elzakker, B. (1999) Comparing the costs of das. El Zamorano, Honduras, 34 pp. organic and conventional cotton. In: Mayers, 312 M.P. Lazo et al.

D. and Stolton, S. (ed.) Organic cotton ‘From Estrategias para su Cambio. INIA, Lima, Field to Final Product’. Intermediate Tech- Peru, 22 pp. nology Publications, London, pp. 86–110. Wille, J.E. (1952) Entomología Agrícola del Perú, Vilchez, B.J.P. (2000) Investigación y Trans- 2nd edn. Estación Experimental Agrícola La ferencia de Tecnología en el INIA y Molina, Lima, Peru, 543 pp. Chapter 24 Integrated Pest Management in Argentina

Dora Carmona1, Marcelo Huarte1, Graciela Arias2, Alicia López1, Ana M. Vincini1, Héctor A. Alvarez Castillo1, Pablo Manetti1, Silvia Capezio1, Eliseo Chávez1, Mónica Torres1, Juan Eyherabide1, Jorge Mantecón1, Liliana Cichón3 and Darío Fernández3 1FCA, UNMdP-INTA Balcarce, Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2INTA Saenz Peña, Chaco, Argentina; 3INTA Alto Valle, Río Negro, Argentina

Country Profile universities started developing research projects in alternative pest control strate- History of IPM in Argentina gies. A Latin American meeting on IPM organized by INTA and sponsored by FAO Since the mid-20th century, Argentina has was held in 1978. This meeting was very followed worldwide agroindustrial trends important for exchanging information and by using pesticides for pest control. The launching the Argentinean National IPM ‘Green Revolution’ with the use of high projects. In the past fewyears, Argentina input techniques has been widely adopted has experienced major changes in many in Argentina. Neweffective broad-spectrum areas including cropping systems, fertil- pesticides were often applied upon the first ization, plant protection, biotechnology, detection of a pest, rather than on a pest machinery use and irrigation. density/economic threshold basis. As often results from this practice, populations of beneficial organisms were eliminated. This Pesticide regulations situation led to the resurgence of pest outbreaks, and increased the frequency In 1995, a newpesticide registration system of agrochemical treatments. Gradually, pest by IASCAV (Argentinean Institute of managers realized that pest outbreaks are an Animal and Vegetal Health and Quality), ecological problem, and solutions to pest resolution (17/95), was established in problems should be sought in developing Argentina. This required toxicological, pest management techniques. Therefore, environmental and food security testing IPM was initiated as an attempt to reduce certificates for pesticide registration. In the sole reliance on pesticides and to make 1997, a pilot program on ‘Safe pesticide use better use of natural resources. and disposal of pesticide containers’ was In Argentina, farmers were introduced developed by CASAFE and carried out in to IPM strategies in the 1970s. Govern- the orchard production area of Alto Valle ment institutions like INTA and national Rio Negro.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 313 314 D. Carmona et al.

Current IPM education in Argentina three defined stages of growth, which are affected by different pests (Table 24.1). Extension and technology transfer focus on the rational use of pesticides (proper rate Strategies used in cotton IPM and timing). The adoption of IPM strategies is demonstrated and recommended to grow- CONSERVATION OF BENEFICIAL INSECTS An ers. IPM programs are currently adopted in essential component of pest management different areas of the country, the cotton in cotton is the preservation of beneficial IPM program being the oldest program in insects. The conservation of natural enemy Argentina. In addition, IPM programs in populations is important as they regulate soybeans, potatoes, and orchard crops, pest populations and reduce the number of among others, have been developed and pesticide applications. Recommended con- researchers are continuously working on trol strategies prevent pests from reaching their improvement. damage thresholds and allowthe establish - ment of beneficial insects in the field. In the first stage of the crop, insecticides IPM Case Studies are recommended for use only if the pest population has reached the damage thresh- Cotton IPM in Argentina olds and the existing beneficial insect fauna is too lowto regulate the pest population. National Research Organizations Farmers are aware of the need for monitoring involved in cotton the field to determine the density of the insect populations, and to make control INTA: Agricultural Experimental Stations decisions. Although farmers understand of Saenz Peña, Reconquista, Las Breñas, that this practice is important, it is not Santiago del Estero. widely used.

Cotton production in Argentina PREVENTION OF INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE Insec- ticide rotation is recommended to delay The cotton-growing area of Argentina is insecticide resistance. large, comprising most of the northeastern area of the country including the provinces CULTURAL PRACTICES The adjustment of of Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes and Santa Fé. planting date and the elimination of mulch- The IPM Cotton Program was introduced ing stubble after harvest has decreased and implemented in Argentina in the 1970s the population of pink bollworm Platiedra by Jorge Barral’s group at the INTA Agricul- gossypiella by 90%. In addition, elimination tural Experimental Station of Saenz Peña, of weeds in the crop, which are alternative in the province of Chaco (Barral and Zago, pest hosts, and the use of short-cycle cotton 1983). This program was developed using varieties are important pest management both local experience and foreign expertise. strategies. As time progressed, this program evolved to accommodate newproduction methods and Eradication of the cotton boll weevil newgenerations of pesticides. The IPM pro - gram in cotton consists of conservation of The cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus natural enemies, management of insecticide grandis, is a potential threat to Argentinian resistance, cultural techniques and the use cotton production. Since 1994, the counties of insecticides. of Pilcomayo and Pilaga in the province of The use of chemical seed treatment or Formosa have been an eradication zone for granulated insecticides applied to the soil at the boll weevil. So far, it is considered suc- seeding time is a recommended practice. cessful. This area is the only part of the Cotton production occurs in dry land and world where the cotton boll weevil was under irrigation. The cotton plant undergoes detected at its point of introduction and is IPM in Argentina 315

Table 24.1. Cotton insect pests in Argentina.

Cotton stages

Initial Intermediate From planting to the beginning From the floral stage through the Final of boll formation beginning of fiber lignification From boll maturation until Duration: 50 to 60 days Duration: approx. 60 days harvest time

Principal pests Secondary pests Principal pests Secondary pests Principal pests Secondary pests

Cotton aphid Cutworms Leafworm Flower thrips Pink bollworm Leafworm (Aphis (Agrostis (Alabama (Caliothrips (P. gossypiella)e (A. argillacea) gossypii)a ypsilon)b argillacea) brasiliensis) Bollworm group Thrips Wireworms Stink horcias Stink bug (H. gelotopoeon, (Frankliniella (Pyrophrus (Horcias (Gargaphia H. virescens, paucispinosa)a spp.)b nobilellus) torresi) S. frugiperda, S. latisfacia) Two spotted Bollworm group Tinctorial bug mite (Heliothis (Dysdercus (Tetranychus virescens, chaquensis) telarius)a Helicoverpa Whitefly (Bemisia gelotopoeon, ‘Broca worm’ tabaci)d Spodoptera (Eutinobothrus frugiperda, brasiliensis)b S. latisfacia) Pink bollworm (Platiedra gossypiella)c aIn humid conditions aphids appear; in dry seasons, thrips are prevalent. In some circumstances both pests are observed. bOccur depending on environmental conditions. cPresence is directly related to the cultural management of the previous season. dOccur in irrigated areas. eHigh populations do not occur at this stage, if planting dates and mulching stubble are well managed.

still confined to the same area. This intro- In 1995, a newtechnology transfer duction of cotton boll weevil in Argentina program was organized to teach IPM philos- changed the management practices used ophy. This newprogram had the advantage from an IPM perspective to an eradication of beginning while a serious problem was attempt. Currently, the presence of large occurring in cotton: lack of control of the leaf- populations of this pest in cropping areas of worm, Alabama argillacea by pyrethroids, the neighboring countries close to the eradi- and farmers suffering severe economic prob- cation zone is not controlled. This may pose lems. Under these circumstances, the Cotton a potential threat to cotton in Argentina. IPM Program reappeared. This newtraining program was more effective. The training was Cotton IPM technology transfer 80% practice and it was taught during the cotton crop season. As a result of this IPM Early in the development of the IPM pro- training, farmers understood that adequate gram, different extension activities for farm- insecticide use at the proper timing and at ers and professional technicians were the correct dose reduces costs of production offered, such as insect identification and and provides more efficient crop manage- monitoring training, including classroom ment. The best outcome of the newteaching training and field days in experimental strategy was the establishment of techni- plots. However, few growers put the IPM cally and methodologically competent pro- knowledge into practice. fessionals to act as newtrainers. Today, this 316 D. Carmona et al.

program extends to four provinces of cotton predecessor to the potato crop. Potatoes are production in the northeastern region of irrigated and usually produced on large the country (Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes farms (110 ha). Often in these large potato and Santa Fé) although it is implemented fields, a number of rows are sown with at different levels. For IPM programs, maize that is later used to cover the potato professionals rely on extension materials clamps. (bulletins, videos, audio records, etc.) which Until recently, the major potato market are used for training in other regions. was fresh potatoes with an annual consump- Currently, 500 insect diagnosticians are tion of 50 kg per capita, but in the past few registered in the province of Chaco. As new years, the processing industry has been rap- personnel are trained, other provinces are idly developing. Cold storage is primarily covered as well. Demonstration plots have used by the seed and processing industries. also helped cotton growers to learn more about IPM techniques. These experimental Varieties and seed used in potato plots are generally established in fields production in Argentina where new technologies for IPM have been applied. In addition, two types of training The most common variety grown in Argen- courses are offered: the first to clarify doubts tina is Spunta. Other varieties used include about the methodologies, and the second to Kennebec, Araucana, Huincul, Pampeana, introduce IPM philosophy. Frital and Ballenera. Argentina has developed its own seed industry and has an official breeding program. The main IPM in potatoes emphasis in seed breeding was originally placed on virus diseases, but other quality National Research Organizations characteristics, such as physiological age involved in potatoes and soil seed-borne diseases, have been considered in recent years. • INTA: Balcarce, Rama Caída, Córdoba The pre-basic seed comes from laborato- • Instituto de fisiología vegetal, Castelar ries that perform in vitro multiplication. In Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias certain cases, the pre-basic seed from the Veterinarias. laboratories can be multiplied in the field • INGEBI (Institute of Genetic and only for a limited number of generations Molecular Biology, Buenos Aires). because the infection pressure of PVY is • National Universities: Mar del Plata, relatively high. There are specialized Córdoba, Cuyo (Mendoza), La Plata. laboratories that test seed samples for • Provincial Ministries: Buenos Aires. viruses. The ELISA test is used on sprouted tubers previously treated with Rindite® to Potato production and use in Argentina break dormancy. Only 10% of the seeds used are certified. However, farmers also send The total potato production area in Argentina non-certified seed samples to the laborato- covers approximately 100,000 ha over dif- ries for virus testing. Therefore, all the seed ferent cropping seasons: winter (5%), spring planted has passed some post-control test as (27%), summer (47%), and autumn (21%). well as field inspections. Yield is highest for the summer crops (30 tons/ha) and lowest for the autumn crops (20 Major constraints to the production tons/ha). The primary production area for the and utilization of potatoes summer crop is located in the southeast of the province of Buenos Aires. Because of the The Argentine Potato IPM Program has different cropping seasons, freshly harvested focused on major diseases and pests of the potatoes are available throughout the year. crop. A series of studies are carried out on A rotation scheme (about 6 years) with PLRV, PVY, PVX, late blight, Phytophthora pastures, wheat and maize is used as a infestans (Mont.) De Bary, stem canker IPM in Argentina 317

or black scurf, Rhizoctonia solani Khun, southeast of Buenos Aires Province, the nematodes, aphids, grubs, weeds, and disease has produced losses up to 50% of quality factors (dry matter and reducing the yield in commercial fields. The most sugars, texture of final products). important effect of late blight is the loss IPM strategies have been developed of commercial quality of tubers (Mantecón, and communicated to potato growers from 1998a, 2000a,b). Infected tubers must not be the potato research group of FCA (College stored, because the disease remains latent of Agricultural Science)–INTA Balcarce under lowtemperature and reactivates (southeast of Buenos Aires Province). when the tubers are taken out of cold storage, and become a primary inoculum Virus management that will infect the new crop when planted. Late blight management strategies con- Seed varieties resistant to PLRV, PVX and sider the implementation of genetic, cultural PVY have been successfully developed, and chemical measures. Although genetic leading to a reduction in insecticide appli- sources of disease resistance exist, at this cations against aphids and also extending time most of the cultivars used in Argentina seed viability. Both diploid and tetraploid are susceptible. As a result, the available material has been bred (Huarte et al., 1986, resistance level is not enough to reduce 1990a; Huarte, 1989; Bofu et al., 1996). the use of fungicides significantly. Recent Rapid multiplication techniques have also research shows that genetic knowledge of facilitated the multiplication of susceptible QTLs governing late blight resistance in a cultivars, by increasing the quantities of Solanum chacoense population will render clean initial stocks. excellent tools for marker assisted breeding The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Micheletto et al., 1999, 2000) in a back- (Sulzer), is the most efficient vector of PLRV. ground of absence of major gene effects. Virus dissemination occurs exclusively in the crop, during the first flight of females USE OF FUNGICIDES IN IPM The Argentine that feed on infected plants and spread the IPM Program has developed strategies for virus to healthy plants. Systemic insecti- the control of late blight including chemical cides are used to control the aphids, and control and the use of resistant cultivars. infected plants are discarded. During the Pampeana INTA is the most important late second summer flight of aphids, the females blight resistant variety that has achieved arrive in crops carrying a high percentage of high yields without any fungicide spray virus infection. To determine the moment of for late blight control, although one or two the first green peach aphid arrival, two water applications of mancozeb can increase its yellowtraps (Moëricke) are placed in the yield by up to 30% because Pampeana INTA crop and checked every day. When the first is highly susceptible to early blight. For specimen of Myzus is detected in the traps, susceptible cultivars, better formulations the potato foliage is destroyed with a dessi- and lower doses of mancozeb at slightly cant (during the 8–10 following days) to cut higher frequencies have rendered good down the virus pathway from the leaves to results (Mantecón, 1993, 1998b). A 30–80% the tubers, avoiding virus infection. reduction in the use of fungicides is likely to be achieved as well as an increased pro- Late blight management ductivity and food safety in existing potato growing areas (Mantecón, 2000b). Also, as In Argentina, the late blight, Phytophthora the fungus has turned out to be resistant infestans De Bary, is the most serious fungal to metalaxyl, continuous monitoring of the disease in potato producing areas. Under fungus population is needed to address its favorable weather conditions, periods of control properly (Mantecón et al., 1995). moderate temperatures, high humidity, and The preventive application of fungi- rain, the disease can cause high economic cides throughout the cycle of the crop is a losses. During the last decade, in the common practice. The weather conditions 318 D. Carmona et al.

and the phenology of the crop determine the and wet soils. Hence, black scurf is a frequency of applications (Mantecón, 1996). disease frequently found in early-planted The intervals between applications are from crops in the southeastern region of the prov- 7 to 14 days, for non-systemic (contact) or ince of Buenos Aires. The disease can be systemic fungicides, respectively, and tend present at several stages of the crop causing to be shorter when weather conditions are irregular emergence, diminution of plant favorable for the development of the disease stand, stem and root canker, rolling and and the crop is at the tuberization stage, purple colored leaves, weak growth and because the intervals of applications are consequent yield reductions. In seed pro- too large for disease control efficiency duction, the damage thresholds should not (Mantecón, 1998b, 2000a). be greater than 5%, although the absence of The use of systemic fungicides for late the disease is preferred. blight control is important during the first Rhizoctonia solani is pathogenic in dif- stages of the crop (up to 80–100 days). How- ferent crops and wild plants, which makes ever, systemic fungicides can also be used in control difficult using crop rotations. Only the final stages of the crop mainly for early very long rotations with tolerant crops, like blight control. To avoid the possible selec- cereals, reduce the inoculum levels in the tion of resistant strains of the pathogen, the soil. The use of certified potato seed is a use of fungicides in a continuous and sys- recommended practice to avoid the intro- tematic way is not recommended. There is duction of the pathogen in the crop. Other no technical reason to support the widely strategies, such as avoiding the use of very accepted concept that mixing non-systemic susceptible cultivars and deep planting in and protective fungicides in the same appli- cold, wet, or easily flooded soils to obtain cation increases the efficiency of late blight fast emergence of the crop, are common control and diminishes pathogen resistance. practices to reduce the incidence of the dis- The rotation of non-systemic fungicides ease. Fungicides can be applied to the tuber during the crop cycle does not have any seed before planting when using infected effect on the selection of resistant strains of seed, or applied to the soil at planting when P. infestans (Mantecón, 1998a). ‘pathogen free’ seed is used. Chemical control reduces the symptoms of the disease by CULTURAL MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Late 70% in plants and 55% in tubers (Mantecón blight is a pathogen inhabiting the soil and and Manetti, 2000). fresh tissue in the crop. Therefore, cultural control by reduction of secondary sources of Nematode management infection (infected plants, volunteer plants, and discarded tubers) is practiced. In addi- In Argentina, Meloidogyne spp. and Nacob- tion, the height of the planting ‘ridges’ is an bus aberrans are the major plant-parasitic important factor to reduce the disease inci- nematodes found in potato producing dence in tubers, because it is an important areas. The following Meloidogyne species barrier of zoospore transfer through the soil. are found in different provinces: M. hapla, M. incognita and M. chitwoodi in Buenos Stem canker or black scurf management Aires; M. arenaria, M. hapla, M. incognita and M. javanica in Mendoza and Cata- The fungus causing black scurf, Rhizoc- marca; M. incognita and M. javanica in tonia solani Khun., is present in all soils Tucumán; and M. arenaria and M. incognita due to its wide host range and survival in in Río Negro (Vega and Galmarini, 1970; plant debris as sclerotia (dormant bodies) Costilla, 1973; González de Ojeda et al., for long periods. In Argentina, this fungus is 1978; Chaves and Torres, 1993, 2001). present in most potato areas and the dam- Nacobbus aberrans is found in a age is more severe in the regions where crop restricted area of Tucumán and Catamarca rotations are shorter. It causes considerable provinces (Costilla et al., 1978; Doucet et al., damage in emerging crops planted in cold 1986) and on potato tubers in Buenos Aires, IPM in Argentina 319

Río Negro and Santa Fé Provinces (Chaves and increased tuber yields. Costilla and and Torres, 1993, 2001). Pratylenchus Basco (1984) conducted trials on chemical scribneri was first found parasitizing potato control of N. aberrans on potato tubers and tubers in a restricted area of Río Negro determined that 100% of the nematodes (Chaves and Torres, 2001). The potato cyst in tubers were eliminated by applying nematode, Globodera rostochiensis, has ethoprop and fenamiphos, so they can be been found in different areas of the high recommended for nematode control. mountain in Jujuy associated with wild Solanum species, but not in commercial CULTURAL CONTROL BY ADJUSTING PLANTING DATES potato producing areas (Chaves, 1993). A relationship between planting dates and tubers’ infestation by Meloidogyne has been TOLERANCE LEVELS FOR NEMATODE INFECTION reported. In the Malargüe seed producing Currently, there are no data on yield losses area, the worst damage occurred when pota- caused by Meloidogyne spp. and N. aberrans toes were planted at the highest soil temper- on potato crops. However, in potatoes used ature (December–January), but decreased in in the processing industry, where quality is the previous and following months. Due to very important, yield losses of 5–10% due to the high cost of nematicides, farmers are galls in tubers parasitized by Meloidogyne more interested in planting potatoes in have been reported by farmers in the south- fields free or with low densities of Meloido- east of Buenos Aires Province. The presence gyne. In areas where this is not possible, of Nacobbus aberrans in tubers does not potato commercialization depends on cause severe damage or a decrease in potato chemical treatment. quality. However, both Meloidogyne spp. and N. aberrans render the commercializa- PREPLANTING SURVEY OF NEMATODE INFESTATION tion of seed potatoes more difficult. In 1983, LEVELS Official laboratories usually carry the INASE established nematode tolerance out soil analysis to estimate the density of levels for seed potatoes produced and juvenile stages of Meloidogine prior to plant- imported into the country. ing, as a strategy to prevent tuber infestation. This technique has been tested and adopted EXPERIMENTS WITH CHEMICAL CONTROLS by farmers in Buenos Aires and Mendoza Chemical control trials were conducted from (Chaves and Torres, 1993, 2001). Field data 1983 to 1987 in the seed potato production indicate that it is possible to use preventive area of Malargüe, Mendoza, to obtain strategies to avoid potato infestation by nematode-free seed potatoes. The systemic Meloidogyne spp. and N. aberrans. In some nematicides aldicarb, fenamiphos, carbo- tuber seed production areas, there are public furan and ethoprop (ethoprophos), applied and private laboratories for nematode diag- to the soil for Meloidogyne spp. control, in nosis. To prevent nematode dispersion, the doses up to 6 kg a.i./ha at planting or at seed is analyzed through standard methods hilling or in both times, were not effective in to estimate the percentage of infested tubers. reducing the tuber infestation or increasing Control focusing on prevention is a very use- yields. The efficiency of different nema- ful method to avoid unnecessary nematicide ticides to control Meloidogyne in the tubers use and environmental contamination. was also studied. An immersion of whole Although some resistant genotypes tubers in a solution of 300 ml of fenamiphos have been reported in other countries, little 40% in 100 l of water for 5 min produced a effort has been made towards developing significant decrease in the infestation of the resistant varieties in Argentina (Huarte et al., seed tubers. Even though the treatments did 1990b). not have any phytotoxic effect on whole tubers, in cut tubers the sprouting was Insect pest management affected. The soil fumigants D-D and fenamiphos caused a significant decrease in The shining green beetle Maecolaspis brid- juvenile stages of Meloidogyne in the soil arollii and the blond beetle Cyclocephala 320 D. Carmona et al.

signaticollis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Trogidae) and Cardigenus laticollis Scolter and Scarabaeidae) are the most important (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae); endoparasitic insect pests of potatoes in the southeast flies (Diptera: Tachinidae); ‘killer or hunter of Buenos Aires Province (Alvarez Castillo flies’ (Diptera: Asilidae), ectoparasites, et al., 1993). Both of these species are and big and small wasps (Hymenoptera: univoltine. After many years of unsuccess- Scolidae and Tiphiidae respectively) (Lopez ful attempts to control these pests with et al., unpublished data). insecticides, studies on the population dynamics, management and cultivar INSECTICIDE USE Soil insecticides (chlor- preferences were investigated. pyrifos, imidacloprid, teflutrina and fipro- The shining green beetle feeds on the nil) to control grubs are applied once before leaves of the potato crop during the day planting (Manetti et al., 1994). Pyrethroids beginning in mid-December (López et al., are applied to the foliage to decrease the 1993). The blond beetles, which do not number of adults of Maecolaspis and the feed on potato leaves, appear in November number of larvae at harvest time. Crop (spring) and peak in mid-December rotation and cultivar preference have been (Carmona et al., 1994; Mondino et al., 1997). important factors in designing better use of Larvae of both species (white grubs) reach insecticides. the last and most aggressive instar in March, coincident with the maturity of tubers and Annual weed management harvest time. Since the larvae feed on the tubers, they cause economic loss and In the southeast of Buenos Aires Province, decrease the commercial quality and value soils have a high organic matter content of potatoes. (5–6.5%), are slightly acid (pH 6.5), and have a lowphosphorus content. Annual weeds CULTURAL CONTROLS The first factor to (as well as some perennials) grow actively consider when using cultural control is in these soils and compete successfully with to choose an appropriate seed potato and potatoes, reducing crop yields between adjust the planting time. The potato varieties 32% and 81%, depending on the year and Spunta, Kennebec and the clone B.86.525.1 species of weeds (Eyherabide, 1995a). are tolerant to white grubs (Manetti et al., The main species of annual broadleaved 1996). Late planting causes late harvest and weeds in the area are: Amaranthus quiten- longer exposure of tubers to white grubs. sis, Brassica campestris, Chenopodium Choosing the optimum harvest time is album, Datura ferox, Galinsoga parviflora, an important strategy to avoid major tuber Polygonum aviculare, Polygonum convolvu- damage. On the other hand, delaying harvest lus, Portulaca oleracea, Raphanus sativus, time will result in longer exposure of the Stellaria media, Tagetes minuta, Xanthium tubers to grubs. spinosum; and grasses Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa crusgalli and Setaria spp. SCOUTING IN POTATO IPM From October to Perennial weeds, such as Cynodon dactylon, January, screen and light traps are used to Solanum sisymbriifolium, Cyperus esculen- determine the beginning of adult activity of tus, Sorghum halepense and Convolvulus M. bridarolli and C. signaticollis, respec- arvensis are present in the area, but the tively. Soil sampling to estimate the egg and control of these species requires special larval populations must also be done after programs (Eyherabide, 1995a). planting, in December and January. Since Since mechanization began (late 1940s) birds feed on the white grubs, plowing the and up to the early 1980s, potato growers field during the day is recommended to planted in furrows spaced 65 cm apart, increase the natural control. Predators of placing tubers 5–6 cm deep and controlling the larval stage have been found regulating annual weeds by mechanical cultivation larvae and adults of C. signaticollis popula- alone. Farmers believed that because of the tions: Scotobius miliaris Billb. (Coleoptera: high organic matter content, these soils IPM in Argentina 321

easily suffered compaction after several investigated (Eyherabide et al., 1983a,b, months without cultivation. The methods 1984; Manetti and Eyherabide, 1989; used to control weeds were: (i) hilling after Eyherabide et al., 1989; Eyherabide, planting; (ii) passing a light harrowat 1995a,b,c). pre-emergence; (iii) one (sometimes two) The following conclusions were drawn: post-emergence light harrows; (iv) slight 1. Incorporating herbicides into the soil at hilling; followed by (v) final hilling. This pre-planting was not the best time for spray- method resulted in cultivating the planted ing, because after hilling, weeds germinate area as many as five times, and damage of from the low area between rows. the leaves by harrowing. In addition, roots 2. If pre-emergent herbicides were prop- were cut by hilling, favoring the formation of erly chosen and sprayed at pre-emergence of clods and soil compaction, and destroying the crop, the crop could be maintained free the soil structure. of weeds without further mechanical labor. When farmers began to introduce inte- 3. The presence of soil clods and soil grated potato harvesters, shallowplanting compaction was minimized when less and more distance between furrows became post-planting cultivation was performed. necessary to make mechanical harvesting 4. Cultivars had different tolerances to more feasible. However, problems with metribuzin sprayed at postemergence. control of annual weed through ‘traditional’ This is the most widely used herbicide for mechanical methods appeared. broadleaf weed control. 5. The cultivar tolerance to herbicides MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL The weeds affecting the passing of electrons from research team (Integrated Unit, FCA–INTA) photosystem II to photosystem I could be together with the potato growers identified determined by low-cost laboratory tests the main problems associated with weed (Manetti and Eyherabide, 1989; Eyherabide, control when adapting the new technology 1995c). of planting potatoes. According to potato growers, the traditional method of weed Almost 100% of potatoes are grown control became impossible when using this either applying herbicide after hilling or method of planting. The main reason was at pre-emergence and then hilling at that the tuber seeds were close to the soil post-emergence. surface and pulled out by harrows, so that the plant emerged sooner, leaving less time to perform pre-emergence weed control cul- IPM in apple and pears tivation. Therefore, alternative mechanical methods for weed control were imported National Research Organizations from Europe, but were not very well involved in IPM accepted by potato growers. Some of these methods were too aggressive, and weeds INTA Alto Valle Río Negro, Río Negro were not successfully controlled, because Province. weed seeds were germinating in small and stable clods, especially when soil was wet. Orchard crop production in Argentina

HERBICIDE USE Researchers identified the The High Valley of the Río Negro, in the herbicides used in other countries and province of Río Negro, is the major area for adapted the use of those chemicals to the pome fruit production in Argentina. This needs of the southeast of Buenos Aires Prov- region is located in the northern part of the ° ′ ° ′ ince. Studies were carried out to determine Patagonia region (39 01 S, 67 40 W, 200 m herbicide selectivity, efficacy, and proper altitude). The mean annual temperature ° application timing for each cultivar. The is 15 C, and the mean winter and summer ° ° critical period of weed–crop competition temperatures are 5.5 C and 22.2 C, respec- and the competitive species were tively. The annual precipitation is lower 322 D. Carmona et al.

than 200 mm and is concentrated mainly occasional pest, since it is usually a pest of in the winter. The production area covers the windbreak Populus sp. surrounding the approximately 60,000 ha under irrigation; fruit orchard. The larvae of this univoltine 33,600 ha are dedicated to apple orchards species appear in November and are trans- and 16,500 ha to pear orchards. The total ported by the wind to the fruit trees. They production of these two orchard species feed on vegetative parts (Cichón et al., 1996). reaches 1,300,000 tons. Although less Although there are some predators and than 10% of the production is under IPM parasitoids that attack this group of pests, certification (integrated or organic fruit biological control options are limited for production), most of the farmers apply bagworm moths. The pear psylla, Cacopsyla IPM technologies. Various microorganisms, pyricola is another important pest that has mites and insects affect the production, and resurged in recent years after an extensive many natural enemies are present in the period of very lowincidence. In orchards same system (Table 24.2). under organic production, an increase of Caliroa sp. populations in pear trees and Diseases Edwardsiana crataegi in apple trees has been observed. Because of the semiarid characteristics Other pests such as scale insects of the area, there is lowor no incidence including Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, of fungal diseases. Apple and pear scab Lepidosaphes ulmi, Lecanium sp. and (Venturia inaequalis and V. pirina) does not Pseudococcus sp. occur with abundant require specific controls throughout the populations of the parasitoid Aphytis sp. productive orchard season. On the other Aphytis attacks primarily Quadraspidiotus hand, oidium (Podosphaera leucotricha)is perniciosus and Lepidosaphes ulmi. Unfor- restricted to susceptible apple cultivars like tunately, the action of natural enemies does Granny Smith, Braeburn, Fuji and Gala. not maintain the pest populations belowthe economic threshold. Insects The primary aphid pests are the black aphid, Aphis gossypii in pears and the The key pest in apple and pear orchards is woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum in the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Table apples. Many predators and parasitoids help 24.2). In some years, this species completes to control aphids, including Aphidoletes three generations, and when the weather aphidimyza, syrphids, coccinellids and is exceptionally warm, it may complete a microhymenopteran species. Among micro- partial fourth generation. One of the critical hymenopterans, Aphelinus mali provide problems in Cydia pomonella control is the excellent control of the woolly apple aphid. duration of the first flight, which can con- The European red mite, Panonychus tinue for almost 3 months. This results in an ulmi is the major phytophagous mite that overlap of the first and second generations, attacks apple and pear trees. The mite and makes control more difficult. The risk complex competes with the common red of pest attack for late crops is about 160 mite, Tetranychus urticae and with other days. less important mites like the brown mite, Other pests present in the area include Bryobia rubrioculus and the flat scarlet mite, Proxenus rionegresnsis, Agrotis sp., Cydia Cenopalpus pulcher. The eriophyid mites, molesta, and Archips sp., which occur in Epitrimerus pyri and Eriophes pyri in pear small populations in orchards under orchards, occur in cycles and can cause conventional control. In orchards under major damage if not scouted and controlled organic production, or with the use of mat- in time. Although the mite Aculus ing disruption techniques applied to the key schlechtendali can be present in great pest, they may become more prevalent. The populations in apple trees, it does not cause bagworm moth, Oiketicus platensis is an significant damage. IPM in Argentina 323

Table 24.2. Pests and natural enemies occurring in apple and pear orchards in the Black River High Valley, Argentina.

Key pest Codling moth (Cydia pomonella)

Secondary pests Bagworm moth (Oiketicus platensis) Direct damage San José scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) Oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi) Pear rust mite (Epitrimerus pyri) Pear leaf blister mite (Eryophyes pyri) Pear psylla (Cacopsyla pyricola) Oriental fruit moth (Cydia molesta) Leafrollers (varied spp.) Pear slug (Caliroa sp.) Thrips (Frankliniella ocidentalis) Oidium (Podosphaera leucotricha)

Indirect damage European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) Two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) Fruit brown mite (Bryobia rubrioculus) Flat scarlet mite (Cenopalpus pulcher) Apple rust mite (Aculus schlechtendali) Woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) Pear root woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanuginosum) Black aphid (Aphis gossypii) Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) Apple leafhopper (Edwardsiana crataegi) Pear blight (Pseudomonas syringae) Mealybug (Pseudococus marítimus) Brown peach scale (Lecanium sp.)

Natural enemies Convergent lady beetle (Hippodamia convergens) Predators Lady beetle (Eriopes connexa) San José lady beetle (Cycloneda sanguinea) Two-spotted lady beetle (Adalia bipunctata) Lady beetle (Coccidophilus sp.) Spider mite destroyer (Stehtorus punctum) Minute pirate bug (Orius insiduosus) Damsel bug (Nabis sp.) Bigeyed bug (Geocoris pallipis) Hover flies (Syrphidae, other spp.) Gall midges (Aphidoletes aphidimiza) Lacewings (Crysoperla spp., Hemerobius spp., Sinpherobius spp. Lacewings and Micromus spp.) Mites (Neoseiulus californicus) Mites (Agistemus mendozensis) Mites (Zetzellia mali) Mites (Pyemotes ventricissus)

Parasitoids Afelino (Aphelinus mali) Clear wasp (Aphytis longiclave)

IPM management strategies implementation of organic and integrated fruit production programs in the Río MATING DISRUPTION OF CODLING MOTH The Negro region. Farmers began to use mating introduction of the mating disruption (sex- disruption on a 40-ha experimental plot in ual confusion) technique made possible the 1991. Currently, the area under the mating 324 D. Carmona et al.

Fig. 24.1. Number of seasonal spraying of organophosphates for the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, miticides and biological insecticides, after 5 years of use of the confusion sexual technique in apples.

disruption technique is 6000 ha. Some References of the obstacles to extensive adoption of this technique have been the high cost Alvarez Castillo, H.A., López, A.N., Vincini, A.M., of materials and labor for application and Carmona, D. and Manetti, P.L. (1993) scouting. Relevamiento de los insectos de suelo en The outbreak of newpests ( Archips sp.) el cultivo de papa del sudeste bonaerense. or a change of status in other pests such as SAGyP (Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería C. molesta and E. crataegi, is an important y Pesca), CERBAS (Centro Regional Buenos Aires Sur), INTA (Instituto Nacional de factor to monitor while implementing Tecnología Agropecuaria), Balcarce. Boletín these programs. Nevertheless, the long-term técnico No. 118, 18 pp. advantage of the sexual confusion technique Barral, J.M. and Zago, L.B. (1983) IPM Program has been a substantial reduction in the of insects and mites of Cotton. Extension number of applications of organophos- Bulletin No. 71. INTA (Instituto Nacional phates and broad-spectrum insecticides de Tecnología Agropecuaria), Saenz Peña (Fig. 24.1). Chaco, Argentina, 20 pp. Bofu, S., Weiming, T., Jimin, W., Chunlin, W., BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF MITES The primary Zhengui, Y., Shengwu, W. and Huarte, M. mite predators found in orchard crops (1996) Economic Impact of CIP-24 in China. In: Walker, T.S. and Crissman, C.C. (eds) Case include the flat mite, Neoseiulus cali- Studies of the Economic Impact of CIP- fornicus, the spheric acarus, Mesoseiulus Related Technologies. International Potato longipes, the reticulated mite, Zetzellia Center, Lima, Perú, pp. 31–50. mali, the spider mite destroyer, Stethorus Carmona, D., Vincini, A.M., López, A.N., Alvarez punctum and the ladybird beetles, Castillo, H.A. and Manetti, P.L. (1994) Coccidophilus sp. After a fewyears of use, Cambios estacionales en la comunidad de selective control techniques such as mating ‘insectos del suelo’ en el cultivo de papa en disruption of codling moth together with el sudeste bonaerense. SAGyP (Secretaría biological control of phytophagous mites de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca), CERBAS have significant reduced the number of (Centro Regional Buenos Aires Sur), INTA (Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agro- pesticide applications (Fig. 24.1). pecuaria), Balcarce. Boletín Técnico No. 126, The use of IPM techniques including 15 pp. biopesticides, insect growth regulators, Chaves, E. (1993) Revisión de los nematodes mating disruption techniques, and rational formadores de quistes de la República pesticide use has become the solution for Argentina. CERBAS-INTA, Boletín Técnico pest control in Argentina. No. 113, 1–11. IPM in Argentina 325

Chaves, E. and Torres, M. (1993) Nematodes Eyherabide, J.J., Leaden, M.I., Bedmar, F. and parásitos de la papa del sudeste bonaerense. Rohatscht, P. (1983b) Control de malezas CERBAS-INTA, Boletín Técnico No. 115, y efectos en el rendimiento de algunos 1–21. herbicidas aplicados en papas cvs. Huinkul y Chaves, E. and Torres, M. (2001) Nematodos Spunta. Malezas 12(III), 21–28. parásitos de la papa en regiones productoras Eyherabide, J.J., Bedmar, F., Leaden, M.I. and de papa semilla en la Argentina. Revista de la Rohatsch, P. (1984) Evaluación de trata- Facultad de Agronomía 21, 245–259. mientos con herbicidas para control de Cichón, L., Di Masi, S., Fernandez, D., Magdalena, malezas en papa cvs Huinkul y Spunta. J., Rial, E. and Rossini, M. (1996) Guía Malezas 6, 24–32. Ilustrada para el Monitoreo de Plagas y Eyherabide, J.J., Manetti, P.L., Bedmar, F. and Enfermedades en Frutales de Pepita, 2nd Leaden, M.I. (1989) Evaluation of herbicides edn. INTA EEA, Alto Valle, Argentina, 72 pp. applied at different times for weed control in Costilla, M.A. (1973) Nematodes. Estación Experi- potatoes and their phytotoxicity to the crop. mental Agrícola de Tucumán, Publicación Annals of Applied Biology 118, 84–85. Miscelánea 50, 181–183. González de Ojeda, S., Costilla, M.A. and Hasselrot Costilla, M.A. and Basco, H.J. (1984) Control de Gómez, T. (1978) Nemátodes identificados químico del falso nematode del nudo en cultivos de papa de la provincia de Nacobbus aberrans (Thorne, 1935) Thorne Tucumán. Revista Industrial y Agrícola de and Allen, 1944, en tubérculos de papa. Tucumán 55, 65–69. Revista Industrial y Agrícola de Tucumán 61, Huarte, M.A. (1989) Situación actual de la 39–45. producción de semilla de papa en la Argen- Costilla, M.A., González de Ojeda, S. and Hasselrot tina. In: Hidalgo, O. and Rincón, H. (eds) de Gómez, T. (1978) El falso nemátode del Avances en la Producción de Tubérculo- nudo, Nacobbus aberrans (Thorne, 1935) semilla de Papa en los Países del Cono Sur, Thorne and Allen, 1944 (Nematoda: Memorias de las Reuniones. Centro Inter- Nacobbidae) en cultivo de papa de Tucumán. nacional de la papa Canoinhas, Brasil, III Jornadas Fitosanitarias Argentinas. pp. 15–21. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Huarte, M.A., Mendiburu, A.O., Monti, M.C. Miguel de Tucumán, pp. 323–340. and Butzonitch, I.P. (1986) Serrana INTA: Doucet, M.E., Gardenal, N., Costilla, M.A. a widely adapted virus resistant variety and Vattuone, E. (1986) Caracterización from Argentina. American Potato Journal de poblaciones del género Nacobbus 63, 695–699. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae) en la República Huarte, M.A., Butzonitch, I.P. and Mendiburu, Argentina. In: VI Jornadas Fitosanitarias A.O. (1990a) Mejoramiento para resistencia a Argentinas. Tomo I, Mesa de Nematología. virus en el programa Argentino de papa. In: Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Alto Hidalgo, O.A. and Rincón, H. (eds) Avances Valle del Río Negro, pp. 309–310. en el Mejoramiento Genético de la Papa en Eyherabide, J.J. (1995a) Problemática y Control de los Países del Cono Sur. CIP, Lima, Peru, Malezas en Papa. Unidad Integrada Balcarce pp. 85–94. (ed.), Balcarce, Argentina, 110 pp. Huarte, M.A., Capezio, S. and Chaves, E. (1990b) Eyherabide, J.J. (1995b) Evaluation of pre- Resistencia genética a Meloidogyne spp en emergence application of herbicides on papa. In: Hidalgo, O.A. and Rincón, H. (eds) weed control in potatoes. Annals of Applied Avances en el Mejoramiento Genético de la Biology 126, 62–63. Papa en los Países del Cono Sur. CIP, Lima, Eyherabide, J.J. (1995c) Comparación entre el Peru, pp. 191–194. método de evaluación en el campo y el de López, A.N., Alvarez Castillo, H.A., Carmona, D., flotación de discos de hojas para determinar Manetti, P.L. and Vincini, A.M. (1993) la susceptibilidad de cultivares de papa Aspectos morfológicos y biológicos de Cyclo- (Solanum tuberosum L) al herbicida cephala signaticollis Burm. (Coleoptera: metribuzín. Revista de la Facultad de Scarabaeidae). Boletín Técnico No. 123, Agronomía de La Plata 71(1), 31–41. 18 pp. Eyherabide, J.J., Bedmar, F. and Leaden, M.I. Manetti, P. and Eyherabide, J.J. (1989) Ajuste de un (1983a) Comportamiento de algunos herbi- método rápido para detección de suscepti- cidas en el control de malezas en papas de bilidad de cultivares de papa (Solanum variedad Huinkul y Spunta. Malezas 11(3), tuberosum spp. tuberosum al herbicida 185–195. metribuzin. Malezas 16(1), 85–89. 326 D. Carmona et al.

Manetti, P.L., Alvarez Castillo, H.A., Carmona, D. formulations. Fungicide and Nematicide and López, A.N. (1994) Effects of chemical Test 55, 217–218. control of soil insects on potato tuber quality. Mantecón, J.D. and Manetti, P. (2000) Chemical Annals of Applied Biology 124, 12–13. strategies for controlling black scurf and soil Manetti, P.L., Alvarez Castillo, H.A., Carmona, D., insects and their influence on yield and López, A.N., Vincini, A.M. and Huarte, M. quality of potato tubers. Fungicide and (1996) Response of potato cultivars to natural Nematicide Test 55, 219–220. infection of soil insects. Test of agrochemi- Mantecón. J., Van Damme, M., Zamudio, N., cals and cultivars. Annals of Applied Biology Lobo, R. and Huarte, M. (1995) Fungicide 128 (Suppl.), 82–83. resistance in P. infestans from Argentina. Mantecón, J.D. (1993) Performance of sticker Resistant Pest Management 8 (2). addition to Dithane DG (mancozeb) for potato Micheletto, S., Andreoni, M. and Huarte, M. late blight control. Fungicide and Nematicide (1999) Vertical resistance to late blight Test 49, 129. in wild potato species from Argentina. Mantecón, J.D. (1996) Effectiveness of several Euphytica 110(2), 133–138. fungicide foliar sprays on potato late blight. Micheletto, S., Boland, R. and Huarte, M. (2000) Fungicide and Nematicide Test 52, 155. Argentine wild diploid Solanum species as Mantecón, J.D. (1998a) Potential yield losses sources of quantitative late blight resistance. caused by late blight in Argentina during the Theoretical and Applied Genetics 101, last decade. Fungicide and Nematicide Test 902–906. 53, 202–204. Mondino, E.A., López, A.N., Alvarez Castillo, H.A. Mantecón, J.D. (1998b) Minimum dose of and Carmona, D. (1997) Ciclo de vida de mancozeb that offer effective control of Cyclocephala signaticollis Burm. (Coleop- potato late blight in Argentinean conditions. tera: Scarabaeidae) y su relación con algunos Fungicide and Nematicide Test 53, 200–201. factores ambientales.ELYTRON 11, 145–156. Mantecón, J.D. (2000a) Influence of acylalanine Vega, E. and Galmarini, H.R. (1970) Recono- fungicide application interval on potato late cimiento de los nematodes que parasitan los blight control. Fungicide and Nematicide cultivos hortícolas de los Departamentos de Test 55, 221. San Carlos y Tunuyán, Mendoza, Argentina. Mantecón, J.D. (2000b) Management of potato Revista de Investigación y Desarrollo late blight with several mancozeb Agropecuario 272, 17–41. Chapter 25 Integrated Pest Management in Greenhouses: Experiences in European Countries1

Joop C. van Lenteren Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Introduction Fewspecialists in biological control anticipated being able to employ natural Biological control and IPM are reliable crop enemies in greenhouses, because growing protection methods and are economically vegetables and ornamentals in this protected profitable endeavors for growers of green- situation is very expensive and pest damage house crops. The fast evaluation and intro- is not tolerated. This means that the usually duction of a number of natural enemies in well-trained, intelligent greenhouse growers situations where chemical control was either will not run the risk of any damage from insufficient, impossible or undesired, has insects, just because of ideological reasons taught growers and crop protection special- such as reduced environmental side effects ists that biological control, within IPM pro- compared with chemical control. If chemi- grams, is a powerful option in pest control cal control works better, they will certainly (van Lenteren, 1995; Albajes et al., 1999). use it. In tomatoes, for example, pest control The total world area covered by represents less than 2% of the total overall greenhouses is about 300,000 ha, 50,000 ha cost of production, so costs are not a limiting of which are covered with glass, and factor for chemical control (van Lenteren, 250,000 ha with plastic (e.g. Albajes et al., 1995). The same situation occurs in orna- 1999; Parrella et al., 1999). Vegetables are mentals where the cost of pest control using produced on 195,000 ha and ornamentals chemicals (including material and applica- on 105,000 ha. Developments in biological tion) is usually less then 1% of the overall control in this cropping system have been cost of producing the crop (Parrella et al., unexpectedly fast and illustrate the great 1999). Yet despite the serious constraint that potential of alternatives to chemical meth- chemical control is comparatively simple ods. Greenhouses offer an excellent oppor- and inexpensive, adoption of biological tunity to growhigh quality products in control has been remarkably quick in large quantities on a small surface area. For greenhouses first in northwestern Europe example, in The Netherlands only 0.5% of (van Lenteren and Woets, 1988), and later in the area in use for agriculture is covered with other greenhouse areas (Parrella et al., 1999). glasshouses. On this small area of 10,000 ha, The growers now clearly see the specific about 20% of the total value of agricultural advantages of biological control in green- production is realized. houses (see belowfor special section on this

1 Reprinted from publication Crop Protection, Vol. 19, Joop van Lenteren (2000) A greenhouse without pesticides: fact or fantasy? pp. 375–384. Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier Science. 327 328 J.C. van Lenteren

topic). Examples of commercially applied crops on inert media instead of in the soil, programs for biological and integrated con- has considerably decreased soil diseases trol of pests and diseases in vegetables and and nematode problems. ornamentals can be found in van Lenteren Another factor easing implementation (1995) and Albajes et al. (1999). The main of biological control in protected crops is reason for use of biological control methods that cultural measures and pest management in the 1960s was the occurrence of resistance programs can be organized for each separate to pesticides in several key pests in green- greenhouse unit. Interference with pest houses. Nowadays, other important stimuli management in neighboring greenhouses include demands by policy makers for a is limited. The influence of pesticide drift reduction in usage of pesticides, and con- on natural enemies, which is a common sumers requiring production of residue-free problem in field crops, does not play a very food and flowers. important role here. In this chapter, the current situation On the other hand, pest control is com- concerning pest and disease control in plicated by the virtually year-round culture greenhouses is summarized and new of crops and by continuous heating during research leading to pesticide-free pro- cold periods. These conditions provide duction of greenhouse crops is described. excellent opportunities for the survival and development of a pest or disease once it has invaded the greenhouse. Some organisms that normally showdiapause whenthey The Greenhouse Environment occur in the field, e.g. spider mites, have adapted to the greenhouse climate by no In temperate zones, differences between longer reacting to diapause-inducing factors greenhouse and field environments may (W. Helle, personal communication). As a partly explain the success of biological result, rates of population growth are often control in greenhouses. Greenhouses are much higher than in the field. These compli- relatively isolated units, particularly during cations do not, however, create specific the cold season. Before the start of a crop- problems for biological control. The green- ping period, usually during the winter, the house climate is managed within certain greenhouse can be cleansed of pest organ- ranges, and this makes prediction of the isms and subsequently kept pest free for population development of pest and natural several months. Later in the season, isola- enemies easier and more reliable than in tion prevents massive immigration of pest field situations (van Roermund et al., 1997). organisms. Furthermore, a limited number The time of introduction of natural enemies, of pest species occur in greenhouses, the number and spacing of releases can partly because of isolation and partly be fine-tuned, resulting in season-long because not all pests specific to a certain economic control. crop have been imported into countries In warm climates, the situation is more with greenhouses. Many greenhouse pests complicated. In the Mediterranean for cannot survive in the field in winter or example, greenhouse frames are often develop very slowly. This makes biological constructed of wood, which harbors pests control easier because the natural enemies and diseases and is very difficult to clean. of only a fewpest species have to be intro - Growers in the sub-tropics and tropics are duced. In addition, cultivars resistant to a often less specialized than those of temper- number of diseases (viruses and fungi) had ate zones, growa diversity of crops on one been developed already for the most impor- holding, while at the same time some of the tant vegetable crops. As a result, chemical crops may also be present in the field. Most control of fungi – which may lead to high crops are grown in the soil, which can lead to mortalities of natural enemies used for pest nematode and fungal problems. Often, little control – does not have to be applied fre- attention is paid to farm hygiene. Climate quently. During the past 20 years growing control is limited to opening and closing of IPM in Greenhouses 329

the greenhouse, the use of shade screens cucumbers and sweet peppers are produced or whitewashing of the plastic. The mild under IPM. Worldwide 5% of the green- climate outside enables pests to develop house area is under IPM, and there is poten- year-round and pest pressure is, therefore, tial for increase to about 20% of the area in very high. Ventilation leads to continuous the coming 10 years. migration of organisms in and out of the A good example of an IPM program greenhouse. The pest and disease spectrum is the one for tomato used in Europe. It is much broader here (Albajes et al., 1999). involves ten natural enemies and several On the other hand, numerous natural other control methods like host-plant resis- enemies which occur in the field can invade tance, climate control and cultural control the greenhouse and exert natural control free (Table 25.1). When tomatoes are grown in of charge (van Lenteren et al., 1992). soil, soil sterilization by steaming is used shortly before planting the main crop to eliminate soilborne diseases such as Tomato Mosaic Virus (TMV), Fusarium, Verticillium Integrated Pest and Disease and pests such as Lacanobia oleracea Management in Greenhouses (tomato moth) and three Liriomyza spp. (leafminers). Previously, cultivars lacking IPM is used on a large scale in all main TMV resistance were inoculated as young vegetable crops. In The Netherlands for plants with a mild strain of the TMV virus example, more than 90% of all tomatoes, to make them less susceptible. Now,

Table 25.1. Integrated Pest and Disease Mangement program as applied in tomato in Europe.

Pests and diseases Method used to prevent or control pest/disease

Pests Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci, Trialeurodes parasitoids: Encarsia, Eretmocerus vaporariorum) predators: Macrolophus pathogens:Verticillium, Paecilomyces, Aschersonia Spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) predator: Phytoseiulus Leafminers (Liriomyza bryoniae, L. trifolii & parasitoids: Dacnusa, Diglyphus and Opius and L. huidobrensis) natural control Lepidoptera (e.g. Chrysodeixis chalcites, parasitoids: Trichogramma Lacanobia oleracea, Spodoptera littoralis) pathogens: Bacillus thuringiensis Aphids (e.g. Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii, parasitoids: Aphidius, Aphelinus Macrosiphum euphorbiae) predators: Aphidoletes and natural control Nematodes (e.g. Meloidogyne spp.) resistant and tolerant cultivars, soil-less culture

Diseases Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) climate management, mechanical control and selective fungicides Leaf mold (Fulvia = Cladosporium) resistant cultivars, climate management Mildew (Oidium lycopersicon) selective fungicides Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum lycopersici) resistant cultivars, soil-less culture Fusarium root rot (Fusarium oxysporum resistant cultivars, soil-less culture, hygiene radicis-lycopersici) Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) pathogen-free seed, tolerant cultivars, climate control, soil-less culture Bacterial canker (Clavibacter michiganesis) pathogen-free seed, soil-less culture Several viral diseases resistant cultivars, soil-less culture, hygiene, weed management, vector control Pollination Bumble bees or bees

Natural control: natural enemies spontaneously immigrating into the greenhouse and controlling a pest. 330 J.C. van Lenteren

TMV-resistant cultivars are available. produced. Other problems for implementa- Furthermore, many tomato cultivars in tion of IPM in ornamentals are that: (i) more Europe are resistant to Cladosporium and pesticides are available than for vegetables; Fusarium. Some cultivars are also tolerant to (ii) the whole plant is marketed, instead of Verticillium and root-knot nematodes (van only the fruits, so no leaf damage is allowed; Lenteren and Woets, 1988). Problems with and (iii) a zero-tolerance is applied to export soil diseases can also be strongly reduced material. But, since the 1990s the use of by growing the crop in inert media, which biological control has grown steadily in cut has become common practice in western flowers (gerberas, orchids, roses and chry- Europe. In tomatoes, therefore, only foliage santhemums) and pot plants (poinsettia) pests and Botrytis cinerea require direct con- (van Lenteren, 1999; Parrella et al., 1999). In trol measures. The fewpest organisms that gerberas the developments have been ‘overwinter’ in greenhouses and survive soil particularly fast and natural enemies were sterilization are the greenhouse red spider used on 78% of the Dutch gerbera area in mite (T. urticae) and the tomato looper 1998 (W. Ravensberg, personal communicat- (Chrysodeixis chalcites). Transferring young ion). Biological control was applied on more plants free of the other pest organisms into than 10% (600 ha) of the total greenhouse the greenhouse is important to prevent early area planted with flowers and ornamentals pest development. For 20 years, the bulk in 1998 in The Netherlands. Commercially of greenhouse tomatoes have been grown used IPM programs for ornamental crops on rockwool systems, which makes soil ster- are presented in Parrella et al. (1999) for ilization redundant. With the cessation of chrysanthemums, in van Lenteren (1995) soil sterilization more organisms, such as for gerbera, and for various ornamentals Liriomyza spp. and their natural enemies, in Gullino and Wardlow(1999). World- and Lacanobia oleracea ‘overwinter’ in wide, it is estimated that about 1000 ha of greenhouses. A recent development which ornamentals are under IPM. gave a strong stimulus to the application of biological control is the use of bumblebees for pollination (van Lenteren, 1995). IPM programs for cucumber, sweet Production of natural enemies for pest pepper and aubergine are somewhat more control in greenhouses complicated that the one for tomato, mainly because of a richer pest and disease spec- At present greenhouse pests are managed trum. Detailed examples of IPM programs through biological control on some for vegetables used in different parts of the 15,000 ha compared with 200 ha under world are presented in Albajes et al. (1999). biological control in 1970 (van Lenteren, Until 1980 biological and integrated control 1995, 2000). In 1968, when commercial of pests was almost exclusively applied in biological control in greenhouses started in tomato and cucumber, which are by far the Europe, two small commercial producers largest vegetable crops. Today IPM is being were active. Today Europe has 26 natural used in other important vegetable crops such enemy producers including the world’s as sweetpepper, aubergine, melon, strawber- three largest, and there are about 65 produc- ries and even in leaf vegetables like lettuce ers worldwide. These three largest compa- (Albajes et al., 1999; van Lenteren, 1999). nies serve more than 75% of the greenhouse Development of IPM for ornamentals is biological control market. Of the circa 100 more complicated than for vegetables. The biological control agents that are marketed first problem is that many different species today, about 30 make up 90% of the total and cultivars of ornamentals are grown. In sales. Very limited information was avail- western Europe for example, more than 100 able about prices of commercially produced species of cut flowers and 300 species of organisms, but recently data for the North potted plants are cultivated, and for several American market (Cranshaw et al., 1996) ornamentals more than 100 cultivars are and European market (van Lenteren et al., IPM in Greenhouses 331

1997) became available. It appears that concurrent reduction in costs of biological many more species of biological control control, thereby making it easier and more agents are available in Europe than in North economical to apply. In addition to develop- America or in other areas with a greenhouse ments in biological control with arthropod industry such as Latin America (e.g. Bueno, natural enemies, we also see currently other 1999; de Vis, 1999), Japan (Yano, 1999), types of beneficial organisms used for Australia (Goodwin and Steiner, 1996) and pest control in greenhouses. Snakes from NewZealand (Martin et al., 1996). This is America are used for control of rats and caused by the much larger European green- mice, reptiles from Indonesia for control of house industry and a longer history of thrips and scale insects, and tropical birds research in greenhouse biological control in (Alcippe brunnea (Gould)) for control of Europe. Lepidoptera (van der Linden, 1999). Although on-farm production of natural Companies starting the production of enemies is possible, most growers purchase natural enemies usually have little knowl- them from commercial suppliers. Many of edge about the obstacles and complications the mass production companies are, under- related to mass rearing. They are even more standably, reluctant to provide information ignorant about the development and appli- on many aspects of mass production. Our cation of quality control. A special point experience is that many of the natural of concern is the lack of knowledge about enemies produced for biological control in the sources of variability of natural enemy protected cultivation are reared on their behavior and methods to prevent genetic natural hosts (the pests) and host plants. deterioration of natural enemies. Mass- Rearing on purely artificial media (without rearing of natural enemies often takes place organic additives) is very rare, primarily in small companies with little know-how because this technology is insufficiently and understanding of conditions influenc- developed for mass production and because ing performance, which may result in this way of production may lead to poor per- natural enemies of bad quality and failures formance of natural enemies when exposed of biological control programs. The few to their target hosts (van Lenteren, 1993). large companies employ entomologists who Rearing conditions should be as similar as develop quality-control tests, but methods possible to the conditions under which the differ widely and are not always adequate. natural enemies will have to function in And even when the natural enemies leave commercial greenhouses (van Lenteren and the insectary in top condition it does not Woets, 1988). mean that they are in top shape when Mass production of natural enemies released in the greenhouse. Shipment and has seen a very fast development during the handling by the producers, distributors and past three decades. The numbers produced growers may result in deterioration of the have greatly increased (up to 50 million biological control agents. This makes robust individuals per week), the spectrum of quality-control programs a necessity (van species available has widened dramatically Lenteren and Tommasini, 1999). (from two in 1970 to almost 100 nowadays), In the 1990s scientists and commercial and mass production methods clearly have producers of biological control agents evolved (Bolckmans, 1999; van Lenteren started to work on development and and Tommasini, 1999). Developments in the standardization of quality control methods. areas of mass production, quality control, Quality-control procedures for natural storage, and shipment and release of natural enemies have been developed for the 20 enemies have decreased production costs most important species of natural enemies and led to better product quality, but much that are commercially applied in green- more can be done. Innovations in long-term houses. Quality-control criteria relate to storage (e.g. through diapause), shipment product control and are based on laboratory and release methods may lead to a further measurements, which are often easy to carry increase in natural enemy quality with a out. The criteria will soon be complemented 332 J.C. van Lenteren

with flight tests and field performance tests Consumer demands for pesticide-free food (van Lenteren, 2003). also stimulate the use of biological control.

Specific advantages of biological pest Integrated management of diseases: control in greenhouses a research priority

Why do greenhouse growers use biological IPM was limited mainly to the control of control? There are, of course, the general insects until a fewyears ago. In Europe, dis - advantages of biological control such as ease problems are considerable, particularly reduced exposure of producer and applier in tomatoes, cucumbers and cut flowers to toxic pesticides, the lack of residues on (Gullino, 1992). Some fungicides can be the marketed product and the extremely integrated with the use of natural enemies, lowrisk of environmental pollution. These, but as problems of fungicide resistance are however, are not of particular concern for strongly increasing, fewer ‘relatively safe’ the grower. More important are the specific fungicides remain available. The lack of reasons that make growers working in biological control agents of diseases is of greenhouses prefer biological control: major concern. Although use of fungicides remains substantial for foliar pathogens, 1. With biological control there are no disease management is nowevolving phytotoxic effects on young plants, and towards strategies relying on the use of premature abortion of flowers and fruit does resistant cultivars and manipulation of not occur. the environment. During the past decade 2. Release of natural enemies takes less several initiatives have led to research in time and is more pleasant than applying non-chemical control, such as the effect of chemicals in humid and warm greenhouses. soil solarization on nematodes and fungi, 3. Release of natural enemies usually and the potential use of antagonistic leaf occurs shortly after the planting period fungi (Albajes et al., 1999). when the grower has sufficient time to Disease suppressive soils, i.e. soils check for successful development of natural with antagonistic and antibiotic organisms enemies; thereafter the system is reliable reducing populations of disease-causing for months with only occasional checks; organisms, could provide another good chemical control requires continuous opportunity for control of soil-borne dis- attention. eases, but has not advanced to practical use 4. Chemical control of some of the key as yet. Organisms isolated from suppressive pests is difficult or impossible because of soils can already be used against some pesticide resistance. soil-borne pathogens, like e.g. the antagonist 5. With biological control there is no safety bacterium Streptomyces griseoviridis period between application and harvesting (Mycostop), which is registered in at least fruit; with chemical control one has to wait seven European countries for use against several days before harvesting is allowed Fusarium oxysporum wilt and Pythium again. ultimum seedling blight both in flowers and 6. Biological control is permanent: once a in cucurbits. Its mode of action is based good natural enemy, always a good natural on antibiotic effects. The microbe colonizes enemy. the rhizosphere before the pathogens, and 7. Biological control is appreciated by the secretes antibiotic substances, which inhibit general public. the growth of fungal pathogens (Lahdenperä Costs of biological control are similar et al., 1990). It can be applied as seed to those of chemical control, and this, dressing or in the soil. in combination with points 1, 2 and 5, makes In the future, use of antagonistic Fus- it an attractive pest management approach. arium spp. and fluorescent pseudomonads IPM in Greenhouses 333

active against Fusarium oxysporum will Botrytis on tomato and cucumber in green- permit biological control of Fusarium wilts houses. Control results were similar or even (Albajes et al., 1999). Also the use of better than with currently used fungicides Trichoderma spp. as seed dressing or soil (Dik and Elad, 1999). treatment will provide control of damping Also, biological control of Botrytis in off (Pythium spp.) and root rot (Phytoph- cyclamen is nowpossible. Treatments of thera spp., Rhizoctonia solani) (Gullino, leaves with a conidial suspension of the 1992). In tomatoes, crown and root rot competing saprophytic fungi Ulocladium (Fusarium oxysporum) can be control- atrum and Gliocladum roseum under com- led with Trichoderma harzianum (van mercial growing conditions were as effective Steekelenburg, 1992). as the standard chemical fungicide program Foliar diseases can often be reduced by (Koehl et al., 1998). This work was contin- proper climate regulation, and the use of ued in roses, where it was shown also that computers to control temperature, light, U. atrum had a strong reducing effect on humidity, water, ventilation, carbon dioxide Botrytis. The antagonist U. atrum was found and nutrition has resulted in improved to be insensitive to most fungicides used in disease management. Manipulation of the conventional disease control. So this bio- interactions of temperature and humidity is logical control agent can be integrated easily the most important but also the most costly in programs where chemical fungicides are to achieve, and it is easier in modern glass- used for control of other fungi. houses than in plastic houses or tunnels that Most vegetables and ornamental plants are mainly used in the subtropics, resulting grown in greenhouses suffer from powdery in disease-prone situations in the plastic mildews. Several microorganisms have been structures. Therefore, growers rely heavily found effective as biological control agent on fungicides in such situations. Serious against various powdery mildew fungi. negative effects of fungicides on natural ene- Their modes of action differ from Botrytis mies of insects and widespread resistance of biological control agents: mildewis killed foliar pathogens to fungicides demands for by hyperparasitism of the microorganism. alternatives (Gullino, 1992). As yet only one Literature suggests the following hyper- fungal biological control agent for foliar parasitic fungi to be potential candidates for pathogens is registered, Trichoderma biological control: Ampelomyces quisqualis harzianum, for control of Botrytis cinerea in and Verticillium lecanii for control of pow- strawberry, and as soil fungicide for control dery mildews in cucurbits, and Sporothrix of Fusarium, Pythium and Rhizoctonia spp. flocculosa for control of powdery mildews Important recent successes in disease on roses and cucumber (Elad et al., 1996). control concern biological control of gray Testing at a semi-commercial scale in green- molds (Botrytis cinerea) and powdery houses showed that Sporothrix flocculosa mildews (Sphaeroteca fuliginea, Oidium was the only hyperparasite giving sufficient spp.) in cucumber, tomato and several orna- control of cucumber powdery mildew (Dik mentals (Elad et al., 1996; Dik et al., 1999). et al., 1998). Botrytis cinerea is a pathogen occurring in Other research on disease control in many fruit, vegetable and ornamental crops. closed-culture systems has shown that inoc- Botrytis cinerea infections can be reduced ulation of artificial substrates with certain by pre-inoculation of the leaves with yeasts, antagonistic microorganisms resulted in filamentous fungi and bacteria. These control of Pythium species (Postma et al., biological control agents compete with B. 1996). cinerea for nutrients and possibly they For control of the white molds induce host-plant resistance against B. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor in cinerea (Elad et al., 1996). From 16 isolates glasshouse lettuce and in field crops, of yeasts, filamentous fungi and bacteria, Coniothyrium minitans is available and Trichoderma harzianum and Aureobasid- registered in Europe (Whipps and Budge, ium pullulans performed best in controlling 1992). 334 J.C. van Lenteren

Nowadays 15 microbial products are thrips is the open rearing system of Ambly- registered and used for pest and disease seius degenerans on potted, pollen-bearing control in greenhouse vegetables and orna- Ricinus communis plants (Ramakers and mentals in Europe: five bacterial and fungal Voet, 1996). These ‘banker plants’ can be products for control of fungi, seven bacterial put in the greenhouse (e.g. sweet pepper or and fungal products for control of insects roses) to establish early colonies of the pred- and three baculoviruses for control of ator in a crop that does not yet have pollen, insects (Oogst, 1999). Another three or even in plant propagation houses, where bacterial and fungal products for control of biological control is also applied nowadays. fungi are in the last phase of the registration The emergence of a newwhiteflypest, procedure. the sweet potato whitefly Bemisia argentifolii, has complicated IPM programs in America, the Mediterranean and other parts of the world, although problems in northern New research for durable control of Europe are fewer than initially expected greenhouse pests after accidental importation of this pest in the 1980s (Drost et al., 1998). A worldwide Worldwide, a continuous search and search for newnatural enemies and patho - evaluation of natural enemies (parasitoids, gens of Bemisia is in progress (e.g. Gerling predators and pathogens) of insect and mite and Mayer, 1996; Hoddle et al., 1998; Drost pests takes place, either to improve control et al., 1999; Hoelmer and Kirk, 1999; Meekes of current pests or to develop control of new et al., 2000). As a result, Bemisia can be pests (Albajes et al., 1999; van Lenteren, controlled currently by introducing a mix of 1999, 2000). The most serious pest Encarsia formosa and Eretmocerus eremicus problems are currently caused by thrips (northern Europe and northern America) or species (Lewis, 1997), by Bemisia whiteflies Eretmocerus mundus (Mediterranean). The (Parrella et al., 1999) and by several species predator Macrolophus caliginosus is gener- of aphids (Rabasse and van Steenis, 1999). ally added to the parasitoids, as this mix of To control thrips, growers are either two parasitoids and one predator results in forced to use intensive application of better control over a long period. broad-spectrum chemical pesticides that Aphids have always created complica- upset commercially successful greenhouse tions in IPM, as their populations can IPM programs, or to use biological control. develop so quickly that introduction of Chemical control of thrips often proves to be natural enemies is often too late (Rabasse extremely difficult and expensive. Although and van Steenis, 1999). Many genera are rep- a large variety of predators (anthocorids, resented in greenhouses, each demanding a mirids, thrips and mites), entomopatho- specific set of natural enemies for proper genic fungi, thrips attacking nematodes biological control. Despite numerous stud- and parasitoids are known (Lewis, 1997), ies of aphidophagous insects (parasitoids cheap and/or effective biological control and predators) and pathogenic fungi, only a programs for thrips are still rare. Orius and fewspecies have shownpotential in green - Amblyseius spp. provide adequate control of houses on a large scale because fewnatural thrips in greenhouse crops like sweet pepper enemies have the potential to match the and cucumber worldwide, while perfor- reproductive and developmental rates of mance in floriculture was less satisfactory aphids (van Steenis, 1995a). The best until recently (van Lenteren and Loomans, method to prevent aphid populations 1998). Pathogenic fungi might be useful escaping from control is to bring natural as additional control agents. Parasitoids, enemies into the greenhouse even before though the only specific natural enemies of aphids have been discovered. This can be thrips, have not shown much potential for done in an elegant, yet very effective way by control to date. An interesting newdevelop - introducing open rearing units (also called ment for improving biological control of ‘banker plants’) into the greenhouse that IPM in Greenhouses 335

consist of wheat plants with wheat aphids which strongly limited their predictive (which cannot live on the greenhouse crop) value. Recently a model was developed and predators or parasitoids (van Steenis, which is unique in that it is individual based 1995b). and simulates the local searching and para- Recently, a strongly increased activity sitization behavior of individual parasitoids in the area of resistance breeding to pests (Encarsia formosa) in a whitefly-infested and diseases for greenhouse crops took crop. The model includes stochasticity and place; about 30% of all breeding activities of spatial structure based on location coordi- important greenhouse breeding companies nates of plants and leaves. This model is nowspent on resistance breeding comprises several submodels for: (i) the (Cuartero et al., 1999; A. Poolman, personal parasitoid’s foraging behavior; (ii) the white- communication). In addition, partial resis- fly and parasitoid population development; tance can often (but not always) be used (iii) the spatial distribution of whitefly and in combination with biological control to parasitoid within and between plants in the obtain a sufficient control result. Further, crop; and for (iv) leaf production. With the plant breeders and biological control model, temporal and spatial dynamics of researchers have joined forces to develop pest and natural enemy can be simulated. plant cultivars, which help natural enemies The model will help: (i) to explain why the to perform better. An example is the research parasitoid E. formosa can control whiteflies on cucumber cultivars, where lines with on some crops and not on others in large fewer hairs were selected which resulted in commercial greenhouses; (ii) to improve a higher search efficiency of the parasitoid introduction schemes of parasitoids for Encarsia formosa and more parasitized crops where control was difficult; and (iii) whiteflies (van Lenteren et al., 1995). Effects to predict effects of changes in cropping of hairiness of gerbera cultivars on biological practices (e.g. greenhouse climate, choice control of whitefly with Encarsia formosa, of cultivars) on the reliability of biological as well as on biological control of the spider control; and finally (iv) to develop criteria mite Tetranychus uriticae with the preda- for the selection of natural enemies (van tory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis have also Roermund et al., 1997; van Lenteren and van been evaluated recently (Sütterlin and van Roermund, 1999). This model is in the pro- Lenteren, 1997; Krips et al., 1999). cess of being adopted to be able to simulate Another area where plant breeders and other plant–pest–natural-enemy relation- biological control workers can mutually ships. Other, more simple models were benefit is in that of chemical communication developed to understand pest–natural- between plant, herbivores (pests) and enemy dynamics and/or to adapt introduc- natural enemies. It appears that several tion schemes of natural enemies, e.g. Heinz crops start to produce volatile chemicals et al. (1993) for biological control of leaf- after being attacked by a pest insect or mite miners, and Janssen and Sabelis (1992) for (Dicke, 1999). These chemicals are used by control of spider mites. natural enemies to detect infested plants. Several expert systems, or decision- Cultivars of the same plant species show support systems, are being developed for large variation in the amount of volatiles pest diagnosis and integrated control. An produced after attack. Selection and use of important factor favoring the use of such plant cultivars that produce higher amounts systems in the greenhouse industry is the of natural enemy attracting volatiles may fact that this sector is technologically highly improve biological control. advanced with a widespread use of comput- Modeling plant–herbivore–natural- erized control of environmental conditions enemy relationships has always played a (Parrella et al., 1999). Recently developed role in the process of selecting and improv- expert systems in this field have included ing the efficacy of releases of natural pest and diseases diagnosis, integrated enemies, but often biologically unrealistic management in specific crops, information simplifications were part of these models on natural enemy release programs and data 336 J.C. van Lenteren

on side effects of pesticides on natural Because of the desire to reduce pesti- enemies (Shipp and Clarke, 1999). This type cide use, the future role of biological and of decision-support system helps growers integrated control is expected to increase manage increasingly complex production strongly. This is aided by the extensive dem- systems. The continuous updating of onstration of its positive role and because decision-support software packages, which many newnatural enemy species still await is essential for their correct function, is still discovery. Cost–benefit analyses showthat problematic. Online services concerning biological control is the most cost-effective biological control of greenhouse pests and control method (Bellows and Fisher, 1999). the effects of pesticides on natural enemies With improved methods for evaluation of as provided by producers of natural enemies beneficial insects, an increased insight into (e.g. www.koppert.nl/ information in Eng- the functioning of natural enemies, and lish) can be updated easier and quicker. The more efficient mass production methods, information in this section does not summa- the cost effectiveness of biological control rize all the newdevelopments in greenhouse may even be increased. Together with other IPM, but aims to showthe creativity and control methods such as mechanical innovativeness of this field of horticulture. and physical control, control with semiochemicals, and host-plant resistance, new IPM programs will be developed. During the first decade of this century a greenhouse Future Prospects without conventional chemical pesticides could become a fact! The tremendous success achieved with biological control in greenhouses has set a very high standard that is difficult for other References segments in agriculture to match (Parrella et al., 1999). This success has occurred Albajes, R., Gullino, M.L., van Lenteren, J.C. and primarily as a result of outstanding cooper- Elad, Y. (eds) (1999) Integrated Pest and ation between research, extension, growers Disease Management in Greenhouse Crops. and producers of natural enemies, often Kluwer Publishers, Dordrecht. within the framework of IOBC (see e.g. van Bellows, T.S. and Fisher, T.W. (eds) (1999) Hand- Lenteren, 1999). Several current trends will book of Biological Control. Academic Press, lead to a strong increase in the use of bio- New York. logical and integrated control of pests and Bolckmans, K.J.F. (1999) Commercial aspects diseases in greenhouses. First, fewer new of biological pest control. In: Albajes, R., insecticides are becoming available because Gullino, M.L., van Lenteren, J.C. and Elad, Y. (eds) Integrated Pest and Disease of skyrocketing costs for development and Management in Greenhouse Crops. Kluwer registration, particularly for the relatively Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 310–318. small greenhouse market. Second, pests Bueno, V.H.P. (1999) Protected cultivation and continue to develop resistance to any research on biological control of pests in type of pesticides, a problem particularly greenhouses in Brazil. In: van Lenteren, J.C. prevalent in greenhouses, where intensive (ed.) Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS working management and repeated pesticide appli- group ‘Integrated Control in Glasshouses’. cations exert strong selective pressure on Bulletin IOBC/WPRS 22(1), 21–24. pest organisms. Third, there is a strong Cranshaw, W., Sclar, D.C. and Cooper, D. (1996) demand from the general public (and in A reviewof 1994 pricing and marketing by suppliers of organisms for biological control an increasing number of countries also of arthropods in the United States. Biological from governments) to reduce the use of Control 6, 291–296. pesticides. Finally, in order to escape from Cuartero, J., Laterrot, H. and van Lenteren, J.C. the ‘pesticide treadmill’, more sustainable (1999) Host-plant resistance to pathogens forms of pest and disease control will have and arthropod pests. In: Albajes, R., to be developed (Lewis et al., 1997). Gullino, M.L., van Lenteren, J.C. and Elad, Y. IPM in Greenhouses 337

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Chapter 26 Integrated Pest Management in the Mediterranean Region: the Case of Catalonia, Spain

R. Albajes1, M.J. Sarasúa1, J. Avilla1, J. Arnó2 and R. Gabarra2 1Universitat de Lleida, Centre UdL-IRTA, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain; 2IRTA, Centre de Cabrils, Cabrils, Catalonia, Spain

Introduction gross income of 1178 million Euros in 1998 (Anonymous, 2000), 85% of which came Catalonia is located in northeast Spain from six main commodities: pome and (Fig. 26.1). Its climate and agriculture are stone fruits (29.5%), summer and winter typically Mediterranean, with hot, dry cereals (15%), vegetables (15%), grapes summers and mild winters. The economy is (10%), olives (8.5%), and cut flowers and mainly devoted to services and industry, ornamental plants (7%). and the primary sector represents only There are no reliable surveys to estimate about a 1.5% of the total gross Catalan crop losses due to arthropod pests, plant product. Agriculture covered 1,140,480 ha pathogens and weeds in Catalonia, but it can of the Catalan soil in 1998 and produced a be assumed that the figures are similar to

Fig. 26.1. Location of Catalonia. ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 341 342 R. Albajes et al.

those of other Mediterranean countries. In with the re-registration of old pesticides. spite of the relatively abundant scientific A provisional positive list of active activity in entomology in the last century in ingredients that can be commercialized in this country, it has mainly focused on insect the whole EU was approved and published taxonomy and very few studies have dealt by the EC in the early 1990s. A definitive with insect ecology and insect pest control. positive list in which far fewer active Some early attempts to introduce biological ingredients will be registered for commer- control into agriculture in the mid-20th cen- cialization in the whole EU should be ready tury were interrupted by the Spanish Civil by 2003. It is expected that only between War and were not subsequently continued. one-third and one-half of the pesticides Since the late 1970s several real programs registered in most of Western Europe at the of research, development and technology end of the 20th century will be left in the transfer involving Integrated Pest Manage- new positive list; the rest will be banned ment have been undertaken in Catalonia. owing to toxicological and environmental The use of chemical pesticides showed concerns and lack of economic interest by sustained growth in Catalonia in the 1970s manufacturers. The imminent disappear- and 1980s, and though it fluctuated in the ance of many insecticides from the market 1990s it still showed a slight increase overall is pushing European governments to stimu- (Fig. 26.2). If it is taken into account that late and support the research, extension modern pesticides are more expensive than and technology transfer of non-chemical those used earlier, it may be hypothesized methods for controlling insect pests and that the use of pesticides in Catalonia has diseases. became stable in the last 10 years.

Integrated production IPM Policy in Catalonia The Integrated Production Guidelines for Registration of pesticides Catalonia were drawn up by the regional government (Generalitat de Catalunya). The commercialization and use of pesti- Information on the way the system works cides in Catalonia were regulated only and the approved guidelines can be found by Spanish laws until the mid-1990s. Since on its Internet homepage http://www. then the European Commission (EC) of gencat.es/darp/pi.htm The IOBC/WPRS the European Union (EU) has been (http://www.iobc-wprs.org) concept and responsible for registering new pesticide definitions of Integrated Production (IP) are active ingredients and is gradually dealing accepted as the conceptual framework in

Fig. 26.2. Volume of sales of chemical pesticides in Catalonia in the last 30 years (estimated from AEPLA, 2000). IPM in the Mediterranean Region 343

which the guidelines are to be developed associate to create Growers’ Associations (http://www.iobc.ch/). So far 18 guidelines for Plant Protection (ADVs), which are covering the most important crops of subsidized by the Spanish and Catalan Catalonia have been approved, including governments to engage a PCA. This kind of tomatoes, apples and pears. An external association has been one of the keys to the inspection system was applied for the faster development and implementation of first time in 2001 and included farm visits, IPM in recent years in some areas and crops. field book inspections and residue analy- About 181,000 ha (a total of about 37,500 ses. The inspection system was improved growers) of Catalan farmland are under the in 2002, and included an initial inspection tutelage of the 115 PCAs who are particu- visit to all the farms included in the list larly trained to implement and innovate IPM of IP growers. Integrated Production in in the field. On this land olives (for which Catalonia was subsidized in 2001 for the the main task is cooperative control of olive first time, and consequently the hectarage fly), cereals, rice, fruit (mostly pears, apples under IP in Catalonia has dramatically and peaches) and vines are the most impor- increased, reaching 38,000 ha in many tant crops, accounting for 85% of the different crops: pome fruits, stone fruits, total area covered by ADVs in Catalonia olives and nuts are the most important in (Fig. 26.3). A saving of between 40% and terms of hectarage. 85% of the chemical treatments that were applied before growers associated to engage the PCAs has been made.

Research, education, extension, and technology transfer involving IPM Implementation of IPM in Catalonia: Case Studies The development of research, extension, and education involving IPM in Catalonia Although significant advances in the has been linked to the general political evo- implementation of IPM have been made in lution of Spain. In general terms, positive several crops, the cases of tomatoes, apples advances in scientific research and technol- and pears are especially relevant because ogy transfer in the last century have mainly complete and successful programs are now taken place under the auspices of the available thanks to several years of R&D, Generalitat of Catalonia. Research is mainly extension and tutelage of ADVs. Also, concentrated in universities – in particular the programs are periodically updated as the University of Lleida in Western a result of advances in research on new Catalonia, but also in Barcelona and Girona – and the Institute for Food and Agricul- tural Research and Technology in Cabrils (north of Barcelona). Major programs in greenhouse and outdoor vegetables, field crops, and pear and apple orchards are being developed. Extension in IPM is the main concern of the Plant Protection Service, which belongs to the regional Ministry of Agriculture. Among other tasks, it diagnoses pest and disease problems, develops and implements warning systems, makes recommendations about the most efficient control methods, Fig. 26.3. Percentages of the total area and is responsible for the tutelage of pest (181,000 ha) of Catalan farmland under the tutelage control advisers (PCAs). Only large farms of grower’s associations for plant protection (ADVs) have their own PCA; small growers tend to that are devoted to each of the indicated crops. 344 R. Albajes et al.

control techniques and the introduction IPM is used in greenhouse tomato into Catalonia of newpests. Tomatoes, crops in many countries. In northeast Spain, apples and pears are among the crops that IPM programs are based on inoculative and cover a relatively large area in comparison conservative biological control of the main with other European countries (Table 26.1). pests and some secondary pests, the use Catalonia is also the main apple and pear of selective pesticides for the remaining producing area in Spain. pests (Table 26.2), and the use of fungicides with low toxicity on natural enemies for disease control. In 2001, these programs Tomatoes were applied in about 175 ha outdoors and 52 ha of greenhouse tomato (J. Ariño, Tomatoes were grown on 2900 ha of land in M. Martí and M. Pagès, personal Catalonia in 1998 (Table 26.1), part in green- communication). houses and the rest in outdoor conditions. The most important pests affecting Protected tomato cultivation takes place in tomato crops are polyphagous, but their two different cycles, in spring (February importance varies for protected or open field to July or August) and in autumn (early conditions. Whiteflies are a major pest in August to November–December). Outdoor both of them. Trialeurodes vaporariorum tomatoes are transplanted from March to is the predominant species in Catalonia, June and harvested in October–November whereas Bemisia tabaci is not widely depending on the climatic conditions. distributed in the region. The latter can Greenhouses are built with wood or be found, especially at the end of summer, metal frames and covered with plastic film. in some particularly warm areas where Since most of them are unheated, daily tomatoes coexist with ornamental crops. temperatures can vary greatly, ranging from In this chapter, the name B. tabaci will be almost 0°C overnight to more than 25°C used to refer to all biotypes/species. during the day in winter, and reaching Helicoverpa armigera is another major temperatures of over 30°C during the warm pest for outdoor tomatoes, causing very season to autumn. The greenhouses have high yield losses (up to 30% of fruits in side and roof openings and are usually open heavy infested fields), especially in fields from spring in order to improve ventilation. transplanted around June. The second major Pests can reproduce all year round inside pest in greenhouses, after whitefly, are leaf- and outside the greenhouses with a continu- miners. Aphids and the tomato russet mite ous movement of pest populations, between may cause major economic damage but their old and young crops, looking for the most incidence is very variable according to the suitable microclimate (Alomar et al., 1989). climatic area and the year. A number of foliar and soil-borne diseases affect greenhouse and outdoor toma- Table 26.1. Hectarage in Catalonia, Spain and toes in the area. Gray mold in greenhouses, the European Union devoted to the three crops for and powdery mildew in both greenhouses which an IPM program has been implemented in and open fields, are the main aerial diseases Catalonia, as discussed in this chapter. in tomato crops. Late blight causes severe damage but its incidence is very variable Area (1000 ha) according to the climatic area and the Crop Catalonia Spain European Union year. The use of tomato varieties resistant to verticillium wilt, Fusarium oxysporum a b b Tomato 2.9 55 176 and the nematode Meloidogyne spp. is rec- a b b Apple 17 .9 49 307 ommended (Gabarra and Besri, 1999). Viral Pear 18a.9 43b 136b diseases are an increasing threat to Mediter- a1998 data. Source: http://www.gencat.es/darp/ ranean vegetable crops. Usually growers use estadist.htm varieties resistant to the TSWV transmitted bAnonymous, 1999. by Frankliniella occidentalis, the most IPM in the Mediterranean Region 345

important virus affecting tomato in the area. certain cultural practices – aimed at decreas- Bemisia tabaci transmits the TYLCV, which ing the biotic potential of the pest or favoring causes also major economic losses. TYLCV the action of natural enemies – may comple- was recorded for the first time in a small area ment and enhance the efficacy of biological north of Barcelona in summer 2000 (SSV, control. 2001). During 2001 no spread of the virus Biological control in tomatoes is prac- was observed. ticed with inoculative releases and con- Integrated arthropod pest management servation of native natural enemies (Table in both greenhouse and outdoor tomato is 26.2). From 1989 until 1998, control of based on biological control. Additionally T. vaporariorum was successfully achieved

Table 26.2. Control methods, decision thresholds and rates used for insect and mite control in IPM programs for tomato crops.

Strategy for BCa Control agent/ Rate/action threshold and Tomato Insects & mites Technique or method C I general remarks cropb

Whiteflies Trialeurodes Macrolophus caliginosus X X 1.5 Mc m2, in 2 releases GH, OF vaporariorum (Tv) (Mc) (Only In GH: 1 Tv/plant in margins T. vaporariorum & Dicyphus tamaninii (Dt) X GH) Monitor whiteflies and mirid bugs. Bemisia tabaci Encarsia pergandiella X Management of Dt according to a Eretmocerus mundus X decision chart E. mundus is specific of B. tabaci Lepidoptera Helicoverpa Bacillus thuringiensis Labeled rates. For Ha control GH, OF armigera (Ha) Trichogramma X use high units formulation + Chrysodeixis chalcites evanescens pinolene + sugar Autographa gamma Telenomus ullyetii X Action threshold for Ha: 1 egg M. caliginosus X or larvae/14 plants D. tamaninii X Action threshold for loopers: 2 young larvae/plant Leafminers Liriomyza trifolii Diglyphus isaea (Di) XX0.2–0.4 Di m2, 2–3 releases GH L. bryoniae Dacnusa sibirica (Only Presence of first mines in plants, L. huidobrensis GH) check for less than 25% natural parasitism Aphids Macrosiphum Pirimicarb Labeled rates GH euphorbiae Aphidoletes aphidimyza X Presence of first foci. Treat Myzus persicae Aphelinus abdominalis X foci if not widespread in the Aphidius spp. X greenhouse. Praon spp. X When aphids or damage are M. caliginosus X first seen, check for natural D. tamaninii X enemies Mites Aculops lycopersici Specific acaricides, Labeled rates GH, OF compatible with Treat foci if not widespread biocontrol agents in the greenhouse. Treat at first sign of damaged plants aShows if the strategy is conservative (C) or inoculative (I). bShows if the method is applied in greenhouse (GH) or open field (OF) production. 346 R. Albajes et al.

by seasonal inoculative releases of the advise growers of the need to spray either to parasitoid Encarsia formosa (Albajes et al., avoid whitefly damage or to minimize the 1994). However, in the 1990s naturalized risk of injury by D. tamaninii. populations of the autoparasitoid Encarsia Macrolophus caliginosus and D. pergandiella spontaneously colonized the tamaninii are the most common mirid bug greenhouses and interfered with E. formosa. species on tomato crops. In the late 1980s As a result, at the end of the spring crop D. tamaninii was the predominant species E. pergandiella pupae were found in 90% of but the relative abundance of the two the greenhouses in which E. formosa had species has changed recently. In 1990, 80% been released, and whitefly parasitism was of mirid bugs found on tomato crops were lower than 40%. Moreover, 76% of adults D. tamaninii (Alomar et al., 1991). In con- that emerged from black pupae were E. trast, this species represented 26% of the pergandiella males (Gabarra et al., 1999). mirid populations in tomato greenhouse The parasitism levels reached since the in 1993/94 and just 10% in a survey done in establishment of E. pergandiella were much open fields in 1999 (Castañé et al., 2000). lower than those found by Albajes et al. Many natural enemies of H. armigera (1994) before the parasitoid spread over the are present in our area. Mirid bugs can prey whole area, and do not effectively control on lepidopteran eggs and young larvae, and the whitefly. As a result, E. formosa is no in field surveys we have seen that predation longer used for whitefly control. can reach 80% (Gabarra et al., 1996). Egg Macrolophus caliginosus and Dicyphus parasitism may reach 50% in H. armigera, tamaninii are mirid bugs that spontaneously and Trichogramma spp. and Telenomus colonize greenhouses and open field toma- spp. are the most abundant genera (Gabarra toes when no broad-spectrum insecticides et al., 2000). Despite this natural enemy are released. Castañé et al. (2000) showthat complex, H. armigera is still a severe their action is complementary to that of pest that needs sprays of Bt. A very the parasitoid E. formosa and may help to lowaction threshold has been established control greenhouse whitefly. They are also for this pest, and intensive sampling is known to predate on B. tabaci (Barnadas necessary to localize the H. armigera et al., 1998). Since M. caliginosus is mass eggs and young larvae – the stages that can reared and sold by many companies, be managed with Bt sprays (Arnó et al., inoculative releases of this mirid bug have 1994). been performed to control whitefly in spring Natural populations of leafminer para- tomato greenhouses. In these crops, natural sitoids are abundant all year round and often colonization often occurs too late or in too natural parasitism controls leafminers in the lownumbers to provide acceptable control. crop (Albajes et al., 1994). Augmentative However, some problems in the establish- D. isaea releases are used only when ment of the predator have been observed and natural parasitism is low, especially in further studies must be done in order to spring tomato under greenhouse conditions. improve it. Arnó et al. (2000) have shown Biological control of aphids with that native M. caliginosus can be maintained inoculative releases of natural enemies is in unheated greenhouses during winter not used in most greenhouses. However, in banker plants and enhance early in the IPM tomato crops aphids do not colonization of the tomato crop. normally reach economic thresholds due to In outdoor crops, a conservation strat- the presence of indigenous populations of egy has been used since the late 1980s. natural enemies (Alomar et al., 1997). The IPM program for field tomato crops was The application of the described IPM based on the use of naturally occurring pop- programs in tomatoes has led to a great ulations of M. caliginosus and D. tamaninii. reduction in pesticide use. Averaged over Because the latter species can cause some several years, the number of insecticide damage to tomato fruits, a decision chart was sprays was less than one per season and developed by Alomar and Albajes (1996) to fungicides were reduced by 80% (Albajes IPM in the Mediterranean Region 347

et al., 1994). In outdoor tomatoes, insecti- hectarage for apple production and 5.5% cide applications decreased by 78% and of the total EU hectarage (Table 26.3). In fungicide applications by 60% (Arnó et al., terms of production, more than 400,000 t 1996). Safer use of bumble-bees – an increas- are harvested/year. ingly common technique for pollination in The IPM program for apples in tomatoes as it improves crop yield and qual- Catalonia (Torà et al., 1995) is based on ity – was another important achievement of the biological control of European red mite the application of IPM, and reciprocally it (ERM) (Panonychus ulmi). Several spray- led to greater demand for IPM systems in ings with acaricides against ERM were used greenhouse tomatoes as most insecticides in the early 1980s, but they were not always are not compatible with pollinators. able to keep its populations under control. Use of polyphagous predators, originally A fauna study carried out in non- or less- managed for whitefly control, reduces the sprayed apple orchards demonstrated the incidence of other pests such as leafminers, importance of Amblyseius andersoni (Acari: caterpillars, aphids and mites since poly- Phytoseiidae) as a control agent. Under non- phagous predators also feed on those prey. disturbed conditions, natural populations In addition, native natural enemies are better of A. andersoni are able to keep ERM popula- adapted to local conditions and the agroeco- tions well below the economic injury level. systems resulting from conservation strate- The change from a chemical-based mite gies are more stable than those produced control to a biologically based one takes with exotic beneficial insects. An additional 2–3 years. A decision chart for predicting advantage of using generalist predators is whether successful biological control will their lower cost – or even no cost at all when take place has been developed, and it takes the system is managed to have the right num- into account the time of the growing season ber of beneficial insects at the right time. and the populations of the pest and the A fewweakpoints in the actual IPM predator, sampled by means of a presence– systems for tomatoes may be identified. absence method (Avilla et al., 1992). As A. There are very fewselective pesticides andersoni is quite sensitive to conventional to control pests that cannot be managed insecticides, mainly pyrethroids, selective with non-chemical methods. For example, methods must be used against other pests. only one selective insecticide is used for The codling moth Cydia pomonella aphid control in protected tomatoes. Also, (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a key pest at newcompounds in the pesticide market present in most of the area. Its populations create difficulties in the application of are monitored with pheromone traps biological control, because effects their (several hundreds of traps are placed each side on natural enemies are usually not season), and a degree–day phenology model evaluated before these pesticides replace is used at the beginning of the season to older ones. time insecticide spraying. Chemical control with broad-spectrum insecticides (mainly organophosphates) is still the most commonly used method for controlling its Apples populations. The use of these chemicals in IPM programs is restricted to a maximum Apple and pear orchards share several number of applications. Several IGR insecti- insect pests whose importance varies bet- cides (chitin synthesis inhibitors, juvenile ween the two plant species and also among hormone analogs and agonists of the molting varieties within the same species, but they hormone) are also registered for codling also have some specific pests (Table 26.3). moth control. Codling moth resistance The hectarage for apple cultivation in to insecticides is a big concern and an Catalonia has remained steady at around insecticide resistance management program 17,000 ha since about 1996. This hectarage is recommended. Mating disruption was not accounts for 35% of the total Spanish registered until very recently, and was used 348 R. Albajes et al.

Table 26.3. Main arthropod pests in apple and pear orchards, sampling techniques and control measures.

Scientific name Common name Host Sampling system Main control measure

Panonychus ulmi European Red Apple/pear Visual presence– Biological control by (Prostigmata Mite absence sampling natural populations of Tetranychidae) of leaves Amblyseis andersoni.

Cydia pomonella Codling moth Apple/pear Pheromone traps. Chemical control (OPs, (Lep. Tortricidae) Visual counts of IGRs). injured fruits Mating disruption.

Pandemis heparana Leafrollers Apple/pear Pheromone traps Chemical control (IGR, Adoxophyes orana organophosphates). (Lep. Tortricidae)

Quadraspidiotus San José scale Apple/pear Visual sampling in Chemical control perniciosus winter on wood, and (broad spectrum (Hom. Diaspididae) during season on fruits insecticides, IGR).

Dysaphis plantaginea Rosy apple Apple Visual sampling Chemical control (Hom. Aphididae) aphid (imidacloprid, selective aphicides). Eriosoma lanigerum Woolly apple Apple Visual sampling Chemical control. (Hom. Aphididae) aphid Biological control by Aphelinus mali.

Phyllonorycter spp. Leafminers Apple/pear Pheromone traps Biological control by (Lep. Gracillariidae) natural populations of Leucoptera spp. natural enemies. (Lep. Lyonetiidae) Chemical control.

Zeuzera pyrina. Wood borers Apple/pear Pheromone traps Chemical control. Cossus cossus Mass trapping with (Lep. Cossidae) pheromone traps. Synanthedon Mating disruption. myopaeformis (Lep. Sesiidae)

Ceratitis capitata Mediterranean Apple/pear Pheromone traps. Chemical control. Mass (Dipt. Tephritidae) fruit fly Visual counts of trapping with attractive injured fruits traps (experimental).

Cacopsylla pyri Pear psylla Pear Beating-trays Chemical control. (Hom. Psyllidae) sampling. Visual Biological control by sampling natural populations of natural enemies. Cultural control.

Dasyneura pyri Pear leafcurling Pear minor Visual These pests are not (Dipt. Cecidomyiidae) midge pests common and are not a Hoplocampa brevis Pear fruit sawfly Visual. White traps consideration in the (Hym. Tenthredinidae) IPM program. Stephanitis pyri (Het. Tingidae) Pear lace-bug Visual Janus compressus (Hym. Cephidae) Pear shoot sawfly Visual IPM in the Mediterranean Region 349

on about 100 ha in 2001. The system works mass trapping with attractive traps is only at very well when the appropriate conditions an experimental stage. The other constraint are met, and an increase in the hectarage is SJS control; if it is necessary to spray under mating disruption is expected in the against it during the growing season, there is near future (Bosch et al., 1998). no selective chemical registered for that use. San José scale (SJS), Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock (Homoptera: Diaspi- didae), is an important pest due to its zero tolerance level for exportation. Several natu- Pears ral enemies are well established (Encarsia perniciosi, Aphytis spp.), but their action is Spain is the second producer of pears in not sufficient to maintain SJS populations the EU, accounting for 31% of the hectarage under control. Winter (lime sulfur) and pre- (Table 26.1). Some 41% of the Spanish bloom treatments are used in IPM programs hectarage is located in Lleida province in to avoid the use of insecticides when the western Catalonia. individuals of A. andersoni are active. Pears have many common pests with The rest of the species listed in Table apples (Table 26.3), so they can be managed 26.3 have a variable importance, depending with the same methods with slight differ- on specific areas or years. Several species of ences. For example, the economic thresh- aphids are present. Chemical control is used olds for the codling moth are higher in pears. against rosy aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea Among the specific pests, the pear sucker, (pre-bloom sprayings) and woolly aphid, Cacopsylla pyri, is actually the most impor- Eriosoma lanigerum. The fauna of natural tant pest and it has been the main target of enemies is important in IPM orchards and is research devoted to developing and imple- composed of general predators (Chryso- menting an IPM program in pears based on pidae: Coccinellidae) as well as specific its biological control. Other specific pests parasitoids (Aphelinus mali). Leafrollers are normally minor pests (Table 26.3) that and leafminers have a wide fauna of cause serious damage only under special parasitoids, which are able to control their circumstances. Dasyneura pyri and Janus populations, especially for the latter. When compressus are particularly harmful in insecticides are necessary, leafroller control nurseries and young orchards. Hoplocampa is usually achieved with IGR (juvenile brevis may seriously affect pear yield only hormone analogs) use. Woodborers may in years when concurrently there is low have an increasing importance under IPM flowering and/or fruit setting, adult flight programs when broad-spectrum insecti- coincides with flowering, and the popu- cides are replaced by selective control mea- lation in the previous fall has been high. sures. Mass trapping and mating disruption Otherwise, damage is reduced to biological can be used in these cases. Mass trapping has thinning. Stephanitis pyri is only an proved to be efficient for the control of apple occasional problem in untreated orchards. clearwing, Synanthedon myopaeformis, Pear psylla started to be a problem on and, to a far lesser extent, that of the leopard the most vigorous varieties during the 1970s moth, Zeuzera pyrina. Recent field trials and on all varieties by the 1980s. Several have shown a very good control of leopard factors have contributed to psylla popu- moth with mating disruption (Avilla and lation outbreaks. The hectarage of pear Bosch, 2001). The Mediterranean fruit fly, orchards increased by 50% from the 1970s to Ceratitis capitata, has had an increasing the 1980s, and by 100% from the 1970s to the importance in the last 3–4 years, mainly 1990s. This means a big increase in food due to the mild winter temperatures, which resources and, moreover, the dominant vari- have decreased the mortality of winter ety has vigorous vegetative growth, which medfly populations. This may be the main is therefore a favorable host plant trait for constraint of IPM programs for apples, as psylla development and reproduction. In selective insecticides are not available and the 1970s pyrethroids were also introduced 350 R. Albajes et al.

and used profusely in orchards. The broad- in pear orchards, partially because of current spectrum activity of pyrethroids reduced and forthcoming limitations of pesticide use the natural enemies of psylla and hence (e.g. DNOC has been recently banned by contributed to the insect population out- the EC in the whole EU), partially to meet breaks. Reducing initial spring populations requirements for IP labels, and also because by treating overwintering psylla adults with of the increasing difficulty in controlling pyrethroids and DNOC, and thus preventing psylla efficiently. However, in spite of the egglaying, was the main strategy used in great advances that have been made in the pear orchards during the late 1980s and most implementation of IPM, many other aspects of the 1990s. are still poorly developed. Economic thresh- The research we have been conducting olds of psylla should be adapted to the for the last 12 years has allowed us to iden- real risk of damage in each of the main pear tify a complex of natural enemies that under varieties grown in the region. Furthermore, favorable conditions can prevent psylla suppression of winter sprays may cause an population outbreaks (Artigues et al., 1996; increase in SJS, for which use of lime sulfur Sarasua et al., 1999). The most interesting late in winter is recommended, when neces- natural enemies identified are those that sary, instead of summer oil and organophos- start their activity early in the season and phates, which are more harmful for natural remain in the orchard even if the psylla enemies. However, the economic threshold population is low, as is the case of Miridae, for SJS is the mere presence and good control whose population at the end of winter is is really difficult. A more selective control of composed mainly of young nymphs that SJS and also of codling moth remain two cannot leave the orchard, or the generalist unsolved problems in IPM in pear orchards. predators belonging to the Orius genus or Additionally, a better knowledge of key fac- the Dermaptera that can attack prey other tors in the ecology of native natural enemies than psylla. Also, the parasitoids appear may improve their management for control- early and act on the first generation. On the ling psylla and other pear pests. With regard other hand, Anthocoris nemoralis, the most to the latter, provision of artificial refuges commonly reported natural enemy of psylla for predators in winter, supplementing food in Europe, overwinters in the orchard only resources in early spring to keep natural ene- if the psylla population in the previous mies on orchards even at low pest densities, autumn has been very high. Even if it and managing the diversity and composition overwinters in the orchard, it migrates in of flora around pear orchards are some of the early spring if the psylla populations are low possibilities considered in our research into and only goes back when pest populations improving the IPM program. are high and have already reached economic thresholds. As these natural enemies mostly overwinter on pear trees, winter sprays in pear orchards are extremely harmful for Achievements and Main Constraints for predators and parasitoids – indirectly by a Wider Application of IPM in Catalonia depriving them of food and hence causing nymph starvation or forcing adults to To summarize the main achievements and migrate, or directly by causing their mortal- constraints in the application of IPM in ity. Eliminating winter sprays and avoiding Catalonia in the last few decades, it is excessive vegetative growth in relation to important to recall two characteristics of production of pear trees are therefore two this control strategy: that IPM systems are key actions for enhancing biological control site-specific – they do and must vary by of pear psylla by native natural enemies, crop, cropping system and geographical which is the cornerstone of current IPM in area – and that in the development of IPM pear orchards in the area. systems there is a continuum of activities Growers in the region are showing and efforts from basic through applied increasing interest in adopting IPM systems research to field development and finally IPM in the Mediterranean Region 351

implementation by farmers or other uses. administrations from public funds. All three The schedule used by Gliss (1992) to review R&D programs have the development of IPM the activities needed for the implementa- systems as one of their priorities and, in fact, tion and adoption of IPM may allowus to most of the research work carried out on IPM discuss the progress made in the last few in Catalonia has been funded under their years and to identify the main constraints auspices. However, projects are generally for a wider application of IPM in our area. funded for a maximum duration of 3–4 years The activities reviewed are research (basic, to the detriment of long-term projects. Facil- applied and field-oriented), extension, edu- ities like experimental fields or demonstra- cation, training, regulation, policy, and tion plots are somewhat lacking and only in economic aspects. Of course, there is no the last fewyears have some experimental discrete separation among all the categories stations been created. Unfortunately, experi- but there are – and probably must be more – mental stations are mostly supported by overlapping activities among two or more grower’s organizations that prefer, once elements. more, to give priority to short-term research.

Extension Research

Two services in particular have dealt with There has been a significant increase in the extension in Catalonia: the Extension last 30 years in the number of entomologists Service and the Plant Protection Service. on the staff of Catalan institutions devoted The former perished some years ago under to research: from seven in the late 1970s to mountains of bureaucracy; the latter is try- about 25 in early 2000. Half of the current ing to survive budget cuts and lack of per- staff do field-oriented research in IPM, sonnel. Many regular funds and resources slightly less than a quarter are involved in are frequently devoted to special campaigns more basic research – mainly insect physi- that have more impact on public opinion ology and behavior – and slightly more than than the silent daily work, like the recent a quarter deal mainly with insect taxonomy. program for the prevention of fire blight of There is an obvious gap in the research on rosaceous crops. A worse consequence of insect ecology focusing on agroecology that the severe budget restrictions of the Catalan is being filled by researchers working in administration in the last fewyears has IPM. Clearly, it is impossible to design man- been the lack of young graduate recruitment agement systems for our agroecosystems leading to a decrease in the innovation without a profound knowledge of how they potential. The most stimulating and profit- function. The management of native natural able activity of the Plant Protection Service enemies that has been described above in is the above-mentioned tutelage of pest tomato crops and pear and apple orchards control advisers of ADVs, a successful form exemplifies howone can take advantage of IPM technology transfer. of the research into the ecology of agroecosystems. Field-oriented research tends to produce results and hence publications at slower rates Education than more basic and laboratory research. In addition, field-research tends to be more European public opinion – particularly in expensive and more demanding in man- northern countries – is very sensitive to power. Consequently, young scientists are the environmental impact of production not stimulated to undertake such work with- technologies in agriculture. Public alarm out endangering their professional careers. about recent health problems of food (BSE, Research projects in Catalonia may be dioxins in chickens) and distrust of some funded by Catalan, Spanish and European recent scientific progress (e.g. transgenic 352 R. Albajes et al.

crops) by Europeans have led many be treated with chemicals of a broader consumers to prefer ‘natural’ food or spectrum. ‘naturally-produced’ food. Labels such Several biological products, such as as ‘organic food’ or ‘integrated production’ pheromones, need thick dossiers for regis- have proliferated in Europe under the aus- tration, similar to those required for conven- pices of regional governments or – in fewer tional chemical pesticides. This – and also cases – of scientific organizations like the their excessive prices – is seriously limiting IOBC. Retailers are also sensitive to this the faster adoption of synthetic pheromones. increasing demand in Europe for ‘green’ The register of macrobial (predators and food and they promote agreements with parasitoids) and microbial insecticides is farmers to impose clean production meth- expected to change in Europe in the near ods. In general, the perception that IPM future. Biological control has traditionally is safer and healthier than chemical-based been considered as an environmentally safe control is increasing among European technology. Recently, however, some scien- consumers and also among farmers. tists have expressed their concern about trading insect natural enemies between different geographical areas, an activity that Training may endanger native species. A positive list of natural enemies that can be commercialized in the whole of Europe with no special The higher degree in agronomy, which restrictions because they are native to the in Catalonia is only taught at Lleida Continent or have been released for many University, includes several courses on IPM years with no apparent side effects is being and related matters. Great progress has been developed by the European and Mediterra- made in this area in Catalonia in the last nean Plant Protection Organization; the other 25 years. However, as in many other fields natural enemies will need careful screen- of scientific and technological knowledge, ing procedures to prove that their release IPM needs to be constantly updated involves no risks for native fauna. Clearer and curricula for training lecturers and registration rules for microbials, including researchers should be developed. Pest con- those produced from genetic engineering trol advisers, who usually have a medium- processes, are also needed in Europe. level degree, and personnel in the private Growers in southern Europe, where sector are in demand for periodic formal there are only a fewnatural enemy pro - and less formal training programs in IPM ducers, often complain about the quality of tools and decision making. natural enemies that are commercialized. Quality control guidelines have been developed by researchers of private firms and Regulation public institutions and are nowadays available for the most commonly used natural Regulations affecting IPM implementation enemies. These guidelines may be the basis and adoption in Catalonia, as in the rest of for defining the official procedures of qual- Europe, mainly deal with the registration ity control and quality standards required of pesticides and non-chemical products. for commercialization in Europe. As stated above, most pesticide active Catalonia is very active in the produc- ingredients are expected to disappear from tion and trade of ornamental plants and other the market in the coming 2 years. It is hoped commodities that are shipped quickly around that this will have a positive influence on the world. In addition, it is a pathway for the adoption of IPM, as several arthropod millions of tourists and travelers. It seems pests will not have an ‘ad hoc’ pesticide, difficult to prevent the entrance of exotic but it may pose a problem because of the arthropod pests despite the establishment of lack of selective insecticides for controlling quarantine (on a European scale) to regulate secondary and occasional pests which will the movement of pest-risk items. IPM in the Mediterranean Region 353

Policy decisive one, as Wearing (1988) points out in his reviewof incentives for the adoption National and international R&D programs of IPM systems in the world. We must have supported research on IPM. As men- implement IPM systems that are economi- tioned above, the development of IPM cally profitable and technically feasible. programs to reduce the impact of pesticides We can expect from authorities strict on the environment and human health has regulations of pesticide use but not its been one of the priorities of Catalan, Span- disappearance. ish, and European research agencies. Less Lack of patents for biological products support has been given to extension: valida- has often been put forward to explain the tion and demonstration plots, training pro- lack of incentives for private firms to become grams for field technicians and growers, and involved in the research, implementation recruitment of young personnel are among and commercialization of IPM techniques. the actions that could activate the extension Some symptoms showthat this situation is of IPM in agriculture. Without doubt the changing: more and more private funds are support and subsidizing of growers’ associ- being invested in several fields of typical ations for plant protection (ADVs) have been IPM tools and methods such as pheromones, key actions for speeding up the adoption of biological control, monitoring techniques, IPM systems in Catalan agriculture. devices for selective pest control, and insect- The organization of a network to resistant crops. Additionally, selectivity is coordinate all the components dealing with a major goal of the development of new research, development, extension, technol- insecticide active ingredients instead of the ogy transfer, and application of IPM would old objectives of broad-spectrum activity. probably at least provide better communica- Figure 26.4 shows a container that a tion and perhaps greater efficiency in the Catalan grower’s association uses to sell implementation of IPM in Catalan agriculture. Note that nowthere are at least eight public and several private institutions involved in this process.

Economic aspects

Though pesticides have increasingly evident negative impacts on the environment, human health and the technical efficiency of agriculture, they are still easy to apply and relatively cheap. These are two key advantages of conventional chemical control in comparison with innovative IPM, and they should therefore be two dominant objectives of newpest control programs. It is highly unlikely that IPM will be implemented on a large scale in the Mediterranean to replace chemically based methodologies if growers are only stimulated by environmental considerations and consumer health. This may be a factor Fig. 26.4. A Catalan growers’ association – undoubtedly an important one as the produces natural enemies for its own consumption. proliferation of integrated production labels Macrolophus caliginosus is distributed in this bottle shows – but it is probably not the most for use in greenhouses. 354 R. Albajes et al.

the self-produced predator M. caliginosus Anonymous (1999) Eurostat, 2001. Statistical among its members. Without doubt, in the yearbook 2000. European Commission, last fewyears some things have changed in Luxembourg. the direction of IPM adoption. Anonymous (2000) Anuari Estadistic de Cata- lunya. Generalitat de Catalunya, Barcelona, pp. 271 and 285. Arnó, J., Ariño, J., Martí, M. and Tió, M. Acknowledgments (1994) Seguimiento de las poblaciones de Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidop- We thank J. Arino, M. Marti and M. Pagès, tera: Noctuidae) en cultivo de tomate. Boletin ADVs pest control advisers, for supply- de Sanidad Vegetol Plagas 20, 251–260. ing information on acreage under IPM Arnó, J., Martí, M., Ariño, J., Ramírez, M. and programs for tomatoes. Gabarra, R. (1996) El control integrat de plagues en tomàquet d’aire lliure. Catalunya Rural i Agrària 28, 29–32. Arnó, J., Ariño, J., Español, R., Martí, M. and References Alomar, O. (2000) Conservation of Macro- lophus caliginosus Wagner (Het. Miridae) AEPLA (2000) Asociación Empresarial para la in commercial greenhouses during tomato Protección de las Plantas. Memoria 2000. crop-free periods. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin Madrid. 23(1), 241–246. Albajes, R., Gabarra, R., Castañé, C., Alomar, O., Artigues, M., Avilla, J., Jauset, A.M. and Arnó, J., Riudavets, J., Ariño, J., Bellavista, J., Sarasúa, M.J. (1996) Predators of Cacopsylla Martí, M., Moliner, J. and Ramirez, M. (1994) pyri in NE Spain. Heteroptera: Anthocoridae Implementation of an IPM program for spring and Miridae. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 19(4), tomatoes in Mediterranean greenhouses. 231–235. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 17(5), 14–21. Avilla, J. and Bosch, D. (2001) Mass trapping and Alomar, O. and Albajes, R. (1996) Greenhouse mating disruption for the control of leopard whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) preda- moth and apple clearwing moth. Proceedings tion and tomato fruit injury by the zoo- of the European Apple Symposium Bio- phytophagous predator Dicyphus tamaninii logical and Alternative Protection in Apple: (Heteroptera: Miridae). In: Alomar, O. and Orchards and Storage. Centre Technique Wiedenmann, R.N. (eds) Zoophytophagous Interprofessionnel des Fruits et Légumes, heteroptera: implications for life history Bordeaux (France). and integrated pest management. Ento- Avilla, J., Bosch, D., Sarasúa, M.J. and Costa- mological Society of America, Lanham, Comelles, J. (1992) Biological control of Michigan, pp. 155–177. Panonychus ulmi in apple orchards in Alomar, O., Castañé, C., Gabarra, R., Bordas, E., Lleida (NE of Spain). Acta Horticulturae Adillon, J. and Albajes, R. (1989) Cultural 347, 267–272. practices for IPM in protected crops in Barnadas, I., Gabarra, R. and Albajes, R. (1998) Catalonia. In: Cavalloro, R. and Pelerents, C. Predatory capacity of two mirid bugs (eds) Integrated Pest Management in preying on Bemisia tabaci. Entomologia Protected Vegetable Crops. A.A. Balkema, Experimentalis et Applicata 86, 215–219. Rotterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 347–354. Bosch, D., Burballa, A., Sarasúa, M.J. and Avilla, J. Alomar, O., Gabarra, R. and Castañé, C. (1998) Control de carpocapsa (Cydia (1997) The aphid parasitoid Aphelinus pomonella) mediante confusión sexual y abdominalis (Hym.: Aphelinidae) for bio- fenoxycarb. Fruticultura Profesional 99, logical control of Macrosiphum euphorbiae 52–62. on tomatoes grown in unheated plastic Castañé, C., Alomar, O., Goula, M. and Gabarra, R. greenhouses. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 20(4), (2000) Natural populations of Macrolophus 203–206. caliginosus and Dicyphus tamaninii in the Alomar, O., Castañé, C., Gabarra, R., Arnó, J., control of the greenhouses whitefly in tomato Ariñó, J. and Albajes, R. (1991) Conservation crops. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 23(1), 221–224. of native mirid buds for biological control Gabarra, R. and Besri, M. (1999) Tomatoes. in protected and outdoor tomato crops. In: Albajes, R., Gullino, M.L., van Lenteren, IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 14(5), 33–42. J.C. and Elad, Y. (eds) Integrated Pest and IPM in the Mediterranean Region 355

Disease Management in Greenhouse Crops. Fry, W.E. (eds) Food, Crop Pests, and the Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Environment. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota, The Netherlands, pp. 420–434. pp. 167–177. Gabarra, R., Riudavets, J., Arnó, J., Castañé, C. and Sarasúa, M.J., Avilla, J., Artigues, M. and Albajes, R. (1996) Natural enemies associated Jauset, A.M. (1999) Estrategia de control de la to Lepidoptera pests in IPM tomato fields. psylla del peral Cacopsylla pyri (L.), para el Abstract. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 19(8), 207 pp. desarrollo de un programa de control Gabarra, R., Arnó, J., Alomar, O. and Albajes, R. integrado en peral. Phytoma-España 114, (1999) Naturally occurring populations of 86–89. Encarsia pergandiella (Hymenoptera: Aphe- [SSV] Servei de Sanitat Vegetal de la Generalitat linidae) in tomato greenhouses. IOBC/WPRS de Catalunya (2001) Incidencia de las Bulletin 22(1), 85–88. plagas y enfermedades en las Comunidades Gabarra, R., Arnó, J., Castañé, C., Izquierdo, J., Autónomas en el 2000. Cataluña. Phytoma- Alomar, O., Riudavets, J. and Albajes, R. España 127, 20–28. (2000) Fauna útil trobada en els cultius Torà, R., Sió, J., Sarasúa, M.J. and Avilla, J. (1995) d’horta de Catalunya. In: Ticó, J. (ed.) Control integrado de plagas en huertos de Enemics Naturals de Plagues en Diferents manzano y de peral en Cataluña. Fruticultura Cultius d’Horta. Dossiers Agraris 6, Profesional 70, 36–51. pp. 83–103. Wearing, C.H. (1988) Evaluating the IPM Gliss, E.H. (1992) Constraints to the implementa- implementation process. Annual Review tion and adoption of IPM. In: Zalom, F.C. and of Entomology 33, 17–38.

Chapter 27 Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia

V.A. Zakharenko1 and A.L. Il’ichev2 1Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Moscow, Russia; 2Central Institute for Agrochemical Services, Moscow, Russia

History of IPM in the Former USSR Biological control was pioneered in and Russia Russia by scientists such as I.I. Mechnikov (1879), who discovered a fungus affecting Agriculture in Russia functions under larvae of flour beetles, and Krasil’shik adverse climatic and economic conditions. (1886), who produced green muscardine to Despite a rich natural resource base, agri- control flour beetles. In 1929, the All-Union cultural production in Russia has histori- Scientific Research Institute of Plant Protec- cally been far belowits potential. Russia tion was formed, with the support of the occupies nearly a seventh of the earth’s First President of the All-Union Academy of land area (over 1.7 billion ha). Of this area Agricultural Sciences, N.I. Vavilov. Vavilov 220 million ha (13%) are devoted to agricul- studied host-plant immunity and described ture, and of that, 60% is considered arable. the co-evolution of pests and host plants Most of the arable land is subject to signifi- (Vavilov, 1935). Several biological control cant limitations, such as inadequate rain- methods were developed at that time. In fall, extensive salinity or moisture, limited 1938, the official concept of ‘control systems growing season or difficult terrain. Only in plant protection’ was developed, which about 2 million ha of a vast belt of black consolidated several plant protection meth- soils have adequate rainfall and growing ods (Shegolev et al., 1938) and established conditions. the fundamentals for IPPM. In Russia, IPM is known as IPPM. In the 1940s the introduction of IPPM is a complex system, using technical, synthetic chemical pesticides changed cultural, physical and biological methods the face of pest management in the USSR. to counter a wide range of pests. Careful But by the mid-1960s, it became apparent monitoring of pests and diseases, determi- that broad-spectrum chemical treatments nation of economic thresholds and selection often led to the elimination of beneficial of the most appropriate control methods natural enemies. Eventually, high amounts work to achieve cost-effective and sus- of conventional chemical applications tainable IPPM systems. The development of created problems such as resistance and IPPM in Russia and the USSR has a long environmental contamination (Fedorov and history. Yablokov, 1999). Biological control methods

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 357 358 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

started to improve in the mid-1960s. The energy efficiently. Basic tenets of IPPM All-Union Scientific Research Institute of include careful monitoring (of insect pests, Biological Plant Protection was formed in diseases, and beneficial organisms), preven- Kishinev in 1969. By the end of the 1970s, tive measures (crop rotation, crop hus- biological control methods were well bandry and hygiene, fertilization, irrigation, established. Enough biological pesticides intercropping, proper harvesting and and beneficial species were produced to storage), and control measures (use of treat an area of 23.8 million ha, a significant pest resistant and herbicide tolerant plant achievement at the time. varieties, and biological, chemical, and The IPPM system in the USSR included cultural control methods). a widespread network of 40 All-Union plant protection systems and more than 100 regional plant protection systems. These systems provided IPM strategies for a wide Organization of the IPPM System in the diversity of agricultural crops (Chooraev Former USSR and Russia et al., 1981; Zakharenko et al., 1985). Economic thresholds were developed for The collapse of the USSR in 1991 brought several insect pests, weeds and pathogens about major changes in the structure of agri- (Tansky, 1988; Zakharenko, 1979, 1990). culture in Russia at every level. Russia has A scientific basis for IPPM was outlined enacted several economic reforms intended in the book Integrated Plant Protection in to facilitate private sector participation 1981 (Fadeev and Novojilov, 1981). Regional in agriculture. In 1990, almost 99% of IPPM programs were developed in Ukraine arable land was owned by collective and by M.P. Lesovoy (1989, 1990), in Bielorussia state-owned farms. By 2000, collective and by V.F. Samersov (1988) and in Uzbekistan state-owned farms controlled only 21% of by S.N. Alimukhamedov (1985). the agricultural land. Most of the remaining Several Russian scientists contributed arable land was owned and operated by to the development of IPPM: N.N. 21,990 co-operatives and joint venture Mel’nikov (1974) (pesticide chemistry), K.V. companies, and 6.9% of farmland was pri- Novozhilov (1980) (insecticide application), vately held in 261,000 farms. Some 6% was N.M. Golyshin (1993) (fungicides), I.I. owned by 40 million private landowners, Gunar, and M.Ja. Beresovsky (1952) (herbi- including collective orchards and vegetable cides). Research investigations of many farms. The former collective and state farms Russian scientists have contributed to produced primarily grain, sunflower seed, preparation and introduction of the rules for sugarbeet, fiber flax and soybean. Private application of pesticides in plant protection owners grew mostly potatoes, vegetables (Fadeev and Novojilov, 1981). and fruits. After the collapse of the USSR, plant Besides the changes in ownership, the protection systems continued to develop composition and distribution of cropland under the auspices of the Russian Academy has also changed significantly. From 1991 of Agricultural Sciences. Several applied to 2000, the area of cultivated agricultural scientific research institutes are involved in cropland declined from 115.1 million ha to IPM research and adapting IPPM systems to 88.3 million ha. Land area devoted to grain changing economic conditions in Russia. In decreased from 61.8 million ha to 46.6 1994, a description of IPM-based manage- million ha, and to forage crops from 44 ment strategies was published in the million ha to 30 million ha. Meanwhile, booklet: The economical and organizational the area under industrial crops (fiber flax, management of phytosanitary conditions of sunflower, sugarbeet, etc.) has increased the agrocenosis (Anonymous, 1994), very from 5.6 million ha to 7.5 million ha, and often used as a guidelines. potatoes and vegetables have also increased IPPM is designed to promote sustain- from 4.1 million ha to 4.2 million ha. In able agriculture, minimize waste, and use general, crop yield has declined, with the Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 359

exception of potatoes. One major reason for • development of disease- and pest- the decline in crop yield is the reduction resistant plant varieties, biological in use of inputs such as fertilizers (from control products, and the design 11 million tons to 1.2 million tons) and pes- of genetically diverse agricultural ticides, due to economic changes (Russian ecosystems; Agriculture, 2000). • testing newchemical products and engineering their application; • development of principles for agricultural and ecological systems designed Organization of the IPPM program with optimum phytosanitary, ecological and toxicological characteristics. The Department of Plant Protection of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences oversees research and development of IPPM Important crop pests in Russia in Russia. Local Plant Protection Stations are spread throughout the country. Plant Table 27.1 illustrates the pest complexes Protection Stations work together with of several important agricultural crops in Diagnostic and Forecast Laboratories, Russia. The pest complexes were identi- which are directly involved in pest moni- fied by several monitoring efforts by ‘walk’ toring and threshold determination. The through crops, pheromone trapping, sample Department of Plant Protection includes identification, diagnostics, etc. These pests the following research organizations, which are the focus of IPPM research. employ a total of 491 scientists: Weeds are also important pest species • All-Russian Scientific Research on agricultural crops. More than 120 weed Institute of Plant Protection [VIZR], species are frequently observed. The top ten (St Petersburg–Pushkin); weeds for each of six major crops are listed • All-Russian Scientific Research in Table 27.2. Institute of Phytopathology [VNIIF], Potential crop losses due to damage by (Bolshie Viazemi, Moscow region); pests, diseases and weeds are substantial • All-Russian Scientific Research (Zakharenko, 1975). The annual potential Institute of Biological Plant Protection loss as a result of damage by pests, diseases [VNIIBZR], (Krasnodar); and weeds was calculated (data from • The Regional Far East Scientific Zakharenko, 1975. Crop loss estimated Research Institute of Plant Protection using the method of Ouerke et al., 1994) as (Primorye Territory). follows: on grain crops −42.3%, fiber flax −42.8%, sugarbeet −48%, sunflowers and Research efforts are coordinated among soybean −42.8%, potatoes −51.2%, vegeta- more than 50 different departments, labora- bles −58.6%, fruit and berry crops −60.4% tories, scientific institutes and universities. and forage crops −38.8%. The quantitative The focus of IPPM research includes crop data on the significance and effect of pest health and monitoring, host plant resis- damage to the yield of crops are stated as tance, developing biological and chemical crop loss. Crop loss was calculated with controls, equipment design, cost effective- respect to the data of weighted average per- ness and program development. IPPM centage (%) of yield loss, yield and area of research is usually carried out according crop for the period of the 1996–2000 years to 5-year plans. The current 5-year plan and presented in Table 27.3. (2001–2005) includes four major foci: The average loss was about 105 million • monitoring of beneficial and harmful t, expressed as grain equivalent, on the organisms and forecasting potential annual average yield for the 1996–2000 pest outbreaks; years (Zakharenko, 1997). 360 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev ) ) ) ,or

Epilachna ) )

Phytophthora )

Leptinotarsa Macrosporium solani Corynebacterium Erwinia caratovora Bacterial ring rot ( Macrosporium leaf spot ( Potato Twenty-eight-spotted potato ladybird ( Bacterial slimy soft rot ( Colorado potato beetle ( Late blight ( decemlineata vigintisexpunctata E. vigintioclomaculata infestans sepedonicum Virus diseases ) ) ) spp.,

Sclerotium Aphis fabae spp.) Lygus Botrytis

Sclerotinia )

Psalidium ) ) ) )

Brachycaudus

Puccinia helianthii

Homoeosoma nebulellum Aphid ( White rot ( Rust ( Weevils ( Sunflower pyralid ( Charcoal rot ( Sunflower Lygus bug ( Phomopsis rot Bean aphid ( Tanymecus helichrysi pratensis Gray mold ( cinnerea libertiana bataticola ) ) ) ) )

Tipula Bacillus Thrips Psylliodes ) ) )

Polyspora lini

Cochylis epilinana Colletotrichum lini Ascochita linicola Melampsora lini Flax rust ( Browning and stem break ( Crane flies ( Fiber flax spp.) Flax thrips ( Flax leafroller ( Ascochyta stem blight ( Anthracnose ( Bacteriosis ( Flax fleas ( lini linorius paludosa macerans , ) spp.) ) ) )

Chaetocnema Pythium Aphis fabae spp.) spp.)

Bothynoderes punctiventris Cassidae Fusarium Erysiphe communis Cercospora beticola Sugar beet weevils ( Powdery mildew ( Bean aphid ( Cercospora leaf spot ( Sugarbeet spp.) Wood moths ( Fusarium wilt ( Leaf beetles ( Seedling rot ( Tanymecus palliatus Virus diseases spp.) ) )

Zabrus spp.) )

Lema ) ) ) )

Eurygaster

Aphididae

Puccinia

Apamea anceps Ustilago tritici Tilletia tritici Erysiphe graminis Grain cutworm ( Fusarium wilt Septoria leaf spot Powdery mildew ( Leaf beetle ( Ground beetle ( Stinking smut ( Grain crops Sun bug ( Loose smut ( Aphids ( integriceps tenebrioides melanopus Rust ( ) Major insect pests and diseases of some important agricultural crops in Russia. ) spp.) spp.)

Microtinae

Agrotis Pyraustra sticticalis Elateridae Citellus Gophers ( Mice ( Locusts (Acrididae) Cutworms ( Table 27.1. Field crops spp.) Click beetles ( Beet webworm ( Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 361

Table 27.2. The top ten noxious weeds in major crops. (Data from Zakharenko and Zakharenko, 2001.)

Winter grain Summer grain Maize Sugarbeet Sunflower Potatoes

Field bindweed Sow thistle Field bindweed Fat hen Field bindweed Fat hen (Convolvulus (Sonchus (Convolvulus (Chenopodium (Convolvulus (Chenopodium arvensis) arvensis) arvensis) album) arvensis) album) Creeping thistle Creeping thistle Sow thistle Pigweed Sow thistle Sow thistle (Cirsium (Cirsium (Sonchus (Amaranthus (Sonchus (Sonchus arvensis) arvensis) arvensis) spp.) arvensis) arvensis) Sow thistle Field bindweed Pigweed Winter-cress Creeping thistle Creeping thistle (Sonchus (Convolvulus (Amaranthus (Barbarea (Cirsium (Cirsium arvensis) arvensis) spp.) vulgaris) arvensis) arvensis) Fat hen Spring wild oat Fat hen Creeping thistle Pigweed Common couch (Chenopodium (Avena fatua) (Chenopodium (Cirsium (Amaranthus (Agropyron album) album) arvensis) spp.) repens) Winter-cress Cockspur Winter-cress Sow thistle Fat hen Wild radish (Barbarea (Echinochloa (Barbarea (Sonchus (Chenopodium (Raphanus vulgaris) crus-galli) vulgaris) arvensis) album) raphanistrum) Pigweed Green bristle Green bristle Field bindweed Winter-cress Common (Amaranthus grass (Setaria grass (Setaria (Convolvulus (Barbarea chickweed spp.) spp.) spp.) arvensis) vulgaris) (Stellaria media) Mayweed Fat hen Cockspur Cockspur Green bristle Hemp nettle (Matricaria (Chenopodium (Echinochloa (Echinochloa grass (Setaria (Galeopsis spp.) inodora) album) crus-galli) crus-galli) spp.) Green bristle Pigweed Spring wild oat Green bristle Spring wild oat Pigweed grass (Setaria (Amaranthus (Avena fatua) grass (Setaria (Avena fatua) (Amaranthus spp.) spp.) spp.) spp.) Wild oat Winter-cress Johnson-grass Spring wild oat Cockspur Cockspur (Avena fatua) (Barbarea (Sorghum (Avena fatua) (Echinochloa (Echinochloa vulgaris) halepense) crus-galli) crus-galli) Cockspur Scentless Common couch Common couch Common couch Cleavers (Echinochloa mayweed (Agropyron (Agropyron (Agropyron (Galium aparine) crus-galli) (Matricaria repens) repens) repens) inodora)

Table 27.3. The quantitative crop loss due to damage done by pests, diseases and weeds for the period of the years 1996–2000.

Yield losses

Crops Area (000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Rate (%) Thousand t Thousand t in grain equivalent

Grain crops 49,982.2 1.30 42.3 27,751 27,751 Fiber flax 49,116.4 0.28 42.8 27,716 104,399 Sugarbeet 49,920.6 15.22 48.8 6,371 3,231 Sunflower 4,558.8 0.74 42.8 1,426 3,322 Potatoes 3,306.4 10.26 51.2 17,627 31,376 Vegetables 49,773.8 14.73 58.6 6,678 17,363 Fruit and berries 1,006.8 3.19 60.4 1,938 9,692 Forage crops 31,831.2 2.00 38.8 24,791 11,609 Total: 93,215.8 104,743 362 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

IPPM and Pesticide Use Policy in the bank is used for biological research and Former USSR and Russia development of microbiological products for plant protection. The current list of 391 registered pesticides There are 60 biological control products (based on 227 active ingredients) was developed for agriculture in Russia, includ- authorized in 1998. The list includes: 97 ing 26 formulations for insect pests and 19 insecticides (49 pyrethroids and 17 organo- products based on Bt: six varieties of Bt phosphate products), 70 fungicides (18 (Bt. var. dendrolimus, Bt. var. galleria, azoles, eight benzimidazoles, five dithio- Bt. var. insektus, Bt. var. kurstaki, Bt. var. carbamates and five copper-based formula- tenebrionis, Bt. var. thuringiensis), two tions); and 139 herbicides (19 sulfonylurea, Beauveria bassiana, three Verticillium three phenoxy acetic acid, ariloxyphen- lacanii, one nematode (Steinernema carpo- oxypropionic acid, thiocarbamatic acid, capsa), and microbiological products and 12 organophosphates). based on Bacillus subtilis, Penicillium vermiculatum, Pseudomonas syringae, P. fluorescens, Streptomices griceoviridis, Search for better chemical pesticides S. lavendula, S. falleus, Trichoderma lignorum and virus products. Chemical control is still an important part The Department established a regional of plant protection systems. Research seek- system for manufacture of microbiological ing improved, safer and effective chemical products that includes 75 biological labora- pesticides is conducted at the research tories, 13 biological factories, 41 regional institutes of the Department of Plant Protec- plant protection stations, 159 laboratories in tion of the Russian Academy of Agricultural hothouse facilities, and 56 small private Sciences. The search is more effective when enterprises and co-operative organizations. the use of dangerous substances influencing The laboratories receive virulent strains synthesis of amino acid and photosynthetic of microorganisms directly from the processes, absent in human and animals, producers. is minimized. These are products such as In 1996, the laboratories produced pheromones, inductors of protective reac- about 350 t of Bactorodenced with the tions of plant to pest damage (immunocitoi- active strain of Salmonella eneritidis fit, analogs chitosan, etc.), sulfonylurea var. Issatschenko; 150 t of Trichodermin herbicides, imidasolinon, herbicide mix- with Trichoderma spp.; 280 t of Zhizoplant tures (cowboy, kross, kronos) and complex based on Pseudomonas spp.; 19 t of Lepido- products including mixture of fungicide, ced with culture of Bt var. kurstaki; 15 t of insecticide and herbicide (koprangs), which Boverin based on Beauveria bassiana; 11 t are active in doses of grams per hectare. of Agat with Pseudomonas fluorescens; and 10 t of Bitoxibacillin with Bt var. thuringiensis. Biological control Currently, the following biological products may be effective for protection: The Department of Plant Protection of the • of grain crops from root rot – agat 25, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences rhizoplant, phitolavin; is actively developing biological control • of technical crops from beet web- methods and agents. The All-Russian worm (Pyraustra sticticalis), cutworms Scientific Research Institute of Plant (Agrotis spp.) – baxin, bitoxibacillin, Protection (VIZR) has created a bank of bicol, lepidoced, dendrobacillin; microorganisms, including more than 500 • of potatoes from Colorado potato cultures of bacteria and Actinomycetes, 120 beetle – bitoxibacillin, bicol, dicimid, fungi, 22 insect pathogenic nematodes and colorado, from Phytophthora infection Microsporidia, and 15 insect viruses. The – rhizoplan, agat; Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 363

• of vegetable crops from bacterial wilt – beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and corn rhizoplan, phitolavin, from wireworm borers (Ostrinia spp.). Some herbicide- – trichodermin, from Lepidoptera tolerant transgenic crops have been insects – astur, baxin, lepidoced, developed (maize, sugarbeets, soybean) dendrobacillin, bitoxibacillin, bicol, (Zakharenko, 2000b). The genetic make-up homelin, Trichogramma spp.; of transgenic plants has been described in • of fruit crops from Podosphaera leuco- Bio-Pesticide Manual (Copping, 1998). tricha and Venturia spp. – bactofit, from Ervinia amylovora – pentafag. The following biological products which ULV application are not considered pesticides are used to control diseases in greenhouses such as: Ultra lowvolume (ULV) pesticide formula - • root rot – bactofit, trichodermin, agat tions have several benefits, including cost 25, rhizoplan; effectiveness and reducing pesticide pres- • powdery mildew – bactofit; sure to the environment. There is a need for • angular leaf spot – pentafag; modern, efficient spray equipment capable • bacteriosys – phitolavin; of complying with new stringent environ- • white fly – verticillin, boverin, mental requirements for pesticide appli- Encarsia; cation. Application equipment is being • spider mite – Phytoseiulus, bicicol, designed under the conversion program of bitocsibacillin; the Defence Ministry involving the Insti- • tobacco thrips – Amblyseius, boverin; tutes of the Plant Protection Department • aphids – Chrisopa, Aphidoletes and an ex-military producer. A prototype aphidimyza, Cycloneda limbifera, sprayer is able to ionize droplets during Aphidius matricariae (Bondarenko, the working cycle, reducing spray loss and 1986; Zakharenko, 2000a). enhancing the efficiency of application. Pesticide production has declined in recent years, in part due to national economic reforms. Pesticide production Advantages of biological control declined from 215,600 t in 1986–1990 to 17,000 t in 1991–1997, and as a result, Economically, biological control methods pesticide use has declined to 29,600 t and have been demonstrated to be efficient agricultural land treated with pesticides when used for vegetables and a wide range has decreased from 76.9 to 28.4 million of fruit and berry crops. Biological methods ha (Table 27.4). Average pesticide use are also advantageous for companies per hectare in Russia was estimated producing baby and health food, and when at 0.1–0.16 kg of formulated product crops are grown near large urban centers, in (124,537,000 ha), but at the same time the water reserve and sanitary zones, and near world use of pesticides in 1996 equalled areas with radioactive pollution. Biological 1.6 kg of active ingredient per hectare of ara- control methods are used on 1.5–2 million ble land at the sales level (Calderoni, 1997). ha (1–2 % of all arable land). The same decrease happened with pesticide use on major agricultural crops in Russia (Table 27.5). For example, in 1998 Management of pest resistance using only 47% of total grown area of cereals transgenic crops has been treated with pesticides, where herbicides were applied on 11,783,000 ha. Field experiments done by VIZR, VNIIF, Maize for grain had been treated only with VNIIBZR (1998–2000) demonstrated con- herbicides and crops grown for grain legume siderable potential for transgenic plants to had been treated only against insects with control pest insects such as Colorado potato insecticides (Table 27.5). 364 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

The effectiveness of the actual crop yield per hectare of areas treated with protection practice was calculated for the pesticides (Table 27.6). 1991–1995 years as the percentage of pre- Crop losses prevented by the use of vented losses by chemical treatments. The chemical and biological products for crop amounts of losses prevented by the use protection were 14.2 million tons of grain of pesticides was determined on the basis units (Zakharenko, 1998). Considering the of the data of crop and area treated with enormous potential of plant protection in pesticides and the amount of additional preventing yield losses, the possible future

Table 27.4. Average annual use of agricultural pesticides (t) in Russia during 1986–2000.

1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000

General pesticide use, formulated product, t 215,566 51,710 29,625 Herbicide application/thousand ha 32,442 16,273 16,007 Insecticide application/thousand ha 23,352 12,049 9,273 Fungicide application/thousand ha 13,155 5,829 2,924 Total pesticide application/thousand ha 68,949 34,151 28,400

Table 27.5. Pesticide use on major agricultural crops in Russia in 1998.

Areas by product type (’000s ha) Areas grown Total areas treated Pesticide Crops (’000s ha) (’000s ha) Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide usage (%)

Cereals 29,821 13,988 11,783 ,981 1,234.5 47.51 Rice 11,146 119,27 ,13 ,14.5 19.51 Grain legume 1,784 11,311 ,311 17.51 (peas and other) Maize, grain 11,791 11,633 11,633 80.51 Foot root crops 3,265 11,152 11,100 ,52 5.51 Rapeseed 11,276 11,213 ,213 77.51 Sugarbeet 11,810 1,014 11,802 ,132 ,80.5 125.51 Fiber flax 11,106 11,140 11,116 ,22 , 1.5 132.51 Sunflower 4,167 11,208 11,190 ,15 , 3.5 5.51 Soybean 11,487 ,7 Potatoes 3,265 2,251 11,101 1,730 ,420.5 69.51 Vegetables 11,745 11,356 11,123 ,193 , 40.5 48.51 Fruit and berry 11,919 11,656 ,383 ,273.5 0.71 Grape 11 ,80 11,442 ,114 ,328.5 5.53

Table 27.6. The losses prevented by chemical treatments in Russia during 1991–2000.

Treated area (‘000 ha) Additional yield

Biological To potential Crops Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide control (‘000 t) losses (%)

Grain crops 11,203 3,726 3,275 913 3,127.21 10.3 Fiber flax 11,285 ,78 , 10 30 3,122.21 34.9 Sugarbeet 1,330 , 441 ,145 365 1,447.21 32.6 Sunflower 11,751 , 143 ,130 61 ,428.21 9.6 Potatoes 11,229 1,878 1,213 87 4,206.21 13.9 Vegetables 11,250 ,324 ,229 571 3,074.21 17.9 Fruit and berries 11,215 1,272 1,105 151 1,378.21 21.6 Forage crops 1,511 2,035 ,126 50 ,332.21 3.6 Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 365

trends over the period of 1999–2005 should focused on the re-structuring of Russian include enhanced pesticide use and other agriculture. In 2000, a network of 53 regional control measures in IPPM. advisory agencies was established with 37 extension services. These agencies provide a wide range of necessary services, such as consultations in pest, weed and disease Research and Extension Focus in IPPM control and crop monitoring. The agencies were provided with recommended retail Wide-scale adoption of IPPM practices has price lists to make the service affordable for been encouraged by both government and all customers (Goats, 2000). non-government organizations. The Depart- The state plant protection service has ment of Plant Protection network has made organized support services for 27,000 state monitoring data available for pest, disease and co-operative agricultural companies, and weed infestations. Plant protection sys- 279,000 private farms and 42,000,000 tems have been introduced on state, collec- primary agricultural producers on an area tive and private agriculture enterprises of 208.4 million ha, including 126 million ha throughout the country. of arable land and 90.9 million ha of The IPPM program is a complex and cultivated land. Cultivated land consisted of continually improving system. Four institu- 50.8 million ha of grain crops, 4.1 million ha tions in Russia share responsibility for of sunflower, 0.82 million ha of sugarbeet, education, training, technology develop- 0.48 million ha of soybean, 0.11 million ha of ment and plant protection research: the fiber flax, 3.3 million ha of potatoes, 0.74 Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, million ha of vegetable crops, 30 million ha the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of fodder cultures and 1 million ha of fruit, of Education, and the Ministry of Science berry and grapes. and Technology Policy. Education in IPPM practices includes secondary vocational technical schools, agricultural colleges or specialized secondary education institu- Case Studies of IPPM in the former tions, and higher education institutions. USSR and Russia There are also a number of academies and universities in Russia offering higher level Reduction in herbicide use agricultural education such as Moscow Agricultural Academy and St Petersburg From 1975 to 1993, the researchers from State University. The majority of the agri- MoscowAgricultural Academy conducted cultural research institutes are under the long-term field trials of crop rotation with auspices of the Russian Academy of Agri- different herbicide application programs cultural Science and supervised by the at the experimental farm in the Moscow Ministry of Agriculture. region. The trials involved rotating crops The state plant protection service in such as winter wheat, potatoes, barley, Russia organizes education and training vetch, and oat mixture in control (conven- programs for farmers in subjects such as tional herbicide application program) and sampling methods, economic and action experimental (IPPM with reduced herbicide thresholds, chemical, natural and biological application program) treatments. Control products, critical stages for pest control, blocks were treated with 1.96 kg/ha of and application techniques. In 1999, the herbicides annually from 1975 to 1993. state service organized 1996 seminars, 21 IPPM blocks were treated with herbicides exhibitions, 1891 TV and radio interviews, at 0.9 kg/ha annually, reducing chemical published 5886 articles, and gave 29,853 inputs by 54.1%. The average crop yield lectures and 258,001 consultations. in the experimental blocks was 5.08 t/ha, In 1993, the Russian Ministry of Agri- 1.2% higher than the yield in the culture began to improve advisory services control block of 4.57 t/ha (Zakharenko and 366 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

Zakharenko, 1995). Similar results were field trials in the Krasnodar region. Results observed during long-term trials at the showed that biological control methods state farm enterprises for grain cultivation were at least as effective as 12 applications (Rtischeva et al., 1994). The results of these of conventional chemicals. The biological are shown in Table 27.7. methods were also half as expensive.

IPPM strategies in orchards Area-wide mapping and mass-trapping of major pests using sex pheromone Insect growth regulators traps on vegetable fields New improved recommendations for protection of apple orchards in Krasnodar Pheromone-based IPM strategies have been region against Lepidopteran pests were used for many years in the former USSR. developed by ‘Slavajanskaja’ Plant Pro- Insect sex pheromones were probably the tection Station of VIZR. The insect growth most widespread and certainly the most regulator Insegar was recommended, as it widely documented IPM tools in the former has low toxicity for mammals and does not USSRand Russia(Lebedeva et al., 1984). affect beneficial insects. Insegar was effec- Insect sex pheromones have been used in tive against insects that have developed res- IPM: for discovering species of insects istance to organophosphates and synthetic in natural ecosystems and agricultural pyrethroids. Insegar applications on 1230 ha environments for taxonomic and plant proof apple orchards in Orchard Gigant Ltd in tection investigations (Il’ichev et al., 1981; the Krasnodar region decreased the number Il’ichev, 1987); for detection (early warning) of chemical sprays by half compared with and monitoring of pests, threshold determi- organophosphate and pyrethroid-based nation (timing treatments and sampling spray programs. Crop yield during these methods) and for density estimation (risk trials reached 23,000 kg/ha. assessments, effects of control measures) (Lebedeva et al., 1984); for forecasting of Biological control in apples population density, trends and dispersion (Il’ichev et al., 1989); for mapping of IPPM in apples includes several biological infestation distribution (hot spots) and risk control methods (Sazonov, 1988). Bacillus assessment (Il’ichev, 1991); for application thuringiensis, the terpene-based product of sex pheromone barriers to localize hot Biostat, an animal-based product Hitozan, spots (Il’ichev, 1991); for mass trapping entomophagous Habrobracon spp. and (Boorov and Sazonov, 1987; Il’ichev and Elasmidae, and pheromones are all used. Zakharenko, 1991); and for mating The research centre ‘Kuban’ conducted disruption application (Sazonov, 1988; Zakharenko and Il’ichev, 1991). This case study describes area-wide Table 27.7. Efficiency of wheat production under monitoring, mapping and mass-trapping IPPM with reduced herbicide application program of major vegetable pests in 220 ha of the at state owned and collectives farm enterprises in Issyk-Kuhl Lake region of Kirgizia and Russia during 1987–1993. in 110 ha of the Crimea region of Ukraine Additional Reduction during 1987–1990 (Il’ichev, 2000). yield in pesticide Pheromone traps (Attracon AA) with Farm name and location (t/ha) use (%) the sticky base Pestifix (Flora Ltd, Tartu, Estonia) and sex pheromone dispensers for ‘Gigant’, Rostov 1.06 66.7 the noctuid moths Agrotis segetum Schiff., ‘Elizavetinscoje’, Saratov 1.03 57.7 Agrotis exclamationis L., Amathes c-nigrum ‘Promcor’, Voronezh 0.33 0.1 ‘Katchevskoje’, Novosibirsk 0.27 75.1 L., Autographa gamma L., Mamestra brassicae L., Scotogramma trifolii Hbn., Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 367

were used for monitoring and control. The http://www.cnshb.ru/csal/general.htm – home sex pheromone traps were distributed as page of the Central Scientific Agricultural follows: one trap/3–5 ha for each species Library for monitoring of initial pest population, http://ben.irex.ru/ – home page of the Library for Natural Sciences of Russian Academyof one trap/ha for detailed mapping and identi- Sciences (English version) fication of hot spots, and four traps/ha for http://www.cnshb.ru/csal/izdat/cx_bl_e.htm mass-trapping in hot spots. Dailyaverages – The journal Selskokhozyaistvennaya of 0.8 A. segetum, 1.7 A. exclamationis, biologiya 0.6 Am. c-nigrum, 0.8 S. trifolii per trap http://www.cnshb.ru/csal/izdat/cx_bl_e.htm – were recorded during mapping (880 traps in The journal Agrokhimicheskii vestnik 220 ha) of tomato fields in the Issyk-Kuhl http://www.cnshb.ru/csal/izdat/dokl_ak_e.htm Lake region. These levels of infestation – The Journal The Report of Russian were below the recommended economic Academy Agricultural Sciences (Doklady threshold and consequently, regular insecti- Rossel’khozakademiya) http://www.integrum.ru/eng/ – The home page of cide applications were postponed. the information agency‘Integrum-Tekhno’. Dailyaverages of 4.8 A. segetum, 6.2 A. Theycollaborate in using IRS ‘Artefakt’ in exclamationis, 2.6 Au. gamma, 6.4 M. bras- libraries, the system that allows retrieval sicae per trap were found in tomato and cab- from full-text documents with regard for bage fields in Crimea (440 traps in 110 ha). peculiarities of the Russian and English These levels were above the recommended languages. economic threshold and ‘hot spots’ of each http://www.cnshb.ru/aw/nii/nii_list.htm – home species were identified. Mass-trapping in page of Agricultural Scientific Research hot spots with four traps/ha for each pest Institutes in Russia (AgroWeb in Russia) reduced the infestations and avoided insec- http://www.aris.ru/GALLERY/ROS/NAUCH/ NII/RASHN/1.html – home page of the ticide applications. Detailed mapping of Russian Agricultural Academy species distribution and movement with http://www.aris.ru/GALLERY/ROS/NAUCH/ pheromone traps indicated that the cut- NII/RASHN/perehen0.html – home page worms A. segetum and A. exclamationis and list of all Scientific Research Institutes were concentrated on the edges of the belonging to the Russian Agricultural vegetable fields, but armyworms including Academy M. brassicae, S. trifolii and Au. gamma were http://www.cnshb.ru/csal/indengl.htm – home distributed randomlyand concentrated in page of the Central Scientific Agricultural hot spots throughout the field. In this study, Library area-wide application of mapping and mass- http://www.ras.ru/ – home page of the Russian Academy of Sciences trapping reduced insecticide application during four consecutive seasons, therefore benefiting the local environment. References

Important Websites, Publications and Alimukhamedov, S.N. (1985) [Improvement of integrated plant protection.] Zashchita Reports on IPM in Russia Rastenii, Moscow 9, 2–4. Anonymous (1994) [The Economical and Organi- http://www.rsl.ru/ – home page of the Russian zational Management of Phytosanitary State Library Conditions of the Agrocenosis.] http://www.mosinfo.com.ru – home page of the Rosselkhozakademia, Moscow, 38 pp. East View Publications (periodicals) Bondarenko, N.V. (1986) [Biological Plant http://home.eastview.com/epubs.shtml – home Protection.] Kolos, Moscow, 280 pp. page of the East View Publications Boorov, V.N. and Sazonov, A.P. (1987) [Biological (periodicals) where Russian Scientific Active Products for Plant Protection.] Periodical Journals can be found. Agropromizdat, Moscow, 199 pp. http://www.gpntb.ru/ – home page of the State Calderoni, P. (1997) Pesticide Industry, Overview. Public Scientific and Technical Library Chemical Economics Handbook – SRI 368 V.A. Zakharenko and A.L. Il’ichev

(Salient Research Institute) Industry Lebedeva, K.V., Miniailo, V.A. and Piatnova, Y.B. International, SRI International, USA, (1984) [Insect Pheromones.] Nayka, Moscow, Zurich, Tokyo. 267 pp. Chooraev, I.A., Zakcharenko, V.A. and Lesovoy, M.P. (ed.) (1989) [Environmental Plant Goncharov, N.P. (1981) [Organization and Protection.] MP, Kiev, 168 pp. Economy of Plant Protection – Integrated Lesovoy, M.P. (ed.) (1990) [Plant protection Plant Protection.] Kolos, Moscow, 113 pp. of intense agriculture in Ukraine Soviet Copping, L.G. (ed.) (1998) The Bio-Pesticide Socialist Republic.] MP, Kiev, 141 pp. Manual, 1st edn. BCPC, Farnham, 323 pp. Mechnikov, I.I. (1879) [Flour beetles. Diseases Goats, V.V. (2000) [Development of Regional of flour beetle larva. Investigations done by Information Advisory Service by Example I.I. Mechnikov.] Frantsov Printery, Odessa, of Nizniy Novgorod region.] FGNY, 32 pp. Rosinformagrotech, Moscow, 384 pp. Mel’nikov, N.N. (1974) [Pesticide Chemistry.] Golyshin, N.M. (1993) [Fungicides.] Kolos, Khimia, Moscow, 495 pp. Moscow, 316 pp. Novozhilov, K.V. (1980) [Plant Protection Gunar, I.I. and Beresovsky, M.Ja. (1952) [Chemical Chemicals.] Khimia, Moscow, 268 pp. Method to Control Weeds.] Sel’khozgiz, Ouerke, E.-C., Dehne, H.-W., Schonbeck, F. and Moscow, 200 pp. Weber, A. (1994) Crop Production and Crop Fadeev, Y.N. and Novojilov, K.V. (1981) [Integrat- Protection. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, ed Plant Protection.] Kolos, Moscow, 334 pp. 808 pp. Fedorov L.A. and Yablokov, A.V. (1999) Pesti- Rtischeva, I.A., Chenkin, A.F., Goncharov, N.P. cides: a Toxic Blow to the Biosphere and and Zakharenko, A.V. (1994) [The economi- Humans. Nauka Publishing House, Moscow, cal and organisational management of 462 pp. phytosanitary conditions of the agrocenosis.] Il’ichev, A.L. (1987) [The Sex Pheromones of Rosselkhozakademia, Moscow, 38 pp. Harmful Insects. Part 1 (Clothes-moths Russian Agriculture (2000) Department and Tortricid moths).] NIITEKHIM, Moscow, of Economy, Ministry of Agriculture, USSR, ISSN 0203-7955, 59 pp. Moscow, Russija, FGNY ‘Rosinformagro- Il’ichev, A.L. (1991) [Use the pheromones traps for tekh’, 48 pp. the mapping of vegetable crop pests centres Samersov, V.F. (1988) [Integrated protection of and creation of the pheromone barriers.] grain crops against pest insect.] Yuradjay, Zashchita Rastenii, Moscow 5, 42–43. Minsk, 207 pp. Il’ichev, A.L. (2000) Areawide mapping of major Sazonov, A.P. (ed.) (1988) [Insect pheromones and pests abundance with the sex pheromone development of their use in practice.] VIZR, traps and mass-trapping in hot spots on Leningrad, 133 pp. vegetables in the former Soviet Union. Shegolev, V.N., Znamenskyi, A.V. and Bei- In: Abstracts of the XXI-th International Bienko, G.Ja. (1938) [Insects – pests of field Congress of Entomology, Foz do Iguassu, crops.] Sel’khozgiz, Moscow–Leningrad, Brazil, 20–26 August, 2000, Vol. 1, 171. 538 pp. Il’ichev, A.L. and Zakharenko, V.A. (1991) Tansky, V.A. (1988) [Biological base of insect [Use of sex pheromones in horticulture.] harmfulness.] Agropromizdat, Moscow, Chemizatcia Selskogo Khozaistva, Moscow 180 pp. 5, 54–57. Vavilov, N.I. (1935) [Science about plant immu- Il’ichev, A.L., Kondrat’ev, Iu.A. and Roslavtceva, nity to infections and diseases.] Sel’khozgiz, S.A. (1981) [Sex attractants of Lepidoptera Moscow–Leningrad, 100 pp. and their Use in Plant Protection.] Zakharenko, V.A. (1975) Economy and NIITEKHIM, Moscow, ISSN 0203–7955, perspective of pesticide application in con- 35 pp. junction with intensification of agriculture. Il’ichev, A.L., Binkin, V.A. and Dvusherstov, M.G. In: Abstracts of the Eighth International Plant (1989) [Methodical Instructions by Use Sex Protection Congress, Moscow, USSR, 1975, Pheromones of Agrotis segetum and Agrotis Vol. 2, 1–6. exclamationis for prognosis and diagnostics.] Zakharenko, V.A. (1979) [Method of Economic CINAO, Moscow, 8 pp. Threshold Estimation for Weeds and Expedi- Krasil’shik, I.M. (1886) [The reasons of pest ency of Herbicide Application.] Vaskhnil, disappearance and fungus manufacture for Vniiash, Moscow, 38 pp. pests control.] In: VI Regional Entomological Zakharenko, V.A. (1990) [Herbicides.] Agro- congress in Odessa. 11 pp. promizdat, Moscow, 239 pp. Integrated Plant Protection Management in Russia 369

Zakharenko, V.A. (1997) [Tendency of changes material requirements for forecasting and in yield losses of agricultural crops due to plant protection.] Zashchita Rastenii 9, pest damage under the economy reformation 44–47. conditions in Russia.] Agrokhimiia, Moscow, Zakcharenko, V.A., Chenkin, A.F. and Nauka 3, 65–75. Cherkasov, V.A. (1985) [Plant Protect- Zakharenko, V.A. (1998) [Economy and effective- ion Guide.] Agropromizdat, Moscow, ness of chemical plant protection under the 415 pp. economy reformation conditions in Russia.] Zakharenko, V.A. and Zakharenko, A.V. (1995) Agrokhimiia, Moscow, Nauka 11, 84–92. [Estimation of an economic efficiency of Zakharenko, V.A. (2000a) [The state of biological the integrated protection of plants (with plant protection, promising direction of its an example of protection crops from weed fundamental and applied priority research plants).] Bulletin IOBC /EPRS, Moscow 31, within the system for phytosanitary 10–16. optimisation of crop production]. In: Urgent Zakharenko, V.A. and Zakharenko, A.V. (2001) Problems of Biological Plant Protection. The [Phytosanitary situation of agroecosystems Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and prospects optimization its weediness Pushchino, Moscow, pp. 11–26. in Russia.] In: Novel Approaches to Weed Zakharenko, V.A. (2000b) [Selection of transgenic Control Using New Classes of Herbicides and plants and their use in plant protection.] Transgenic Plants Resistant to Herbicides. Selskokhozyaistvennaya Biologiya 3, 30–49. Bioengineering, Russian Academy of Zakharenko, V.A. and Il’ichev, A.L. (1991) Sciences Information Centre, Moscow, [Planning work volumes and pheromone pp. 15–25.

Chapter 28 Integrated Pest Management in Australia

D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture, Tatura, Victoria, Australia

Introduction Registration of Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals The history of IPM in Australia began with biological control. Australia has been Since 1995,the Commonwealth (national) actively involved in biological control government has been responsible for evalu- of pests and weeds since the early 1900s ation,registration,review and control of (Wilson,1960). IPM in Australia followed agricultural and veterinary (AgVet) chemi- similar trends to other countries with the cals to the point of retail sale. The States development of damage thresholds and and Territories are responsible for the con- monitoring systems that allowed reliable trol of use of AgVet chemicals,including estimates of when pest populations licensing of pest control operators and approached action thresholds. Eventually, aerial spraying,and they administer the discovery of pesticide resistant strains separate legislation for this purpose. Prior of predators and parasitoids allowed inte- to 1995,the states,territories and national gration of biological control with chemical government performed these functions control methods. IPM systems in Australia independently. are most advanced in high-value crops such Criteria for registration include no as pome and stone fruits (Williams,2000a), unacceptable risk to humans,the environ - cotton (Ives et al.,1984),wine grapes ment or agricultural exports,and an accurate (Madge et al.,1993; Glenn et al.,1998), description of the product and its efficacy and citrus (Smith and Papacek,1993). The for the recommended uses. Several govern- pome fruit industry has played a leading ment bodies assess different aspects of the role in the development of IPM with pesticide registration process. Environment national guidelines for integrated fruit Australia undertakes assessment of the envi- production (IFP) in apples (Williams, ronmental hazards associated with use of 2000b) and the funding of a large-scale AgVet chemicals. The Department of Health collaborative project to facilitate the adop- and Family Services reviews the potential tion of integrated pest management. Other to affect human health. The National Occu- industries such as tomatoes,crucifers, pational Health and Safety Commission sweetcorn,greenhouse crops and potatoes reviews risk to those handling,applying,or are rapidly adopting IPM. otherwise exposed to the chemicals in the

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 371 372 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

workplace. If the chemical poses a risk of discussion over the last decade regarding poisoning if improperly used, the National the appropriate protocols for testing host Drugs and Poisons Schedule Committee specificity and other criteria for potential conducts a review. Preliminary Maximum biological control agents (Cullen, 1992, Residue Limits are suggested as part of the 1993; Field, 1993; Sands, 1993, 1998; Heard registration process. The Australia New Zea- and van Klinken, 1998). land Food Authority is responsible for the final assessment and approval of the residue limits. In 1993, the Commonwealth estab- Policy Support for IPM in Australia lished an independent statutory body, the National Registration Authority, and codi- In 1987 the World Commission on Environ- fied its regulatory powers in the Agricultural ment and Development released the and Veterinary Chemicals Code (AgVet Brundtland Report. This document clearly Code). Further details are available at identified that economic growth patterns at http://www.affa.gov.au/nra/legislat.html the time could not be sustained without The National Registration Authority is also major changes in attitudes and actions. In responsible for periodic review of existing 1989 the Australian Government responded AgVet chemicals. Recent review of a number with the release of a public discussion of organophosphate and organochlorine paper on a proposal for a NSESD. After pesticides has led to the restriction or with- extensive consultation and negotiation drawal of several pesticide products from between key interest groups within Austra- the market. These products were either an lia the NSESD was endorsed by Heads occupational health and safety risk or a risk of Government in 1992 and established the to export of other commodities by accidental framework for cooperative decision making contamination (drift or animal consumption in government and the promotion of ecolog- of treated feed). Changes in pesticide regis- ically sustainable development throughout tration status can have major effects on Australia. Working groups were established the implementation of IPM, especially if in nine areas, including agriculture. The alternative products are not available. Often, Agriculture Working Group reported that alternative products are either not as effec- the development of integrated policies tive or have toxic effects on natural enemies and programs for natural resource manage- that are resistant to other pesticides. ment were essential, and should promote community self-reliance. Farmers were encouraged to integrate property management plans with regional land management Regulation of biological control agents approaches and good business practices. The strategy also sought to reduce and man- The need for caution when importing age the impact of pest species, and to ensure biological control agents is best illustrated that AgVet chemicals were managed safely. by the great cane toad Bufo marinus One of the five objectives in the Agri- (L.), imported to control cane beetles in culture section of the NSESD stated that Australian sugarcane fields (Wilson, 1960). the national government will encourage The toad has a voracious appetite for native research in IPM and decision-support insects, frogs, small birds and rodents, systems, and continue to support integrated and has glands that exude highly toxic approaches to pest management through secretions. a combination of biological, chemical and Today, permits are required before any cultural control measures. Further details of biological control agent can be introduced the NSESD can be found at http://www. into Australia. Permits are obtained through environment.gov.au/psg/igu/nsesd/ the Australian Quarantine and Inspect- National agricultural policies are jointly ion Service. There has been considerable administered by the ARMCANZ and the IPM in Australia 373

SCARM. ARMCANZ includes leaders resp- balanced desirable and undesirable charac- onsible for agriculture and resource manage- teristics of pesticides used on apples, to ment from the state, territorial, and national assist apple growers in meeting the require- governments of Australia and NewZealand. ments of the Pesticides Charter. The growers SCARM represents government agencies association also commissioned an analysis responsible for agriculture, soil, water and of their investment in IPM research and rural adjustment policy. Animal and plant development. The report found that the health issues are overseen by the Australian investment in IPM research had caused Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and significant changes in industry practices Forestry. A Plant Health Committee consist- and increased the rate of adoption of IPM, ing of representatives of relevant SCARM resulting in a rate of return of at least 12% member agencies advises SCARM on the (AGTRANS Research, 1999). use of biological control and integrated pest management for pest and disease control. Commercial suppliers of biological control agents in Australia Agricultural entomology The early releases of biological control IPM has been a major focus for agricultural agents in Australia were government entomologists in Australia for decades. In sponsored. Once the potential for com- 1969, The Australian Entomological Society mercial production of biological control held the first of a series of Applied Ento- agents was recognized, several independent mological Research Conferences to discuss companies were established. Production of recent developments in applied entomol- large numbers of biological control agents ogy, particularly the management of insect requires considerable investment in rearing pests and environmental impacts of current facilities, techniques, quarantine and qual- management practices. Conferences are ity control, information and marketing. The held about every 5 years. The proceedings companies rearing commercial quantities of the 1992 conference were published in in Australia formed the Australasian the book Pest Control and Sustainable Agri- Biological Control Association to ensure culture, a valuable reference on Australian that high standards are maintained. IPM in the early 1990s (Corey et al., 1993). The 1998 conference proceedings were also published (Zalucki et al., 1998). Case Studies of IPM in Australia Industry has responded to consumer pressure to reduce the detrimental effects Kitching and Jones (1981) provided an of AgVet chemicals. Most producer groups excellent synopsis of IPM case histories support research and development in IPM. across a range of ecosystems in Australia. Chemical companies are assessing the Their book contains detailed ecological effects of newchemicals on existing IPM studies on skeleton weed (Groves and systems. In 1991 the Australian Apple and Cullen, 1981), kangaroos (Cunningham, Pear Growers Association took the unprece- 1981), crown of thorns starfish (Potts, dented step of signing a Pesticides Charter 1981), aphids (Maelzer, 1981), codling with the Australian Consumers Association. moth (Geier, 1981), lightbrown apple moth The Charter recognized that pesticides vary (Geier and Briese, 1981), mosquitoes (Kay in their toxicity, effect on the environment, et al., 1981), Australian bushfly (Hughes, and compatibility with biological control 1981), sheep blowfly (Kitching, 1981), agents and other beneficial species cabbage butterfly (Jones, 1981), and sirex (Anonymous, 1991). wasp (Taylor, 1981). Two other case studies In 1995, Penrose et al. (1995) developed are included here: IPM in pome and stone  PestDecide , a decision support system that fruits, and cotton. 374 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

Development of IPM in pome and stone apple orchards (Geier et al., 1969; Lloyd fruits in the state of Victoria et al., 1970). This work set the framework for orchard pest management research over the The state of Victoria is a major producer of next 40 years and considerable effort has fruit, nuts and berries in Australia. Govern- been expended since then to develop viable ment policy in Victoria encourages sustain- alternatives for pest management. able production and adoption of IPM. The Department of Natural Resources and Envi- Codling moth granulosis virus ronment (NRE) in Victoria is responsible for policy, research and extension services to Codling moth granulosis virus was cul- agriculture. NRE has had a long history tured, converted into sprayable formula- of integrating biological control into tions and tested against local codling moth production systems. In the early 1900s, populations (Morris, 1972). Despite some the parasitoid wasp Aphelinus mali was success with this method overseas, the released to help control woolly aphid. Australian trials were not able to obtain Aphelinus mali is still active today, and economical control. More recently, com- research projects conducted over the last mercial preparations of the virus from 20 years to reduce pesticide usage have France did not control Australian popula- enhanced its potential. For example, a large tions of codling moth even at 100 times the national collaborative multi-disciplinary recommended dose (Dingey and Williams, approach led by NRE to integrate the man- 1995, unpublished report). agement of weevils, woolly aphid and powdery mildew improved grower knowledge Predatory mites and understanding of howpoor choice of pesticides impacts on the biological control In the 1970s, the two-spotted mite of woolly aphid (Williams, 2000c). Tetranychus urticae (Koch) became a major In the 1930s, scientists at the Tatura problem in orchards, in part because spray- Horticultural Research Station (nowthe ing to control pests such as codling moth Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agricul- Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus), oriental fruit ture) showed that traps containing ferment- moth Grapholita molesta (Busck), and ing brown sugar solution could be combined lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas post- with daily temperature data (converted to vittana (Walker) decimated populations the developmental units of Shelford (1927)) of predatory beetles and phytoseiid mites to improve the timing of sprays against (Readshaw, 1971, 1975a). An Australian codling moth in apple and pear orchards strain of the phytoseiid Typhlodromus (Miller, 1943). However, the technology was occidentalis Nesbitt resistant to parathion not widely adopted for a number of reasons. existed in Victoria, but its effectiveness Traps were messy and difficult to use, was limited by susceptibility to azinphos- mathematical calculations had to be made methyl (Field, 1974, 1976). A North each day, suitable weather stations and American strain resistant to both parathion communication systems were not available, and azinphos-methyl was introduced into and newpesticides (organochlorines and Australia in 1972 and mass-released organophosphates) became available with between 1976–1978 (Readshaw, 1975b; such efficacy and persistence that accurate Webster and Field, 1977; Field and Web- timing was not important (Williams, 1984). ster, 1978; Field et al., 1979). A carbaryl- This situation changed in the 1960s resistant strain was released in 1983. when the side effects of broad-spectrum To date, the predatory mites have been pesticides became known. Also during the released on over 4500 ha of orchards and 1960s, entomologists at Burnley and Tatura have been extremely successful (Williams, collaborated with their interstate and CSIRO 2000a). They are nowavailable from colleagues in a major ecological study in commercial suppliers. IPM in Australia 375

Pest phenology modeling blocks for more than 10 years. However, some growers were reporting an increase in Pheromone traps were developed to moni- oriental fruit moth damage to shoot tips and tor populations of codling moth, oriental fruit. The most severe damage was typically fruit moth and, later, lightbrown apple found at the edge of peach blocks treated moth. This development along with the with mating disruption adjacent to pear advent of computers and electronic weather blocks treated with insecticides. Peach stations made possible the prediction of shoot tips and fruit attracted mated females codling moth populations. The PETE (Pest from adjacent pear blocks, where they had Extension Timing Estimator) model (Welch developed a high population under ineffec- et al., 1978) was obtained from Michigan tive insecticide treatments. The migration State University and used during the of mated females from pears under insecti- 1982/83 season, but a simpler model cide treatment to adjacent peaches treated was developed for the 1983/84 season with mating disruption resulted in damage (Williams, 1984). The system was expanded at the edge of the peach blocks. This pattern to include all three moth pests and has been of damage is known as an ‘edge effect’. widely used in Victoria, largely as a result Experiments in 1996–1999 investigated of the highly successful Cropwatch service whether applying mating disruption to all operated by NRE (Williams and McDonald, orchards in a given area (area-wide) would 1991; Williams and Pullman, 1995). Mating improve the effectiveness of mating disrup- disruption for codling moth often requires tion in hot spots and edges. This approach intervention with insecticides if the popu- was expected to be more reliable and cost lation is large, and the predictive model effective than combining mating disruption has been used successfully to schedule and insecticide treatments. such interventions (Vickers et al., 1998). Experimental methods – area-wide Pheromone-mediated mating disruption mating disruption

Mating disruption for orchard pests consid- In 1997/98, 800 ha on 18 orchards in erably reduced pesticide usage (Brown and Cobram, northern Victoria, were chosen Il’ichev, 1999), but also caused unexpected to conduct the project. The area included side effects. Reduction in pesticide usage in 550 ha of peaches and nectarines, which pome fruit as a result of mating disruption had been treated with mating disruption for codling moth created an opportunity for in the previous season. The other 250 ha oriental fruit moth to build up in pome fruit included pears, apples, plums and apricots blocks, especially those located adjacent to that had not been previously treated with stone fruit. Oriental fruit moth had not been mating disruption. For the area-wide mat- recorded in pome fruit in Victoria up to that ing disruption test, every host tree in this time. It nowappears that wherepome and area was treated with oriental fruit moth stone fruit blocks are adjacent, the oriental (OFM) pheromone at the recommended rate fruit moth can move between the blocks. of 1000 dispensers of ‘Isomate OFM Plus’ Mated females from pome fruit blocks can per hectare. Traps were placed around the migrate into stone fruit blocks and cause area to monitor the presence of oriental significant damage (Il’ichev, 1997). fruit moth in adjacent areas. Within the treatment area, traps were placed in each Area-wide mating disruption block of each fruit variety, on average one trap/4 ha. Detailed shoot tip and fruit dam- To counter this, Il’ichev et al. (1998) devel- age assessments were made before the first oped an area-wide mating disruption pro- color picking and at the time of harvest. ject for oriental fruit moth. Many growers Monitoring data from the first oriental in northern Victoria had successfully used fruit moth flight revealed two distinct hot mating disruption in peach and nectarine spots. One hot spot was eliminated and all 376 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

locations with edge damage effects were mating disruption program, control of also successfully controlled by the end of Carpophilus in stone fruit was based on the the 1997/98 season. use of broad-spectrum insecticides applied In 1998/99, the experiment was expan- near harvest time. This control was often ded to over 1100 ha on 40 orchards. ‘Isomate unsatisfactory and difficult due to the OFM Rosso’ dispensers at the rate of 500 required preharvest interval for insecticide dispensers/ha replaced ‘Isomate OFM Plus’. application. One season of this treatment controlled Identification and synthesis of male- a localized population (5–10 OFM/trap/ produced aggregation pheromones of Carpo- week). Two consecutive seasons of area- philus and subsequent field trials have wide mating disruption were able to control identified the potential of these pheromones a higher population level (up to 80 OFM/ for management (James et al., 1996; Hossain trap/week). Fruit damage in the worst hot et al., 2000b). Mass-trapping the beetle spot was reduced from 25% to 15% in has proved effective and contributed to the the first year and fell to almost zero in understanding of Carpophilus population the second year. Overall, area-wide mating dynamics and species composition. Field disruption was effective in reducing the trials demonstrated that pheromone stations oriental fruit moth population in hot are able successfully to trap and kill a large spots, migration of mated females, and edge number of beetles (about 500–9000 beetles/ effects (Il’ichev et al., 1999a,b). station/week) outside the orchard and The project stimulated a community protect ripening stone fruit. approach to pest management. All participating growers received written reports of IPM of plant diseases oriental fruit moth numbers in their fields weekly and were regularly informed of the IPM has also been applied to the develop- population on the whole experimental area. ment of control programs for plant diseases In the first year, growers reduced the use of in pome and stone fruits. The epidemiology insecticides against oriental fruit moth by of diseases including apple scab Venturia half, and in the second year, most growers inequalis, pear scab Venturia pirina, and did not apply insecticides against oriental powdery mildew Podosphaera leucotricha fruit moth at all. has been studied extensively. This has resulted in improvements such as disease Solving an unexpected problem forecasting systems (Villalta et al., 2002), ‘softer’ pesticides (Washington et al., 1998a) The reduction in pesticide use resulted in and a better understanding of the sus- Carpophilus beetles becoming a problem. ceptibility of apple varieties to both scab This often caused growers to apply pesti- and powdery mildew (Washington et al., cides and question the value of area-wide 1998b). mating disruption. To maintain the benefits of the area-wide mating disruption pro- Non-target impacts gram, an effective method of controlling Carpophilus became essential. In response, The impact of pesticides on biological con- a program using aggregation pheromone trol agents and other non-target organisms and co-attractants was developed (Hossain should also be elucidated to aid in the et al., 2000a). implementation of control programs. To The level of Carpophilus infestations assist in this endeavor, NRE provides a varies from year to year. Prior to harvest, commercial bioassay service. Advances in Carpophilus beetles are rarely seen in spray application technology have resulted orchards because of their small size in increased popularity of the more efficient and cryptic behavior, although trap data low-volume spray application technique indicates the beetles are active in orchards (Cole et al., 1998). Some effects of this on from September onwards. Prior to the non-target organisms have been quantified IPM in Australia 377

and work has started on improving the hab- ecological value, retaining native vegetation itat value of orchard floors for predators and provides a valuable service by acting as a parasitoids (Cole and Laukart, 2000). reservoir for natural enemies. It may also provide a haven for native pests such as Flexibility of IPM systems and integrated fruit bats, parrots and leafrollers, but proper fruit production planning can reduce the likelihood of unwelcome pest species. Selection of native Changes in pest management practices species for windbreaks and spray buffers often result in a shift in the composition of should consider their potential as a host for pest populations, indicating a need for flex- pests and their capacity to act as refugia for ibility in any IPM program. Pest manage- predatory mites and parasitoids (Williams, ment has traditionally been addressed as a 2000a). stand-alone issue, but experience with the A major motivation for the IFP program development of IPM for the fruit industry is the requirement of European and UK has demonstrated that many factors includ- markets for crops grown in ways that are safe ing economics and soil, water and fertilizer to the environment, consumers, and farm management have considerable impact on workers. Currently, growers can be audited the effectiveness of pest management. Pome to confirm that they meet these expectations, fruit growers in Australia have recognized so careful and accurate record keeping is this and are funding a national system for indispensable. Australian growers who sup- IFP. The IFP system developed for pome ply export markets have adopted Quality fruit in Australia incorporates whole-farm Assurance systems that use a HACCP to planning, site-specific selection of scion/ identify and control food safety issues. rootstock combinations, IPM, irrigation and Domestic supermarket chains also request nutrition, crop management, quality assur- suppliers to have HACCP certification. ance, food safety, and occupational health The Australian IFP system is designed to and safety (Williams, 2000a,b). IFP takes complement the HACCP based system so a broad approach to pest management that only one audit is required. decision-making by encouraging integra- A preliminary study to determine how tion and understanding of the interactions Australian growers were performing against occurring in the orchard and their impacts the IFP guidelines was conducted in 1999 on crop quality. (Williams, 2000b). Growers in all pro- Whole-farm planning requires consid- duction areas were surveyed (Table 28.1). eration of remnant native vegetation and sit- Slightly more growers selected pesticides on ing of buildings, tracks, dams, windbreaks the basis of compatibility with predators and other works to minimize environmental (86%), than efficacy against the target pest impacts. Retention of remnant native vegeta- (84%), suggesting that they are prepared tion and re-vegetation of marginal areas is to balance pest control with the value of important for several reasons. Besides the maintaining a predator population. Nearly

Table 28.1. Responses to survey of pest and disease management practices. Figures are the percentage of the total number of responders who claimed to be using the practice.

Management practice Percentage

Use orchard sanitation and cultural controls to avoid pest and disease build-up 88 Monitor pest and disease levels in individual blocks within the orchard 88 Select pesticides on basis of compatibility with predators and parasitoids 86 Select pesticides on basis of efficacy against target pest 84 Base spraying decisions on results of monitoring 92 Use a consultant for pest management 57 Own staff are trained and conduct pest and disease monitoring 45 378 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

all (92%) based spraying decisions on the Australian cotton production utilizes results of monitoring, while 57% used a many IPM strategies such as augmentation consultant for their pest management. Con- of beneficial insect populations, host plant sultants are not always able to attend resistance, selective insecticides, incorpo- every fewdays to monitor, and growersare rating the compensatory capacity of the encouraged to have their staff trained in pest plant, cultural control, and sampling scouting. Overall 45% had their own staff systems and thresholds. Despite this, the trained to monitor pest populations. most common tool for pest control is The high level of monitoring and docu- still application of chemical pesticides; mentation required by a formal, audited conventional cotton crops receive about system is encouraging growers and their 8–15 sprays/season (Fitt, 2000). staff to take a greater interest in the ecology The Cooperative Research Center con- of their orchards. Practical training products programs related to cotton breeding, grams conducted by NRE help growers to crop agronomy, weed control, soil structure, develop a greater understanding, sense of plant diseases, and information technology ownership, and confidence in the biological as well as entomology. Pest resistance, the systems they are managing. ever-increasing cost of pesticides, the need to reduce environmental pollution, and the essential task of maintaining profitability are driving the development of management IPM in cotton approaches that optimize the ability of pest managers to deal with multiple problems Cotton is produced in the northern states of (Kauter, 2001). Formal integration of the Queensland, Western Australia, Northern many pest management strategies in cotton Territory, and northern NewSouth Wales. systems is nowunderway(Anonymous, It is attacked by a wide range of pests 1999) and should result in the cotton including cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa equivalent of IFP. However, the integration armigera Hübner), native budworm of various best management practices is (H. punctigera Wallengren), green mirids complex, since many management practices (Creontiades dilutus Stål), and two-spotted are contradictory. For example, the cultiva- mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch). Severe tion of soil to kill insecticide-resistant outbreaks of these pests in recent seasons moth pupae conflicts with the minimum (1997/98) have resulted in very high costs tillage system used to maintain soil (Aus$800–1000/ha) of insecticide usage. structure. This has focused the industry on the need to reduce reliance on synthetic insecticides. Bt cotton Growers, consultants, researchers and extension officers, the Australian Cotton The use of Bt cotton (tradename INGARD®) Cooperative Research Center, and the Cot- can potentially reduce insecticide usage ton Research and Development Corporation against Helicoverpa by 50–70% (Fitt, 2000). are collaborating in an effort to develop IPM The adoption of Bt cotton in Australia has guidelines for cotton (Mensah and Wilson, been relatively gradual (Fitt and Wilson, 2000). The Cooperative Research Center 2000). The sustainable use of transgenic comprises participants from CSIRO, New cotton depends on managing the risk of South Wales Agriculture, Department of resistance developing to the engineered Primary Industries Queensland, NT Depart- toxins. Growers of Bt cotton must adhere ment of Primary Industries and Fisheries, to an Insect Management Plan as part of Agriculture Western Australia, University the required INGARD® Grower Agreement. of Sydney, University of NewEngland, The Insect Management Plan requires each Cotton Research and Development Corpora- grower to plant a refuge crop capable of tion, Cotton Seed Distributors, Queensland producing sufficient moths to dominate any Cotton, and Western Agricultural Industries. survivors of Bt crops and keep resistance at IPM in Australia 379

lowlevels. Also, Bt crops must be planted research institutions and projects throughout in narrow time windows designed to mini- NSW. mize pest pressure, and all volunteer cotton http://www.dpi.qid.gov.au/ – Home page of the plants must be removed from all fields Department of Primary Industries including research institutions and projects throughout being planted with INGARD® and from ® Queensland. fallows after INGARD (Holloway et al., http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/ – Home page of 2000). the Western Australia Agriculture including Fitt (2000) calls for Bt cotton to be research institutions and projects throughout viewed as part of an IPM system that incor- Western Australia. porates a broad range of other tactics. IPM http://www.dpif/ – Home page of the Northern systems for future cotton production will Territory Department of Primary Industries likely be more complex than pesticide-based and Fisheries with Agriculture. systems, and transgenic cotton alone will http://www.agric.sa.gov.au/ – Home page of not be a sustainable technology if left alone. the South Australia Agriculture including research institutions and projects throughout Intelligent use of newtechnologies requires South Australia. a thorough understanding of the ecology of http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/ – Home page of the the crop system. Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment in Tasmania. Area-wide programs http://www.affa.gov.au/ – Home page of Agri- culture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia. The IPM Guidelines for Australian Cotton http://www.ento.csiro.au/ – CSIRO Division of recognize that to be most effective, IPM Entomology (Australia). requires a strategic approach involving http://www.horticulture.com.au/ – Home page of year-long planning deployed in a coordi- the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation (nowHorticulture Australia nated way through district or regional Limited) with project descriptions. area-wide strategies (Mensah and Wilson, 2000). Cotton growers in Australia have used area-wide strategies to manage insecti- Universities and associated IPM research cide-resistant populations of Helicoverpa centres in Australia armigera (Forrester et al., 1993). Area-wide strategies include the coordinated use of trap crops to concentrate moths where http://www.uws.edu.au/ – University of Western the larvae and pupae can be controlled Sydney. Horticulture and integrated pest management. by cultivation (Mensah and Wilson, http://www.cpitt.uq.edu.au/ – Cooperative 2000). Region-specific strategies have also Research Centre for Tropical Pest Manage- been devised for both conventional and ment, University of Queensland, Australia. transgenic cotton (Holloway et al., 2000). Research Topics: Modeling, Insect Identities and Behavior, Insect/ Plant Interactions, Field Analysis and Application, Decision Important Websites, Publications and Analysis and Implementation, Computer Reports on IPM in Australia Assisted Learning and Decision Support, Biocontrol. http://www.tpp.uq.edu.au/ – Cooperative Government research organizations Research Centre for Tropical Plant Pathology: in Australia University of Queensland, Australia. http://cotton.pi.csiro.au/ – Home page of the http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/ – Home page of Australian Cotton Cooperative Research the Department of Natural Resources and Centre Environment including research institutions http://www.une.edu.au/ – Insect Pest Manage- and projects throughout Victoria. ment at University of NewEngland: this http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/ – Home page of the document introduces the activities and inter- NewSouth Wales Agriculture including ests of the Insect Pest Management Group 380 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

within the Department of Agronomy and Soil http://www.goodbugs.org.au/-Australasian – Science, at the University of NewEngland, AustralasianBiological Control Association. Armidale, New South Wales, Australia. http://www.goodbugs.org.au/home.html – Bio http://www.waite.adelaide.edu.au/ – Depart- Resources – site includes IPM in sweetcorn ment of Crop Protection, Waite Campus, and macadamias. It also details biocontrol University of Adelaide. Research Groups: agents available in Australia as well as Entomology, Nematology, Plant–Microbe general information on using Biological Interactions, Virology, Weed Science. Control Agents in IPM programs. (Bugs http://www.unisearch.com.au/html/cerit.html – for Bugs – a specialist citrus IPM site. IPM Centre for Entomological Research & Insecti- Technologies Ltd. Bio-protection. Greennem cide Technology (CERIT), University of – Suppliers of parasitic nematodes.) NewSouth Wales, Sydney, Australia. CERIT http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/ – Crop Health Home Page: outlines research and teaching Services, Knoxfield, Victoria. activities of the Centre together with industry http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/isia/plantprotection/ services provided, pest species available for projects – Area-wide mating disruption commercial testing and latest developments. projects in orchards in Victoria, Australia. http://groucho.ucc.usyd.edu.au:9000/public/ RMAS6905/ – Web page for on-line IPM unit of study conducted by the Orange campus of the University of Sydney. Designed to give IPM related literature in Australia worldwide access to IPM education. http://www.farmonline.com.au/ – Home page of the Farmonline – a network of agricultural Agricultural universities news from around Australia from leading rural newspapers and magazines. Select your publication for all the latest news plus an http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/tbiol/Botany/ – extensive list of properties for sale in rural James Cook University (Queensland): Depart- Australia, job vacancies and a comprehensive ment of Botany and Tropical Agriculture. list of classified advertisements. Farmonline http://www.latrobe.edu.au/ – La Trobe University also features a calendar of events, rural School of Agriculture (Victoria): School of bookshop and an extensive database of rural Agriculture. businesses, trades and services. http://www.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/ – The University of Melbourne: this university offers programs in Agriculture, Forestry & Horticulture. References http://ansc.une.edu.au/ – University of New England (New South Wales). AGTRANS Research (1999) AP980667: http://www.uq.edu.au/entomology/home.html Evaluation of HRDC/AAPGA Investment in – University of Queensland: School of R&D for the Apple and Pear Industry with Entomology. Emphasis on IPM, 1999. Horticultural Research and Development Corporation Final Report Series. (Project AP98064) Anonymous (1991) Pesticides charter. In: Private IPM companies (other useful sites Towards a National Food Policy. National associated with IPM) Working Group on Food Policy. Australian Consumers Association, Sydney, p. 21 http://www.biocontrol.com.au/ – Biocontrol Ltd Anonymous (1999) Newemphasis on cotton is an Australian company based in southern farming systems. Cotton CRC website http:// Queensland and has been in operation since www.mv.pi.csiro.au/publicat/articles/ 1981. Biocontrol Ltd specializes in develop- Brown, D.J. and Il’ichev, A.L. (1999) The potential ment of effective soft option products for pest for the removal of organophosphate control, particularly those based on insect insecticides from stone-fruit production behavior modifying chemicals. Their first in the Goulburn Valley, Australia. Acta three products for the Australian market are Horticulturae 525, 85–91. formulations of sex pheromones for key pests Cole, P. and Laukart, N. (2000) Concentrate spray- of horticulture. ing in Pome fruit: preserving the beneficials. IPM in Australia 381

Horticultural Research and Development In: Kennedy, G.G. and Sutton, T.B. (eds) Corporation Final Report Series. Emerging Technologies in Integrated Pest Cole, P., Riches, D. and French, H. (1998) Management: Concepts, Research and Imple- Improved spray application in apples and mentation. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota, pears. Horticultural Research and Develop- pp. 108–125. ment Corporation Final Report Series. Forrester, N.W., Cahill, M., Bird, L.J. and Layland, Corey, S., Dall, D. and Milne, W. (eds) (1993) Pest J.K. (1993) Management of pyrethroid Control and Sustainable Agriculture. CSIRO and endosulfan resistance in Helicoverpa Publishing, Melbourne. armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Cullen, J.M. (ed.) (1992) Report of a joint SCA and Australia. Bulletin of Entomological CONCOM workshop on Environment Conser- Research (Suppl. 1), 132 vation and the Introduction of Biological Geier, P.W. (1981) The codling moth, Cydia Control Agents, Canberra 1990. pomonella (L.): profile of a key pest. In: Cullen, J.M. (1993) Opportunities and challenges Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The in biological control. In: Corey, S., Dall, D. Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case and Milne, W. (eds) Pest Control and Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 109–130. Sustainable Agriculture. CSIRO Publishing, Geier, P.W. and Briese, D.T. (1981) The light- Melbourne, pp. 44–50. brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana Cunningham, D.K. (1981) Arid-zone kangaroos – (Walker): a native leafroller fostered by pest or resource? In: Kitching, R.L. and European settlement. In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The Ecology of Pests: Jones, R.E. (eds) The Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case Histories. CSIRO, Some Australian Case Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 19–54. Melbourne, pp. 131–156. Dingey, A. and Williams, D. (1995) Field assess- Geier, P.W., Harris, W.B., Hillman, T.J., Hudson, ment of Carpovirusine in Southern Australia. N.M., Jones, E.L., Lloyd, N.C., Lower, H.F., Confidential report for Calliope, France. Morris, D.S. and Webster, W.J. (1969) A Field, R.P. (1974) Occurrence of an Australia strain cooperative programme of research into the of Typhlodromus occidentalis (Acarina: management of pest insects in pome fruit Phytoseiidae) tolerant to parathion. Journal orchards of South-eastern Australia. Progress of the Australian Entomological Society 13, Report for 1966–67. CSIRO, Melbourne. 255–256. Glenn, D., Sward, R., Braybrook, D., Aitken, D., Field, R.P. (1976) Integrated pest control in Hayes, P. and Smith, M. (1998) Improving Victorian peach orchards: the role of adoption of IPM in Viticulture: from Research Typhlodromus occidentalis Nesbitt (Acarina: to Practice. In: Zalucki, M.P., Drew, R.A.I. Phytoseiidae). Australian Journal of Zoology and White, G.G. (eds) (1998) Pest Manage- 24, 565–572. ment – Future Challenges. Proceedings of the Field, R.P. (1993) Guidelines for reviewing Sixth Australasian Applied Entomological applications for importation and release Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, of biological control agents of weeds. In: Vol. 1, pp. 57–68. Corey, S., Dall, D. and Milne, W. (eds) (1993) Groves, R.H. and Cullen, J.M. (1981) Chondrilla Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture. juncea: ecological control of a weed. In: CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 193–195. Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The Field, R.P. and Webster, W.J. (1978) Predators Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case keep down twospotted mites – but watch Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 7–18. your spray. Victorian Horticulture Digest Heard, T.A. and van Klinken, R.D. (1998) An 74, 17–20. analysis of test designs for host range Field, R.P., Webster, W.J. and Morris, D.S. (1979) determination of insects for biological con- Mass rearing Typhlodromus occidentalis trol of weeds. In: Zalucki, M.P., Drew, R.A.I. Nesbitt (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) for release and White, G.G. (eds) Pest Management – in orchards. Journal of the Australian Future Challenges. Proceedings of the Entomological Society 18, 213–215. Sixth Australasian Applied Entomological Fitt, G.P. (2000) An Australian approach to IPM in Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, cotton: integrating newtechnologies to Vol. 1, pp. 539–546. minimise insecticide dependence. Crop Holloway, J., Gunning, R., Tucker, G., Pyke, B., Protection 19, 793–800. Wilson, L. and Fitt, G. (2000) Insecticide Fitt, G.P. and Wilson, L.J. (2000) Genetic resistance management strategy for con- engineering in IPM: case study – Bt plants. ventional cotton 2000–2001. In: Shaw, A.J. 382 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

Cotton Pest Management Guide 2000/2001. a co-attractant: development of a strategy for NSW Agriculture, pp. 27–33. population suppression. Journal of Chemical Hossain, M.S., Mansfield, C.M., Jerie, P.H. Ecology 22(8), 1541–1556. and Il’ichev, A.L. (2000a) Mass trapping of Jones, R.E. (1981) The cabbage butterfly, Pieris Carpophilus spp. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) rapae L.: a just sense of hownot to fly. using aggregation pheromone: a possible In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The strategy for suppressing Carpophilus popula- Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case tion in stone fruit orchards. Abstracts of the Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 217–230. 31st Annual General Meeting and Scientific Kay, B.H., Sinclair, P. and Marks, E.N. (1981) Conference of the Australian Entomological Mosquitoes: their inter-relationship with Society, Darwin, 25–30 June 2000, p. 16. man. In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) Hossain, M., Mansfield, C. and Brown, C. (2000b) The Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case Control of Carpophilus beetle by using Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 157–176. aggregation pheromone. Australian Fresh Kauter, G. (2001) IPM – Sticking to the challenge. Stone Fruit Quarterly 2(3), 13–14. Cotton CRC website http://www.mv.pi.csiro. Hughes, R.D. (1981) The Australian bushfly: au/publicat/conf/coconf00/areawide/07/07. a climate-dominated nuisance pest of man. htm In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The Kitching, R.L. (1981) The sheep blowfly: a Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case resource-limited, specialist species. In: Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 177–192. Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The Il’ichev, A.L. (1997) Problems with mating disrup- Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case tion of oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 193–216. (Busck). Abstracts of the 28th Annual Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) (1981) The General Meeting and Scientific Conference Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case of the Australian Entomological Society, Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, 254 pp. Melbourne, Victoria, p. 37. Lloyd, N.C., Jones, E.L., Morris, D.S., Il’ichev, A.L., Jerie, P.H. and Hossain, M.S. (1998) Webster, W.J., Harris, W.B., Lower, H.F., Wide area mating disruption of oriental fruit Hudson, N.M. and Geier, P.W. (1970) moth Grapholita molesta Busck. (Lepidop- Managing apple pests: a newperspective. tera: Tortricidae) in Victoria. In: Zalucki, Journal of the Australian Institute of M.P., Drew, R.A.I. and White, G.G. (eds) Pest Agricultural Science 36, 251–258. Management – Future Challenges. Proceed- Maelzer, D.A. (1981) Aphids – introduced pests ings of the Sixth Australasian Applied Ento- of man’s crops. In: Kitching, R.L. and mological Research Conference, Brisbane, Jones, R.E. (eds) The Ecology of Pests: Australia. Vol. 1, pp. 348–355. Some Australian Case Histories. CSIRO, Il’ichev, A.L., Hossain, M.S. and Jerie, P.H. (1999a) Melbourne, pp. 89–108. Application of wide area mating disruption Madge, D.G., Buchanan, G.A. and Stirrat, S. (1993) for control of oriental fruit moth Grapholita Practical application of Integrated Pest molesta Busck. (Lepidoptera; Tortricidae) Management in Vineyards in Sunraysia. migration in Victoria, Australia. IOBC/WPRS In: Corey, S., Dall, D. and Milne, W. (eds) Bulletin 22(9), 95–103. Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture. Il’ichev, A.L., Hossain, M.S. and Jerie, P.H. (1999b) CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 102–104. Migration of oriental fruit moth Grapholita Mensah, R. and Wilson, L. (2000) IPM guidelines molesta Busck. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) for Australian cotton. In: Shaw, A.J. (2000) under wide area mating disruption in Cotton Pest Management Guide 2000/2001. Victoria, Australia. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin NSW Agriculture, pp. 8–26. 22(11), 53–62. Miller, L.W. (1943) Codling moth in Williams’ Ives, P.M., Wilson, L.T., Cull, P.O., Palmer, W.A., pears: investigations in the Goulburn Valley Hagwood, C., Thomson, J.J., Hearn, B. and district 1936–41. Journal of Agriculture, Wilson, A.G.L. (1984) Field use of SIRATAC: Victoria 41, 39–46, 141–148. an Australian computer based pest manage- Morris, D.S. (1972) A cooperative programme ment system for cotton. Protection Ecology 6, of research into the management of pest 1–21. insects in pome fruit orchards of South- James, D.G., Bartelt, R.J. and Moore, C.J. (1996) eastern Australia: 1. Evaluation of a nuclear Mass-trapping of Carpophilus spp. (Coleop- granulosis virus for control of codling moth. tera: Nitidulidae) in stone fruit orchards Abstracts of the 14th International Congress using synthetic aggregation pheromones and of Entomology, 1984 Canberra, p. 238. IPM in Australia 383

Penrose, L.J., Thwaite, W.G. and Maguire, M. moth in small plots by mating disruption: (1995) AP430: a rating index as a basis for alone and with limited insecticide. decision making on pesticide use reduct- Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata ion and IPM accreditation. Horticultural 86(3), 229–239. Research and Development Corporation final Villalta, O., Washington, W.S., Kita, N. and report series. Sydney, Australia. Bardon, D. (2002) The use of weather and Potts, D.C. (1981) Crown of Thorns starfish – ascospore data for the forecasting of apple Man-induced pest or natural phenomenon? and pear scab in Victoria, Australia. In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, R.E. (eds) The Australasian Plant Pathology 31(3), 205–215. Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case Washington, W., Villalta, O. and Appleby, M. Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 55–88. (1998a) Control of pear scab with hydrated Readshaw, J.L. (1971) An ecological approach lime alone or in schedules with other to the control of mites in Australian fungicide sprays. Crop Protection 17, orchards. Journal of the Australian Institute 569–580. of Agricultural Science 37(3), 226–230. Washington, W., Villalta, O., Ingram, J. and Readshaw, J.L. (1975a) The ecology of tetranychid Bardon, D. (1998b) Susceptibility of apple mites in Australian orchards. Journal of cultivars to apple scab and powdery mildew Applied Ecology 12, 473–495. in Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Readshaw, J.L. (1975b) Biological control of Experimental Agriculture 38 (6), 625–629. orchard mites in Australia with an Webster, W.J. and Field, R.P. (1977) Mass release insecticide-resistant predator. Journal of the of predatory mites in Goulburn Valley Australian Institute of Agricultural Science orchards. Victorian Horticulture Digest 72, 41, 213–214. 1–4. Sands, D.P.A. (1993) Effects of confinement on Welch, S.M., Croft, B.A., Brunner, J.F. and parasitoid/host interactions: interpretation Michels, M.F. (1978) PETE: an extension and assessment for biological control of phenology modeling system for manage- arthropod pests. In: Corey, S., Dall, D. ment of multi-species pest complex. and Milne, W. (eds) Pest Control and Environmental Entomology 7, 482–494. Sustainable Agriculture. CSIRO, Melbourne, Wilson, F. (1960) A reviewof the biological control pp. 196–199. of Insects and Weeds in Australia and Sands, D.P.A. (1998) Guidelines for testing host Australian NewGuinea . CAB Technical specificity of agents for biological control of Communication No. 1. arthropod pests. In: Zalucki, M.P., Drew, Williams, D. (1984) Development of computerized R.A.I. and White, G.G. (eds) Pest Manage- pest management in Victorian orchards. In: ment – Future Challenges. Proceedings of the Bailey, P. and Swincer, D. (eds) Proceedings Sixth Australasian Applied Entomological of the 4th Australian Applied Entomological Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia. Research Conference, September 1984, Vol. 1, pp. 556–560. pp. 146–149. Shelford, V.E. (1927) An experimental investiga- Williams, D. (2000a) Integrated fruit production as tion of the relations of the codling moth to a means of improving biological control weather and climate. Bulletin of the Illinois of pests of pome and stone fruit orchards in Natural History Survey 16, 311–440. Australia. Proceedings of the International Smith, D. and Papacek, D.F. (1993) Integrated Symposium: Biological Control for Crop pest management in Queensland citrus – Protection, 24–25 February 2000, Korea, recent developments. In: Corey, S., Dall, D. pp. 203–214. and Milne, W. (eds) Pest Control and Williams, D. (2000b) National guidelines for Sustainable Agriculture. CSIRO, Melbourne, Integrated Fruit Production in Australia: pp. 112–115. apples. Horticultural Research and Develop- Taylor, K.L. (1981) The Sirex woodwasp: ment Corporation final report series. ecology and control of an introduced Williams, D. (2000c) WWAPM: Integrated forest insect. In: Kitching, R.L. and Jones, management of weevils, woolly aphid and R.E. (eds) The Ecology of Pests: Some Austra- powdery mildew. Horticultural Research lian Case Histories. CSIRO, Melbourne, and Development Corporation final report pp. 231–250. series. Vickers, R.A., Thwaite, W.G., Williams, D.G. Williams, D.G. and McDonald, G. (1991) and Nicholas, A. (1998) Control of codling Computer models and pest management 384 D.G. Williams and A.L. Il’ichev

in Victoria. Plant Protection Quarterly 6(1), Zalucki, M.P., Drew, R.A.I. and White, G.G. (eds) 45–47. (1998) Pest Management– Future Challenges. Williams, D. and Pullman, K. (1995) Cropwatch: Proceedings of the Sixth Australasian an integrated pest management service in Applied Entomological Research Confer- Victoria. Apple Integrated Pest Management ence, Brisbane, Australia. Volumes 1 and 2. Forum, Tasmania 1995, pp. 1–4. ISBN 1864990511. Chapter 29 Integrated Pest Management in New Zealand Horticulture

D.M. Suckling1, C. McKenna2 and J.T.S. Walker3 HortResearch, 1Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand; 2Te Puke, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand; 3Havelock North, Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand

History and Evolution of IPM in of subtropical to temperate latitudes (Fig. New Zealand 29.1, 35° to 45° South). The NewZealand horticultural industry is export-driven and NewZealand is an island nation located in highly focused on exports to distant mar- the South Pacific. The horticultural produc- kets, due to the lowpopulation (3.8 million tion areas of the country span a wide range people) and remote geographical position of

Fig. 29.1. The main horticultural areas of New Zealand. ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 385 386 D.M. Suckling et al.

the country. Hence the economic sustain- control programs in the late 1970s resulted ability of the major horticultural industries in the first serious attempts by growers depends on international trade. to implement a strategy to reduce pesticide Important subtropical crops include use (Wearing et al., 1978; Martin et al., kiwifruit, avocados and citrus, while further 1984). Some progress was achieved with south the important temperate crops include insect pest management, e.g. the ‘window’ apples and pears, grapes and stonefruit. The program (Shaw et al., 1993), but significant wide range of crops represents a diversity progress was not achieved until the of pest management problems, as might be development of the ‘KiwiGreen’ (Steven expected. However, a unifying theme across et al., 1994; McKenna et al., 1995), these crops is quarantine issues that impact ‘Integrated Fruit Production’ (Batchelor upon market access. Export crops must et al., 1997) and ‘SummerGreen’ (McLaren meet international sanitary and phyto- et al., 1999) programs. sanitary standards, as well as the customer By 2000, all of the major horticultural demands for safe food that have been industries in NewZealand had developed produced using environmentally benign or had begun to develop IPM programs, production systems (Christie, 1993). Hence and to use a named program as a marketing the problem facing the NewZealand platform (Table 29.1). In some cases, the horticultural industry is complex, involving systems are well advanced. production of food that meets stringent A considerable amount of information quality standards, and which is free from on pest ecology is typically required to pests or pesticides. permit the withdrawal of broad-spectrum IPM has a long research history in New insecticides, without causing major crop Zealand horticulture, but the availability of and export losses. Management of leaf- inexpensive broad-spectrum insecticides rollers, scale insects, mealybugs, thrips, (organophosphates, carbamates and pyre- and other horticultural pests in the absence throids) had a major adverse impact on of broad-spectrum insecticides requires the development and implementation of newinformation. Research has targeted the IPM from the early 1960s until the 1980s factors that affect the pest status of insects (Wearing et al., 1982). During the 1980s, including: (i) the development of pest there was interest by horticultural industries sampling methods and ways of measuring and growers in reducing overall pesticide changing pest status; (ii) population ecology usage but any reduction was over-shadowed and regulating factors; (iii) pest movement, by an increasing need to eliminate the risk host finding mechanisms, including plant of quarantine-actionable pests in export resistance; and (iv) pest and natural enemy crops. The first serious attempts to reduce interactions underlying the efficacy of biopesticide use developed in the early 1990s logical control. More details of two specific with the emergence of increasingly impor- IPM programs are best considered in the tant market signals (Wearing, 1993), prob- context of each crop (apples and kiwifruit), lems experienced with pesticide resistance below. (Suckling, 1996), and significant environmental legislation, such as the Resource Management Act (1991). Table 29.1. New Zealand IPM systems being Despite the development of alternative developed in selected horticultural crops. strategies to reduce pesticide use in the 1960s and early 1970s, e.g. ‘integrated Crop IPM program name control’ (Collyer and van Geldermalsen, 1975; Wearing and Thomas, 1978) and Apples Integrated Fruit Production Kiwifruit KiwiGreen ‘supervised control’ (Wearing et al., 1980), Grapes Integrated Wine Production these approaches never gained acceptance Stonefruit SummerGreen with growers over routine calendar applica- Avocados AvoGreen tions. The development of integrated mite IPM in New Zealand Horticulture 387

Organizational Structure of IPM Systems development of IPM have been the industry structure, the pesticide registration policy In NewZealand, the former government and strong, crop-based, IPM research teams. research and extension agencies have gone A cohesive industry structure based around through significant organizational change regulated marketing at a national level since the late 1980s when the government has served to assist with, and encourage, withdrew from direct involvement in IPM adoption of IPM. Coordination of applied research or extension. The Ministry of Agri- research on projects such as the develop- culture and Fisheries (nowForestry) has ment of pest monitoring systems, more undergone significant reduction to focus on selective insecticides, biocontrol, with primary sector policy development, regula- related underpinning research on pest tory functions and biosecurity. The New biology has been possible for many years Zealand government department that was under a complex framework of ‘user-pays’ primarily responsible for IPM research and ‘public-good’ values. in horticultural crops (the Department of However, each of these key factors is Scientific and Industrial Research, or DSIR) undergoing rapid change. Deregulation of was disbanded in 1992, and replaced with the apple industry, for example, is fragment- CRIs, that operate under both the Com- ing the industry focus on research and devel- panies Act (1996) and the CRI Act (1992). opment, and weakening research capability. The CRIs have boards of directors and oper- In addition, the Hazardous Substances and ate with commercial objectives. Typically, NewOrganisms Act (1997) is providing a researchers compete for 1 or 2 year research much more rigorous and risk-averse frame- contracts that are obtained with funding work for the introduction of new pesticides bodies including government agencies and and/or biological agents in NewZealand. private companies. Most of the research Government agencies that determine the relevant to IPM in horticulture is done direction of science funding support have under this framework by staff of the Horti- also signaled a marked shift away from culture and Food Research Institute of New primary sector research towards research Zealand Ltd (www.hortresearch.co.nz). that underpins the development of a knowl- Accountability is typically very high from edge-based economy. The implications of both private sector and government con- changes in these structural factors on IPM tracts, including presentation of grower development and implementation remain seminars, popular articles, grower manuals uncertain. and published papers. Current government policy is to seek ‘outcomes’, and the focus is towards evidence of industry change and From research to extension to grower uptake environmental improvement as a result of research. Private sector research by individuals or small companies also exists, but A number of approaches to technology tends to focus on pesticide efficacy and transfer have been used in NewZealand. registration. However, private consultants, Farmer empowerment is currently achieved industry groups, grower groups or individ- by requiring groups of farmers (or compa- ual growers play an important role nies) to understand and access limited in information dissemination. There is government funding for business develop- relatively little university research on IPM. ment on a competitive basis. Various schemes are designed to support and promote uptake of a research and development culture across all sectors of the economy IPM policy and infrastructure (not just agriculture). Farmers must show business benefits for the proposal, and in Key strengths in the NewZealand horti - the case of IPM and other initiatives aiming cultural industry that have aided the at more sustainable production systems, the 388 D.M. Suckling et al.

proposals typically take account of market Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) of signals for a preference towards ‘green’ New Zealand Apples technologies. In other cases, limited central government funding has also been made The NewZealand apple industry is pre - available for ‘focus orchards’, which dominantly export-focused, and pests in form the basis of practical and regional NewZealand apple orchards are mostly demonstrations of new techniques. cosmopolitan species (Table 29.2). These All of the recent and successful IPM introduced pests vary in importance programs crops have involved the develop- between regions, but include only a subset ment of manuals on howto use the system. of the fauna associated with Malus sp. else- The manuals have been developed by where. This places New Zealand in a situa- research and extension personnel for use tion of competitive advantage for develop- by growers and consultants, and have ing more sustainable pest management been funded directly from the industries systems with reduced reliance on involved. The central tenet is for ‘continu- broad-spectrum insecticides. However, the ous improvement’, requiring updates and application of quarantine restrictions on refinements. In addition, bulletin boards, pests in export crops imposes constraints e-mail to scientists, and other electronic that significantly reduce this advantage for media have supported grower uptake with certain markets. In some cases, such barri- information technology (e.g. www.hortnet. ers to market access are based on incorrect co.nz and www.hortnet.co.nz/key/pipfruit. taxonomy (Charles et al., 2000). htm). Publications of scientific papers from These arthropods were controlled with the NewZealand Plant Protection Society the use of broad-spectrum organophosphate are also available online (1994–), at insecticides and various acaricides from the www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps early 1960s onwards. This system was suc- (see references). cessful at meeting quarantine requirements

Table 29.2. Pests of apple crops in New Zealand in approximately descending order of economic importance, taking into account market access, yield, and fruit quality issues.

Insect species Production pest Quarantine pest

Primary pests Leafrollers Epiphyas postvittana ✔ ✔ Planotortrix octo ✔ ✔ Planotortrix excessana ✔ ✔ Ctenopseustis obliquana ✔ ✔ Ctenopseustis herana ✔ ✔ Codling moth Cydia pomonella ✔ ✔ San José scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus ✘ ✔ Oystershell scale Quadraspidiotus ostreaeformis ✘ ✔ Mussel shell scale Lepidosaphes ulmi ✘ ✔ Secondary pests Longtailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus ✘ ✔ Obscure mealybug Pseudococcus viburni ✘ ✔ Citrophilus mealybug Pseudococcus calceolariae ✘ ✔ Apple leafcurling midge Dasineura mali ✘ ✔ Woolly apple aphid Eriosoma lanigerum ✔ ✘ European red mite Panonychus ulmi ✔ ✔ Two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae ✔ ✔ Froggatt’s apple leafhopper Edwardsiana crataegi ✔ ✘ IPM in New Zealand Horticulture 389

of overseas markets, including those with growth regulators enabled the development a nil tolerance of pests. However, use of of selective pest management and increased broad-spectrum pesticides was recognized the focus on integrating natural enemies long ago as undesirable (Collyer and van within the apple IPM program. This devel- Geldermalsen, 1975), and research contin- opment has been an integral part of the apple ued on a range of IPM tactics. An accelera- industry’s IFP program that requires pest tion of the search for alternatives resulted monitoring and justification of all pesticide from problems with insecticide and miticide use, backed up by auditing and certification resistance (Suckling, 1996), and more systems. Very significant reductions in the importantly, recognition of the potential for use of broad-spectrum insecticides have negative trade implications due to mounting been achieved after several years of develop- consumer concerns in key markets (Christie, ment and implementation of IFP (Fig. 29.2). 1993). The search for insect pest manage- For example, from 1997 to 2000, there was a ment systems with minimal environmental fully documented 72% reduction in organo- and human health impact gained momen- phosphate use in NewZealand apple tum in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g. Wearing orchards, with a 90% reduction in use et al., 1993). Solutions that have been of azinphos-methyl use (Fig. 29.2). By the adopted for individual pests include a 2000/01 season, this is equivalent to an decision-support model for European red overall 90% reduction in organophosphate mite Panonychus ulmi (Koch), biological and use, with the industry-wide adoption of the chemical control (e.g. Hayes et al., 1993), IFP program by growers occurring in the and pheromone traps to reduce insecticide 2001 season (Fig. 29.3). applications against leafrollers (Shaw et al., Enthusiasm for the IFP pest manage- 1993; Bradley et al., 1998; Clare et al., 2000). ment goal (i.e. the elimination of broad- Over the last 5 years, a very large change spectrum pesticides) in the NewZealand in pest management practice has followed apple industry has been widely supported the introduction of insect growth regulators by growers because it also met an under- for leafroller and codling moth (Walker pinning desire by many growers to move et al., 1991, 1997a; Batchelor et al., 1997; away from the use of highly toxic pesticides. Bradley et al., 1998). The attributes of insect Now, enhanced awareness of the changing

Fig. 29.2. Reduction in organophosphate insecticide use in New Zealand apples, following the adoption of integrated fruit production. 390 D.M. Suckling et al.

Fig. 29.3. Rate of adoption by New Zealand growers of KiwiGreen and integrated fruit production for apples. status of key pests, due to the increased role (Burnip et al., 1998). Comparative assess- of biological control, has encouraged the ments of ecological impact must be development of organic production that will accompanied by an evaluation of economic in 2002 account for almost 10% of New sustainability. While IPM is an essential Zealand’s export apple crop. part of the process of continuous improvement, a holistic viewdemands the integration of IPM with other components IPM and Sustainability of the production system, to minimize the impact of any required intervention. Sustainability of the newIPM program is reliant on the use of strategies to minimize KiwiGreen – IPM for New Zealand the likelihood of resistance developing Kiwifruit Crops to newselective insecticidal products. An insecticide resistance management strategy is being implemented based on minimal KiwiGreen is an example of the successful intervention, insecticidal class rotation development and implementation of an (Lo et al., 2000) and the enhanced role of IPM program across an entire fruit industry. biological control. Recognition of the need It is an IPM program driven by commercial for more sustainable production systems, need, and which reflects the restraints of enshrined in NewZealand’s Resource producing a high quality export crop that Management Act (1991), has highlighted is free from quarantine pests and pesticide the need to develop the basis for measuring residues. KiwiGreen consists of a docu- sustainability. Practical measures of this mented and audited program of pest widely discussed concept (Wearing, 1997; control measures that can only be applied Suckling et al., 1999) are elusive and likely in response to a demonstrable need. to contain multiple elements. For example, the agrochemical inputs can be compared between alternative production systems Pre-KiwiGreen using a pesticide rating system (Walker et al., 1997b). Measures of the ecological When kiwifruit were first grown commer- impact of management practices on pests cially in NewZealand in the late 1960s, and non-target organisms are also likely to there were few pests. As the area planted be important components of any definition expanded to 10,000 ha and plantings mat- of sustainability (Wearing, 1997; Suckling ured, pests became a significant problem. et al., 1998). These measures can be used to Spraying of organophosphate insecticides compare specific management practices became increasingly common, and by 1980 IPM in New Zealand Horticulture 391

kiwifruit growers were following a sched- single endemic species, Ctenopseustis ule that recommended a broad-spectrum obliquana (Stevens et al., 1995). After spray every 3–4 weeks from pre-flowering this time, the risk of leafroller damage was in November until harvest in May. shown to be low, but late-season infestations The key pests of kiwifruit are two of a second endemic species, Cnephasia species of leafrollers and three species of jactatana, were recognized as possible in armoured scale insects (Table 29.3) (Berry, some orchards. Concurrently, the number, 1989; Steven, 1990). A number of secondary timing and distribution of armoured scale pests can also cause sporadic problems on generations in kiwifruit were determined kiwifruit (Table 29.3) (Steven, 1990), but (Greaves et al., 1994; Blank et al., 1996, generally pest control practices aim to pro- 1997). This information allowed researchers tect the crop from leafroller feeding damage to identify the periods when control mea- and to ensure the fruit is free from insects sures would be critical, and conversely, the at harvest. Calendar spraying was a simple periods when insecticides could potentially and successful means of achieving this, but be omitted from the spray schedule (Stevens researchers recognized early on that such et al., 1993; McKenna, 1998a). However, pest control practices were unsustainable, pest pressure can vary markedly among disruptive to the predator–parasite com- kiwifruit blocks, and so it was considered plex, had potential to lead to insecticide important that growers were provided with a resistance, and carried unacceptable means of determining whether omission of a environmental risks. spray would be likely to put the crop at risk In response to these threats, a research of pest damage. Using knowledge accumu- program specific to kiwifruit pests was set lated from the pest biology studies, systems up in the early 1980s with the aim of reduc- for monitoring scale and leafroller popula- ing the reliance on organophosphate sprays tions in kiwifruit were developed and action and broadening the range of pest manage- thresholds identified (Steven et al., 1991; ment tools available. Initial studies focused Blank et al., 1994; Stevens et al., 1997; on developing an understanding of the biol- McKenna, 1998b). These monitoring sys- ogy of the key pest species. It was deter- tems are now an integral part of the mined that the majority of leafroller damage KiwiGreen program and form the basis of the to kiwifruit occurs in the 8 weeks immedi- decision-making process on whether or not a ately after fruit set and was mostly due to a spray is required in a kiwifruit block.

Table 29.3. Common pests of kiwifruit and their status as a production or quarantine problem.

Insect species Production pest Quarantine pest

Primary pests Leafrollers Ctenopseustis obliquana ✔ ✔ Cnephasia jactatana ✔ ✔ Armoured scales Hemiberlesia rapax ✘ ✔ Hemiberlesia lataniae ✘ ✔ Aspidiotus nerii ✘ ✔ Secondary pests Passionvine hopper Scolypopa australis ✔ ✘ Fuller’s rose weevil Asynonychus cervinus ✘ ✔ Collembola Xenylla maritima ✘ ✔ Thrips Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis ✘ ✔ Thrips obscuratus ✘ ✔ Nesothrips propinquus ✘ ✔ Orabatid mites Irgella bullager and others ✘ ✔ Two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae ✘ ✔ Fungal feeding beetles Aridius sp., Orthoperus sp. ✘ ✔ 392 D.M. Suckling et al.

A second key component of the total export crop was being produced using kiwifruit research program was targeted KiwiGreen (Fig. 29.3). at identifying alternative, environmentally benign insecticides that would enable the production of residue-free fruit. Field Implementation of KiwiGreen studies showed products containing Bt could provide excellent control of leaf- The key factor contributing to the rapid rollers (McKenna et al., 1995; McKenna, adoption and expansion of KiwiGreen 1998a; Stevens and McKenna, 1999), but an within the industry was a highly successful alternative was also needed for armoured implementation process. This process was scale control. Mineral oil was one such based on three key elements: the writing option, but trials in the 1970s had shown it of a manual, the establishment of a pest to be phytotoxic to the crop (Sale, 1972). monitoring infrastructure and the transfer These problems have since been overcome of the technology to growers. with the development of more highly The KiwiGreen manual, written by refined mineral oil products in the late a group of HortResearch and NZKMB 1980s, and the subsequent identification of personnel, contains information on the factors that influence the occurrence of min- identification and biology of kiwifruit pests, eral oil damage to kiwifruit (McKenna and detailed instructions on the procedures for Steven, 1993; McKenna et al., 1997). monitoring and recording pest levels, and recommendations for pest control when threshold levels are exceeded (e.g. McKenna The impetus for change et al., 1995). Monitoring kiwifruit pests requires While an extensive amount of knowledge expertise and laboratory facilities with on the biology of kiwifruit pests and poten- microscopes and so the establishment of tial control options was accumulated over a pest monitoring infrastructure was the 1980s and early 1990s, it was not until essential. In the first 2 years of KiwiGreen, 1992 that it was first brought together in a NZKMB staff, whom had been trained by package that could be used by the industry. the researchers, supplied this service to The detection of spray residues on New growers at no cost. However, as the program Zealand kiwifruit, although well under the expanded across the industry (Fig. 29.3), the acceptable European Union guideline (Bull, NZKMB undertook licensing and training of 1993), was essentially being used as a trade pest monitoring facilities. These facilities barrier to some European markets. The were generally set up by kiwifruit pack- NZKMB1 responded in 1991 by requesting houses as an extension of their service to researchers to devise a pest management their grower clients. strategy that would enable the production Transfer and adoption of the technology of fruit with no detectable residues. This by growers was another critical step in the required the various components and out- implementation process. In the early years comes of the kiwifruit research to be placed of KiwiGreen, two field operators were within a program that the industry and employed by NZKMB. These field operators growers could readily adopt. The program, were primarily responsible for providing ‘KiwiGreen’, was launched a year later. In technical support to the growers, and acted year one (1992), only 1% of the national as the link between researchers and the crop was produced using KiwiGreen, and in wider industry. In subsequent years this year 2 this reached 8%. Thereafter grower responsibility was transferred to technical uptake of the technology was unprece- personnel employed by the packhouse/pest dented, and 6 years after its inception the monitoring centers. The technique of using

1 Now Zespri International Limited, the sole marketer of New Zealand kiwifruit. IPM in New Zealand Horticulture 393

field operators was hugely successful primary responsibility is information dis- and has since been replicated in other semination to grower clients. KiwiGreen has technology adoption processes. instigated an upskilling of growers and the industry in general, and the technology is nowbeing cited as a key reason behind the increase in organic production (now6% of KiwiGreen benefits the total kiwifruit production).

The benefits of KiwiGreen are primarily to the environment, market access and con- Future of KiwiGreen sumer acceptability. Environmental benefits arise from both the reduced number of KiwiGreen is a dynamic program that is sprays and the use of more environmentally continually evolving. While the focus benign sprays. Over the last decade the remains on seeking a more diverse range number of broad-spectrum sprays being of sustainable pest control options for man- applied has decreased from an average of aging both primary and secondary pests, the eight per annum in 1980 to just three per entire production process is nowbeing annum in 2000. This equates to a reduction considered. This includes all chemical of 100 t of pesticide per annum. This has inputs, as well as broader environmental had a positive impact on orchard bio- and production issues such as canopy, diversity and has created opportunities for ground cover and waste management. The greater use of biological controls (Thomson demands of key customers for safe fruit that et al., 1996; Thomson, 1997). In regions has been produced using environmentally where kiwifruit orchards and urban settle- sound practices are likely to become ments have to coexist, this reduction in even more stringent in the future. This insecticide use has also alleviated the will ensure that programs such as Kiwi- potential for conflict between the two Green will continue to be developed and communities. enhanced. The benefits for market access are twofold. New Zealand kiwifruit typically has residue levels that are less than 5% of the maximum permitted residue levels in Use of industry agrochemical data in destination markets, but perhaps of greater the development of IFP importance are the consumer acceptability benefits. Key customers are nowdemanding There have been a variety of approaches evidence of food safety and environmental taken towards assessing farmer or grower integrity in the production of food; without inputs, with the aim of reducing unsustain- the KiwiGreen program it is unlikely this able pest management inputs (e.g. Reus, demand could be met. 1993). In several NewZealand fruit indus - The costs of KiwiGreen versus calendar tries, the accumulation and analysis of agro- spraying are similar but KiwiGreen has chemical use information has been a very resulted in a shift in spending on pest con- powerful tool for benchmarking current trol. The additional costs of pest monitoring practice, setting goals, and measuring prog- and the use of environmentally benign ress towards them over time (Manktelow sprays have been offset by a reduced number et al., 2000, 2001). of sprays being applied. KiwiGreen has also created significant employment opportunities in the rural regions with the formation of Key Constraints and the Future of IPM the PMC. These centers have become an important point in the technology transfer Many of the major constraints to the adop- chain, and most nowhave their own tion of IPM in NewZealand horticulture dedicated technology transfer person whose relate to the technical difficulties of 394 D.M. Suckling et al.

cost-effective pest management and market infestations on leaves and fruit. Proceedings access. The costs of technical solutions to 47th New Zealand Plant Protection some pest, disease and weed management Conference, pp. 304–309. problems are significant, but often grower Blank, R.H., Gill, G.S.C. and Upsdell, M.P. (1996) Greedy scale, Hemiberlesia rapax perception of higher costs, financial risks (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), phenology on and complexity also reduce adoption. kiwifruit leaves and wood. New Zealand Perception problems probably equal the Journal of Crop and Horticutural Science significance of genuine technical problems 24, 239–248. (Wearing, 1988). There are also the oppos- Blank, R.H., Gill, G.S.C. and Dow, B.W. (1997) ing demands of export markets that present Determining armoured scale distribution a difficult conundrum for producers and within kiwifruit blocks. Proceedings 50th exporters. While the customers demand ‘no New Zealand Plant Protection Con- pesticides’, the foreign regulators demand ference, pp. 293–297. www.hortnet.co.nz/ ‘no pests’. The Montreal Protocol will publications/nzpps/ Bradley, S.J., Walker, J.T.S., Wearing, C.H., reduce the availability of methyl bromide, Shaw, P.W. and Hodson, A.J. (1998) The which has played an important role in use of pheromone traps for leafroller action achieving market access for many coun- thresholds in pipfruit. Proceedings 51st tries. Alternative, more sustainable technol- New Zealand Plant Protection Con- ogies to achieve postharvest disinfestation ference, pp. 173–178. www.hortnet.co.nz/ are needed to meet the market demand. publications/nzpps/ This is particularly the case because pest Bull, P. (1993) An exporters viewof plant protec- incidence rises as broad-spectrum pesticide tion. In: Suckling, D.M. and Popay, A. (eds) use declines. Plant Protection: Costs, Benefits and Trade Trend analysis indicates that continu- Implications. NewZealand Plant Protection Society, Christchurch, pp. 155–161. ous improvements in pest management are Burnip, G.M., Gibb, A.R. and Suckling, D.M. needed to meet changing market needs. The (1998) Target and non-target impacts from widening debate about the benefits and risks diazinon in a Canterbury apple orchard. Pro- of genetic modification in pest management ceeding 51st New Zealand Plant Protection highlights howrapidly markets can change Conference, pp. 143–147. www.hortnet.co. on issues of food safety and food security. nz/publications/nzpps/ Furthermore, changing pest pressure from Charles, J.G., Froud, K.J. and Henderson, R.C. newbiological invasions, changing land (2000) Morphological variation and mat- use, changes in area-wide pest management ing compatibility within the mealybugs practices, and other factors will ensure a Pseudococcus calceolariae and P. similans (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), and a newsyn - dynamic future for IPM. onymy. Systematic Entomology 25, 285–294. Christie, R. (1993) Plant protection and international trade. In: Suckling, D.M. References and Popay, A. (eds) Plant Protection: Costs, Benefits and Trade Implications. Batchelor, T.A., Walker, J.T.S., Manktelow, NewZealand Plant Protection Society, D.W.L., Park, N.M. and Johnson, S.R. (1997) Christchurch, pp. 3–7. NewZeland integrated fruit production for Clare, G., Suckling, D.M., Bradley, S.J., Walker, pipfruit: charting a newcourse. Proceedings J.T.S., Shaw, P.W., Daly, J.M., McLaren, G.F. 50th New Zealand Plant Protection Con- and Wearing, C.H. (2000) Pheromone trap ference, pp. 14–19. www.hortnet.co.nz/ colour determines catch of non-target insects. publications/nzpps/ New Zealand Plant Protection 53, 216–220. Berry, J.A., Morales, C.F., Hill, M.G., Lofroth, B.J. Collyer, E. and van Geldermalsen, M. (1975) Inte- and Allan, D.J. (1989) The incidence of three grated control of apple pests in NewZealand Diaspid scales on kiwifruit in New Zealand. 1. Outline of experiment and general results. Proceedings 42nd New Zealand Weed and New Zealand Journal of Zoology 2, 101–134. Pest Control Conference, pp. 182–187. Greaves, A.J., Davys, J.W., Dow, B.W., Tomkins, Blank, R.H., Gill, G.S.C. and Olsen, M.H. A.R., Thomson, C. and Wilson, D.J. (1994) (1994) Relationship between armoured scale Seasonal temperatures and the phenology IPM in New Zealand Horticulture 395

of greedy scale populations (Hemiptera: Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conference, Diaspididae) on kiwifruit vines in New pp. 91–96. Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Sale, P.R. (1972) Oil and Chinese gooseberries do Horticultural Science 22, 7–16. not agree. The Orchardist of New Zealand 44, Hayes, A.J., Walker, J.T.S., Shaw, P.W. and 97–99. White, V. (1993) A decision model for Shaw, P.W., Cruickshank, V. and Suckling, D.M. miticide use in apple orchards. Proceed- (1993) Commercialisation of pheromone ings 46th New Zealand Plant Protection trapping in Nelson. Proceedings 46th Conference, pp. 162–165. New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Lo, P., Walker, J.T.S. and Suckling, D.M. (2000) pp. 135–140. Insecticide resistance management of leaf- Steven, D. (1990) Entomology in kiwifruit. rollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). New In: Warrington, I.J. and Weston, G.C. (eds) Zealand Plant Protection 53, 163–167. Kiwifruit Science and Management. Ray www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/ Richards Publisher in association with Manktelow, D.W.L., Walker, J.T.S., Beresford, the N.Z. Society for Horticultural Science, R.M., Hodson, A.J. and Laurenson, M.R. pp. 362–412. (2000) Ten years in the evolution of horti- Steven, D., Blank, R.H. and Tomkins, A.R. cultural decision support systems in New (1991) Monitoring scale to reduce sprays in Zealand. British Crop Protection Council kiwifruit. New Zealand Agricultural Science Conference Proceedings, Pests and Diseases, 26, 4. pp. 1271–1278. Steven, D., Tomkins, A.R., Blank, R.H. and Manktelow, D.W.L., Walker, J.T.S., Hodson, A.J. Charles, J.G. (1994) A first-stage integrated and Suckling, D.M. (2001) Use of industry pest management system for kiwifruit. agrochemical use data in the development of Proceedings Brighton Crop Protection integrated fruit production programs in the Conference Vol 1, pp. 135–142. NewZealand horticultural industry. Bulletin Stevens, P.S. and McKenna, C.E. (1999) Factors IOBC/WPRS 24(5), 51–56. affecting the efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis Martin, N.A., Workman, P.J., Burgess, E.P. and against Cnephasia jactatana in kiwifruit. Wearing, C.H. (1984) Integrated pest control Proceedings 52nd New Zealand Plant Pro- in greenhouse crops. Proceedings 37th New tection Conference, pp. 89–93. www.hortnet. Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conference, co.nz/publications/nzpps/ pp. 253–256. Stevens, P.S., Steven, D., Malcolm, C. and McKenna, C.E. (1998a) The effectiveness of dif- Holland, P.T. (1993) Reducing pesticide ferent insecticide programmes for kiwi- residues on kiwifruit. Proceedings 46th fruit. Proceedings 51st New Zealand Plant New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Protection Conference, pp. 184–188. pp. 62–66. McKenna, C.E. (1998b) Pest monitoring in kiwi- Stevens, P.S., McKenna, C.E. and Steven, D. (1995) fruit crops. New Zealand Kiwifruit Journal The timing of lepidopteran damage to 125, 12. kiwifruit. Proceedings 48th New Zealand McKenna, C.E. and Steven, D. (1993) Phyto- Plant Protection Conference, pp. 130–134. toxicity to kiwifruit of oil sprayed after Stevens, P.S., McKenna, C.E., Blank, R., flowering. Proceedings 46th New Zealand Tomkins, A. and Steven, D. (1997) Com- Plant Protection Conference, pp. 75–79. parison of armoured scale thresholds in McKenna, C.E., Stevens, P.S. and Steven, D. (1995) kiwifruit. Proceedings 50th New Zealand A new Bacillus thuringiensis product for use Plant Protection Conference, pp. 288–292. on kiwifruit. Proceedings 48th New Zealand www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/ Plant Protection Conference, pp. 135–138. Stewart, T.M., Norton, G.A., Mumford, J.D. and McKenna, C.E., Stevens, P.S. and Steven, D. (1997) Fenemore, P.G. (1993) Pest and disease deci- Phytotoxicity to kiwifruit from sprays of sion support for Hawke’s Bay apple growers mineral oil. Acta Horticulturae 444(2), – a survey. Proceedings 46th New Zealand 779–784. Plant Protection Conference, pp. 152–161. McLaren, G.F., Grandison, G., Wood, G.A., Tate, G. Suckling, D.M. (1996) The status of insecticide and Horner, I. (1999) Summerfruit in and miticide resistance in NewZealand. NZ: Management of Pests and Diseases. In: Bourdôt, G.W. and Suckling, D.M. University of Otago Press, 136 pp. (eds) Pesticide Resistance: Prevention and Reus, J.A.W.A. (1993) An environmental yard- Management. NewZealand Plant Protection stick for pesticides. Proceedings 46th New Society, Christchurch, pp. 49–58. 396 D.M. Suckling et al.

Suckling, D.M., Walker, J.T.S., Wearing, C.H., programmes in the NewZealand horti - Burnip, G.M. and Gibb, A.R. (1998) Measures cultural industry. Bulletin IOBC/WPRS of sustainability in NewZealand apple 24(5) 39–44. orchards: investigating biodiversity in Wearing, C.H. (1988) Evaluating the IPM managed ecosystems. British Crop Protection implementation process. Annual Review Council Conference, Pests & Diseases, of Entomology 33, 17–38. pp. 637–642. Wearing, C.H. (1993) IPM and the consumer: Suckling, D.M., Walker J.T.S. and Wearing, C.H. the challenge and opportunity of the 1990s. (1999) Ecological impact of three pest In: Corey, S.A., Dall, D.J. and Milne, W.M. management systems in NewZealand (eds) Pest Control and Sustainable Agri- apple orchards. Agriculture Ecosystems and culture. CSIRO, Australia, pp. 21–27. Environment 73, 129–140. Wearing, C.H. (1997) Indicators of sustainable Thomson, C. (1997) The body invaders or scale pest management in orchard production parasitoids. New Zealand Kiwifruit Journal systems. Proceedings 50th New Zealand 119, 15–16. Plant Protection Conference, pp. 506–513. Thomson, C., Tomkins, A.R. and Wilson, D.J. www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/ (1996) Effect of insecticides on immature Wearing, C.H. and Thomas, W.P. (1978) Integrated and mature stages of Encarsia citrina,an control of apple pests in NewZealand. 13. armoured scale parasitoid. Proceedings 49th Selective insect control using diflubenzuron New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, and Bacillus thuringiensis. Proceedings pp. 1–5. www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/ 31st New Zealand Weed and Pest Control nzpps/ Conference, pp. 221 – 228. Walker, J.T.S., Baynon, G.T. and White, V. (1991) Wearing, C.H., Collyer, E., Thomas, W.P. and Insect control on apples with RH-5992 a Cook, C. (1978) Commercial implementation novel insect growth regulator. Proceedings of integrated control of European red mite in 44th New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Nelson. Proceedings 31st New Zealand Weed Conference, pp. 66–69. and Pest Control Conference, pp. 214 – 220. Walker, J.T.S., Hodson, A.J., Wearing, C.H., Wearing, C.H., York, M. and O’Kane, P. (1980) Bradley, S.J., Shaw, P.W., Tomkins, A.R., Supervised spraying of lepidopterous pests Burnip, G.M., Stiefel, H.E. and Batchelor, of kiwifruit in the Bay of Plenty. Proceedings T.A. (1997a) Integrated fruit production 33rd New Zealand Weed and Pest Control for NewZealand pipfruit: evaluation of Conference, pp. 100–104. pest management in a pilot programme. Wearing, C.H., Thomas, W.P. and Collyer, E. Proceedings 50th New Zealand Plant (1982) The decision to implement IPM: pre- Protection Conference, pp. 258–263. requisites and consequences. In: Cameron, www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/ P.J., Wearing, C.H. and Kain, W.M. (eds) Walker, J.T.S., Hodson, A.J., Batchelor, T.A., Proceedings of Australasian Workshop on Manktelow, D.W. and Tomkins, A.R. (1997b) Development and Implementation of IPM, A pesticide rating system for monitoring Mt Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New agrichemical inputs in NewZealand Zealand, 20–22 July, 1982, pp. 198–210. horticulture. Proceedings 50th New Zealand Wearing, C.H., Walker, J.T.S. and Suckling, D.M. Plant Protection Conference, pp. 529–534. (1993) Development of IPM for New www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/ Zealand apple production. Proceedings Walker, J.T.S., Manktelow, D.W.L., Wearing, 2nd IOBC/ISHS Symposium on Integrated C.H., Lo, P.L. and Suckling, D.M. (2001) Fruit Production. Acta Horticulturae 347, Development of integrated fruit production 277–284. Chapter 30 FAO Integrated Pest Management Programs: Experiences of Participatory IPM in West Africa

Pieter Stemerding1 and Souleymane Nacro2 1Global IPM Facility, FAO/AGPP, Rome, Italy; 2INERA, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso

Introduction meeting to enable interested policymakers from other regions to familiarize themselves The FAO has been actively providing tech- with its successful IPM approach. This trig- nical assistance and building capacity in gered many requests for assistance in set- plant protection. The FAO Plant Protection ting up farmer-centered IPM pilot activities, Service addresses international aspects of particularly from African countries. Conse- plant protection and closely cooperates quently, FAO, UNEP, UNDP and The World with regional and national plant protection Bank established a task force, which out- organizations and programs. The Plant lined the Facility’s functions and helped Protection Service is hosting the Global raise the necessary funding. The Facility IPM Facility which supports IPM initiatives was formally established in 1995 with FAO worldwide, with a particular focus on as the host organization. It became fully Africa, Latin America and Central Asia. operational in 1997, after adequate funding This chapter highlights some of the early had been secured from the Facility’s co- experiences in Asia before providing some sponsors and the Governments of The insights on IPM development in West Netherlands, Switzerland and Norway. Africa, where FAO involvement in IPM The mandate of the Global IPM Facility goes back to the early 1990s. is to assist interested Governments and NGOs to initiate, develop and expand IPM programs that aim to reduce pesticide use and associated negative impact on health The Global IPM Facility: and environment, while increasing produc- Promoting IPM Since 1997 tion and profits through improved crop and pest management. The need to establish the Global IPM Effective IPM programs include both Facility first emerged when the UNCED capacity building and policy development. Agenda 21 assigned a central role to IPM in Capacity building involves: training of agricultural programs and policies in 1992. facilitators for participatory IPM education; In 1993, the FAO inter-country program on science and technology development aimed IPM rice in Asia organized a Global IPM at farmer needs; development of sustainable ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 397 398 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

funding mechanisms and networking. 1. Grow a healthy soil and crop. Policy development focuses on national 2. Observe the field regularly. and international policies that affect 3. Conserve natural enemies. pest management, including international 4. Farmers are experts in their own fields. conventions and standards1. These two Depending on the type of crops, field components are often mutually reinforcing. school groups typically comprise 25 farm- The Facility currently supports IPM ini- ers. The groups come together during the tiatives in Asia2, Africa, Latin America, Mid- growing season for 4–5 h on a weekly basis dle East, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. for rice and vegetables, or monthly in the case of bananas, for example. Field school groups establish a study field and carry IPM and FFS out experiments and field trials to enhance understanding of the agroecosystem and In a nutshell, the IPM3 approach aims at compare ‘regular’ farmer practices with IPM helping farmers to take independent, well- practices. Groups are supported by a facilita- informed crop production and management tor, usually an IPM-trained extensionist decisions. IPM is primarily brought to or a farmer-faciliator. IPM programs aim to farmers through participatory, season-long reduce pesticide use to a minimum, to lessen farmer field schools, in which farmers and the negative impact of agrochemicals on extensionists come together to study their environment and health, and to decrease fields. Rather than receiving instructions production costs. Through improved crop from outsiders, field schools help farmers and pest management, IPM farmers may to uncover and strengthen their own local achieve substantial savings on pesticides knowledge. while increasing or maintaining yields. IPM is a participatory approach to crop Field schools primarily aim to production and protection based on ecosys- strengthen farmers’ technical knowledge. tem management and aimed at maintaining But they also aim to enhance organizational, a natural equilibrium. As such it reduces the management and communication skills. risk of damage by pests. IPM helps farmers Being able to access and process field and to enhance their understanding of the agro- economic data independently, field school ecosystem and develop capacities to take farmers learn how to communicate better well-informed, independent decisions on and present findings to others. By docu- how to manage their crops more efficiently, menting their field observations in writing in a more sustainable manner. and through drawings, farmers become As said, a key tool to support farmers in aware of the knowledge they possess on understanding and applying IPM principles (local) production constraints, including is the season-long FFS. Afield school is a diseases and pests, water and soil problems discovery-based learning process in which and social impediments to intensification of farmers themselves design and carry out production (labor shortages at peak periods, field experiments to find solutions to field etc.). Groups critically review field findings problems and challenges such as diseases by individual members of the group and and pests, soil degradation and nutrient expose farmers to knowledge and experi- management. Field schools have four core ences of other farmers in a structured principles: way. This, combined with their enhanced

1 Examples include pesticide policy studies carried out by the University of Hanover/GTZ Pesticide Policy Project on Zimbabwe: GTZ Pesticide Policy Project (1999), Côte D’Ivoire: GTZ Pesticide Policy Project (1998), and a recently completed study on pesticide use in Mali: INSAH (2001). 2 See among others documentation on FAO programs in Indonesia: FAO Technical Assistance Indonesia National IPM Program (1998). 3 In this chapter the abbreviation IPM is used to mean ‘Integrated Production and Pest Management’. FAO IPM Programs 399

analytical capabilities, increases the self- understanding of the agroecosystem and confidence of farmers. It also makes them rely as much as possible on non-chemical more outward looking and more critical control measures. This acknowledgment led towards externally imposed solutions for to a more prominent place of IPM on the their problems. agenda of decision makers, community leaders and agricultural research. In 1986, the Government of Indonesia banned 57 insecticides for use on rice when the country was IPM Development from Asia to Africa faced with a full-blown brown planthopper and Latin America outbreak. The ban was based on the recognition of the potentially disrupting effects of In 1980 a first FAO-supported IPM program insecticides on rice ecosystems. In addition, on rice was set up in Asia. It was initiated subsidies on pesticides were reduced and in response to challenges created by highly a major IPM farmer training program was pesticide and fertilizer intensive rice pro- started. In support of the decision by the grams promoted as of the 1950s as a central Indonesian and other Governments to pro- element of the Green Revolution. Intensive mote IPM, FAO’s IPM inter-country program fertilizer and synthetic pesticide use was on rice was started in South and Southeast promoted throughout Asia to maximize Asia. In 1989 the program, a collaborative returns of high yielding, short duration rice effort among IPM practitioners, ecologists varieties, allowing farmers to produce two and sociologists, initiated its first field crops a year. Though rice productivity schools in Indonesia. greatly increased, negative effects such as The inter-country program gradually the disruption of previously well-balanced included more Asian countries and was rice ecosystems became increasingly pres- expanded to other crops, particularly cotton, ent. The regular use of broad-spectrum cabbage, French beans and soybeans. From insecticides reduced natural enemy popu- 1997 onward, support has been made lations favoring the resurgence of the available to countries in other continents4. brown planthopper, hitherto a minor pest Upon request of some West African in tropical rice. countries, the FAO-based Global IPM This outbreak of brown planthopper Facility implemented rice IPM pilot projects affected numerous Asian countries and led in Ghana, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire and to serious production losses. Besides eco- Mali. FAO’s Technical Cooperation Unit nomic implications, the brown planthopper financially supported these projects which outbreaks had a political impact, threaten- were executed between 1995 and 1998. FFS ing for example Indonesia’s self-sufficiency in Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso in rice. Research by IRRI revealed that the showed savings for rice farmers of over US$ disruptive effect of insecticides on the rice 90/ha, with yields maintained or increased. ecosystem was the key factor in the vast Profits increased by over 25%5. and unprecedented brown planthopper out- In 2000, in its third year of existence, the breaks in Asia. Slowly, consensus emerged Facility had helped initiate IPM programs in among the research and science community over 12 African and several Latin American that chemical pest control should not be countries. Demand for technical assistance the sole form of pest management. It to develop IPM is enormous and growing. should instead be based on a thorough Evidence is nowabundant that participatory

4 With the establishment of the Global IPM Facility in 1997, FAO, in collaboration with UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank and financially supported by the Governments of The Netherlands, Switzerland and Norway, started supporting IPM initiatives in Africa and Latin America as well. In 1999, as a follow-up to several FAO-funded IPM pilot initiatives in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Mali, the Facility helped initiate a pilot IPM project on rice in Mali’s Office du Niger. 5 Global IPM Facility Field Reports, unpublished. 400 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

IPM with and by farmers works, also in the subsequently facilitated field schools for African context. In most cases, national 125 farmers in five different irrigated rice programs expanded IPM to incorporate projects. In 1997, a national workshop was production and soil issues, thus giving rise organized in Yamoussokro to reviewthe to the term ‘integrated production and pest main project results. With assistance of the management (IPPM)’. Originally used by Global IPM Facility and FAO’s Investment the Zimbabwe IPPM Program, other African Center, a national IPM proposal for rice and Latin American countries have adopted and peri-urban vegetables was drafted. In this term in recognition of the links August 1998, however, Agence Nationale between growing a healthy crop and pest d’Appui au Développement Rural with management. world bank encouragement, signed an agreement with Rhone Poulenc to establish pilot operations to demonstrate newagro - Global IPM Facility-assisted IPM chemicals on rice, cocoa and vegetables. Initiatives in West Africa This demonstration program effectively replaced the proposed IPM program. Ghana

Ghana was the first West African country Burkina Faso which started an IPM program based on farmer participatory training through field FAO’s Technical Cooperation Program schools. In 1995, three Asian IPM experts (TCP) funding supported a pilot project in facilitated a so-called Training of Trainers Burkina Faso from 1996 to 1997. It was (TOT) for 28 facilitators including 24 Gha- hosted by the national Plant Protection Ser- naians, three Ivorians and one Burkinabe. vice of the Ministry of Agriculture. In 1996, The training aimed at getting trainees and a 4-month TOT and three field schools were farmers acquainted with all stages of crop organized in the Vallee du Kou irrigated development. Ghana’s first TOT was orga- rice scheme. The training included 20 nized in the Dawhenya irrigation project, participants of whom 19 were Burkinabe in the Greater Accra region combined with from across the country and one Malian. three field schools comprising about 75 The following year, an inter-country field farmers. Since this pilot project, the Ghana- school program was run in seven irrigated ian government has been able to secure rice schemes throughout the country: funding for a national IPM program through Bagre, Banzon, Dakiri, Karfiguela, Niassan, the United Nations Development Program Tamasgo and Vallee du Kou. Each rice and GTZ, the German development agency. scheme accommodated one FFS. A total The program has expanded from rice to number of 213 farmers were trained during vegetables and plantain and has so far the Burkina Faso pilot project. In 1997, at trained several thousands of farmers. the end of the project, a national workshop evaluated the activities and made several recommendations to further strengthen the Côte d’Ivoire achievements.

From March to July 1996, two of the three Ivorians and the Burkinabe trained in Mali Ghana facilitated a season-long training for facilitators and three field schools in the In 1996, FAO provided technical support to Sakassou irrigation project Center in Côte the Plant Protection Service to implement d’Ivoire. In total 17 Ivorians, four Burkinabe an IPM pilot project. In May 1996 a national and four Malian extensionists were workshop was organized to assess the status trained. The Ivorians trained in Sakassou of IPM in the country and set up priorities FAO IPM Programs 401

for follow-up activities. Ten facilitators Follow-up to TCP Pilot Projects through and 88 farmers were trained on rice IPM the Sub-regional IPM Program for in Sélingue and Baguineda. In 1998, the Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal Global IPM Facility helped to prepare a proposal for a national IPM program. This One of the main objectives of the pilot proposal was subsequently included in the IPM projects described above was to show World Bank program to support the rural national governments, parastatals such as development sector in Mali, the Programme the Office du Niger in Mali, farmers and d’Appui aux Services Agricoles et aux farmers’ associations, NGOs, research and Organisations de Producteurs (PASAOP). donors intervening in West Africa, that by In anticipation of the forthcoming enhancing farmers’ crop and production PASAOP, an IPM project on rice was management skills pesticide use can be implemented in Mali’s Office du Niger, from greatly reduced or avoided altogether. 6 June to November 1999 . Funding was pro- Institutionally, one of the objectives of vided by the Royal Netherlands’ Embassy in the pilot initiatives was to build linkages Mali, the Office du Niger and the Global IPM with a wide range of stakeholders to ensure Facility. With presently about 70,000 ha strong anchorage for follow-up IPM training of irrigated land, the Office du Niger is programs. West Africa’s largest rice irrigation system. To summarize, the main outputs of the Though pesticide use on rice is typically pilot projects carried out in Burkina Faso, limited to herbicides, farmers are increasing Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Mali were: the use of agrochemicals, including insecti- • cides due to the continuing intensification Raised awareness on IPM and IPM- of irrigated rice farming. The IPM pilot pro- relevant issues (e.g. pesticide use and ject was set up to help farmers enhance their pesticide subsidies) through the organi- production and pest management skills, zation of national workshops aimed at making alternative, non-chemical pest sensitizing the general public, political management strategies available to them. It and technical decision-makers and donors. trained 15 extension workers and about 575 • farmers from 23 villages throughout Niono, Strengthened capacities of the Molodo and N’Debougou, three central areas national agriculture extension system by training extension workers. of the Office du Niger. In 2000 and 2001, the • Office du Niger continued and expanded Reduced use of chemical pesticides IPM activities to all five administrative on IPM training plots. The experi- zones. From 2002 onwards, a 4-year consoli- mentation showed a reduction of up to dation and expansion project for IPM on rice 20–30% of agrochemical products, in and vegetables will provide continued sup- many cases with concomitant decrease in production costs. port in the form of IPM training and aware- • ness activities. IPM rice trials implemented Overall improvement of the revenues in the Office du Niger have shown good to of small-scale farmers through better management of the agroecosystem. dramatic improvements in production, in • many cases simultaneously reducing costs7. More independent decision making by In June 2000, FAO’s SPFS started farmers resulting in changed behavior six rice IPM field schools in the Mopti of farmers towards external actors or region with about 150 participating farmers. partners: farmers are known to become Training continued in 2001 and may be more critical when dealing with offi- expanded to Kita and Kangaba, other SPFS cials, extension educators, traders and intervention areas. chemical companies representatives

6 Nacro (1999). 7 Global IPM Facility, January 2000. 402 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

due to their enhanced technical compe- used on the IPM produce and IPM yields tence, knowledge and analytical skills. being equal to yields in regular farmer- • Enhanced social cohesion of some practice plots. farmer organizations. In July 2001, the Royal Netherlands’ Embassy in Dakar confirmed their contri- In order to further strengthen national bution to the sub-regional IPM Program IPM training initiatives and regional expert for Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal. Each networks, the Global IPM Facility assisted participating government will contribute by the Governments of Mali, Burkina Faso and paying the salaries of facilitators/extension Senegal in developing a sub-regional IPM workers and make study plots and training program. Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal facilities available to the program which decided to opt for a regional approach has a duration of 3 to 5 years. The Global because the countries have many similari- IPM Facility will provide overall technical ties. They share the same geographical and operational support. region, the Sahel, characterized by cyclic droughts and have a common pest complex with chemical control being the first control tactic. In addition, agriculture is a major The objectives of the sub-regional sector of their economies. The large majority IPM program of the actors in this sector are small-scale farmers who practice subsistence agri- The overall objective of the sub-regional culture. Although some progress has been program is to: ‘Reinforce national extension achieved in food production in the three and agricultural research systems through countries in recent years, food security is improved technical support to small still fragile. The degradation of natural farmers, particularly women, to allow resources is inexorably in progress not only them to enhance agricultural production in because of the adverse climatic conditions a sustainable manner to meet the objective that have weakened the natural ecosystems, of food security and increase revenues.’ but also because of man’s action: extensive Specific objectives of the program are to: clearing, wild fires, abusive cutting of wood for cooking, irrational use of agropesticides • Develop sub-regional IPM capacities and inappropriate production systems. by taking advantage of comparative In anticipation of the forthcoming advantages of each of the three approval of the sub-regional program, the countries involved in the program (rice Royal Netherlands’ Embassy in Dakar and in Burkina Faso, cotton in Mali and the Global IPM Facility funded a regional vegetables in Senegal). vegetable IPM training. The training was • Create awareness among the general organized by the Center for Ecotoxicological public, decision makers and develop- Research in the Sahel/Locustox Foundation ment partners in all three countries and the Global IPM Facility in greater Dakar, concerned, through the implementa- from November 2000 to March 2001. Tech- tion of activities such as national and nical inputs and trainers were provided by regional workshops which reveal the the national IPM programs of Vietnam and impact of IPM and policy and regula- Ghana. A total of 31 extension/training spe- tory constraints to the promotion of cialists from Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso IPM (e.g. pesticide subsidies), food participated in the training and facilitated security, environment, health of pro- field schools for about 350 farmers, includ- ducers and consumers and the export ing both women and men from the Niaye of agricultural produce. zone. The training marked a diversification • Promote the exchange of experiences of the West African IPM programs from among IPM experts of the three coun- rice to vegetables. Technical results were tries through the organization of study encouraging with no chemical pesticides tours and sub-regional workshops. FAO IPM Programs 403

The expected outputs of the program This strategy is in accordance with the are: regional approach to crop protection developed by the ISDMS which promotes changes • Approximately 25,000 farmers and 358 in crop protection and the adoption of IPM. extension workers trained on rice, The methodology of this project is patterned vegetables and cotton IPM. after the specific objectives No. 2 (training • Various technical reports and policy of national IPM specialists) and No. 4 documents on IPM and pesticide (development of participatory training and policy issues prepared. transfer of knowledge) of the national action • Awareness of the general public and plan prepared thanks to the ISDMS. policy makers on IPM and pesticide The sub-regional program is founded issues raised. on the political will of the three countries • Networks established among govern- to protect the environment through, among mental and non-governmental organi- others, the suppression of pesticide subsi- zations, farmers’ associations, techni- dies. It offers alternatives to the classical cal and research institutes and donor production systems and pays special atten- agencies. tion to women’s participation. Women are a key interest group in the agricultural sector in these three countries. The program will Strategy of the sub-regional program organize season-long IPM training activities through TOT and farmer field schools, The sub-regional IPM program will use the policy/awareness activities on IPM and comparative advantage of each of the three pesticide use through a series of pesticide countries to organize training courses for policy studies, policy seminars and related each of the three crops targeted by the pro- activities. It aims to increase agricultural gram: rice (Burkina Faso), cotton (Mali) and production in the three countries and vegetables (Senegal). In each of the coun- improve productivity of small-scale farmers. tries the program will build on national In other words, the program, while contrib- expertise in research, extension, plant uting to the increase of small-scale farmers’ protection, universities, non-governmental revenues, will also catalyze a change in organizations, etc. Links will be established farmers’ behavior vis-à-vis the manage- between countries to develop regional ment of natural resources and the use of networks aimed at sharing information and agricultural inputs, particularly pesticides. experiences. Extension workers will facilitate the farmers’ training, but the program will also provide additional technical training to some selected farmers to become Conclusion farmer trainers. This facilitation of farmer- to-farmer training will be one of the gauges The initial experiences on rice and vegeta- of the durability of the program and enable bles IPM in West Africa are encouraging. a smooth transfer of competencies and Farmers have expressed strong interest in responsibilities to its main beneficiaries. field schools as a participatory training Whenever chemical control is reques- methodology, and have taken initial ted, each country will only use pesticides responsibility for further dissemination of authorized by the Sahelian Pesticides Com- information on IPM and expansion of IPM mittee. In this regard, all country members training programs. The sub-regional IPM will take advantage of the expertise of the program aims at putting the responsibility Regional Project of the Application of the for the implementation of IPM programs International Code of Conduct and Use of progressively into the hands of farmers, Pesticides. This project, funded by the Neth- farmers’ associations and local communi- erlands government is hosted by the Sahel ties. The role of women, particularly in Institute, a specialized agency of the ISDMS. vegetables, is acknowledged by the IPM 404 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

programs in place and is given high priority References in newinitiatives on, for example, cotton IPM. FAO Technical Assistance Indonesia National The pilot projects carried out in West IPM Programme (1998) Community Africa have revealed that by reducing IPM: Six Cases from Indonesia. pesticide use, production costs can be INSAH (2001) Etude Socio-économique de significantly cut and yields maintained or l’utilisation des pesticides au Mali. Series Les even improved. With a range of local, Monographies Saheliennes, No. 12. Nacro, S. (1999) Rapport Technique sur le Projet regional and international partners, the Intérimaire de Formation Participative en Global IPM Facility has started looking Gestion Integrée des Deprédateurs du Riz à at policy and institutional issues related Travers des Champs Ecoles de Producers en to IPM and pesticide use. In Mali, a com- Zone Office du Niger. Global IPM Facility prehensive analysis was made of socio- Report, Rome. economic factors favoring pesticide use. ter Weel, P. and van der Wulp, H. (1999) Partici- The study revealed some policy distortions patory Pest Management. DGIS Policy and which are likely to be found in other coun- Best Practice Document No. 3, The Hague. tries in the sub-region as well. Thus, besides University of Hanover/GTZ Pesticide Policy the need to further enhance efforts to expand Project (1998) Analyse Socio-économique de la Filière des Pesticides en Côte D’Ivoire. field programs, targeted support is needed Série de Publication No. 06/F. to address adverse policies (e.g. pesticide University of Hanover/GTZ Pesticide Policy Pro- subsidies) and promote an enabling policy ject (1999) Pesticide Policies in Zimbabwe. environment conducive to IPM. Publication Series Special Issue No. 1. FAO IPM Programs 405

Appendix 30.1.

Past IPM training activities and available IPM trainers and farmers in francophone West African countries (status as of July 2001).

Country Pilot activity Year Crop IPM resources

Burkina Faso TCP 1995–1998 Rice 20 IPM trainers 213 IPM farmers

Burkina Faso Participation in Regional Vegetable 2000–2001 Vegetables 3 IPM trainers trained in IPM training project Senegal Senegal

Mali TCP and Interim IPM project 1997–2000 Rice 19 IPM trainers Office du Niger 889 IPM farmers 42 IPM farmer-trainers

Mali Participation in Regional Vegetable 2000–2001 Vegetables 3 IPM trainers trained in IPM training project Senegal Senegal

Senegal Pilot phase Vegetable IPM 2000–2001 Vegetables 26 IPM trainers Senegal 375 IPM farmers

Côte D’Ivoire TCP 1995–1996 Rice 17 National IPM Trainers 200 IPM farmers

TCP, Technical Cooperation Program. 406 P. Stemerding and S. Nacro

Appendix 30.2. IPM Web References Asia/Pacific, Europe, Latin America and North America. Global IPM Facility • PAN Asia and Pacific: www.poptel. http://www.fao.org/globalipmfacility/ org.uk/panap • PAN North America: www.panna.org/ Provides essential information on IPM panna/ programs assisted by the Global IPM • PAN UK: www.pan-uk.org/ Facility, with many useful IPM contacts worldwide. CAB International http://www.cabi.org/ Community IPM in ASIA http://www.communityipm.org An organization specialized in sustainable solutions for agricultural and This site is a source of information on environmental problems. Community IPM in Asia, providing details on IPM training activities in 12 countries with contact details of key IPM experts. Contains case studies on FFS processes IPM in schools, EPA and a virtual library of training materials, http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm/ scientific papers and case studies related to IPM. To protect children’s health from unnecessary exposure to pesticides.

PAN http://www.pan-international.org OECD Pesticide Program http://www1.oecd.org/ehs/pest_rr.htm A network of over 600 participating non- governmental organizations, institutions Focuses on chemical pesticides and biologi- and individuals in over 60 countries cal pesticides (e.g. bacteria, pheromones, working to replace hazardous pesticides insects, plant extracts) which are used in with ecologically sound alternatives. Its agriculture, including horticulture and for- projects and campaigns are coordinated by estry and other settings (e.g. products used five autonomous Regional Centers: Africa, in houses, in swimming pools, on pests). Chapter 31 Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (USAID – IPM CRSP): Highlights of its Global Experience

Brhane Gebrekidan IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Introduction institutions for their mutual benefit by improving their abilities to develop and This chapter presents an overviewof the implement economically and environmen- Global Experience of the Integrated Pest tally sound crop protection methods. The Management Collaborative Research Sup- IPM CRSP, which is one of nine CRSPs support Program (IPM CRSP). The chapter cov- ported and managed by the Global Bureau ers the following aspects of the IPM CRSP: of USAID, has successfully completed its background, organizational and operational first 5-year phase and is in the middle of its structure of the IPM CRSP, mode of collabo- second 5-year phase. ration, the Participatory Appraisal (PA) pro- The purpose of the IPM CRSP is to cess, Annual Work Plan development and develop and implement appropriate IPM its implementation, developing IPM pack- techniques and strategies that will help ages, examples of successful IPM packages reduce: (i) agricultural losses due to pests; in selected regions, technology transfer, (ii) damage to national ecosystems; and Technical Assistance (TA), gender-related (iii) pollution and contamination of food issues that affect IPM adoption, training and water supplies. The long-term goals of and national capacity building, regionaliz- the CRSP are to develop improved IPM tech- ation and globalization of IPM, information nologies and institutional changes that will exchange, and finally mutuality of benefits reduce crop losses, increase farmer income, to the USA and the host countries. reduce pesticide use and pesticide residues on crop products, improve IPM research and education program capabilities, and Background increase the participation of women in IPM decision making and program design. Working towards this goal the IPM The IPM CRSP was initiated in 1993 with CRSP follows the following specific the financial support of the USAID. The objectives: main mission of the CRSP remains to be to foster IPM through collaborative research • Identify and describe the technical between USA and developing host country factors affecting pest management.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 407 408 B. Gebrekidan

• Identify and describe the social, Collaborative research arrangements economic, political, and institutional between participating USA and host country factors affecting pest management. institutions are governed by a Memorandum • Work with participating groups to of Understanding (MOU) between the lead design, test, and evaluate appropriate host country institution and the IPM CRSP participatory IPM strategies. ME. The MOU creates the official environ- • Work with participating groups to ment in which participating US scientists promote training and information and their host country partners can initiate exchange on participatory IPM. and carry out collaborative research in the • Work with participating groups to host country or region. foster policy and institutional changes. The Board of Directors deals with policy issues and advises the ME on these and other The research activities of the IPM CRSP related matters. The TCreviews the research are based on close collaborations between and training plans of the CRSP, participates scientists of the participating host countries in the development of the annual work plan and US institutions. The participating prime and budget, and recommends them to the host country sites of this CRSP currently ME for implementation. The SChas the include Albania, Bangladesh, Ecuador, primary responsibility of developing and Guatemala, Jamaica, Mali, The Philippines, implementing collaborative IPM activities and Uganda. Among the active partner USA related to research, training and networking institutions are: University of Georgia, for its specific host country or region. Lincoln University, Montana State Uni- The EEP is charged by the USAID Global versity, Ohio State University, Penn State Bureau with the overall evaluation of the University, Purdue University, University of IPM CRSP, which includes program direc- California – Davis and Riverside, University tion and research collaboration with the host of Maryland – Eastern Shore, North Carolina countries. The USAID Project Manager of A&T University, Florida A&M University, IPM CRSP and other appropriate members Fort Valley State University, USDA, and in the USAID Global Bureau advise and Virginia Tech (VT), with VT as the lead and guide the ME, the Board, and other entities the Management Entity (ME) institution. of the CRSP in areas of policy, technical and program management, collaborating host Organizational and Operational country coordination, budget management, and review. Structure of the IPM CRSP

With some modifications, the IPM CRSP organizational and operational structure Mode of Collaboration follows the general CRSP Guidelines provided by USAID to all CRSPs. Accordingly, The IPM CRSP operates in eight prime sites the main entities in implementing the IPM in five major regions, Africa, Asia, Latin CRSP are the ME, the Board of Directors, the America, the Caribbean, and Eastern Technical Committee (TC), the Site Com- Europe. The African programs focus on mittees (SC), the External Evaluation Panel irrigated peri-urban horticulture as well as (EEP) and the USAID Project Manager. rain-fed cereals and legumes, both the Latin Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State American and the Caribbean programs University (Virginia Tech) is the ME for the emphasize non-traditional agricultural IPM CRSP and is the primary grantee of exports (NTAEs), the Asian programs USAID. The ME is accountable to USAID for concentrate on vegetables grown in rice/ all IPM CRSP programmatic and fiscal issues vegetable cropping systems, while the although certain site specific responsibili- Eastern European program deals with IPM ties are delegated by the ME to the partici- of a single crop, olive. At each site, USA pating USA and host country institutions. and host country scientists collaboratively IPM Collaborative Research Support Program 409

and jointly plan, implement, and report and NGOs in identifying the high priority research activities. A Site Chair from a US pest problems at the site and the institution and a host country Site Coordi- approaches to be used in solving these nator from the lead collaborating institution problems. Before initiating a program in a in the host country take joint leadership in site, the IPM CRSP typically conducts PAs planning and implementing the IPM CRSP focusing on the identification of agro- activities in the country. The current site ecosystems, baseline surveys, existing pest chair and host country coordination leader- management practices, high priority crops ship distribution by institutions is as given or cropping systems and their key pests, below: and other related topics. The results of the PA are jointly analyzed and written as a • African Site in Mali: Virginia Tech reference document by USA and their host (Site Chair), Institut d’Economie Rurale country partners and are used in defining (IER) (Site Coordinator); the research, training and information • African Site in Uganda: Ohio State exchange agenda of the IPM CRSP at the University (Site Chair), Makerere site. The priority crops and pests the IPM University (Site Coordinator); CRSP is working on at each of its sites have • Latin American Site in Ecuador: been determined through the PA process. Virginia Tech (Site Chair), Instituto The PA results from most of our sites have Nacional de Investigaciones Agro- been published as IPM CRSP Working pecuarias (INIAP) (Site Coordinator); Papers and are available at the IPM CRSP • Latin American Site in Guatemala: Management Entity office. Purdue University (Site Chair), Universidad de Valle de Guatemala (Site Coordinator); • Caribbean Site in Jamaica: Virginia Annual Work Plan Development Tech (Site Chair), Caribbean Agri- and Its Implementation cultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) (Site Coordinator); • Initial annual work plans and budgets Asian Site in the Philippines: Ohio under the IPM CRSP are prepared by a State University (Site Chair), PhilRice team of US and host country co-principal (Site Coordinator); • investigators and submitted to the host Asian Site in Bangladesh: Virginia country site committee through the Site Tech (Site Chair), IRRI Dhaka/ Coordinator. Under the leadership of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Site Chair, the site committee discusses Institute (BARI) (Site Coordinator); • each proposal and budget and recommends Eastern Europe Site in Albania: Virginia appropriate modifications to each team Tech (Site Chair), Plant Protection for revising the proposal. Eventually all Institute, Durres (Site Coordinator). proposals from a site are forwarded to the Site Chair who assembles the proposals received, prepares a site work plan and The Participatory Appraisal Process budget, and distributes the same to the site committee members for discussion and The foundation of the IPM CRSP approach comments before submission to the IPM is the use of the PA in the determination of CRSP TC. The draft work plans and budgets high priority crops, pests, and processes to from all sites are submitted to the TC for followin program implementation. Central discussion and recommendations during its to this approach is the involvement of the annual meeting. The final annual work plan appropriate stakeholders such as scientists, is reviewed by the ME for consistency and extension personnel, farmers, policy mak- uniformity across sites and submitted to ers, government officials, input suppliers, USAID for its approval. 410 B. Gebrekidan

Developing IPM Packages rice–onion cropping systems in the Philip- pines, the most serious weed problem in The approved annual work plan as onion production is the nut sedge (Cyperus described above is implemented at each rotundus). The IPM CRSP has developed an host country site. The vast majority of economical weed management system that the planned experiments are carried out is suitable for onion producers in the Phil- on-farm with the direct participation of ippines where the results of the IPM CRSP small-scale farmers where they contribute showthat the cost of farmers’ weedcontrol both land and labor. Through this scheme, practices can be reduced by 50% from one farmers have the opportunity to be active herbicide application followed by three partners in the implementation of the hand weedings to one herbicide application experiments, while simultaneously observ- and one hand weeding without reducing ing the results for themselves. The active weed control efficacy and onion yields. participation of farmers in this manner In addition, IPM CRSP research has facilitates the direct transfer of the experi- shown that rice hull burning, which is prac- mental results to the participating farmers ticed commonly by onion farmers in the and their neighbors. As a complement to Nueva Ecija region of the Philippines, could the on-farm trials, a lesser number of significantly reduce the soil population of on-station, greenhouse, and laboratory pathogenic fungi where the onion pink root experiments are also conducted. Based on disease is common. Over several seasons, experimental results, replicated over loca- the incidence and severity of pink root infections and seasons, suitable IPM packages tion in onion was lower and onion yields are determined and tried out on farmers’ were higher in plots in which rice hulls fields, and eventually extended to a wider were burned, compared with unburned range of farmers in the host country and in plots. This practice is being recommended the region. to a wider range of farmers who have access to economical rice hull. Further, IPM CRSP research has shown Examples of Successful IPM Packages that the use of (NPV) and Bt in onion in Selected Regions production can be a viable alternative to chemical insecticides to control the larvae Over the last 7 years the IPM CRSP of the key onion insect, onion cutworm has developed successful IPM packages (Spodoptera litura). Thus, the use of NPV applicable to the various cropping systems and Bt would greatly benefit onion farmers where it is operating. These packages have who are dependent on chemical insecticides been disseminated or are being dissemi- for control of onion cutworms. Direct effects nated to producers in the host countries. of this newtechnology are reduced Selected examples from the four well- pesticide use, better health of farmers and established regions are given below. their families, and sustainable Spodoptera management. Farmers can, in fact, mass produce NPV themselves and use the technology on their fields, which will cut Asia – rice–vegetable cropping systems down on cost of crop protection by onion (the Philippines) growers. As a result, the market quality of farmers’ onion produce will be greatly IPM CRSP has been working on vegetable enhanced by the lowinsecticide residue IPM in the rice–vegetable cropping systems levels, thereby meeting the export require- since 1994, initially in the Philippines and ments of foreign markets. The application more recently in Bangladesh. The IPM of these technologies in an IPM package approaches used have dealt with weeds, can greatly benefit onion producers in the diseases, and insects. In the case of the Philippines. IPM Collaborative Research Support Program 411

Africa – maize–bean cropping systems Latin America – horticultural export crops (Uganda) (Guatemala)

In one of its African sites, in Uganda, the In Guatemala, since 1994 the IPM CRSP has IPM CRSP has been involved in developing been working on developing IPM technolo- IPM strategies for insect and disease control gies for non-traditional agricultural export in the maize–bean cropping systems of (NTAE) crops of which snow pea is the eastern Uganda where Chilo partellus, the leading commodity. The key snowpea pest lowaltitude stem borer, is the predominant in Guatemala is the leaf miner, Liriomyza cereal pest. The results of the IPM CRSP huidobrensis. A wide range of IPM compo- on-farm trials for 3 years have confirmed nent technologies for snowpeas have been that the introduced wasp parasitoid, developed by the IPM CRSP and introduced Cotesia flavipes, a potential biological con- to small-scale farmers. Snowpea producers trol, is effective in reducing significantly participating in the IPM CRSP developed the stem borer damage on maize. The para- integrated pest management/integrated sitoid which has now been established both crop management programs composed of in eastern and northern Uganda causes the use of certified seed, adequate fertilizer parasitism on the Chilo stem borer of up application, using wheat straw mulch, to 23%. This biological control agent was weekly scouting of pest levels, threshold multiplied and released in a collaborative based spraying of chemicals, and the use activity involving a graduate student, the of the mobile yellowsticky traps, which IPM CRSP, and ICIPE. reduced pesticide applications for the Further, in the same region, IPM CRSP typical Guatemalan snowpea farmer from on-farm trials on the common bean 13 to four in each cropping cycle. Phaseolus vulgaris have confirmed that bean The establishment of an effective grain yields can be increased by as much quality-control program for snowpeas that as 150% with endosulfan seed dressing will guarantee: (i) the quality of the product to control the bean fly (Ophiomyia sp.) and to the final consumer; and (ii) the sus- root rots (Fusarium solani and Fusarium tainability of the snowpea industry in phaseoli). Additionally, earthing-up or Guatemala are main impacts of the IPM ridging at first weeding reduced bean fly CRSP research. It is expected that in the next damage and increased grain yield by about fewyears the majority of Guatemalan snow 35%. The combined use of the wasp pea exporters will implement the IPM CRSP- parasitoid for maize stem borer control and generated ICM production programs. It is seed dressing and earthing-up or ridging for worth noting that most of the snow pea bean fly control are being introduced to produced by small farmers in Guatemala is Ugandan farmers engaged in the maize–bean exported to the US market. cropping system. To ensure that the Another IPM CRSP tested crop manage- technology is disseminated on a large ment strategy effective for minimizing pest scale, this technology has been passed on damage is strip cropping, which should the USAID funded IDEA Project operating become an attractive option for farmers in in Uganda. IDEA is nowconducting the highlands of Guatemala. The diversifi- nationwide demonstration trials for bean cation of crops will favor the long-term and maize growers. IPM CRSP and IDEA sustainability of export crops and locally have also produced fact sheets and posters marketed vegetables as well. In addition, the for use by extension workers. It is antici- higher diversity will promote the build-up pated that adoption of this technology will of natural pest enemies and help maintain boost bean and maize production in the pests at manageable levels. The existence of region, leading to reduction in malnutrition a healthy agroecosystem will also prevent and poverty. the emergence of newprimary pests, and 412 B. Gebrekidan

better natural control of existing pests. The IDEA project are active in disseminating ICM advocated by the IPM CRSP in Guate- IPM CRSP results to farmers. At the Latin mala is applicable to multi-crop systems American site in Guatemala, pest manage- as well. The ICM strategy increases the ment technology and information devel- economic benefits to the farmer, as profit oped by IPM CRSP are transferred through margins are increased due to reduced usage grower workshops, technician seminars, of chemical pesticides. and field demonstrations. It is estimated that in a typical year approximately 45% of Guatemala’s NTAE producers were engaged Caribbean – sweet potato (Jamaica) in the use of pest management practices recommended by IPM CRSP. In Jamaica, technology transfer training sessions for In the Caribbean program of the IPM CRSP, sweet potato and hot pepper farmers were one of the high priority activities dealt with conducted in different communities. Topics developing IPM strategies for sweet potato covered in these sessions included pest (Ipomoea batatas) production under the identification, fertility management, and conditions of small-scale farmers. As a principles of IPM. Technology transfer result of these activities, in replicated sessions were not only geared towards pro- on-farm trials, several USDA-developed duction technology but also demonstrated sweet potato clones and Caribbean varieties the benefits of developing a sound market- demonstrated good resistance to the sweet ing strategy, i.e. an integrated approach to potato weevil Cylus formicarius which is an hot pepper and sweet potato production important insect constraint in sweet potato and marketing. Demonstration plots were production in Jamaica. Other components used in the technology-transfer process. of a sweet potato IPM strategy developed by Field days were often held in selected the IPM CRSP in Jamaica included the use communities of sweet potato and hot pepper of sex pheromone baited traps, application growers to demonstrate IPM systems to of good cultural practices (field sanitation, key farmers and extension officers. In the removal of old sweet potato vines, optimum Philippines, technology-transfer activities irrigation, timely harvesting, and crop were carried out in cooperation with rotation), and chemical spraying based on the Training Division of PhilRice, in both insect number scouting and predetermined organization of meetings and preparation of threshold levels. The sweet potato IPM training materials for season-long training developed in Jamaica is being disseminated programs for extension officers and farmer to farmers and is being regionalized to other leaders. IPM CRSP scientists from the host Caribbean islands such as St Kitts and St country were active participants in these Vincent. training programs in technology transfer. Training manuals, fact sheets, brochures, single page flyers, flip charts and book marks Technology Transfer on a number of diseases and pests of onion and aubergines were prepared, evaluated The IPM CRSP works with national and disseminated to the participants. technology transfer agencies, cooperatives, NGOs, and other appropriate bodies to extend to producers the IPM technologies it has developed in a given site. Very often Technical Assistance farmers are involved in on-farm testing of IPM technologies and demonstrations In addition to its core activities in its prime giving them the opportunity to observe and sites, the IPM CRSP has set aside TA funds adopt results directly. to respond to emergency pest situations At the African site in Uganda, both the arising in developing countries. Such funds national extension system as well as the are usually accessed through requests from IPM Collaborative Research Support Program 413

national programs and the USAID Mission activity has been to address the fundamental in the country. If the USAID Mission sup- issues surrounding the emergence of new ports the request it must be prepared to pests, the gall midges Contarina lycopersci contribute 50% of the funds to respond and Prodiplosis longifilia, and their impact to the emergency situation. on the hot pepper export market. Among In Mali, through a joint funding from the the expected outputs of this project are: (i) IMP CRSP TA funds and the USAID Mission improvements in the quality and quantity of in Mali, the IPM CRSP and Malian scientists exportable and local hot peppers; (ii) devel- initiated a collaborative work to strengthen opment of IPM options for managing gall the Environmental Quality Laboratory midge populations; (iii) improvements in (EQL) of Mali. The TA program provided the knowledgebase of farmers in pest essential equipment and trained key Malian management; (iv) increased number of scientists at Virginia Tech in the use of farmers and extension agents trained in IPM; special equipment and the application of (v) knowledge of the relation of the gall good laboratory practices. Proper analysis of midge with respect to phenology of the crop vegetables for pesticide residues was the and agroecology. main part of the training. Overall the Mali In Guatemala, in 1996, a crisis emerged site of the IPM CRSP began collaboration when Guatemalan snow peas were detained with the EQL of Mali, to address needs at US ports of entry because of infestation in pesticide residue analysis, environmental by an unknown leafminer species. The IPM monitoring, and development of a quality CRSP responded as a TA by completing a assurance program for agricultural products taxonomic survey of the snowpea agro- in Mali. The EQL, a part of the Central Veter- myzid leafminer species in the Guatemalan inary Laboratory, has a comprehensive man- highlands. In the survey the CRSP found that date that reflects the needs of Mali and the Liriomyza huidobrensis is the major leaf- West African region for the analysis of pesti- miner species found in snowpeas and other cide residues on crops, food, and medicinal export crops in the central highlands. This products, and in water, soil, and sediments. species also occurs in the USA. Results of At the beginning of 2000 the Ugandan this research were accepted by APHIS as NARO and the USAID Mission in Uganda a basis for removing the requirement for requested the IPM CRSP to assist them in detention of Guatemalan snowpeas found properly managing the emerging coffee wilt with minor leafminer infestations. The disease epidemic in the country. The CRSP CRSP has subsequently introduced to small responded positively with its TA funds farmers a holistic crop management practice along with 50% contribution from the of which an effective IPM is an important USAID Uganda Mission. This TA is now component. The IPM CRSP has also been underway and is expected to develop instrumental in getting growers and export- an IPM strategy to contain this serious ers in Guatemala to institute an effective disease of the leading export commodity pre-inspection procedure to ensure that of Uganda. This IPM CRSP TA project snowpeas exported to the USA are free from will focus on etiology, pathogenesis and pests and pesticide residues. epidemiology of coffee wilt disease (Fusar- ium xylarioides Steyaert). The main goal of the project is to control the epidemic of coffee wilt and restore coffee production in Gender-related Issues that Affect Uganda. IPM Adoption At the Caribbean site in Jamaica, the USAID Mission in Jamaica and the IPM The IPM CRSP was designed, and has been CRSP contributed funds and technical assis- implemented, with a strong gender-equity tance to strengthen the ‘National Strategic component. The CRSP is committed to the Plan To Combat the Gall Midge Complex equitable involvement of women as both Affecting Hot Pepper.’ The main goal of this program scientists and beneficiaries. As a 414 B. Gebrekidan

research program, the focus of gender- women students are given opportunity for equity programming has been on research training. The IPM CRSP features an approach into the likely outcomes of IPM research that is genuinely committed to gender equity activities for women and men, and on issues. The commitment of the IPM CRSP involving women farmers in these to gender equity issues can be seen most activities, in order to ensure that women’s clearly in the record of graduate training, livelihood strategies receive equal attention host-country scientist participation, global with those of men. With a view to sectoral gender-focused research, and increasing growth as well as to equity issues, program- incorporation of women farmers in ming is designed to ensure that women who collaborative research and extension efforts. produce targeted crops are included in research and dissemination activities. Among the gender equity issues addressed is whether the adoption of IPM is likely Training and National Capacity Building to alter the gendered division of labor and resources within households in ways that The IPM CRSP has given high priority would disadvantage women. Findings to training of both host country and US indicate that IPM adoption would not dis- students in the various disciplines contrib- advantage women. However, the potential uting to IPM research and implementation. benefits of IPM adoption may not be as As of the end of the year 2000 there were available to women as to men, as women a total of 58 trainees receiving partial or are less likely to receive relevant technical complete IPM CRSP financial support. assistance or to be involved in technology These trainees have either completed or development. Across the IPM CRSP sites, are undergoing their MS or PhD degree or women appear to have less access than men short-term training objectives. Looking at to IPM-related extension. Recommendations the gender distribution, 42% of the trainees for the inclusion of women farmers in tech- were females and the vast majority (72%) of nology development, as well as in related the trainees were from the IPM CRSP col- extension efforts, have been made for several laborating host countries. The disciplines sites, including those in Uganda, Mali, the in which the trainees are involved cover the Philippines, Guatemala, and Jamaica. For whole range of IPM-related topics including example, in Mali and Uganda, these recom- entomology, plant pathology, weed science, mendations have resulted in attention to nematology, horticulture, agronomy, plant women’s crops and production constraints, breeding, ecology, agricultural economics, and to technologies that improve women’s statistics, geography, and sociology. food processing enterprises. Half of pro- The human resource development strat- ducer groups involved in IPM research in egy planned for all the IPM CRSP sites is Uganda are female-oriented. long term in perspective, assuring a breadth In the Philippines, household surveys of skills and capacities available for IPM and ethnographic research have demon- research and implementation with empha- strated that even women who do not work sis on graduate student training at selected in the fields often control funds used to pur- national universities such as the University chase IPM technologies, and thus should be of Mali, Makerere University in Uganda, and included in all information campaigns. Phil- the University of the Philippines at Los ippine women are somewhat more likely Baños. Degree training of host-country stu- than their husbands to prioritize spending dents has also been done in US universities. for pesticides, as they are less inclined to Co-Principal Investigators (Co-PIs) from the risk crop loss, but are also more likely to be USA often make several trips to the host receptive to cost-effective IPM practices. countries each year to participate in both The IPM CRSP has worked to ensure training and research. The IPM CRSP’s that both US and host-country women emphasis on process, including research scientists are involved as investigators and planning and farmer participation, and the IPM Collaborative Research Support Program 415

locally recognized need to advance multi- embodies a regionalization effort to dis- institutional and disciplinary research have seminate IPM technologies and information been recognized by host-country partners generated in a given prime site. In the as a key contribution of the IPM CRSP to Caribbean region for example, the IPM IPM-related research in each host country. technologies developed for sweet potato Graduate students sponsored and pest management in Jamaica have been supervised by the IPM CRSP have made extended to other Caribbean islands such as substantial contributions to on-farm data St Kitts/Nevis and St Vincent. In Uganda, collection and to IPM CRSP activities in the the utilization of the wasp parasitoid host countries as a whole. Short-term train- for stem borer biological control is being ing for national scientists on various aspects used in Kenya as well through the efforts of IPM has been conducted both in the USA of ICIPE. In both Mali and Uganda, an and the host countries. Several trips are integrated Striga management strategy for made each year to the host country sites by cereals, comprising resistant varieties, mod- USA based Co-PIs to participate in annual est nitrogen application, improved cultural work plan development and to pursue practices, and crop rotation are being pro- collaborative research activities. Such visits moted. In the Philippines and Bangladesh and institutional relationships continue to the promotion of improved aubergine vari- be important in strengthening US and host eties along with grafting technology for bac- country linkages and moving the IPM CRSP terial wilt control are being introduced to research, technology transfer, and informa- farmers. The NTAE pre-inspection protocol tion exchange efforts forward in each of our which has served the Guatemalan horticul- regions. tural exports effectively is being introduced One of the objectives of the IPM CRSP in the neighboring Honduras. Regional training and human capacity building is the workshops and IPM CRSP global symposia institutionalization of IPM into the national held at regular intervals contribute signifi- system and crop protection policy. There cantly to the regionalization and eventually are positive indications to showthat IPM is the globalization efforts of this CRSP. being institutionalized at the national level. Some examples of the institutionalization of IPM in the host countries are: (i) the creation of a newdepartment of Crop Protection at Information Exchange Makerere University partially stimulated by the IPM CRSP; (ii) the establishment of the IPM information exchange and dissemina- IPM network for the Caribbean through tion nationally, regionally, and eventually the participation of the IPM CRSP; (iii) the globally is central to the mission of the IPM incorporation of IPM as an integral part of CRSP. To this end, the CRSP produces a the snowpea production and export system wide range of publications such as refereed of Guatemala; (iv) the adoption of IPM journal articles, books and book chapters, as part of the national policy in both the theses and dissertations, workshop pro- Philippines and Bangladesh. ceedings, annual reports, working papers, websites, extension publications, fact sheets, newsletters, magazine and newspa- per articles, trip reports, and bibliographic Regionalization and Globalization databases and distributes them widely. of IPM Most of these publications are available as hard copies at the ME office of the CRSP Although the IPM CRSP operates in strate- and are distributed to selected recipients gically selected prime sites, regionalization globally. The IPM CRSP website http:// and globalization of IPM technologies and www.ag.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/ contains full con- information is a primary goal of the IPM tents or lead information on most of these CRSP. Each of our prime site programs products. 416 B. Gebrekidan

One of our sites, the African site, main- comprehensive information on the CRSP tains an active electronic communication such as highlights of the IPM CRSP global network, IPM Electronic Communication in activities, list of collaborating institutions, Africa: Africa IPM Link. The main goal of bibliographic services, documents, and rele- AIL is the promotion and use of ICTs in vant links. Among the documents available Africa for IPM and related topics. The AIL at the website are annual work plans, annual activities were partially supported by funds reports, trip reports, IPM CRSP Update originating from USAID African Sustainable Newsletters, working papers, IPM CRSP Development office but received through the policy and operating guidelines. Global Bureau of USAID. Hence the activities have been implemented as an integral part of the IPM CRSP. The principal objectives of AIL have been to provide electronic Mutuality of Benefits to the USA and networking opportunities for African IPM the Host Countries practitioners, to initiate and promote electronic discussions among professionals with One of the main aims of the CRSP programs an interest in IPM related issues in and on in general is to showmutuality of benefits Africa, to update content and improve the both to the USA and the partner host IPM CRSP and Africa IPM Link websites, countries. A good number of the IPM CRSP and to provide training opportunities for activities contribute to this overall aim. African IPM practitioners in the effective For example, most of the pest problems use of e-mail and the Internet for IPM addressed in our host country site activities information sharing. are widespread throughout the various One of the main activities of AIL is regions and also occur in other parts of running and maintaining an active listserv the world. Strategies developed to manage (Afrik-IPM) and e-mail discussion group on these pests economically and in a sustain- IPM-related issues on sub-Saharan Africa. able manner can be applied to countries The main purpose of the Afrik-IPM discus- where the IPM CRSP is not present. IPM sion list is to provide IPM practitioners in methods have been developed for managing sub-Saharan Africa with a networking tool pests of onion and aubergine in Asia, NTAE for quick, inexpensive, and effective IPM crops in Central America, potatoes in information exchange. The discussion list Ecuador and Uganda, sweet potato and has been well established and is operating hot pepper in the Caribbean. Working with actively and effectively. List ‘membership’ such pests gives US scientists global experi- is currently well over 100, representing a ence on the status and management of these wide range of organizations and individuals pests. Advance information on emerging from 29 countries, including 18 African pest situations which may threaten US ones. agriculture could be obtained before the Another main activity of AIL has been pests enter the USA. Availability of safe and designing and maintaining a French and pesticide-free imported foods, particularly English bilingual Africa IPM Link website from Latin America and the Caribbean, to http://www.ag.vt.edu/ail/ The site currently the US consumer is also a major benefit contains links to over 200 English IPM sites, to the USA. A broader concurrent benefit 100 French IPM sites, and some useful ICT and feedback to the United States will be sites. Information from the site is routinely through: (i) the effects of economic growth accessed from several African countries by in the IPM CRSP regions on trade and IPM practitioners. demand for US products in international As mentioned earlier the IPM CRSP markets; and (ii) improved relations with maintains a main website http:// the various countries in politically sensitive www.ag.vt.edu/ipmcrsp which contains areas of the world. IPM Collaborative Research Support Program 417

Lessons Learned is going to be successful with farmers, approaching and working with farmers A wide range of lessons have been learnt by without the necessary technologies all the participating partners during the does not cultivate their confidence and implementation of this global IPM program. respect. The salient features of the lessons learned • Attention to gender-related issues in are highlighted below. IPM technology development and • extension activities is essential to Genuine collaboration and equal part- address the special cases of women nership between USA and host country farmers and family members; women scientists has laid the foundation for play crucially important roles in the continued global IPM promotion, a production, marketing, and resource core global IPM community has been allocations of selected crops. established. • • Training of host country nationals PA has been the cornerstone in the and human capacity-building are the identification of the high priority pests foundations for sustained growth and and crops on which the IPM CRSP is maintenance of a national, regional, working, the results of the PA have and indeed global IPM programs, guided the activities of the IPM CRSP. • the IPM CRSP has given the highest The participation of farmers as active priority to this effort. partners in conducting on-farm IPM • Institutionalization of IPM and accept- experiments has been essential for ing it as a national policy can ensure focusing on the actual problems of the long-term viability of IPM in a farmers who have been active research given country, some of our host partners and lead adopters of the countries have taken significant steps results. • in this direction. It has been necessary to develop or • Continuing regionalization and global- adopt specific component technologies ization efforts of IPM are essential at each site before formulating a com- to bring more of the global crop pro- prehensive IPM package to disseminate duction under IPM, some IPM packages to farmers, sometimes this has involved generated by IPM CRSP have been the use of laboratory and greenhouse disseminated regionally. experiments. • • It is becoming increasingly clear Integration of IPM technologies and that IPM is an information-intensive testing them at the farm and the com- approach and multiple tactics have munity levels is essential before wide- to be employed to disseminate IPM scale dissemination of IPM packages, globally, the CRSP has disseminated farmers are introduced to such pack- such information through the print ages in their own or their neighbors media and electronic media as well as fields. • workshops and field days. The IPM CRSP has developed and dis- • The IPM CRSP has demonstrated seminated a wide range of successful that there are mutual benefits both IPM packages appropriate for the to the USA and the participating various regions in which it has been developing host countries in imple- working including Asia, Africa, Latin menting a collaborative program such America, and the Caribbean. • as this one, USA and host country The availability and/or development of scientists and students, host country relevant IPM technology for each pest/ farmers and US consumers are among cropping system situation is a prerequi- the beneficiaries of this collaborative site if a technology transfer activity program. 418 B. Gebrekidan

Acknowledgments IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia Tech. (1995–2000) IPM CRSP Update The IPM CRSP is funded by the USAID Newsletter. Published Quarterly. IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia under Grant No. LAG-G-00-93-00053-00 Tech. (1998c) Progress in IPM CRSP and the participating institutions. The Research: Proceedings of the Third IPM CRSP contributions of the IPM CRSP investigators Symposium. 15–18 May 1998, Blacksburg, and the Management Entity are gratefully Virginia. acknowledged. Lawrence, J.L., Edwards, C.A., Schroeder, M., Martin, R.D., McDonald, F.D. and Gold- Smith, J. (2000) An integrated approach for managing hot pepper pests in the Caribbean. Bibliography BCPC Conference – Pests & Diseases, pp. 239–244. Erbaugh, J.M., Kyamanywa, S., Epieru, G. and Lefter Daku, Norton, G.W., Pfeiffer, D.G., Luther, Mwanje, E. (1999) Farmer knowledge of G.C., Pitts, C.W., Taylor, D.B., Tedeschini, J. pest management in Eastern Uganda: a base- and Uka, R. (2000) Farmers’ knowledge line assessment. In: African Crop Science and attitudes towards pesticide use and Conference Proceedings 4, 1–10. olive pest management practices in Vlora, IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia Albania: a baseline survey. IPM CRSP Tech. (1998a) IPM CRSP Fourth Annual Working Paper 00-1. January 2000. IPM Report, 1996–1997. OIRD, Virginia Tech. CRSP, Office of International Research and IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia Development, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Tech. (1999a) IPM CRSP Fifth Annual Report, Virginia, 173 pp. 1997–1998. OIRD, Virginia Tech. Norton, G.W., Rajotte, E.G. and Gapud, V. IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia (1999) Participatory research in integrated Tech. (2000a) IPM CRSP Sixth Annual pest management: Lessons from the IPM Report, 1998–1999. OIRD, Virginia Tech. CRSP. Agriculture and Human Values 16, IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia 431–439. Tech. (1998b) IPM CRSP Highlights, Sullivan, G.H., Sánchez, G.E., Weller, S.C. and 1993–1998. OIRD, Virginia Tech. Edwards, C.R. (1999) Sustainable develop- IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia ment in Central America’s non-traditional Tech. (1999b) IPM CRSP Annual Highlights export crops sector through adoption of for Year 6 (1998–1999). OIRD, Virginia Tech. integrated pest managementpractices: Guate- IPM CRSP Management Entity, OIRD, Virginia malan case study. Sustainable Development Tech. (2000b) IPM CRSP Annual Highlights International Launch edition, pp. 123–126, for Year 7 (1999–2000). OIRD, Virginia Tech. ICG Publishing, London. Chapter 32 Bridging the Gap with the CGIAR Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management

B. James1, P. Neuenschwander1, R. Markham2, P. Anderson3, A. Braun3,W.A.Overholt4,Z.R.Khan4,K.Makkouk5 and A. Emechebe6 1Biological Control Center for Africa, IITA-Benin; 2Formerly, The SP-IPM Secretariat, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria; 3CIAT, Cali, Colombia; 4ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya; 5ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria; 6IITA, Kano, Nigeria

Introduction treadmill’ into analytical approaches to understand pest status within production Demographic pressures and higher food ecologies (e.g. investigate, understand and demands cause changes in land use and agri- utilize biodiversity, unravel trophic rela- cultural production patterns. In resource- tionships and causes of population changes, limited agriculture, the consequences fre- determine effect of abiotic factors on crop/ quently include decreasing fallowperiods, livestock and pest growth) in order to make declining soil fertility, reduction in amount informed decisions on appropriate options. of arable land per farmer, environmen- In this regard, the CGIAR centers have pio- tal degradation, growing pest1 problems, neered outstanding contributions in IPM, falling food productivity, and increasing notably in the areas of genetic resistance poverty. Africa, for example, accounts for against pests of mandate crops (e.g. Osada 19% of the world’s poor, and this figure is and Fucikovsky, 1986; Chavez et al., 1988; estimated to rise to 28% by the year 2005 Hibino et al., 1988; Efron et al., 1989; Dahal (IITA, 1997; IITA, 2001). In the search for et al., 1990; Dixon et al., 1992; Vuylsteke sustainable options to increase food secu- et al., 1993; Mahungu et al., 1994; Bandyo- rity, IPM plays a key role, having the poten- padhyay et al., 1998; Huet et al., 1999; tial to increase the productivity of agri- Legg and Thresh, 2000; Singh et al., 2000; cultural systems while minimizing threats Bellotti and Arias, 2001; Morales, 2001), to human health and the environment. IPM biological control of alien invasive species has evolved from pesticide abatement strat- (e.g. Herren and Neuenschwander, 1991; egies (e.g. economic thresholds, scouting or Neuenschwander et al., 1994; van Thielen forecasting systems to control application et al., 1994; Yaninek et al., 1998; Neuensch- calendars) aimed at avoiding the ‘pesticide wander, 2001), substitution of inorganic

1 Pests = arthropods, vertebrates, pathogens and weeds and other organisms detrimental to agricultural production.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 419 420 B. James et al.

pesticides with biopesticides (Lomer Table 32.1. Members of the Inter-institutional et al., 2001), and development of holistic working group on IPM. approaches (e.g. Markham et al., 1994; The SP-IPM partner organizations Yaninek et al., 1994). The full potential of IPM to reduce Asian Vegetable Research and Development shortfalls in food production is, however, Center (AVRDC) poorly realized in developing countries. BioNET INTERNATIONAL CABI Bioscience Many research initiatives focus largely on Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical developing component technologies with (CIAT)* minimal understanding of client-oriented Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP)* approaches in the innovation process, and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y neglect the key role of the policy environ- Trigo (CIMMYT)* ment in IPM promotion. Research centers CropLife International had also tended to concentrate efforts on Global IPM Facility genetic resistance, which invariably acqui- International Association for the Plant Protection esced dependence on agricultural inputs Sciences (IAPPS) including pesticides. CGIAR center inter- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)* actions with farmer support groups, such as International Center for Research on Agroforestry NGOs, have indicated missed opportunities (ICRAF)* for joint activities to develop sustainable International Center of Insect Physiology and strategies to promote wider implementation Ecology (ICIPE) of IPM (Kanoute et al., 1999). In recognition International Crops Research Institute for the of such obstacles, the CGIAR established in Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)* 1995 the SP-IPM to coordinate inter-center International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IPM partnerships and to ensure that IPM (IITA)* contributes decisively to food security and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)* poverty reduction demands. International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR)* IPM Forum Pesticide Action Network (PAN) representing the The Systemwide Program on IPM CGIAR NGO Committee West Africa Rice Development Association The SP-IPM was launched in 1995 in (WARDA)* recognition of the need for a radically *Indicates CGIAR center. different approach if IPM research is to be more responsive to sustainable agricultural development. The SP-IPM is also part of the CGIAR response to Agenda 21 – the Protection Sciences (IAPPS), the global action plan developed by the United Taxonomic network BioNET International Nations Conference on Environment and and national agricultural research systems Development, convened in Rio de Janeiro in including extension services and NGOs in 1992, which identifies IPM as a key element targeted countries in Africa, Asia and Latin of sustainable agricultural development. America and the Caribbean. Beneficiaries The SP-IPM is a global network (Table 32.1) of the program are farmers, national and of CG and other International Agricultural international agricultural research organi- Research Centers in partnership with the zations, extension programs and NGOs who Global IPM Facility, IPM Forum (housed benefit from exchange of expertise, informa- by CABI Bioscience), Pesticide Action tion as well as genetic and other resources Network representing the CGIAR NGO to increase their capacity to manage Committee, CropLife International repre- pest problems, stabilize productivity senting private crop protection industry, and income, and foster a pesticide-safe the International Association for the Plant environment. CGIAR Systemwide Program on IPM 421

Coordinating Mechanism Interim Science Council of the CGIAR. The SC comprises institutionally nominated The SP-IPM target zones are in Africa, Asia representatives of partner institutions and Latin America, but the program attracts (Table 32.1) who elect a Chair from technical inputs globally to: any of the participating institutions. The • SC ensures that proposed workplans and encourage better communication, and budgets guarantee inter-institutional collab- closer coordination among the CG/ oration, multidisciplinary approaches, use IARCs and their partners to ensure all of appropriate scientific methodologies, IPM stakeholders develop a common and that the activities complement existing perception and shared sense of purpose; • efforts and respond to clearly identified strengthen multi-disciplinary and needs. The SC endorses amendments to the holistic research approaches to under- SP-IPM mission and policy statements and stand the production constraints, and approves financial plans and statements, the range of opportunities needed for and nominates the program coordinator for tackling them; • appointment at the coordinating secretariat. promote client-oriented partnerships The Chair serves for a renewable 3-year to develop, test, adapt and disseminate period and provides overall leadership, novel IPM options, develop farmers’ promotes collaborative linkages, advocacy/ capacity to investigate production public relations, and fundraising. constraints more effectively, and to increase the impact of IPM; • discourage harmful pesticide regimes in production systems of common Inter-Institutional Working Group (IIWG) concern; • facilitate information exchange between IIWG comprises institutionally designated stakeholder groups to increase aware- representatives of partner institutions ness of the benefits of IPM, to create (Table 32.1) and coordinators of SP-IPM a favorable policy environment for projects and thematic working groups. The widespread implementation. IIWG meets annually for partners to discuss and agree on policy and vision (Box 32.1), These activities are planned, imple- identify problems for which an inter-insti- mented and coordinated through four tutional effort could make a difference, set implementation structures. priorities, agree on contractual obligations, program, process and budgetary issues to strengthen collaboration, promote network- Steering Committee (SC) ing, and reviewprogress. Occasionally, special interest groups are invited to SC is the decision-making body and reports IIWG workshops where the meeting agenda to partner stakeholder groups and the require additional expert advice.

Box 32.1. CGIAR policy statement on IPM.

Definition IPM is an approach to enhancing crop and livestock production, based on an understanding of ecological principles, that empowers farmers to promote the health of crops and animals within a well-balanced agroecosystem, making full use of available technologies, especially host resistance, biological control and cultural control methods. Chemical pesticides are used only when the above measures fail to keep pests below acceptable levels, and when assessment of associated risks and benefits (considering effects on human and environmental health, as well as profitability) indicates that the benefits of their use outweigh the costs. All interventions are need-based and are applied in ways that minimize undesirable side effects. continued 422 B. James et al.

Box 32.1. Continued.

Mission The Mission of the CGIAR is, ‘through research and related activities, ...tocontribute to sustainable improvements in the productivity of agriculture, forestry and fisheries in developing countries in ways that enhance nutrition and well-being, especially of low-income people.’ In pursuance of this mission and in full accord with the articles of UNCED Agenda 21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Inter- national Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs – which here include the CGIAR Centers plus AVRDC and ICIPE) recognize that IPM, as a system that contributes to productivity, prosperity and human well-being in an environmentally sound and equitable manner, has a key role to play in sustainable agricultural development. The IARCs therefore affirm that IPM is their preferred plant and animal health strategy and that, through their research and related activities, they will promote the adoption of IPM by farmers.

Guiding principles • IPM research is interdisciplinary and pursues a holistic approach to management of agricultural and natural ecosystems. • IPM maintains and utilizes biodiversity as the natural foundation for pest management in the context of sustainable agricultural development. • IPM development is guided by farmer participation, from problem diagnosis, through component research, to on-farm validation. • IPM adoption depends on the ability of farmers to make informed decisions, based on an understanding of ecological and economic principles. Farmer empowerment is achieved through participatory research and training methods that encourage the integration of traditional and ‘science-based’ knowledge. • Success in implementing IPM is contingent on a favorable public policy environment.

Strategy • The IARCs will further develop their existing comparative advantage in researching pest problems, developing IPM components, implementing pilot projects and assessing impact. • The IARCs will maintain and expand their effective partnerships with NARS, NGOs, and other appropriate national, international and bilateral organizations to promote IPM research and implementation. • In full-scale IPM implementation, the IARCs will play a supporting role to organizations such as national extension services, NGOs and IGOs. • The IARCs will promote more effective communication between farmers, extensionists and researchers to ensure that research efforts are clearly focused on farmers’ needs and provide direct support to implementation efforts. • The IARCs will engage in direct dialogue with policy makers and provide information to the general public to raise awareness of the benefits of IPM and promote a policy environment more favorable to IPM implementation. • The IARCs will collaborate with the private sector in developing biopesticides, semiochemicals, drugs and other products which can be used in an economically sound and environmentally responsible way within an IPM framework. • The IARCs will explore the full potential of biotechnological tools (including tissue culture, marker-assisted selection, diagnostic tools and gene transfer) in developing IPM tactics. Genetically engineered products will be evaluated for their non-target effects before deployment within an IPM framework appropriate to the biophysical and socioeconomic environment.

Collaboration The Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management (SP-IPM) was established in 1995 to realize the full potential of IPM within sustainable agricultural development. Guided by the principles set out above and through closer collaboration among the IARCs and their partners, the SP-IPM seeks to achieve synergies and greater impact in IPM research and implementation, and to ensure that these activities are fully responsive to the needs of IPM practitioners. CGIAR Systemwide Program on IPM 423

Thematic Working Groups (TWGs) between stakeholder groups and with donors. The coordinator serves as ex officio TWGs (previously task forces) have primary member of the SC, assists in fundraising, responsibility for scientific quality of SP-IPM participates in planning and reviewmeet - projects and special initiatives. TWGs exam- ings of thematic working groups, manages ine and analyze priority problems, develop the program’s budget as approved by the coherent responses, and provide advisory SC, prepares financial reports, and orga- services. Peer reviewby TWGs ensures that nizes external evaluation of the program recommended responses complement exist- in consultation with the SC. ing efforts, promote synergy of efforts and respond to farmers’ felt needs. Thematic groups submit proposals for approval by the Highlights SC. TWGs are multi-institutional in membership and include representatives of key Box 32.1 presents the SP-IPM vision of IPM stakeholders in national and international as defined by the IIWG. Current initiatives research and development organizations. embodying this vision include TWGs and There are currently eight TWGs (Table projects to develop biologically based 32.2), which also assist to link up national IPM options, develop effective models for institutions to crop germplasm, biological farmer participatory research and learning, control agents, specialized information, establish pilot sites for IPM learning and expertise and other relevant resources adoption, advise on biopesticide regulation available from other institutions. and registration, and provide relevant information and advocacy to the general public and donor communities. Coordinating Secretariat

Coordinating Secretariat is managed by a Developing Biologically Based Coordinator who serves as the global con- IPM Options tact point to catalyze and facilitate approved activities, mobilize and disseminate Certain pests cause severe damage resources, and facilitate communication and losses across cropping systems,

Table 32.2. The SP-IPM projects, thematic working groups and special initiatives.

Focal point

Activity Institution Contact person

1. Projects Whiteflies and whitefly transmitted viruses CIAT [email protected] Farmer participatory research in IPM CIAT [email protected] 2. Thematic working groups Alien invasive species IITA [email protected] Crop loss and IPM impact assessment CIP [email protected] Farmer participatory research and participatory CABI Bioscience [email protected] learning in IPM Functional agrobiodiversity ICIPE [email protected] IPM policy research FAO/GIF [email protected] Leaf miners CIP (to be named) Soil biota (including termites) CIAT [email protected] Tropical whiteflies and viruses CIAT [email protected] 3. Special initiatives Pilot sites initiatives for IPM learning and adoption IITA [email protected] 424 B. James et al.

agroecologies and geographic locations, and nematodes) pose similar threats to food the problems they create simply refuse to go production. Furthermore, post-harvest IPM away. For example, whiteflies (principally research is much neglected. Trialeurodes and Bemisia species) and For many of these system-wide prob- Bemisia-transmitted viruses are major lems, farmers’ coping strategies are ineffec- threats to the production of cassava in tive, and would benefit greatly from prop- Africa (Dubern, 1994; Thresh et al., 1994, erly coordinated researcher partnerships 1998; Legg, 1999; Legg and Thresh, 2000; to develop sustainable strategies. Inter- Neuenschwander et al., 2001), common connectivity between research centers indi- bean in Latin America (Morales, 2000), and vidually working on the problems would vegetable crops throughout the tropics bring such benefits of scientific expertise to (Polston and Anderson, 1997; Morales and bear on food security and livelihoods threats Anderson, 2001). Similarly, leaf miners posed by the pests. In this regard, the global (mainly Liriomyza species) cause havoc project on whiteflies as pests and vectors worldwide in a variety of cropping systems of plant viruses in the tropics is the first (e.g. Spencer, 1972; De Lima, 1979; Singh SP-IPM initiative to tackle stubborn system- and Merrett, 1980; Bourdouxhe, 1982; wide pest problems. In 1996, the SP-IPM Diekmann, 1982; Cardona et al., 1985; whitefly Task Force proposed the global ICARDA, 1987; Salas, 1992; Cisneros and whitefly project (Table 32.3) that focused on Gregory, 1994; Barea et al., 1995; Ujiye and T. vaporariorum as a direct feeding pest in Adachi, 1995; Uygen et al., 1995; Kotze the tropical highlands, B. tabaci as a vector and Dennill, 1996; Singh and Weigand, of viruses in legume–vegetable mixed 1996; Sharaf-El-Din et al., 1997; Cardona cropping systems of annuals in the tropical et al., 1998; de Souza et al., 1998; Shepard lowlands, and B. tabaci as a vector and pest et al., 1998). Stemborers and parasitic in cassava. The primary project partners weeds (e.g. Striga and Orobanche) are were five CG and other International Agri- equally an area-wide problem in a variety of cultural Research Centers, ten advanced cereal–legume cropping systems in most research institutions in Australia, Denmark, of Africa (Sallé and Raynal-Roques, 1989; Germany, NewZealand, the UK, and the Sauerborn, 1991; Oikeh et al., 1996). Weeds USA working in partnership with national are generally of over-riding concern to agricultural research systems in 30 countries production in many low-input farming of Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa and systems, and soil biota (e.g. white grubs and Asia.

Table 32.3. Sub-projects of the global project on whiteflies as pests and vectors of plant virus in the Tropics.

Focal point

Sub-project Institution Contact person

Trialeurodes vaporariorum as a direct pest in the tropical CIAT [email protected] highlands of Latin America Bemisia tabaci as a virus vector in mixed cropping CIAT [email protected] systems of the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America Bemisia tabaci as a virus vector in mixed cropping ICIPE [email protected] systems of eastern and southern Africa Bemisia tabaci as a virus vector in mixed cropping AVRDC [email protected] systems of SE Asia Bemisia tabaci as a virus vector in cassava and sweet IITA [email protected] potato in sub-Saharan Africa Whiteflies as direct pests on cassava in South America CIAT [email protected] Project coordination CIAT [email protected] CGIAR Systemwide Program on IPM 425

In the first phase of activities which participation (Pretty, 1995; Braun and started in 1997, the project established Hocdé, 2000), action-research and social an international network for researchers on learning (for examples see: Röling and whiteflies and whitefly-transmitted viruses Wagemakers, 1998; Ashby et al., 2000; in the tropics, and characterized agronomic, Defoer and Budelman, 2000). All aim at socioeconomic, and epidemiological features informed decision making by farmers to of whiteflies and whitefly transmitted solve location-specific problems, respond viruses in cassava, legumes and sweet potato to opportunities and cope with rapid in targeted countries in Latin America, change. Africa, and the Caribbean and Mexico using Likewise the definitions and objectives standardized diagnostic survey methodolo- of approaches such as Participatory Learn- gies. The results (Anderson and Markham, ing, Participatory Extension, and FFS 2003) formed the basis of subsequent activi- (van de Fliert, 1993; Hagmann 1999a,b; ties to improve understanding of whitefly Connell, 2000; Ooi, 2000) also vary. One of and disease dynamics in critical target areas, these in particular, the FFS, was originally define and develop whitefly IPM strategies, developed for the IPM context; nevertheless strengthen national research capacity, pol- confusion about the similarities and dif- icy formation and IPM implementation, ferences among these, and about their and to extend project activities to new relationship to participatory research geographical areas. approaches is commonplace (Braun et al., 2000; van de Fliert et al., 2000). In all these approaches, the impact in terms of reduced pesticide use, improved productiv- Developing Effective Models for ity, yields, or returns, less vulnerability to Participatory Research risk, better responsiveness to market forces, or sustainability of farming practices hinges The success of IPM depends largely on largely on improving human capacities for howwellfarmers understand and combine analysis, decision making and facilitation knowledge of biological and ecological (Groot and Maarleveld, 2000). A case processes with their farming experience to study of FPR and participatory learning develop/select options that reduce losses (PL) approaches across agroecologies and to pests, increase agricultural productivity, cultures can contribute to orient current manage risk, and meet the demands of and future projects and project managers local and global markets. Globally, the IPM towards available opportunities in partici- community is convinced that FPR ensures patory IPM. The potential of FPR and PL integration of scientific and indigenous to increase IPM impact also needs to knowledge to make research more be assessed, with special focus on their understandable and useful. However, complementarities. participation and FPR mean different things In an initial response to challenges of to different partners (Pretty, 1995; Lilja and this kind, the SP-IPM Task Force on FPR- Ashby, 1999; Ashby and Sperling, 2000; IPM, in collaboration with the Systemwide Braun and Hocdé, 2000). The label ‘FPR’ is Program on Participatory Research and applied to a diverse array of approaches Gender Analysis, FAO Global IPM Facility, involving different objectives and many CABI Biosciences, and other arms of the types and levels of participation. These SP-IPM organized an international work- include facilitation of farmers’ experiments shop in 1996 to clarify FPR concepts and (Haverkort et al., 1991), farmer participa- develop a framework for action. The work- tion at different stages of formal plant shop output was translated into a project breeding (Witcombe, 1996; Weltzien et al., proposal mainly through discussions on 2000), farmer testing of ‘best bet’ options the listserve [email protected], workshops generated by researchers (Snapp, 1999), and and the SP-IPM annual meetings. The varied approaches involving interactive project proposed to undertake a series of 426 B. James et al.

mentored study-exchanges between con- (IPM facilitators, researchers, extensionists, trasting pairs of successful projects on project managers) jointly analyzed study participatory research and learning to tour case studies and experiences with the collate existing information, case studies on viewto develop an agreed-upon framework methodologies, practices, and processes for for an integrated participatory approach wider distribution; provide research plan- to research and dissemination/extension in ners and managers and policy makers with IPM in the context of a broader innovation guidelines on key participatory principles process. Elements of the joint analysis inclu- and practices underpinning successful IPM ded identification of common elements and projects, and encourage the incorporation of principles of FPR and PL processes, analysis such approaches in modifications of exist- of experimental processes, synthesis of suc- ing IPM projects and in designing newones. cess factors and lessons learnt and of the Table 32.4 lists the projects/programs that challenges faced by the projects/programs were invited to participate in the study tour from the cross-country sharing and exposure and learning workshop because they have a visits. The workshop discussed differences track record either with an FPR or PL-based in various approaches to advise on possible approach or have experience in combining institutional arrangements for the develop- and integrating the practice of the two ment of strategies to influence policies approaches. To capitalize on FPR and and institutions for mainstreaming and PL experiences worldwide, the mentored operationalization of FPR/PL IPM policies exchange visits were followed by a learning and practices. Specifically, the participants workshop, at which project participants developed a vision of FPR/PL in terms of and representatives from other projects/ what would need to be done differently programs conducted a cross-cutting analysis at the level of farmers and community of the case studies generated by the study organizations, extensionists, national and tour participants. CG/IARC researchers, and policy makers if During the first phase of activities, 12 FPR and PL were to be successful in IPM frontline project staff completed 7–10 days (Anonymous, 2001a). of mentored reciprocal exchange visits The synthesis of success factors, among the participating projects and challenges and lessons learned formed the programs. At the pioneer learning work- basis of a conceptual framework for FPR and shop (Anonymous, 2001a) 43 participants learning interventions. In this regard, the

Table 32.4. FPR-IPM project: study-tour projects/programs.

Focal point

Host project/program Institution Contact person

PROINPA: Foundation for the promotion and PROINPA, Bolivia [email protected] investigation of Andean products UPWARD: Users perspectives with agricultural UPWARD, Philippines [email protected] research and development CIP-ICM: Participatory development of potato CIP, Indonesia [email protected] and sweet potato ICM in Indonesia by CIP and its partners CABI-IPPM: Sub-regional project on integrated CABI, Kenya [email protected] production and pest management (IPPM) FAO-CIPM: FAO Community IPM program in FAO, Hanoi, Vietnam [email protected] Vietnam IPCA: Participatory research in Central America Proyecto IPCA, [email protected] (Honduras) Honduras FPR-IPM project coordination CIAT [email protected] CGIAR Systemwide Program on IPM 427

learning workshop identified cornerstones by many stakeholders in the agricultural that need to be in place in a process of development process to be a major con- planning, executing and managing FPR/PL straint limiting IPM adoption. Effective in IPM. The cornerstones were local partnerships to involve farmers in the organizational capacity; process facilitation research process to develop, test/adapt capacity; a basket of technical options; and disseminate IPM options are also quality participation; benefits for farmers; uncommon. Additionally, organizational institutional capacity for support services; and policy obstacles and extension commitment to longer-term interven- bottlenecks discourage the dissemination tions; scaling-up strategies and approaches; of proven options. In response to these research with and by farmers; farmer experi- constraints, SP-IPM introduced ‘pilot sites’ mentation, learning and sharing; a vision in 2000 as part of its implementation strat- beyond IPM; inclusion of marketing aspects; egy to introduce ‘best-bet’ IPM options to impact assessment and self-evaluation; sup- farming communities, assist participating portive policies; interdisciplinary approach; organizations to gain experience in devel- institutional collaboration and network- oping effective farmer–scientist–extension ing; and funding and creative financing (FSE) partnerships, and increase under- mechanisms. In follow-up activities, a standing, dissemination and adoption of sub-group of workshop participants will IPM options by farmers. develop the fuller conceptual framework Pilot sites (Table 32.5) were selected from these cornerstones. The consultative in major agroecologies where farmers had activities in this first phase of the project already identified pests as a principal will lay a solid foundation for a longer-term concern. The selection criteria included process of training, advocacy, exposure and prior characterization of other biophysical sharing of a variety of practices and practical and socioeconomic features; availability of methods, and of institutional change to promising local IPM options; existence promote more effective farmer participatory of research and development activities that research and learning approaches among the provide a platform for pilot site develop- partner organizations and beyond. ment; opportunities for achieving new synergies by closer collaboration between IARCs and partners; the presence of strong partners to take primary responsibility for Pilot Sites for IPM Learning site activities; and identification of a wide and Adoption extrapolation domain for the results of pilot activities. At each pilot site, FSE teams Although a number of promising IPM analyzed production problems, identified options are available, adoption of IPM at farmers’ coping strategies, and agreed on farm level is disappointingly slowin the ‘best-bet’ options to evaluate. developing countries. Poor communication In Kenya, pilot-site farmers have between researchers and farmers is believed conducted field experiments to control

Table 32.5. The SP-IPM pilot sites initiative.

Focal point

Pilot site Institution Contact person

East Africa: mid-altitudes in Kenya ICIPE [email protected] North Africa: irrigated ecologies in Egypt ICARDA [email protected] North Africa: rain-fed sub-humid ecologies in Morocco ICARDA [email protected] West Africa: Guinea savanna in Nigeria IITA [email protected] West Africa: Sahel in Mali and Burkina Faso ICRISAT [email protected] General coordination IITA [email protected] 428 B. James et al.

Striga hermonthica and stemborers by yields of faba bean by 60% compared with combining Striga-tolerant maize varieties the yields of non-pilot-site farmers. The with the fodder legume Desmodium in pilot-site farmers combined faba bean variet- an intercropping and habitat management ies tolerant to Orobanche with improved system that includes the use of Napier grass, agronomic practices to minimize damage a system developed by ICIPE (Khan et al., by the weed and reduce virus spread. In 1997a,b, 2000). In this IPM strategy, Morocco, the pilot site was in the Settat area Desmodium stimulates Striga germination, in Central Morocco where rain-fed wheat and suppresses haustorial growth (hence and chickpea are the major crops grown in reduces the seed bank in the soil), repels rotation. The major production problems stemborer moths and improves soil fertility, are Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor)in while Napier grass acts as a trap plant for the bread wheat, the fungal disease Ascochyta pest moths (whose offspring hardly survive blight, and leaf miners (Liriomyza in these grasses). More than 100 of the cicerena) in chickpea (Blaeser-Diekmann, pilot-site farmers have experienced a 20% 1982; Hamdaoui and Lahmar, 1996). In first increase in maize yields, and a newmarket season pilot site trials, the farmers, work- opportunity for sale of Desmodium and ing with researchers from ICARDA and Napier grass for livestock. In Nigeria, 58 national researchers and extensionists, farmers, working with IITA and national doubled wheat yield, largely through a program scientists, have initiated experi- combination of wheat variety resistant mentation to manage Striga and improve to Hessian fly, early planting and other soil fertility by integrating Striga-tolerant improved agronomic practices. The farmers varieties in crop rotation systems with food also doubled chickpea yield by integrating legumes that stimulate suicidal germination blight tolerant varieties with early planting of S. hermonthica (Parkinson et al., 1987; and pre-emergence herbicide application, Alibi et al., 1994; Berner et al., 1996a,b; compared with traditional varieties and late Carsky et al., 2000). In the field experi- planting. ments, maize variety Acr.97TZL Comp.1-W suppressed Striga emergence by 63% compared with traditional varieties, and the suppression of Striga emergence was greater Information Exchange and Advocacy when the variety was rotated with soybean (variety TGX-1448-2E) than in the tradi- A key activity of the SP-IPM-underpinning tional practice of growing one maize crop its coordination role, is information dis- after another. In the rotation schemes tested, semination to increase public and donor the ability to suppress Striga emergence was awareness of the benefits of IPM and to greatest with soybean followed by cowpea raise the profile of IPM within the com- (variety IT-93K-452-1) and groundnut munities. The program has produced and (variety RMP 12) in that order. disseminated various information materials In Egypt, the parasitic weed Orobanche and activity results in print form (e.g. Anon- and virus diseases seriously undermine ymous, 1997), electronic form (e.g. Anony- faba bean production (Fam, 1983; El-Khouly mous, 2001b), and through its website et al., 1997). The area under faba bean in www.cgiar.org/spipm, special project Beni Suef Governorate, for example, had websites (e.g. www.ciat.cgiar.org/fpr-ipm), declined from 17,600 ha in 1991 to 800 in and listserves [email protected] and 2000, mostly because of epidemic spread of [email protected]. The website faba bean necrotic yellows virus that caused www.cgiar.org/spipm features a database of total crop failures in 1992 (Makkouk et al., IPM research and researchers at CG/IARCs. 1994). Through the pilot site initiative, 20 It consists of ‘basic project data’ and ‘project pilot-site farmers, working with ICARDA planning information’, which is the sort and national researchers increased their of data most likely of interest to research CGIAR Systemwide Program on IPM 429

planners who start a new project or seek farmers to understand the biological, interaction with an existing one. ecological and sociological processes that Within the framework of the ‘IPM Infor- underpin agriculture and the problems that mation Partnership’2, the SP-IPM has pro- arise when these natural processes are moted IPM information exchange through disrupted. Among the future activities, the ‘IPM Communications Workshop for pilot sites will be established in other key Eastern & Southern Africa’ at which diverse agroecologies around the tropical world stakeholders in IPM explored howelec - to serve as focal points for developing tronic mail and the Internet could enhance and implementing newmodels of partner - communication and knowledge transfer of ship, promote participatory approaches and IPM in sub-Saharan Africa (Shaefers and introduce ‘best-bet’ options to farming com- Krauss, 1998). Also, in collaboration with munities. The major challenges at the sites the CGIAR-NGO Committee, the SP-IPM include the need to develop non-chemical co-organized an international workshop pest control and soil management options, ‘Towards More Effective Implementation sharpen farmer participatory approaches, of IPM in Africa’ (Kanoute et al., 1999) implement cost-effective mechanisms to at which participants advocated concerted disseminate IPM options to a larger number efforts by agricultural development agencies of farmers, and assess the impact of pilot and research institutes to lobby govern- sites in IPM learning, promotion and ments to adopt IPM as a national policy. adoption. Additionally, continuing prob- Also, the participants resolved to strengthen lem analysis by TWGs explore opportuni- multidisciplinary research within the ties to enhance global collaboration on framework of FPR/PL approaches that production, quality control and regulation allowresearch priorities to be determined of biopesticides and the incorporation of with farmers, NGOs and other stakeholders. biotechnology/transgenic crops into IPM. The immediate outcomes of the NGO-IPM IPM options for problems associated with workshop included an electronic network systemwide production constraints such as ([email protected]), adaptation of sci- soil-biota, leaf miners, thrips, pod borers entific information into user-friendly format in chickpea, pigeon pea and cowpea, and to facilitate farm-level understanding (James post-harvest IPM are badly needed. Broader et al., 2000a,b; Melifonwu et al., 2000; partnerships with the IPM-Forum will be Msikita et al., 2000), and the promotion explored to intensify information exchange of aqueous leaf extracts as alternatives and IPM advocacy at regional and global to inorganic pesticides in peri-urban levels. agriculture (OBEPAB, 2000).

Acknowledgments Conclusion The core program of the SP-IPM was IPM researchers used to limit themselves to supported by the development agencies of studying pests and developing more effec- Switzerland and Norway, and by The Word tive pest control technologies and packages. Bank/CGIAR. Donors to SP-IPM projects In recent years, the focus on IPM research and activities include Australia, Denmark, is shifting to the better understanding of NewZealand, Switzerland(complementary farmers’ felt needs to intensify production funding), the UK and the USA. The SP-IPM for raising income and living standards. was established under the leadership of The SP-IPM partners are working with Dr Lukas Brader, Director-General, IITA.

2 IPM Information Partnership was formed in 1996 between the Consortium for International Crop Protection (CICP), the IPM Forum, IPM Europe and the SP-IPM. 430 B. James et al.

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T.W. Schillhorn van Veen The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA

Introduction these high input requirements lead to non-sustainable production systems and the The world’s human population continues ‘health’ of the land has become under threat to grow. Feeding this increasing population of salinity, soil depletion and erosion. More- has been a challenge for the world agri- over, the use of pesticides came with certain cultural and livestock producers and has risks to farmers, farm workers as well as con- made considerable demand on the world’s sumers. As such, the centralized approach resources. A large part of the production (including state-managed procurement of increases will have to come from local or inputs) was increasingly criticized, leading to regional sources. This is especially a chal- a demand for a newparadigm of feeding the lenge for the farmers in Asia, Africa, and world through sustainable food production. Latin America who will have to provide Development banks such as the World food for the still-increasing populations Bank, who supported the earlier systemic on their continents. This can be achieved Green Revolution approach, have been learn- through three major actions: (i) organization ing lessons, and are increasingly exploring of food production and distribution; (ii) ways to invest in agricultural development increasing production; and (iii) decreasing with focused interventions that are econom- losses. ically and environmentally sustainable. They Dramatic increases in yields were began to understand the risk and liabilities2 obtained during the Green Revolution in of financing state-supported procurement the early 1970s when higher yielding cereal of farmer inputs (Farah, 1994; Schillhorn varieties were introduced in Asia thereby van Veen et al., 1997; Sheriff and Fleischer, averting expected food shortages and fam- 2003). These institutions are nowtrying to ine. However, the newer varieties were also focus on policies and investments that will more demanding, and their use increased lead to more sustainable agriculture (includ- the need for inputs such as water, pesticides, ing pest control), and let farmers, rather than fertilizers and extension. In some cases, the state, decide what farmers need.

1 This note is prepared by T.W. Schillhorn van Veen of the World Bank (e-mail: tschillhornvanve@ worldbank.org). The statements in this communication are those of the author and do not necessary represent the opinion of the World Bank and its affiliates. 2 Prominent among these liabilities is the creation of obsolete pesticide stocks in State warehouses etc. and their costly removal and incineration process (see below). ©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 435 436 T.W. Schillhorn van Veen

The World Bank, therefore, is paying Immediate measures may be required to more attention to sustainable pest control reduce risks associated with the handling practices and to promoting IPM. The Rural and use of pesticides to a level that can Development Department recently comple- safely be managed by the users. ted a study on IPM policies and implementation strategies of development agencies to be used as a background paper in its upcoming Operational policy: pest management – some reviewof the Bank’s Integrated Pest Manage - highlights of the text ment position paper (see Sorby et al., 2003). In the Bank’s view, IPM is not only General: In assisting borrowers to manage pests that affect either agriculture or public health, the about preventing environmental and health Bank supports a strategy that promotes the use of problems, but also about sustainable agri- biological or environmental control methods and culture and improving farmer incomes reduces reliance on synthetic chemical pesti- through reduced production costs. The cides. In Bank-financed projects, the borrower Bank is approaching this through two broad addresses pest management issues in the context objectives: (i) the ‘do-no-harm’ principle; of the project’s environmental assessment. and (ii) the ‘do-good’ principle. The bound- In appraising a project that will involve pest ary between these two objectives is by no management, the Bank assesses the capacity of means firm, and often the Bank applies the country’s regulatory framework and institu- both approaches3. tions to promote and support safe, effective, and environmentally sound pest management. As necessary, the Bank and the borrower incorporate in 4 the project components to strengthen such Do No Harm capacity.

The do no harm principle is basically Agricultural pest management: The Bank uses applied through internal (and sometimes various means to assess pest management in the external) peer reviewand through the country and support integrated pest management enforcement of the Bank’s policies and (IPM) and the safe use of agricultural pesticides: safeguards. The broad objective is to ensure economic and sector work, sectoral or project- specific environmental assessments, participatory that pest management activities in Bank IPM assessments, and adjustment or investment projects are sustainable and that social, projects and components aimed specifically at health and environmental risks are review- supporting the adoption and use of IPM. ed, minimized and are, or can, properly In Bank-financed agriculture operations, be managed by the user. Such activities pest populations are normally controlled through include projects that directly or indirectly IPM approaches, such as biological control, finance pesticides as well projects that do cultural practices, and the development and use not finance pesticides but nevertheless of crop varieties that are resistant or tolerant to indirectly increase pesticide use or affect the pest. The Bank may finance the purchase of pest management. For example, it is consid- pesticides when their use is justified under an IPM approach. ered appropriate to set out clear targets for moving current practices towards IPM and Pest management in public health: In Bank- to provide the necessary support for this financed public health projects, the Bank sup- process in projects where current practices ports controlling pests primarily through environ- in pest management are unsustainable, are mental methods. Where environmental methods not based on an IPM approach, and/or pose alone are not effective, the Bank may finance the significant health and environmental risks. use of pesticides for control of disease vectors.

3 Such investments, however, are not offsetting, i.e. ‘do-good’ investments do not diminish Bank staff and borrower vigilance to enforce the ‘do-no-harm’ objective. 4 The do-no-harm and do-good concepts derive from the work of H.P. van der Wulp (Word Bank/FAO IPM Facility). The World Bank and Pest Management 437

Safeguards monitored by the agricultural department (Rural Development Department) which The Bank’s Pest Management Policy was was seen by some as a conflict of interest. developed in the early 1980s. Since then, it Since 2001, the quality management is has been changed and amended. However, located separately in the Quality Assurance its implementation/application in World and Compliance Unit that has the task to Bank projects has been questioned (see ensure environmental due diligence of Bank Schillhorn van Veen et al., 1997). investments. Consequently, the language of the policy This environmental quality assurance was strengthened in the mid-1990s with has increased the burden in project prepara- further focus on clearly enforceable and tion and review on borrowers as well as the monitorable rules. Bank’s project officers (project task leader) The strengthening of the Bank’s envi- who have to verify adequate institutional ronmental policies and their implementa- oversight capability to ensure a sustainable tion more or less coincided with the recogni- (pest control) investment. tion of the reputational risk to the institution in situations involving less than adequate adherence to the Bank’s policies. The IPM Facility outcome of this recognition has resulted in stricter reviewand enforcement. The The World Bank itself has limited relevant resulting ‘safeguard’ policies mainly focus expertise to assist task leaders in encourag- on environmental and social risks, covering ing inclusion of pest management inter- eight specific fields5, one of which is adher- ventions in Bank projects, or determining ence to its pest management policy. The whether appropriate products and tech- environmental and social units in the Bank’s niques used in Bank-financed projects are regional vice presidencies are responsible best practices (in IPM). The co-sponsorship for the enforcement of, and oversight over, of an IPM facility by the Bank with FAO, the implementation of the policies by the UNEP and UNDP has been a positive devel- borrowers. opment by providing access to specialist All Bank projects are nowsubject to expertise and to a network of relevant reviewfor possible environmental and expert institutions including NGOs. The social impacts, including the borrowers’ Facility, which was initially financed by regulatory framework, institutional capacity the World Bank and FAO, is nowlargely and enforcement. With respect to pest supported by bilateral donors. It is located management, the safeguard is guided by the in Rome and aims to help countries in the Bank’s pest management policy (OP 4.09) development and implementation of pest that focuses on sustainable pest control management policies and IPM programs. It methods with, where possible, a reduction is also helping both developing countries on the reliance on chemical pesticides. In and international funding agencies by line with the objective of being ‘implement- initiating some pilot projects that serve able and enforceable’, the policy is relatively as examples of sound investments in simple (see Box). Its implementation is sustainable pest management, and can be further worked out in Bank Procedures (BP mainstreamed through larger lending pro- 4.01 C) under the environmental policy6. grams. It was envisaged that the Facility The implementation, by regional opera- would lead to an increased number of tional staff, was originally supported and improved quality lending operations in

5 Others include social issues as well as technical environmental issues such as sustainable forestry, natural habitats and dam safety. 6 The text of these policies is available on the Bank’s external website: http://www.worldbank.org/ whatwedo/policies.htm 438 T.W. Schillhorn van Veen

IPM. It was seen as a possible cost-effective to sustainable production in agriculture. So means to leverage a major impact in this far, environmental sustainability or sustain- sphere. The impact of the Facility has been able pest management have not really been mixed, as it concentrated on Asia and part of the World Bank’s macro policy Africa, and on the application of specific discussions or even of agricultural policy extension techniques (i.e. the ‘FFS’) in discussions or policy loans. This may implementing IPM. Its technical expertise, change with the application of the safeguard however, and the provision of IPM experts policy, mentioned above. have been of value. Pest management continues to be part of project loans. Fewloans are solely dealing with pest management, and the pest- Do Good management related activities are generally a component or subcomponent of the broader The do-good principle calls for improving agricultural loan, with a mix of objectives awareness, enhancing policy reform and and interventions that include the following. strengthening the regulatory framework and 1. Governance/regulation. Increasingly, institutional capacity for the implementa- Bank projects support the strengthening of tion of IPM and the control of pesticide use monitoring capacity, by financing chemical and handling. The expected level of project analytical laboratories (residue testing, involvement depends on the circumstances product quality) combined with improving and the scope of the project. Relevant regulations and enforcement capacity. factors in this respect are the: Exporting countries, especially, are increas- • status of pest management in a country ingly faced with international demands to (including parameters such as the certify the safety of agricultural products amount of pesticides used on a per and adhere to the quality rules in their hectare or per capita basis, the health intended markets. This provision of effects of farm workers, and the laboratory equipment and expertise is often status and implementation capacity combined with policy dialogue. Recently, of pesticide laws); the Bank has also been requested to support • magnitude of the activity involving or the development of regulatory frameworks affecting pest management; for organic agricultural production (in • nature of the risks involved; Romania). • size of the gap between actual practices 2. Introduction of IPM technologies. and good practices; Examples are: Bank support for the bio- • geographical scope of the project; and • control systems for cotton pests in Central degree to which policy reform and Asia, for organic coffee growing in Mexico, capacity building fit in the project. for field-school based IPM training in Indo- The tools vary from policy dialogue, nesia, for control of water hyacinth in East advice and training to specific investments. Africa, as well as the introduction of tsetse The tools and policies do not only relate traps in the control of animal trypano- to agriculture but also to other sectors somiasis in central Africa. However, much including health, energy and finance. more could be done. Overall, the Bank believes that sound Although many aspects of IPM consist macro- and micro-economic policies that of ‘private goods’, the mobility of pest popu- encourage producers and consumers to lations often also requires a (national) col- make rational well-informed decisions laborative effort7, i.e. there are clear ‘public will lead to efficient resource use and goods’ aspects. Moreover, in many countries

7 Locust control is often used as an example. However, rather than only focusing on locust control interventions, other approaches, including insurance schemes, may have a higher benefit:cost ratio. The World Bank and Pest Management 439

there is lack of awareness, and public sector to stress the ‘public good’ and the ‘private support can be justified to correct this good’ aspect of interventions, and limit (again, because there may be considerable investments to those with a clear public positive trade-offs). The introduction of IPM good benefit. Most on-farm pest control is a is complex, touching upon various technical private good (albeit with some public good and non-technical interventions, which implications), which is not directly financed complicates the calculation of the economic by the State9 (and consequently by the rate of return. Bank which lends only to governments). However, the Bank has been encouraging 3. Research/extension. An example was non-chemical pest control such as the the agricultural research support project cultivation, use and small-scale marketing in Turkey that specifically allocated some of beneficial insects to control pests in, for funds to research on IPM, resulting in greater example, cotton in Central Asia and coffee in attention of researchers for this subject Mexico. matter and a number of applicable technologies. Extension services in many countries 6. Clean up. Although state-managed pest still involve themselves in providing goods control and pesticide procurements can rather than information and knowledge, and occasionally be useful in emergency situa- too often such goods include pesticides. tions, they tend to distort markets and the This paradigm is changing only slowly. leftover (‘obsolete’) stocks are a persisting Bank projects generally are not to support liability and expensive to remove. Most extension systems that introduce pesticides obsolete stocks10, whether in the former (either as goods or as advice for ‘calendar’ Soviet Union or in developing countries, are spraying, etc.), without having exhausted results of previous pesticide procurements the options of non-chemical control. The managed by the State. International donors latter are numerous but there is a general and banks have been requested to partici- lack of awareness among the agricultural pate in the financing of clean-up programs. staff in many countries8. However, as countries are reluctant to borrowfrom development banks for such 4. Training. The best known example of clean-up, they prefer to appeal to donor training is the support for the farmer field organizations. For example, FAO managed schools in Indonesia, a concept earlier such a clean-up program in some African developed by UNDP and FAO and main- countries financed by bilateral support from streamed in the Bank-financed Indonesia European countries. The World Bank is con- IPM project. This (extension) technology has templating a follow-up that would finance also been applied in other countries such as the removal of all obsolete stocks in a Vietnam and Ghana; so far mainly focusing proposed ‘Africa Stockpiles Program.’ on pest control in rice. As previously mentioned, the Bank 5. Financing pest control. The financing increasingly relies on others to develop and of pest control is slowly shifting away from monitor the technical aspects of its lending pesticide procurements of the past. This is in program. This dependency increases the part supported by the Bank’s overall policy responsibility of local (technical) staff in the

8 Too often farmers and agricultural staff still associate the use of pesticides with ‘modern’ agriculture, and are not aware of the advances made in non-chemical pest control in developing countries in recent years. Inexperienced extension staff still prefer providing tangible goods (fertilizer, pesticide) rather than sound advice. 9 Indirectly the Bank could finance agricultural inputs through its on-lending (credit) projects. In this case, however, the Bank’s safeguard policy requires review of the capacity in Government as well as in the participating banks to assure safe use. 10 Donations or free supply of farm inputs such as agrochemicals, still a habit of a limited number of donors and governments, may impede the development of independent farmers (as government and donors decide, rather than farmers, what is needed), may consequently lead to poor choice of inputs and, with respect to pesticides, may lead to outdated or obsolete stocks. 440 T.W. Schillhorn van Veen

planning and implementation of Bank loans, practices. The major issue is the type of requiring training programs such as the IPM tools required to measure the impact, and training program provided by Michigan especially howto calculate and include the State University (and many others). indirect spin-offs, i.e. effects such as human Of course not everyone has been happy health (especially of farm workers) and with the Bank’s approach. Some in the well-being, environmental factors ranging pesticide industry see the pest management from clean water to increasing fauna, and the policy as restrictive and have made various loss or creation of local jobs13. efforts to neglect, change or circumvent the All parties, including industry, inter- Bank’s policy. The pressure on borrowers national development organizations and by such players in the industry has been the environmental community could play increasing and was somewhat facilitated by a constructive role and help to reduce the the Bank’s emphasis on private sector devel- reliance on toxic pesticides by creating opment and participation. There has been awareness and promoting a diversified much debate on the biotechnical aspects approach to pest control in agriculture as of pest control. Currently, the Bank has no well as in other sectors (for example, health) official position on genetically modified without unacceptable risks to the environ- organisms as too little information is avail- ment or human health and well-being. able to provide a well-informed opinion about these recent technological developments. After all, the World Bank, as a bank, is risk adverse. References On the other hand, many in the environmental community find the policy still weak Farah, J. (1994) Pesticide policies in developing and its implementation lacking. This com- countries: do they encourage excessive munity has a valuable role to play in point- use. Discussion Paper No. 238, World ing out to the Bank where its policies are Bank, Washington, DC. not implemented. Indeed, a recent review11 Schillhorn van Veen, T.W., Forno, D.A. et al. (1997) Integrated Pest Management. Strat- indicated that the application of the OP 4.09 egies and policies for effective imple- was highly variable. This is in part related to mentation. Environmental Sustainable the lack of awareness in borrowing coun- Development Studies and Monographs No. tries, to the lack of knowledgeable staff (most 13, World Bank, Washington, DC. agricultural specialists have left the Bank in Sheriff, G. and Fleischer, G. (2003) Towards the last decade), and to the persisting para- economically rational pesticide policies. digm that associates ‘modern’ agriculture World Bank Research Observer, World Bank, with high consumption of inputs, including Washington, DC (in press). pesticides. Bank-financed projects are, in Sorby, K., Fleischer, G. and Pehu, E. (2003) IPM in principle, designed by the borrower12 and, Development – a reviewof trends and imple - mentation strategies. Agriculture and Rural because of their lack of awareness about Development Working Paper No. 5, World sustainable agriculture and pest manage- Bank, Washington. ment, excellent opportunities to introduce Tozun, N. (2001) Newpolicy, old patterns, sustainable practices are too often missed. a survey of IPM in World Bank projects. Within the Bank there is debate about Global Pesticide Campaigner 11(1), Pesticide the economic returns of sustainable farming Network, San Francisco.

11 Tozun (2001) and Sorby et al. (2003). 12 Borrowers are often helped by, or leave the detailed design to, the project design unit in FAO financed under a cooperative agreement with the Bank, which also has few technical specialists, and often draws expertise from the private consulting community. 13 Most pesticides are produced in developed countries. The use of chemical pesticides is often a labor- saving tool, the need of which can be questioned in developing countries where unemployment is high. Chapter 34 Integrated Pest Management Case Studies from ICIPE

Z.R. Khan, W.A. Overholt and A. Ng’eny-Mengech ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya

Evolution of ICIPE worldfoodprize.org/Laureates/Past/1995. html), Herren has introduced newprograms The ICIPE, with its global headquarters in that intrinsically link IPVM with the Nairobi, Kenya, is an autonomous inter- Centre’s unique mandate to promote the governmental research institute devoted to use of insects as a valuable natural alleviating poverty and ensuring food resource and rawmaterial for enterprise security and good health for the peoples of development. the tropics through the management of In its earlier years, ICIPE concentrated both harmful and useful insects and other on basic research to acquire the critical arthropods (www.icipe.org). The Centre information base needed for a holistic was founded in April 1970 by the Kenyan understanding of its target pests and vectors. insect physiologist, Thomas R. Odhiambo Later, building on this base, ICIPE then (http://www.thp.org/prize/87/odhiambo. began concentrating on application of this html), in direct response to the need for knowledge to the design of innovative meth- alternative pest and vector management ods of managing key pests. The third decade strategies that are sustainable, selective, sawICIPE’s agenda evolving to address non-polluting, and affordable to resource- the immediate needs of its constituencies limited rural communities. The tropical more directly, while at the same time being African environment in which ICIPE is cognizant of regional and global concerns, located contains a rich variety and by developing more products and services, abundance of arthropod life, which cause as well as integrated packages for improved a number of serious developmental con- IPVM and commercial insect enterprise straints on the one hand, but offer unique development. Nowin its fourth decade, opportunities for research on the other, ICIPE is developing solutions based on its touching on all spheres of human, animal, original mandate but very much taking into plant and environmental life. consideration the growing global concerns ICIPE’s current Director General, Hans about such issues as biodiversity conser- R. Herren, a Swiss entomologist, was vation and sustainable utilization, poverty appointed in 1994. Winner of the reduction, and the role of women in 1995 World Food prize (http://www. development.

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 441 442 Z.R. Khan et al.

Organizational Structure and Operation developing IPM components, particularly through work on pest-tolerant/resistant var- ICIPE’s organizational structure is based on ieties, biological control, use of botanicals a matrix. The lateral dimension is composed and behavior modification techniques. In the of four research divisions representing the Centre’s first 25 years, ICIPE agronomists ‘4-H’ areas of operation, namely Plant concentrated on developing pest-tolerant Health, Human Health, Animal Health, and ‘IPM-fit’ varieties of staple food crops such as Environmental Health. The second, vertical maize, sorghum, cowpea and striga-resistant dimension consists of two research depart- rice which are now being used by NARES ments in which ICIPE’s core competency in several African countries. A germplasm resides (the Population Ecology and Ecosys- collection of over 175 banana cultivars was tem Science Department and the Behavioral established by ICIPE researchers and also and Chemical Ecology Department) and the transferred to NARES in several African research and support units (Molecular Biol- countries, and methods for multiplying ogy and Biotechnology, Biomathematics, clean planting materials devised. Cultural Bioinformatics, Entomopathology, Arthro- practices for reducing pest incidence in pod Rearing and Quarantine, Biosystem- field crops and for improving the land atics, Social Sciences, Information and equivalence ratio, such as by strip relay- Publications and a Technology Transfer intercropping, were developed. Horticul- unit). The third dimension is provided by tural crop pests research is a more recent Capacity Building, which permeates every addition to ICIPE’s R&D agenda, but over program and activity, and serves to build the past several years, germplasm collec- the capabilities of developing-country indi- tions have been established and evaluated viduals and institutions while forging a link for pest resistance for several important to the future. export and local crops, including tomatoes, Research is conducted at the Centre’s okra and aubergine. Cultural methods have headquarters on the outskirts of Nairobi, as also been devised for pest control in cab- well as at the main field research and train- bage, French bean, tomato and indigenous ing facility, ICIPE-Mbita, on the shores of vegetables. Prefacing the study of every new Lake Victoria in western Kenya. There are crop are biodiversity surveys of the pest six other field sites in Kenya, altogether complex and its natural enemies. totaling 500 ha, representing all of the main Botanical pest control agents, including agroecological zones found in the tropics. neem (Azadirachta indica) have been suc- A field site on the Red Sea Coast of Sudan cessfully deployed by farmers against a (for locust research) and a focus in Ethiopia variety of crop pests, including maize are also sites of research and development and sorghum stemborers, cowpea thrips, activities. Through extensive collaborative diamondback moth, aphids, termites, agreements with national agricultural banana weevils, and banana and tobacco research and extension systems (NARES) root-knot nematodes. The search for new and NGOs working at grassroots level, a botanicals with pest control properties much greater target area and population continues, and of the several hundred indig- is reached. ICIPE currently collaborates enous plants screened, a score or more are with over 200 national, regional and inter- proving promising in controlling not only national institutions and organizations in crop pests, but also disease vectors such 64 countries around the world. as mosquitoes and ticks. Several of these are being grown by local communities as income-generating activities, and have been registered and formulated on a small Impact of ICIPE’s Achievements scale into commercial products via ICIPE’s technology transfer sections. In its 30-some years of operation, ICIPE ICIPE has been a leader in behavioral has made some significant contributions to and chemical ecology research leading to IPM Case Studies from ICIPE 443

pest control methods that rely on behavior agents for horticultural crop pests, with the modification. One of the best examples is the first release of exotic Diadegma species in development of traps and odor baits to lure early 2002 to control the diamondback moth insects to their death. Thousands of the NGU in Africa. Intensive searches for natural tsetse traps made of cheap, locally available enemies of red spider mites (Tetranychus materials have been deployed by communi- spp., a major pest of tomato) and the African ties in several African countries (e.g. Kenya, fruitworm, Helicoverpa armigera, are also Uganda, Rwanda, Ethiopia) and have been being conducted. effective in ridding the areas of these vectors A relatively recent area in which ICIPE of animal and human sleeping sickness, all has made a substantial impact is in the without the use of expensive and environ- development and introduction of small- mentally harmful chemical pesticides. scale enterprises based on apiculture and Another trap design, the NZI trap, is proving sericulture. The Commerical Insects pro- popular for control of many different kinds gram has developed full technology pack- of biting flies, including stable flies. A new ages for beekeepers, from improved queen bednet trap for mosquitoes is nearing com- bees, to introduction of modern 10-frame pletion, and fruit fly baiting stations have Langstroth hives, and improved methods of been successfully deployed on farms. harvesting and processing honey and other Semiochemicals have been isolated and/or high-value hive products such as royal jelly, developed as insect attractants for use in venom and propolis. Races of the domestic traps (e.g. for fruit flies, stemborers, savanna silkworm (Bombyx mori) have been devel- and riverine tsetse), as repellents (e.g. for oped for rearing under African conditions, mosquitoes, tsetse) and as agents to disrupt and the full technology package from eggs to locusts changing to the gregarious phase. reeling, spinning and weaving of finished ICIPE’s Locusts and Migratory Pests silk fabric introduced. Methods for rearing research program in particular has made wild silkmoths, the source of tussar silk, and important progress in elucidating the chemi- for conserving their forest habitats are also cal signals responsible for insect behavior, being established. These commercial insect in this case the transformation of the desert technologies have already been successfully locust (Schistocerca gregaria) from harmless introduced to over 7000 farmers in East solitary individuals into the damaging Africa, with requests to extend them to other gregarious swarms. parts of the continent and Latin America. In the area of biological control, several Closely related to efficient IPVM devel- entomopathogens that have been developed opment is another of ICIPE’s programs, that against a wide range of arthropod pests are of Arthropod Biodiversity Conservation and proving popular with project farmers: local Utilization, wherein the roles of insects in Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) strains effective conservation biology (e.g. as pollinators) against the diamondback moth (Plutella and in gene flowfrom genetically modified xylostella) in cabbage and kale and stem- crops are studied. This program is also creat- borers in maize; Bt strains active against ing an African insect database (nowabout mosquito larvae; fungal preparations such as 60% complete) and biodiversity inventory, strains of Metarhizium anisopliae against which will be useful for identification pur- termites and thrips in onion, French bean poses and in developing decision-support and flowers; Beauveria bassiana and nema- tools. todes against ticks; and viruses against As part of its vision and strategy for the locusts and maize pests, among others. next 10 years, ICIPE will continue to concen- This chapter describes one of ICIPE’s trate on developing pest and vector control main thrusts in classical biological control, technologies for use by the resource-poor against the exotic stemborer Chilo partellus, smallholder farmers and urban communi- a major pest of gramineous crops. At the ties of Africa, and other areas of the tropics same time, the Centre is rapidly moving with similar problems. Because ICIPE toward introduction of biological control believes that true development can only take 444 Z.R. Khan et al.

place in a healthy environment, special 15 countries, the ARPPIS network has emphasis will be given to conserving and/or become a model in cooperative high-level restoring environmental integrity. The basic education for scientific leadership on the approach will be one of more effective continent. The Programme has thus far a prevention – keeping an insect from ever cumulative enrollment of more than 160 becoming a pest in the first place – combined scholars, of whom 119 have completed with ‘smarter’ cures. The latter will often be their PhD degrees and are working in recommended as components of a more Africa. Students conduct their research at comprehensive development package, how- ICIPE under supervision of an ICIPE scien- ever, where both crop pests and disease tist and a staff from the degree-awarding vectors (e.g. mosquitoes, tsetse, ticks) will be university. Another 120 plus students have tackled simultaneously, while introducing been trained at MSc level in three regional income-generating activities to help relieve ARPPIS centers, at the University of Legon, poverty – the root cause of under- Ghana; Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; development – rather than as an isolated and the University of Zimbabwe; a fourth solution for a single pest. This paradigm of MSc center in francophone Africa is ‘total health’ (i.e. the 4Hs) is being used, for planned. A program that allows students example, in ICIPE’s Kakamega Forest Con- from other continents to conduct research servation project, where active community at ICIPE, called the Dissertation Research participation at all levels is an intrinsic Internship Programme (DRIP), was estab- feature of the approach. The ‘habitat lished several years ago and has benefited management’ project described later in this 69 students, including 25 doctoral candi- chapter is an example of such an integrated dates. Professional development schemes development approach, combining as it for Postdoctoral Fellows, Visiting Scientists does several IPM components for pest and Research Associates also exist. In addi- control with environmental conservation tion to these higher-level training opportu- and income generation. The ‘push-pull’ or nities, ICIPE has served as a regional focus ‘stimulo-deterrent’ concept used in this for training IPVM practitioners, through project is nowbeing developed for other tailor-made short courses on specific applications, such as in tsetse and tick themes; thus far over 9000 farmers have control. ICIPE will also take advantage of been trained as well as 1000-some exten- the genomics and proteomics revolutions, sion agents and trainers. Future plans are to for instance to identify active sites for alter- strengthen even further the Centre’s capac- ing pest or pesticide resistance, vectorial ity-building activities, for instance by inclu- capacity and behavioral characteristics. sion of training in modern genomics and proteomics at postgraduate level and adoption of a FFS approach for training in IPVM at grassroots level. It is envisaged that ICIPE ICIPE’s Role in Training and will be a focus of bioscience research and a Capacity Building facilitator of bioscience education in Africa. ICIPE maintains close interactive con- As an intrinsic part of its mandate, ICIPE tact with the African scientific community plays an important role in training and who are working to find solutions to capacity building in insect science and its the continent’s pressing problems. This is application. In 1983, in collaboration with another aspect of ICIPE’s mandate: to serve several institutions of higher learning in as a regional focus for sharing, creating Africa and with financial backing of several and documenting scientific information donors, ICIPE initiated a unique regional and promoting a science culture in Africa. program: the ARPPIS (http://www. The AAIS, founded by a group of eminent bu~wood.or~/agriforum/html/icipe.html). African scientists and nurtured over the Today, with 27 participating universities years by ICIPE, is a vital link in this in Africa and an equal number in another regard. The Association co-sponsors an IPM Case Studies from ICIPE 445

international journal of tropical insect natural enemies was typically very low science, Insect Science and its Application, (Overholt et al., 1994a; Scovgard and Pats, which is hosted by ICIPE (http://www. 1996). Thus an exotic parasitoid from inasp.ora.uk/ajol/jou~als/isa/about.html). Pakistan, Cotesia flavipes Cameron Nowin its 23rd volume, the journal can (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), was introduced be found on-line at http://www.bioline.org. and released in southeastern Kenya where br/ti. In an effort to keep in touch with Ch. partellus regularly occurs in high alumni, the ARPPIS Scholars Association densities. Cotesia flavipes is a gregarious (ASA) was founded in 1998 to facilitate koinobiont larval parasitoid which had pre- closer research networking across the viously been used to successfully control African continent. ICIPE is also the focus of stemborers in sugarcane in several areas several other networks, including BiONET- of the world (Polaszek and Walker, 1991). Africa for the biosciences; the Africa Remote Releases were made in 1993 at three loca- Sensing Databank (http://informatics.icipe. tions in the southern coastal area of Kenya org) and the Africa IPM Forum (http:// (Overholt et al., 1994b), and the parasitoid informatics.icipe.org/IPMAfrica). was recovered during the season of release from Ch. partellus and two native stemborers, Ch. orichalcociliellus, and Sesamia calamistis (Overholt et al., 1997). Successful IPM Applications Cotesia flavipes was released at a fourth site in coastal Kenya during the non- Classical biological control of stemborers in cropping season (February) of 1994 in an eastern and southern Africa area where the vegetation was dominated by a wild grass, Sorghum arundinaceum Several lepidopteran stemborers (http:// (Desv.) Stapf. Recoveries in both the wild 195.202.86.131/stemborers) attack maize, habitat and in a nearby maize field during sorghum and millet in Africa, and often two the following cropping season indicated that or more species will attack a crop coinci- the parasitoid could sustain its population dentally in time and space. In eastern and during the dry season in wild grasses, and southern Africa, two borers dominate and then colonize maize fields during cropping are responsible for most crop losses: seasons (Overholt et al., 1997). Busseola fusca Fuller (Noctuidae) in higher Other than recoveries at the wild sor- elevation areas, and Chilo partellus (Swin- ghum site, only one stemborer parasitized hoe) (Crambidae, formerly Pyralidae) in by Co. flavipes was found in 1994, despite lower- and mid-elevation areas. Busseola intensive sampling. In 1995 and 1996, a few fusca is a native African borer, whereas recoveries were made, but parasitism was Ch. partellus is an exotic species which extremely low(Overholt et al., 1997). In was probably introduced into Africa from 1997, the number of recoveries increased southern Asia in the early 1900s (Kfir et al., dramatically and parasitism at 30 sites 2002). Recent evidence suggests that Ch. averaged about 6%. Parasitism continued to partellus is displacing B. fusca and other increase during the next 2 years with average native stemborers at some locations (Kfir, parasitism of about 13% at 67 sites in 1999 1997; Ofomata, 1999). (Zhou et al., 2001). In 1991, in collaboration with Surveys in other maize growing areas of Wageningen Agricultural University in Kenya showed that Co. flavipes was present The Netherlands and the KARI, ICIPE initi- in the Eastern Province (Songa, 1999) and in ated a classical biological control program the area bordering Lake Victoria in western aimed primarily against Ch. partellus Kenya (Omwega et al., 1995). In the Eastern (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/ Province, which borders the Coast Province, overholt.html). Pre-release field surveys Co. flavipes was found in low densities in conducted from 1991 to 1993 revealed that 1996 and then released at three sites in 1997. parasitism of Ch. partellus due to native Parasitism during the season following the 446 Z.R. Khan et al.

releases was about 14% (Songa, 1999). As 2001), we believe that the establishment Co. flavipes was never released in western of Co. flavipes has resulted in an 8–10% Kenya, Omwega et al (1995) speculated that increase in maize yields. the establishment was the result of insects In addition to the work conducted which had escaped from a laboratory colony in Kenya, a survey in 1995 in northern and maintained at a research station in that central Tanzania recovered Co. flavipes at region in 1992. However, parasitism in west- two locations near Lake Victoria in an area ern Kenya has not increased to the levels bordering southwestern Kenya (Omwega observed in coastal Kenya nor in the Eastern et al., 1997). Based on surveys conducted Province (Ogedah, 1999). In western Kenya, before 1994, and on electrophoretic evi- four stemborers are common: Ch. partellus, dence, it was concluded that the most likely S. calamistis, B. fusca and Eldana sacchar- explanation was that Co. flavipes moved ina (Seshu Reddy, 1983). All of these are into Tanzania from Kenya (Omwega et al., attractive and acceptable hosts for Co. 1997). Zhou and Overholt (2001) have flavipes, but two (B. fusca and E. saccharina) recently used modeling to produce an inter- are not suitable for its development (Ngi- polated spatial distribution of Co. flavipes Song et al., 1995; Overholt et al., 1997). in Kenya. Overholt (1998) speculated that the Beginning in 1996, the program expan- presence of acceptable but unsuitable ded to include several other countries. hosts in an area would depress population Releases of Co. flavipes were made in growth of Co. flavipes. Mozambique in 1996 (Cugala et al., 1999), The impact of Co. flavipes on stemborer and in Uganda and Somalia in 1997 populations in coastal Kenya was recently (Overholt, 1998). Sampling in Mozambique investigated and showed a reduction in total in 1999 indicated that the parasitoid had stem borer density of about 26%. Reduction established, but parasitism was low. In of Ch. partellus density was highest at Uganda, Matama-Kauma (2000) reported approximately 50% (Fig. 34.1) (Zhou et al., that one year after its release, Co. flavipes 2001). By coupling this information with had become the most common parasitoid stemborer yield loss estimates (Songa et al., attacking a complex of four stemborers, and

Fig. 34.1. Impact of Cotesia flavipes on total stemborer density and the density of the Chilo partellus in southeastern Kenya from the long rains (LR) of 1993 to the short rains (SR) of 1999. IPM Case Studies from ICIPE 447

that parasitism averaged about 20%. No and Sum, 1992). Stemborers are difficult post-release surveys have been conducted to control, largely because of the nocturnal in Somalia, but recoveries in neighboring habits of adult moths, and the cryptic Ethiopia, where the parasitoid was never feeding behavior by the larvae in plant released (Degaga, 2002), strongly suggests stems. The main method of stemborer that the parasitoid established in Somalia, control that is recommended to farmers and moved later into Ethiopia. Releases in is chemical pesticides. However, chemical Zimbabwe, Zambia, Zanzibar and Malawi control of stemborers is uneconomical were made in 1998/99, and so far, establish- and impractical for many resource-poor, ment has been confirmed in Malawi and smallholder farmers. Zanzibar (W.A. Overholt, unpublished Parasitic weeds (http://www.bio.vu. information). nl/vakgroepen/plantecologie/weeds/clmap. Future efforts on stemborer biological html) of the genus Striga threaten the lives of control will include the release of additional over 100 million people in Africa and infest exotic natural enemies, such as the idiobiont 40% of arable land in the savanna region, pupal parasitoid, Xanthopimpla stemmator causing an annual loss of US$7–13 billion (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), which is (M’boob, 1989; Lagoke et al., 1991; currently undergoing host range studies at Musselman et al., 1991). Striga infestation is ICIPE. We believe that X. stemmator will associated with increased cropping inten- provide an additional level of mortality sity and declining soil fertility. Infestations to stemborers, and not interfere with Co. by weeds of Striga spp. have resulted in flavipes nor native pupal parasitoids due to the abandonment of much arable land by its unique attack strategy which involves farmers in Africa. The problem is more drilling through plant stems with a stout widespread and serious in areas where ovipositor. No common African pupal both soil fertility and rainfall are low. Striga parasitoids use this ‘drill and sting’ method. infestation continues to extend to newareas; Additionally, greater emphasis will be another 40% of arable land may become placed on evaluating the impact of the infested in the next 10 years. Recommended classical biological control program on a control methods to reduce striga infestation regional basis, and finally, efforts will be include heavy applications of nitrogen ferti- made to enhance natural control through lizer, crop rotation, use of trap crops and the integration of classical biological control chemical stimulants to abort seed germina- and the habitat management approach (see tion, hoeing and hand pulling, herbicide below). application and the use of resistant or tolerant crop varieties. All of these methods, including the most widely practised hoe weeding, have a serious limitation in the Habitat management for controlling reluctance of farmers to accept them, for stemborers and striga weed in both biological and socioeconomic reasons maize-based farming systems (Lagoke et al., 1991). Unfortunately, the burden of weeding striga, which is a time- Stemborers and the parasitic striga weed are consuming and labour-intensive activity, two major biotic constraints to increased tends to fall on already-overworked African cereal production in eastern and southern women. Reducing the losses caused by stem- Africa. At least four species of stemborers borers and striga through improved manage- (http://informatics.icipe.org/icwesa/ ment strategies could significantly increase proceedings/doc22.htm) infest maize in maize production, and result in better the region, causing reported yield losses of nutrition and increased purchasing power 20–40% of potential output, depending on of many maize producers. the agroecological conditions, crop cultivar, No single method of control has so far agronomic practices and intensity of provided a solution to both the stemborer infestation (Ampofo, 1986; Seshu Reddy and striga problems (Berner et al., 1995). 448 Z.R. Khan et al.

To put stemborer and striga control within infestation of the maize by stemborers, but the reach of African farmers, simple and also increases stemborer parasitism by a nat- relatively inexpensive measures that are ural enemy, Cotesia sesamiae (Khan et al., tailored to the diversity of African farming 1997b). Desmodium, when intercropped systems need to be developed (Lagoke et al., with maize, not only repels stemborers but 1991). A sustainable solution would be an also inhibits striga (Khan et al., 2000). Striga integrated approach that simultaneously control appears to operate through a combi- addresses both of these major problems. nation of mechanisms, including abortive germination of seeds that fail to develop and The ‘push–pull’ strategy attach on the host.

The ‘push–pull’, or ‘stimulo-deterrent Benefits of the push–pull strategy diversionary’, strategy to control cereal stemborers was developed by ICIPE in 1997 The present push–pull strategy is quite together with several partner institutions, unusual in the way that it has developed including KARI (http://www.kari.org), the from research on the basic science to Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, and the technology transfer, to farmer take-up and Institute of Arable Crops Research (IACR), spontaneous technology transfer between Rothamsted, UK (http://www.iacr.bbsrc. farmers (http://plantprotection.org/news/ ac.uk/iacr/tiacrhome.html). The strategy is NewsIIIOl.htm#1). By the end of 2001, more based on a holistic approach to under- than 1000 farmers in six districts in Kenya standing and utilizing chemical ecology reported that this approach is effective and agrobiodiversity for stemborer and and results in significant reductions in striga management. The strategy involves stemborers and striga infestation and an the combined use of trap and repellent increase in maize yields (Khan et al., 2000, fodder plants of economic importance, 2001). The following benefits of the strategy whereby stemborers are repelled from the were recorded. maize (main) crop and are simultaneously attracted to the trap crop. The fodder plants FOOD SECURITY The intercropping feature which are used in a push–pull strategy are of the approach is amenable to the mixed Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) farming conditions which are prevalent in (http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/ eastern and southern Africa. Intercropping elephant_grass.html); Sudan grass (Sor- or mixed cropping of maize, grasses and ghum vulgare sudanense) (http://www.gov. fodder legumes has enabled farmers to on.ca/OMAFRA/english/crops/facts/ increase crop yields, thus improving food 98–043.html); molasses grass (Melinis security (Fig. 34.2). In recent years, this con- minutiflora) (http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/ tribution to human nutrition has been par- pastures/4557.html); and silverleaf des- ticularly important in most of the farming modium (Desmodium uncinatum) (http:// areas around the shores of Lake Victoria. The www.dpi.qld.gov.au/pastures/4493.html). water hyacinth menace has seriously and Napier grass and Sudan grass have shown negatively affected the traditional fishing potential for use as trap plants, whereas industry to the extent that families around molasses grass and silverleaf desmodium the lake no longer have adequate protein in repel ovipositing stemborers. The trap their diets nor a sound income base. plants used in the present push–pull strategy have the inherent property of not DAIRY AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION The allowing development of the stemborers push–pull strategy has contributed signifi- once they are trapped (Khan et al., 2000). cantly to increased livestock production (for The push–pull strategy also attempts milk and meat) by providing more fodder to exploit the borers’ natural enemies and crop residues, especially on small farms (Khan et al., 1997a,b). Molasses grass, when where competition for land use is high. intercropped with maize, not only reduces For example, in Suba District of Kenya, a IPM Case Studies from ICIPE 449

Fig. 34.2. Average increase in maize yields in ‘push–pull’ fields in six districts of Kenya in 2001. The control is maize monocrop. milk-deficit region on the shores of Lake host plants on uncultivated land adjacent to Victoria which produces only 6 million crop fields can provide an extremely impor- liters of milk against an estimated annual tant refuge for natural enemies, as well as demand of 13 million l, the majority of cattle sources of nectar, pollen, and host/alternate are of the indigenous Zebu breed. In this prey. The worsening of most pest problems district, a major constraint to keeping is linked to the expansion of crop improved dairy cattle for milk production monoculture at the expense of natural is the inadequacy and seasonality of feed, vegetation. In ICIPE’s push–pull program, it which is often of low quality in any case. was observed that predators, mainly gener- Adoption of the push–pull approach by alists, were significantly more abundant 150 farmers in this district has resulted in push–pull fields than in maize mono- in an increase in livestock feed such that crop fields. These predators included ants, the number of dairy cattle being kept by spiders, earwigs and cockroaches. Other farmers increased from four in 1997 to 370 in taxa were also recovered, although in December 2001 with a concomitant increase relatively lower numbers, including cocci- in milk production of 1 million l annually. nellids, staphylinids, reduviids, nabiids and gryliids. Stemborer populations were SOIL CONSERVATION AND FERTILITY Soil ero- conspicuously lower in push–pull than in sion and lowfertility are very common maize monocrop fields. problems in eastern and southern Africa. The push–pull technology introduces prac- SUSTAINABILITY In the push–pull strategy, tices for soil and water conservation that the full integration of several crop protection are already familiar to African farmers. For approaches such as the use of trap crops and example, Napier grass is already being increased parasitism of pests prevents the widely grown in eastern Africa as livestock high selection pressure resulting from the fodder and for soil conservation. Similarly, use of a single approach. This works to cre- the Desmodium spp. of nitrogen-fixing ate a sustainable system by obviating rapid legumes have already been introduced into development of resistance/adaptation by these regions as livestock fodder and for pests, a feature common to single-control increasing soil fertility. measures such as the use of a pesticide or genetically based resistance. EXPLOITING BIODIVERSITY The push–pull approach embodies maintenance of species PROTECTING FRAGILE ENVIRONMENTS The diversity by intercropping with different higher crop yields and improved livestock plants as a means of avoiding the pest prob- production resulting from habitat manage- lems inevitably encountered with a mono- ment strategies will support many rural culture system. It is well established that wild households under existing socioeconomic 450 Z.R. Khan et al.

and agroecological conditions. Thus, there These plots will be increased to 100 in will be less motivation for human migrat- 2002. Parallel programs on development of ion to fragile environments in search of push–pull strategies are being undertaken cultivable land. by the Agricultural Research Council of South Africa and the National Agricultural INCOME GENERATION AND GENDER EMPOWERMENT Research Organization of Uganda, both in Women’s contribution to agricultural pro- collaboration with ICIPE. Additionally, duction in African countries is significant, funds are available to develop push–pull often reaching 80% or higher. Despite strategies in Ethiopia, Malawi and Mozam- variations across cultural and sociopolitical bique in close collaboration with the backgrounds, women make important national programs of South Africa and contributions towards agricultural resource an NGO. Other complementary programs allocation decisions. Indeed, women engage presently running are the CGIAR-funded in time-consuming and labor-intensive ‘Systemwide IPM Project’ being conducted activities in many maize-based farming by ICIPE in Lambwe Valley (Kenya) on systems in Africa. The push–pull approach stemborer and striga management, and the has contributed considerably towards BBSRC-funded project on chemical studies improving farm incomes (Fig. 34.3) and on striga suppression being conducted by gender empowerment through sale of farm IACR-Rothamsted. Another major ICIPE grain surpluses, fodder and Desmodium project, funded by the Global Environ- seed, especially by women farmers and mental Facility of the World Bank to study women’s groups and by rural youth groups. grass–arthropod associations in Kenya, Ethiopia and Mali is looking into promoting Transfer of push–pull technology practical applications of grasses and their associated arthropod life in sustainable More than 100 farmers’ groups and individ- agriculture (http//www.plantprotection. ual farmers in Kenya are multiplying forage org/news/NewsJanuary02.html). crops for income generation and control of Although ICIPE’s experience to date has stemborers and striga weed. This number been restricted to maize-based farming sys- will increase to 250 in 2003. The Kagera tems, the Centre believes that the general Agricultural and Environmental Manage- habitat management or push–pull approach ment Project (KAEMP) in collaboration is applicable to a much wider range of pest with ICIPE has set up 50 push–pull plots problems in a variety of crops (for instance in farmers’ fields in Kagera, Tanzania. in sorghum), and will be a model for other

Fig. 34.3. Economic analysis of habitat management strategies in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya. IPM Case Studies from ICIPE 451

researchers in their efforts to minimize pest- striga weed in maize-based farming systems induced yield losses in an economically and in Kenya. Insect Science and its Application environmentally sustainable manner. 21, 375–380. Lagoke, S.T.O., Parkinson, V. and Agunbiade, R.M. (1991) Parasitic weeds and control methods in Africa. In: Kim, S.K. (ed.) Com- References bating Striga in Africa. Proceedings of an International Workshop organized by IITA, Ampofo, J.K.O. (1986) Maize stalk borer ICRISAT and IDRC, 22–24 August, 1988, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) damage and plant IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 3–14. resistance. Environmental Entomology 15, Matama-Kauma, T. (2000) Yield losses caused 1124–1129. by stem borers on maize and establish- Berner, D.K., Kling, J.G. and Singh, B.B. (1995) ment of Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymeno- Striga research and control: a perspective ptera: Braconidae) in Eastern Uganda. from Africa. Plant Disease 79, 652–660. MSc thesis, Makerere University, Kampala, Cugala, D., Overholt, W.A., Giga, D. and Santos, L. Uganda. (1999) Performance of Cotesia sesamiae and M’Boob, S.S. (1989) A regional programme for Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) West and Central Africa. In: Tobson, T.O. and as biological control agents against cereal Broad, H.R. (eds) Striga Improved Manage- stemborers in Mozambique. African Crop ment in Africa. Proceedings of the FAO/OAU Science Journal 7, 497–502. All African Government Consultation on Degaga, E.G. (2002) Ecological analysis of stem Striga Control, 20–24 October, 1988, Maroua, borers and their natural enemies under Cameroon, pp. 190–194. maize and sorghum based agroecosystems in Musselman, L.J., Bhrathalakshmi, Safa, S.B., Ethiopia. PhD thesis, Kenyatta University, Knepper, D.A., Mohamed, K.I. and White, Nairobi, Kenya. C.L. (1991) Recent research on biology of Kfir, R. (1997) Competitive displacement of Striga asiatica, S. gesnerioides and S. Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) hermonthica. In: Kim, S.K. (ed.) Combating by Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Striga in Africa. Proceedings of an Inter- Annals of the Entomological Society of national Workshop organised by IITA, America 90, 620–624. ICRISAT and IDRC, 22–24 August, 1988, Kfir, R., Overholt, W.A., Khan, Z.R. and Polaszek, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 31–41. A. (2002) Biology and management of Ngi-Song, A.J., Overholt, W.A. and Ayertey, J.N. economically important lepidopteran cereal (1995) Suitability of African gramineous stem borers in Africa. Annual Review of stemborers for the development of Entomology 47, 701–731. Cotesia flavipes and Cotesia sesamiae Khan, Z.R., Chiliswa, P., Ampong-Nyarko, K., (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Environmental Smart, L.E., Polaszek, A., Wandera, J. and Entomology 24, 978–984. Mulaa, M.A. (1997a) Utilisation of wild Ofomata, V.C., Overholt, W.A., Van Huis, A., gramineous plants for the management of Egwuatu, R.I. and Ngi-Song, A.J. (1999) cereal stemborers in Africa. Insect Science Niche overlap and interspecific association and its Application 17, 143–150. between Chilo partellus and Chilo ori- Khan, Z.R., Ampong-Nyarko, K., Chiliswa, P., chalcociliellus on the Kenya coast. Hassanali, A., Kimani, S., Lwande, W., Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata Overholt, W.A., Pickett, J.A., Smart, L.E., 93, 141–148. Wadhams, L.J. and Woodcock, C.M. (1997b) Ogedah, K.O. (1999) Evaluation of the impact Intercropping increases parasitism of pests. of Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Nature 388, 631–632. Braconidae) and indigenous parasitoids Khan, Z.R., Pickett, J.A., Van den Berg, J., on stemborer populations in southwestern Wadhams, L.J. and Woodcock, C.M. (2000) Kenya. MSc thesis, Kenyatta University, Exploiting chemical ecology and species Nairobi, Kenya. diversity: stem borer and striga control Omwega, C.O., Kimani, S.W., Overholt, W.A. and for maize and sorghum in Africa. Pest Ogol, C.K.P.O. (1995) Evidence of the Management Science 56, 957–962. establishment of Cotesia flavipes Cameron Khan, Z.R., Pickett, J.A., Wadhams, L.J. and (Hymenoptera: Bracondiae) in continental Muyekho, F. (2001) Habitat management Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research strategies for control of cereal stemborers and 85, 525–530. 452 Z.R. Khan et al.

Omwega, C.O., Overholt, W.A., Mbapila, J.C. and of cereal stemborers in the tropics. Redia 74, Kimani-Njogu, S.W. (1997) Establishment 335–341. and dispersal of Cotesia flavipes Cameron Scovgard, H. and Pats, P. (1996) Effects of inter- (Hyemenoptera: Braconidae), an exotic cropping on maize stemborers and their endoparasitoid of Chilo partellus Swinhoe natural enemies. Bulletin of Entomological (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in northern Research 86, 599–607. Tanzania. African Entomology 5, 71–75. Seshu Reddy, K.V. (1983) Sorghum stem borers Overholt, W.A. (1998) Biological control. In: in eastern Africa. Insect Science and its Polaszek, A. (ed.) African Cereal Stem Borers: Application 4, 3–10. Economic Importance, Taxonomy, Natural Seshu Reddy, K.V. and Sum, K.O.S. (1992) Enemies and Control. CAB International, Yield-infestation relationship and determi- Wallingford, UK, pp. 349–362. nation of economic injury level of the stem Overholt, W.A., Ngi-Song, A.J., Kimani, S.W., borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) in three Mbapila, J., Lammers, P. and Kioko, E. varieties of maize, Zea mays L. Maydica 37, (1994a) Ecological considerations of the 371–376. introduction of Cotesia flavipes Cameron Songa, J.M. (1999) Distribution, importance and (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) for biological management of stemborers (Lepidoptera) control of Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) in maize production systems of semi-arid (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Africa. Biocontrol eastern Kenya with emphasis on biological News and Information 15, 19–24. control. PhD thesis, Kenyatta University, Overholt, W.A., Ochieng, J.O., Lammers, P.M. and Nairobi, Kenya. Ogedah, K. (1994b) Rearing and field release Songa, J.M., Zhou, G. and Overholt, W.A. (2001) methods for Cotesia flavipes Cameron Relationships of stem borer damage and plant (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid physical conditions to maize yield in a semi- of tropical gramineous stemborers. Insect arid zone of eastern Kenya. Insect Science Science and its Application 15, 253–259. and its Application 21, 243–249. Overholt, W.A., Ngi-Song, A.J., Omwega, C.O., Zhou, G. and Overholt, W.A. (2001) Spatial– Kimani-Njogu, S.W., Mbapila, J., Sallam, temporal population dynamics of Cotesia M.N. and Ofomata, V. (1997) A review flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in of the introduction and establishment of Kenya. Environmental Entomology 30, Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: 869–876. Braconidae) in East Africa for biological Zhou, G., Baumgartner, J. and Overholt, W.A. control of cereal stemborers. Insect Science (2001) Impact of an exotic parasitoid on and its Application 17, 19–35. stemborer (Lepidoptera) population dynam- Polaszek, A. and Walker, A.K. (1991) The ics in Kenya. Ecological Applications 11, Cotesia flavipes species complex: parasitoids 1554–1562. Chapter 35 Integrated Pest Management Experiences of CIRAD-France in Developing Countries

A. Ratnadass, X. Mourichon, M. Vaissayre, S. Quilici and J.-P. Deguine Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France

Origins and Mission of CIRAD economically sustainable production for farmers, while minimizing the use of CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internat- pesticides. ionale en Recherche Agronomique pour le For much of its history, CIRAD has been Développement or Center for International primarily involved in treating existing pest Cooperation in Agronomic Research for problems, rather than prevention. More Development) is a French state-owned orga- recently, the focus has shifted towards a nization devoted to agricultural research preventive and ecologically sound approach with an emphasis on developing countries. to pest management. However, CIRAD It was formed in 1984 by the mergers of sev- acknowledges that some disturbance to eral existing agronomic research institutes. the environment is a necessary part of The mission of CIRAD is to aid economic agriculture. Many years of experience development of countries in the tropics, has shown that IPM alternatives are not subtropics and the Mediterranean through always economically feasible in developing research, training and technology transfer. countries. CIRAD is organized into seven departments Communication between the field sta- with a staff of 1800 and an annual turnover tions and CIRAD headquarters is critical of US$150,000,000. Field stations are dis- to the development of integrated crop tributed around the world, allowing CIRAD management systems. Field stations transfer to address a broad range of agricultural sys- management recommendations to growers, tems and farmers’ calendars. Some of the who in turn have an active role in selecting many crops studied under CIRAD include appropriate management strategies. groundnuts, banana and plantain, cocoa, coffee, sugarcane, cotton, fruit, vegetables, horticultural crops, food crops (cereals, pulses, roots and tubers), rubber, oil palm, Scientific collaboration coconut and forest plantations. CIRAD’s philosophy of crop protection is both The 100 scientists involved in Crop Pro- flexible and realistic. Crop management tection at CIRAD are represented by 2PI programs are focused on achieving (Scientific Delegation of CIRAD for Crop

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 453 454 A. Ratnadass et al.

Protection), one of the seven trans- Case Studies of IPM Programs departmental and thematic delegations Developed and Implemented by CIRAD reporting to CIRAD’s Scientific Manage- ment. Its mandate is scientific coordination Cotton IPM and maintenance of high scientific standards which are coherent with the crop pro- In many tropical countries, cotton is grown tection concept. These scientists, represent- by individual farmers on small plots of ing the academic fields of entomology/ approximately 0.5–1 ha. Pest control under acridology, mycology, virology, bacteriol- these conditions relies primarily on chemi- ogy, weed science, nematology, molecular cal pesticides, but CIRAD and NARS have biology, phytopharmacy and socioeco- been developing IPM strategies that can be nomics, are posted either in mainland successfully used on small farms. Several France, French overseas territories or in alternative control methods for cotton pests tropical countries abroad. have been studied: cultural control, host Areas of research include plant/pest plant resistance, natural enemies (predators interactions, population studies, taxonomy, and pathogens) and pheromones. Some of quarantine, and integrated protection these approaches have proved efficient: (including chemical control and pesticide early sowing, host plant hairiness, and pest resistance). The area of plant/pest interac- detection with pheromone traps. However, tions encompasses host plant resistance to biological control attempts using mass- pests, variability, pathogenicity, character- releases of parasitoids or pathogens have ization and detection tools. Population stud- not yet been successful. ies include modeling, population dynamics, CIRAD uses a three-step approach to prediction of pest population changes planning IPM programs for small-scale etc. All specialists on pests, diseases and cotton farmers: (i) prevention of pest weeds work closely with scientists from damage; (ii) risk evaluation; and (iii) control related disciplines (particularly agronomy, measures. The prevention of insect damage sociology, plant breeding, technology and requires a comprehensive assessment of pest agricultural engineering). and beneficial insects throughout the cotton cropping system, including identification, biology and population dynamics. Ento- mologists are involved at all stages of the Working partnerships pest-resistant cotton breeding programs (resistance screening, plant breeding and CIRAD has a history of active involvement marker-assisted selection). Another major in collaborative efforts to develop IPM focus is preventing or delaying of pesticide approaches. CIRAD has developed partner- resistance in the bollworm Helicoverpa ships with French and foreign universities, armigera, the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii national, regional and international and the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. research institutes and networks including Risk evaluation includes characterizing CILSS, INIBAP, IPM Facility, IPHYTROP1, pest biotypes and damage, studying migra- AFPP2, IICA-PROMECAFE3, international tion patterns and gene flowfor key pests, organizations, donors, the private sector modeling plant–insect relationships, quan- and producers’ organizations. CIRAD is also tifying damage at critical plant growth stages, the French representative to IPM-Europe. and laying down economic thresholds.

1 IPHYTROP is a phytopharmacy and IPM network based at the University of Gembloux, Belgium, http//www.fsagx.ac.be/ca/iphytrop.htm 2 Association Française de Protection des Plantes. 3 Programa Cooperativo Regional Para el Desarrollo. Technologico de la Caficultura en Centroamerica Republica Dominicana y Jamaica. IPM Experiences of CIRAD 455

Sampling plans have been developed for key natural enemies to invade the crop. Other pests (bollworms and sap-sucking insects). traits can be successfully introduced. Either Other important research areas include the they reduce insect attractancy (nectariless) dynamics of natural enemies and insect or they disturb pest population dynamics pathogens, the effects of pesticides on (okra leaf). Biochemicals such as amino beneficial insects, and the epidemiology acids, sugars and gossypol affect the and impact of insect diseases. reproductive potential of pests. Introduction of Bt toxins and protease Cultural control measures inhibitors in cotton is an important step towards insect growth and development Cultural practices are the first line of regulation without pesticides, but ecological defense against pest damage. Cultural con- effects of such an innovation must be trol strategies are geared to ensure that the carefully studied and managed. cotton plant escapes the peak of pest pressure, and reduce opportunities for pests to Natural enemies find food or refuge. Cotton growth can be managed through the choice of sowing Inundative releases of natural enemies were dates or practices such as higher plant first tested on cotton by CIRAD in Madagas- densities. Intercropping and crop diversity car: Trichogramma wasps were used for the favor the conservation of the natural enemy control of Helicoverpa armigera with the complex. Cultivation of alternate hosts for goal of delaying the first insecticide spray. the main cotton pests is discouraged. Weed An imported strain of Trichogramma control reduces the number of hosts avail- was mass-produced locally on Anagasta able as pest refuge. Destruction of crop kuehniella before release. Although results residues at the end of the cropping season were disappointing in terms of reduction in kills a large part of the wintering pest pesticide use, similar experiments were population. This can be achieved either conducted in Senegal (1979–1980), Togo mechanically, or, in small farming systems, and Cameroon (1982–1983) (Bournier, by allowing cattle to feed on the green bolls 1979; Couilloud, 1983, unpublished remaining on the cotton plants, and burning report). The conclusion was that results the stems afterwards. Careful use of fertiliz- were not economically acceptable for use ers is also required to control cotton growth: on a larger scale. a late supply of nitrogen results in excessive foliage development, which favors the Insect pathogens development of aphids and whiteflies at the end of the season and increases the risk of The importance of fungal diseases as honeydew contamination. methods of controlling insects has been reported in West Africa. After experiments Host plant resistance using locally isolated viruses (Chad, Côte d’Ivoire), the possibility of using NPVs from Resistant host cultivars have been identified other insect species (Autographa californica and are used throughout the cotton- and Mamestra brassicae) has been investi- producing countries in West Africa. Resis- gated to reduce production costs. Insect viral tant traits include either morphological diseases satisfactorily control cotton pests, (hairiness, okra leaf, frego bracts, provided adequate dosages (c.1013 Pib/ha) nectariless) or biochemical traits (gossypol are applied in a timely manner. However, and tannin contents). CIRAD recommends field efficiency is negatively affected by the use of ‘hairy’ cultivars in Africa and factors such as UV and foliar exudates, Southeast Asia, where leafhoppers are a ingestion-related activity, and a narrow major problem: cotton plants become less spectrum of activity (species-specific). In attractive to these insects, making early- several countries, synergism between NPV season sprays unnecessary and allowing and a lowdosage of pyrethroid insecticide 456 A. Ratnadass et al.

has been demonstrated (Ferron et al., 1983; was first tested in Cameroon (Deguine et al., Montaldo, 1991; Silvie et al., 1993). How- 1993). In 1993, 5 years after set-up, one ever, mass production of viruses is difficult third of the cotton-growing area was treated in tropical countries and current pro- under this program (Deguine and Ekukole, duction costs are limiting to the wider 1994). In Mali pesticide use was reduced application of microbial pest control. by 40–50% over conventional spraying programs. In 1998, 4 years after being set up in Chemical attractants and mating disruption Mali, this new program covered more than 8000 ha (Michel et al., 2000). CIRAD collaborated with the French Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)’s Semio-Chemicals Laboratory on IPM of sorghum panicle pests in West Africa researching sexual attractants of H. armigera, Cryptophlebia leucotreta, Earias Sorghum is the most important food crop in sp. and Diparopsis watersi. the savanna areas of West and Central Africa. Successful use of pheromone formula- It can be attacked by a complex of pests, tions for mating disruption in small-scale particularly shoot-fly (Atherigona soccata), farming systems has only been observed for stemborers (Busseola fusca), sorghum the pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola), panicle- (Vaissayre, 1987). feeding bugs (Eurystylus oldi) and storage pests (Rhyzopertha dominica). Several pre- Targeted staggered control ventive measures can be taken to reduce damage by these pests. Infestation by Development of sampling plans and action shoot-fly is negligible when sorghum plant- thresholds help farmers to shift from ing is timely (early), synchronized, and calendar-based spraying programs to more dense. These practices also reduce infesta- judicious use of pesticides. A new insecti- tion by the sorghum midge, particularly cide spraying program, known as ‘Lutte if pure seeds are used, contributing to Etagée Ciblée’, or targeted staggered control synchronized flowering. (Fig. 35.1) has been developed to reduce production costs and harmful effects of pes- Using local cultivars ticides. It involves calendar-based applications of reduced insecticide dosages along Using local Guinea sorghum cultivars with periodicfield scouting.This method reduces pest damage. High tillering ability,

Fig. 35.1. IPM in cotton. Staggered and targeted control. DAE, days after emergence. IPM Experiences of CIRAD 457

which characterizes local cultivars, particu- Kolokani region north of Bamako, Mali. In larly in response to dead-heart formation, this context, the mirid panicle-feeding bug helps the plant to recover from shoot-fly or E. oldi, grain molds, and sorghum midge stemborer attacks. The photoperiod sensi- have recently become major pests, respec- tivity which is typical of Guinea cultivars tively on short-cycled or early-planted results in uniform, synchronized flowering. cultivars, and on long-cycled or late- In addition, Guineas are tolerant to head- planted cultivars. Soft-grained caudatum bugs or grain molds in relation to their open cultivars are also more susceptible to stor- panicles, level of grain coverage by glumes, age insect pests. Although chemical control and grain maturing under dry conditions. is effective, it is neither economical, nor safe for producers, consumers and the Cultural control in field and storage environment. CIRAD, in collaboration with ICRISAT and NARS participating in Management of crop residues and alternate WCASRN, conducted studies from 1989 to host plants reduces pest populations and 1999 on host plant resistance and other has been successfully used against B. fusca methods to increase sorghum production in and S. sorghicola in the field. Several meth- a sustainable and environmentally friendly ods have been developed to reduce damage manner. by storage pests for subsistence farming in West and Central Africa, particularly in Host plant resistance Mali. Such methods include harvesting during the dry season, use of hard-grained The status of the mirid panicle-feeding bug cultivars, storage as unthreshed panicles, E. oldi as a major threat to the increase of and using mud-brick or raised woven-grass sorghum production through the extension granaries to prevent dampness. of high-yielding compact-headed varieties was confirmed in Mali. Recent work charac- New market pressures terized its damages on various sorghum varieties and described its role as a factor However, the demand for improved high- increasing mold infection (Ratnadass et al., yielding cultivars (particularly for short- 2001a). These studies resulted in the devel- cycled, non-photoperiod sensitive and opment of reliable screening techniques compact-panicled caudatum cultivars) is to identify sources of resistance to E. oldi. likely to increase. Changes in the rainfall High, stable resistance in the compact- pattern are responsible in part. Market- panicled sorghum cultivar Malisor 84-7 driven changes in the end uses of sorghum was confirmed (Fliedel et al., 1996). Using have led to increased cultivation of variet- pedigree selection, head-bug resistance ies adapted to specific uses. This includes was transferred from Malisor 84-7 to several grain suitable for ‘pre-cooked’ food pre- advanced progenies such as 87W810, parations for urban consumption, industrial which combine reasonable head-bug toler- use, brewing/malting, or dual-purpose ance with acceptable agronomic traits and sorghums with stems suitable for cattle have been field-tested in Mali for several feed. This change in preferred cultivars is years. likely to result in increased pest problems, Genetic studies suggested an independ- in particular with head-bugs, grain molds, ent genetic system for head-bug resistance storage pests, and midges. and midge resistance (Ratnadass et al., 2002). Factors conferring resistance to sor- Need for IPM on caudatum cultivars ghum midge or head-bugs can be brought together in lines that combine short glumes, The increased adoption of caudatum rapid ovary development and quick endo- culivars has been observed in parts of sperm hardening (Fliedel et al., 1996). This Africa, notably in Nigeria (particularly was achieved by crossing Malisor 84-7 with during the ban on imported cereals) and the ICSV 197. Progenies exhibiting multiple 458 A. Ratnadass et al.

resistance were obtained, one of which is fungi are responsible for these diseases: currently being field-tested in Burkina Faso Mycosphaerella fijiensis, causing black leaf (Ratnadass et al., 2001b, and Table 35.1). A streak disease (BLSD), and M. musicola sorghum genetic map based on the cross causing Sigatoka disease. BLSD causes between Malisor 84-7 and the head-bug severe defoliation on a broad range of susceptible cultivar S 34 was plotted (Deu banana cultivars, affecting many cultivars et al., 2001). Several significant QTLs were that are resistant to Sigatoka disease, and detected. This should accelerate the the susceptible varieties’ range is still creation of head-bug resistant cultivars expanding. Effective control can be using marker-assisted selection. achieved by fungicide application in commercial plantations. However, frequent Management of alternate hosts sprays, as observed in major banana- producing countries, can result in problems Two-year field trials of evaluating the effect such as resistance to some chemicals that of castor bean management through sowing has already been developed in both M. dates and sorghum genotypes on head-bug fijiensis and M. musicola (Romero and infestation and damages, demonstrated that Sutton, 1997; Romero, 2000) and other castor bean was an alternate host and a undesirable effects of pesticide use. significant source of sorghum infestation CIRAD has focused its research on by head-bugs. This led to the prospect of developing strategies to reduce the number reducing head-bug damage by management of fungicide applications on commercial of castor beans (Ratnadass et al., 2001c). plantations; its goal is to develop suitable IPM strategies based on castor management IPM methods for small farmers. Resultant (by destruction of its spikes before sorghum control programs are based on a combination flowering), using castor as a trap crop, and of cultural practices, host-plant resistance, resistant cultivars are nowbeing tested to and reliable forecasting systems for determine their potential to perform well appropriately timing the use of pesticides. under farm conditions. Cultural practices

Cultural control measures reduce the IPM of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases of banana inoculum level in the field. They are critical for limiting disease incidence on small Sigatoka leaf spot diseases are the most farms and increasing the effectiveness devastating diseases in most banana proof forecasting systems on commercial ducing areas of the world. Yield losses plantations. The critical point is to prevent of up to 50% have been reported in cases of production and/or dissemination of asco- severe infection. Two related ascomycetous spores. Removing spotted leaves or leaf

Table 35.1. Agronomic performance of CIRAD 441 in seven on-farm tests conducted in the Eastern region of Burkina Faso in the 2000 rainy season (Ratnadass et al., 2001b).

No. days to Plant height Grain yield 1000 grain Farmers’ Cultivars 50% flowering (cm) (t/ha) mass (g) desirability score*

CIRAD 441 †77 b†b 186 c 1.3 ab 15 b 1.9 a BF 94-6/11-1K-1K 72 ab 130 a 0.8 bb 15 b 2.4 b CIRAD 440 68 ab 159 b 1.0 ab 16 b 1.9 a Farmers’ local cultivars 86 cb 330 d 0.6 bb 20 a 2.3 b

*Mean score given by collaborating farmers based on 14 agronomic and grain and fodder quality parameters, on a 1–5 rating scale: 1 = excellent; 2 = good; 3 = acceptable; 4 = poor; 5 = bad. †Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different at P = 0.05 with the Newman–Keuls test. IPM Experiences of CIRAD 459

areas with necrotic tissues reduces the Ten to 20 treatments/year are applied in inoculum pressure and interrupts the life other countries (Ecuador, Suriname, Domin- cycle before the sexual stage (ascospores) ican Republic, Jamaica, Windward Islands). occurs. Other practices such as the use of This reduction in the number of fungicide under-tree or drip irrigation (preferable to applications has effectively reduced control sprinkling systems) and plant densities costs as well as adverse environmental which avoid overlapping of foliage also effects and pesticide residues on exported hinder pathogen development through the fruits. Today, Sigatoka disease is satisfacto- reduction of relative humidity inside the rily controlled in these areas. The cost of crop (Romero, 2000). disease control accounts for less than 3% of the total production cost. Using resistant cultivars Forecasting of BLSD Breeding for resistance to BLSD and Sigatoka disease is relatively difficult. Con- The same approach is used for the control sidering the high genetic diversity within of Mycosphaerella fijiensis. A biological the two Mycosphaerella species, priority is forecasting system (combined with cultural given to the use of cultivars with partial practices) was successfully developed on resistance (polygenic-durable resistance). plantain in Central America (Costa Rica Resistance to BLSD is most important, espe- (Lescot et al., 1998), and Panama (Bureau, cially for small farmers and for reducing 1990)) and on commercial banana planta- the need for fungicide applications. Several tions in West Africa (Côte d’Ivoire) and resistant hybrids have been produced by Central Africa (Cameroon) (Fouré, 1988). CIRAD and are currently being evaluated This forecasting system makes it possible under field conditions. to control BLSD in commercial plantations with only c. 15–20 fungicide applications/ The forecasting system for Sigatoka disease year. In comparison, 30–40 treatments/year are applied in most Central American Forecasting involves the continuous analy- banana-producing countries. sis of two categories of data: (i) biological descriptors (field observations), of early symptoms of leaf infection; and (ii) climatic descriptors (evaporation and temperature), IPM of fruit flies which affect the persistence of spray applications. Forecasting for banana leaf Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are mobile spot diseases has been successfully used to insects with high reproductive capacity. reduce the number of treatments (fungicide They can cause substantial economic losses, applications) and keep damage levels below frequently preventing the sale of contami- economic threshold levels (Ganry and nated fruit from developing countries. The Laville, 1983; Bureau and Ganry, 1987; de Fruit and Horticultural Crops Department Lapeyre et al., 1997). Properly timed sys- of CIRAD develops IPM strategies to temic fungicide sprays are both persistent control these insects on the French island of and highly effective. However, fungicides Réunion (Quilici, 1994), in French Guiana with differing modes of action must be used (Cayol, 1999), and in New Caledonia. to reduce the risk of fungicide resistance. On Réunion, seven fruit fly species This forecasting system has provided cause considerable damage to fruit and vege- efficient, sustainable control of Sigatoka table crops. The Natal fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa disease for 25 years in the French West and the Mediterranean fruit fly, C. capitata, Indies (Guadeloupe and Martinique). The are the major pests, with C. rosa being partic- number of pesticide applications has been ularly harmful because of its widespread reduced to six per year since 1973, down distribution on the island (from sea level from 35–40 applications/year in the 1950s. to 1500 m elevation) and its polyphagy. 460 A. Ratnadass et al.

Cultivated Solanaceae are attacked by the Using action thresholds for Ceratitis spp. tomato fly Neoceratitis (=Trirhithromyia) in Réunion cyanescens, and Cucurbitaceae by Bactro- cera cucurbitae, Dacus ciliatus and Dacus A chemical control method based on action demmerezi. In French Guiana, fruit crops thresholds has been proposed to control are attacked by Anastrepha spp. and by flies in citrus and mango production areas. an exotic Asian species, the carambola fly Dry traps (Nadel type) combiningtrimed - Bactrocera carambolae, a rapidly spreading lure, a synthetic substance that selectively invasive species already found in several attracts C. rosa and C. capitata males, are South American countries. In New Caledo- used to monitor fly population and to nia, fruits are attacked by several species of detect when to start spraying(Fig.35.2). Fly the Bactrocera genus. catches are recorded twice a week. Flies Preventive chemical control has long attracted into the trap are killed by a strip been used against these flies. On Réunion, of insecticide, which remains effective for conventional chemical control consists of about 1 month. Traps are small plastic weekly preventive sprayingwith organo - containers with yellow lids and four phosphates, generally starting 3–7 weeks slot openings. A small dispenser (‘Magnet’, before the harvest. In addition, a synthetic Agrisense, UK) containing the sexual attrac- pyrethroid is sprayed every 7–10 days, tant is placed under the lid of the trap. 1 week before the start of harvest and The attractant is released evenly for about 2 throughout the harvest period. Pyrethroids months. Four traps per hectare are installed are highly effective, but must be used only in orchards by hanging in trees at duringthe harvest period because of high about head height. Action thresholds vary toxicity. In recent years, negative impacts on accordingto the fruit species and varieties, non-target species and high costs (of both climatic conditions and the type of trap pesticide and labor) have led researchers used. For example, the threshold level and producers to develop an alternative is 20 fruit flies/trap/week for citrus and approach based on action thresholds. mango orchards in the lowland areas of Réunion (Quilici, 1989).

Fig. 35.2. Steps for monitoring of Ceratitis spp. populations and bait-spray application. IPM Experiences of CIRAD 461

Bait spraying non-cultivated areas before they migrate to crop areas. As part of this program, On Réunion in 1991, farmers proposed and the establishment of Psyttalia fletcheri,a adopted a ‘bait spraying’ method of fruit fly parasitoid of the melon fly B. cucurbitae control. A mixture of insecticide and food originating in Hawaii, was successfully attractant (protein hydrolysate)is applied achieved in 1997 in Réunion, following the at the rate of 200 ml/tree to half of the release of 200,000 insects in 1995–1997. trees/orchard. This strategy is reliable, eco- Trials aiming at establishing other para- nomical and friendly to beneficial insects sitoids are also under way: Diachasmimor- and the environment (Table 35.2). It has pha tryoni, a parasitoid of C. capitata, was resulted in a sharp reduction in the amount released in Réunion, and D. longicaudata,a of insecticide used for fruit fly control. Con- parasitoid of Anastrepha spp., was released ventional mechanical and cultural control in French Guiana. methods (destruction of fallen fruits and wild hosts near the orchards)remain useful Eradication of B. carambolae in (Quilici, 1993). French Guiana

Biological control in Réunion and CIRAD has been involved in the Carambola French Guiana Fruit Fly Program in French Guiana since 1999. This is a regional program seeking Current research focuses on ways of further to eradicate B. carambolae from Suriname, reducing insecticide use, through preven- Guyana, French Guiana and Brazil. The tive biological control and other biotechnol- eradication program is based on a combi- ogy methods. Preventive biological control nation of Male Annihilation Technique can reduce fly populations developing in (MAT), bait spraying, and other methods.

Table 35.2. Compared costs of bait-sprays vs. cover-sprays for control of fruit flies on citrus in Réunion Island (2002).

Cover sprays Cover sprays Bait-sprays (tractor with (tractor with Bait-sprays (tractor with atomizer) manual hose) (backpack sprayer) manual hose)

No. of sprays 5 5 8 8 Spraying duration 1 h 8 h 2 h 0.5 h Labour cost + 33.35 + 228.65 266.80 + 1829.20 106.72 Euros 26.68 + 182.92 mechanised = 262 Euros = 2096 Euros = 209.60 Euros interventions Products cost fenthiona fenthiona protein hydrolysateb + protein hydrolysateb + 167.70 Euros 167.70 Euros lambdacyhalothrinc lambdacyhalothrinc 7.32 + 16.77 7.32 + 16.77 = 24.09 Euros = 24.09 Euros Traps cost 37.20 Euros 37.20 Euros 37.20 Euros 37.20 Euros Total cost 466.90 Euros 2300.90 Euros 168.01 Euros 270.89 Euros Cost per kg of 0.03 Euros 0.15 Euros 0.01 Euros 0.02 Euros fruits (for a mean yield of 15 t/ha)

Note: Costs are calculated for a density of 400 trees/ha. Labour cost is based on the SMIC (minimum salary) at 6.67 Euros/h (salaries exempted from social insurance contribution but including paid holidays). Cost of mechanized interventions is based on the cooperatives (SICA) rate: 45.73 Euros/h. Commercial products and dosages: aLebaycid (Bayer SA) 1 l/ha; bBuminal (Bayer SA) 0.8 l/ha; cKaraté Vert (Zeneca Sopra) 0.16 l/ha. The Citrus variety considered is Tangor Ortanique. Cost of trapping is based on a density of 2 traps/ha. Source: D. Vincenot (Chambre d’Agriculture de la Réunion), 2002. 462 A. Ratnadass et al.

The MAT kills males that are highly most regions. The most important factors sensitive to sexual attractants (e.g. male influencing seasonal abundance were tem- B. carambolae to methyleugenol). It is used perature, rainfall and host fruit availability. in conjunction with bait spraying against For example, lowtemperatures during B. carambolae in French Guiana (Malavasi, the cool season, from June to August, were 2000). During the program, methyleugenol detrimental to fruit fly reproduction, as was was found to have no observable effect on the hot and dry season. In natural or rural non-target insects. habitats, host fruit availability reached a This program was first tested in the maximum during summer, corresponding Saint-Georges area, near the Brazilian bor- to peaks of fly abundance. der. Initial trapping studies determined the abundance of B. carambolae populations. Postharvest treatments The eradication project began in February 1999. By December 1999, B. carambolae was Although eradication or control programs found only in three specific areas at very are important, treatment of the fruit after lowdensity. The program is gradually being harvest is sometimes necessary to allow expanded to other areas of French Guiana in export and prevent economic loss. A project three stages: first, surveying to determine the on postharvest control of fruit flies in New distribution of the fly, then applying control Caledonia was carried out in collaboration measures, followed by careful monitoring to with HortResearch (New Zealand). Host verify the absence of the fly. The program is ranges and effective postharvest treatments currently progressing towards the Cayenne for the major fruit fly species were deter- area. The high success rate may eventually mined to allowthe export of fruit from quar- result in eradication of this species from the antined areas to NewZealand. For example, entire region. Along with the B. carambolae the time–mortality response under expo- eradication program, data are gathered on sure to hot (44–48°C) water was determined the local fruit flies and their host plant range, for the egg and larval stages of B. tryoni, population fluctuations and parasitoid B. psidii and B. curvipennis (Sales et al., complexes (Cayol, 1999). 1998). These results helped develop two Other control methods include optimiz- generic heat treatments recently agreed ing the effectiveness of female trapping upon by the NewZealand Ministry of Agri - systems. A female mass-trapping method culture and Food. Fresh fruits and vegeta- is being developed for Ceratitis spp. Better bles that can tolerate those treatments are knowledge of the response of females to nowexportable to NewZealand. Further visual or olfactory stimuli should result research should be conducted on the in more species-specific trapping systems, possibility of using cold treatments. Current especially for those species for which no programs are nowfocused on the develop - attractant is presently known (e.g. tomato ment of integrated control methods, using fly) (Brevault and Quilici, 1999). the bait-spray technique on various fruit crops. New Caledonia The AFFI and other collaborative projects Most of CIRAD’s fruit fly research in the Pacific has been conducted in NewCaledo - CIRAD collaborates in the AFFI, a program nia. From 1994 to 1999, a trapping network coordinated by the ICIPE in Nairobi (Kenya) with 41 sites was used to monitor the with the goal of improving knowledge and seasonal abundance of the major fruit control methods of fruit flies of economic flies in NewCaledonia. Three polyphagous importance in Africa. As part of this pro- species are of economic and quarantine gram, the biology and behavior of the Natal importance: Bactrocera tryoni, B. psidii and fruit fly C. rosa is being studied on Réunion. B. curvipennis. Fruit fly populations gener- The CIRAD team in Réunion is also ally showed strong seasonal variations in involved in FAO/International Atomic IPM Experiences of CIRAD 463

Energy Agency-coordinated research pro- CotonDoc, multimedia software on cotton jects. From 1996 to 1999, the team partici- insect pests and diseases in Africa pated in a program on sexual behavior of C. (Girardot, 1994); EntoDoc, a bilingual capitata; during this program, comprehen- (French–English) encyclopedia on the sive field cage and video studies were con- insect pests of food crops and sugarcane ducted for several Ceratitis spp. The team in Africa and the Indian Ocean region has also collaborated in a study on quality (Girardot, 1997); and D-CAS, a guide to of mass-reared fruit flies. Recently, a pro- sugarcane diseases, including software to gram on development of newattractants for aid in diagnosis and treatment of sugarcane fruit flies has begun. The 3-components diseases (Rott et al., 2000). lure (putrescine, trimethylamine, ammonium acetate) developed by USDA will be tested in various conditions on the local Printed materials fruit fly species of Réunion. CIRAD has printed fact sheets on several topics such as IPM on perennial trees, IPM Technology Transfer of locusts and grasshoppers, and tools to evaluate the impact of IPM projects. Fact CIRAD and its collaborators worldwide sheets on all areas of expertise of CIRAD have worked on IPM in a wide range of sys- will soon be available on the Web at http:// tems, resulting in a uniquely rich diversity www.cirad.fr. Books are also available for of practical experience. The dissemination general use. Mariau (1999, 2001) recently of technical knowledge to other interna- summarized the results of 30 years of tional and national organizations is vitally CIRAD research on IPM of tropical tree important to the mission of CIRAD, espe- crops. A handbook by Michel and Bournier cially to countries far from CIRAD stations. (1997) lists the most common species of The goal of technology transfer is to allow beneficial natural enemies of tropical agri- as many users as possible to benefit from cultural pests. The practical guide by innovations and improvements in IPM Vaissayre and Cauquil (2000) enables rapid strategies. identification of cotton pests, diseases, and beneficial natural enemies. All CIRAD publications can be seen on the Inter- Educational software net at http://www.cirad.fr/publications/ publications.shtml CIRAD has most recently worked with the Crop Protection Service of Réunion to pro- Conclusion duce AdvenRun – a reference manual and a CD-ROM – providing guidelines to reduce Knowledge gained by research and experi- the impact of weeds, which are estimated to ence in IPM has often made it possible to cause 25% of all crop losses and account for answer specific pest management questions 30–50% of farmers’ time. The package pro- and provide feasible and effective solu- vides assistance with weed identification tions. IPM research is uniquely focused and suggests effective weed management on both gathering knowledge and utilizing strategies (Le Bourgeois et al., 2000). it to create effective, sustainable manage- AdvenRun is the latest of a series of ment programs for end users. Continuing CD-ROMs dealing with IPM and pest improvements will require additional identification. Others include: Adventrop, efforts such as: for identifying crop weeds in the Sudano- Sahelian zone of Africa (including an • the integration of disciplinary information database on weeds (Grard knowledge (pests and plant–insect et al., 1996; Le Bourgeois et al., 2000)); interactions); 464 A. Ratnadass et al.

• organizing a multidisciplinary approach Ferron, P., Biache, G. and Aspirot, J. (1983) and integrating knowledge or tools Synergisme entre Baculovirus à polyèdres from other disciplines; nucleaires de lépidoptères Noctuidae et • publication of scientific achievements; doses réduites de pyréthrinoïdes photo- stables. Compte Rendus Académie des • translating these and making informa- Sciences, Paris 296 (III), 511–514. tion available directly to users. Fliedel G., Ratnadass, A. and Yajid, M. (1996) CIRAD and its partners are continuing Study of some physicochemical characteris- to meet these challenges. tics of developing sorghum grains in relation with head bug resistance. In: Dendy, D.A.V. (ed.) Sorghum and Millets: Proceedings of the Symposia 7 May 1993, Pretoria, South Africa, References and 9 June 1996, Porto Carras, Greece. Inter- national Association for Cereal Science and Bournier, J.P. (1979) Note sur une souche nouvelle Technology, Vienna, Austria, pp. 46–63. de Trichogramme parasitant les oeufs de Fouré, E. (1988) Stratégies de lutte contre la Diparopsis watersi Rothshild au Sénégal. cercosporiose noire des bananiers et des Congrès sur la Lutte Contre les Insectes plantains provoquée par M. fijiensis. en Milieu Tropical, 13–16 March, 1979, L’avertissement biologique au Cameroun. Marseille, France. Evaluation des possibilités d’amélioration. Brevault, T. and Quilici, S. (1999) Factors affecting Fruits 43, 269–273. behavioural responses to visual stimuli in Ganry, J. and Laville, E. (1983) Les cercosporioses the tomato fruit fly, Neoceratitis cyanescens. du bananier et leurs traitements. Evolution Physiological Entomology 24, 333–338. des méthodes de traitement. 1 – traitements Bureau, E. (1990) Adaptation of a forecasting fongicides. 2 – avertissement.Fruits 38, 3–20. system to control black Sigatoka (Myco- Girardot, B. (1994) Coton Doc, système multi- sphaerella fijiensis) in plantain plantations média sur le cotonnier et ses ennemis en of Panama. Fruits 45, 329–338. Afrique francophone au sud du Sahara. Bureau, E. and Ganry, J. (1987) A climatic Colloques Universités francophones – forecasting system to control banana Nouveaux supports. Compact Disc Sigatoka (M. musicola) using sterol- (CD-ROM). CIRAD Aupelf-Uref. biosynthesis inhibiting fungicides. Fruits 42, Girardot, B. (1997) Ento Doc. (CD-ROM) 199–205. CIRAD-CA, Montpellier, France. Cayol, J.P. (1999) Rapport d’Activités Lutte Contre Grard, P., Le Bourgeois, T. and Merlier, H. (1996) les Mouches des Fruits. CIRAD-FLHOR Adventrop Doc: les Adventices d’Afrique Report (limited distribution), Montpellier, Soudano-sahélienne. (CD-ROM) CIRAD-CA, France, 8 pp. Montpellier, France. Deguine, J.P. and Ekukole, G. (1994) A newcotton Le Bourgeois, T., Jeuffrault, E., Grard, P. and Car- crop protection programme in Cameroon. rara, A. (2000) AdvenRun V.1.0. Principales Agriculture et Développement Special Issue, mauvaises herbes de la Réunion. (CD-ROM) pp. 41–45. CIRAD/ DAF-SPV, Monpellier, France. Deguine, J.P., Ekukole, G. and Amiot, E. (1993) Lescot, T., Simonot, H., Fages, O. and Escalant, J.V. Targeted staggered control: a newinsecticide (1998) Developing a biometeorological fore- programme on cotton in Cameroon. Coton et casting system to control leaf spot disease of Fibres Tropicaux 48, 112–119. plantains in Costa Rica. Fruits 53, 3–16. De Lapeyre de Bellaire, L., Mourichon, X. and Malavasi, A. (2000) An eradication programme Ganry, J. (1997) A forecasting system for of the Carambola Fruit Fly, Bactrocera regulated control of Sigatoka disease of carambolae, in the north of South America. bananas in Guadeloupe. In: Crop Protection In: Price, N.S. and Seewooruthun, S.I. (eds) and Good Quality. University of Kent, Proceedings of the Indian Ocean Commission Canterbury, pp. 189–196. Regional Fruit Fly Symposium, Flic-en-Flac, Deu, M., Ratnadass, A., Diabaté, M., Hamada, Mauritius, 5–9th June 2000. Indian Ocean M.A., Noyer, J.L., Togola-Fane, S. and Commission, pp. 131–134. Chantereau, J. (2001) Quantitative trait Mariau, D. (ed.) (1999) Integrated Pest Manage- loci for head-bug resistance in sorghum. ment of Tropical Perennial Crops. Collection International Sorghum and Millets Repères. Science Publishers Montpellier, Newsletter. CIRAD and New Hampshire, 167 pp. IPM Experiences of CIRAD 465

Mariau, D. (ed.) (2001) Diseases of Tropical Tree Luce, C. (2001b) Selection of a sorghum Crops. Collection Repères. CIRAD, Science line CIRAD 441 combining productivity Publishers, Oxford & IBH, 270 pp. and resistance to midge and head-bugs. Michel, B. and Bournier, J.P. (1997) Beneficials in International Sorghum and Millets Tropical Crops. CIRAD, Montpellier, France, Newsletter. 88 pp. Ratnadass, A., Ag Hamada, M., Traoré, S., Cissé, S. Michel, B., Togola, M., Tereta, I. and Traoré, N.N. and Sidibé, B. (2001c) On-farm development (2000) La lutte contre les ravageurs du and testing of IPM packages for control of cotonnier au Mali: problématique et sorghum head-bugs in Mali. Mededelingen évolution récente. Cahiers Agriculture 9, Faculteit Landbouwkundige & Toegepaste 109–115. Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Montaldo, T. (1991) Microbiological control in Gent 66/2a, 315–324. cotton crops in North Cameroon: overviewof Ratnadass, A., Chantereau, J., Coulibaly, M.F. and experiments conducted from 1979 to 1988. Cilas, C. (2002) Inheritance of resistance to Coton et Fibres Tropicales 46(3), 217–241. the panicle-feeding bug Eurystylus oldi and Quilici, S. (1989) Aménagement de la lutte the sorghum midge Stenodiplosis sorghicola chimique contre les mouches des fruits à la in sorghum. Euphytica 123, 131–138. Réunion. Fruit Flies of Economic Importance Romero, R.A. (2000) Control of black leaf streak. 87. In: Cavalloro, R. (ed.) Proceedings of the In: Jones, D.R. (ed.) Diseases of Banana, CEC/IOBC International Symposium 7–10 Abaca and Ensete. CAB International, April 1987. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Rome, Wallingford, UK, pp. 72–79. Italy, pp. 515–524. Romero, R.A. and Sutton, T.B. (1997) Sensitivity Quilici, S. (1993) Protection phytosanitaire des of Mycosphaerella fijiensis, causal agent of agrumes: les ravageurs. In: Grisoni, M. (ed.) black Sigatoka of banana, to propiconazole. La Culture des Agrumes à la Réunion. Phytopathology 87, 96–100. CIRAD/FLHOR, Montpellier, France, Rott, P., Bailey, R.A., Comstock, J.C., Croft, B.J., pp. 55–89. Saumtally, S. and Krit, H. (2000) D-CAS 1.2: Quilici, S. (1994) Research and control program- A Guide to Sugarcane Diseases. (CD-ROM) mes on fruit flies in Réunion. Fruits 49(5–6), CIRAD, Montpellier, France. 417–420. Sales, F., Paulaud, D. and Maindonald, J. (1998) Ratnadass, A., Butler, D.R., Marley, P.S., Ajayi, O., Comparison of egg and larval stage mortality Bandyopadhyay, R., Hamada, M.A., Hess, of three fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephri- D.E., Assamoi, F., Atokple, I.D.K., Beyo, J., tidae) after immersion in hot water. Cissé, O., Dakouo, D., Diakité, M., In: Allwood, A.J. and Drew, R.A.I. (eds) Dossou-Yovo, S., Le Diambo, B., Sissoko, I., Management of Fruit Flies in the Pacific: a Vopeyande, M.B. and Akintayo, I. (2001a) Regional Symposium, 28–31 Oct 1996, Nadi, Interacting effect of head bugs, molds and Fiji. ACIAR Proceedings 76, 247–250. climate on sorghum grains in West and Silvie, P., Le Gall, P. and Sognigbe, B. (1993) Eval- Central Africa. In: Akintayo, I. and Sedgo, J. uation of a virus-insecticide combination for (eds) Towards Sustainable Sorghum Pro- cotton pest control in Togo. Crop Protection duction, Utilization, and Commercialization 12, 591–596. in West and Central Africa. Proceedings of a Vaissayre, M. (1987) Tentative d’éradication du Technical Workshop of the West and Central ver rose Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders Africa Sorghum Research Network, 19–22 par la méthode dite de confusion sur la April 1999, Lomé, Togo. ICRISAT, Station de Bouaké, Cote d’Ivoire. Coton et WCASRN/ROCARS, Bamako, Mali and Fibres tropicales 42(4), 267–271. ICRISAT Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, Vaissayre, M. and Cauquil, J. (2000) Main Pests pp. 120–140. and Diseases of Cotton in sub-Saharan Ratnadass, A., Trouche, G., Chantereau, J., Africa. 2nd revised edn, CIRAD/CTA, Dakouo, D., Hamada, M.A., Fliedel, G. and Montpellier, 64 pp.

Chapter 36 IPMEurope, the European Group for Integrated Pest Management in Development Cooperation: Adding Value to Research Effort

Malcolm Iles IPMEurope, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent, UK

IPMEurope, the European Group for • improve availability and access to Integrated Pest Management in Develop- IPM-related projects and programs, and ment Cooperation, has operated from 1992 thus enhance cooperation; to date. The wider goal of IPMEurope is to • build further on the growing collabora- promote the impact and uptake of European tion and trust among EU scientists by IPM research output to manage pests of facilitating debate on technical, social field and stored crops and livestock and and policy issues and by providing thus improve livelihoods of the poor in the a framework for information exchange developing world. IPM provides economi- and management. cally, environmentally and ecologically sound food security through contributing to sustainable agriculture (SA). Actions will Activities capitalize on the comparative advantage of the European resource base, harmonize IPM is an approach to reducing losses European Union (EU) development action, through the use of an optimum combination promote coherence, and maximize benefits of pest control techniques, and enabling of development cooperation. farmers to make management decisions in Specific objectives of IPMEurope are to: full awareness of factors operating in their • strengthen further a European approach agroecosystems. However, the work of to IPM and heighten international the Group is equally concerned with the recognition of European capacity; importance of the policy dimension and the • promote and facilitate appropriate institutional and capacity-building context technology and social practices within which research and development research to support participatory and activities take place. farmer-oriented components of SA; 1. Guidance on IPM policy and • explore the research–development implementation, including: interface and promote feedback to • IPM in development cooperation: the ensure relevance and uptake; role of Europe;

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 467 468 M. Iles

• European Policy Framework for IPM in Stakeholders international cooperation; and • donor guidelines for IPM planning. Beneficiaries 2. Information • IPMEurope Projects Database (IPD) The main beneficiaries of the outputs for investment record, analysis and are European institutions and their devel- interactive use; • opment partners dealing with IPM and website providing general information sustainable agriculture research. Benefit to on Group activities, and access through policy makers, researchers, those involved European Initiative for Agricultural in dissemination and farmers is increasing Research for Development (EIARD) as this aspect of the Group’s work receives InfoSys to European and other agri- further emphasis. culture and IPM-related information; • In order to raise and stabilize develop- website address: http://www.nri.org. ing country agricultural productivity in IPMEurope/homepage.htm • ‘traditional’ systems and to reduce pesticide other information dissemination: use in high external input farming systems, activity reports and keynote IPM has received growing attention over the presentations; • past five decades. Until the past decade, the IPM Information Partnership – progress with adoption at the farm level was formed between many of the principal slower than expected, while there was IPM networks to improve access to IPM unprecedented growth in the use of information. agrochemicals. The key players involved in 3. Task forces (TFs). A facility for agriculture, from those that fund research European institutions to form TFs around to environmental groups and increasingly important issues in order to improve the agrochemical industry itself, are understanding or delivery of development. concerned about this situation and its non- The number and duration of TFs is not fixed. sustainability. This concern, recognized in A Task Force will normally be convened UNCED Agenda 21, spurred the creation of by an IPMEurope country member or the global IPMForum in 1990 to promote be supported by IPM/SA interests in that IPM implementation through coordinated country. Otherwise there are no restrictions international action. on membership. The main selection criteria Within this context, and with much of are: • the expertise relating to pest management relating to a key issue; in the developing world residing within • European comparative advantage; • Europe, there was a need for a con- drawn from an appropriate range of certed European effort. With this in view, potential stakeholders with ability to IPMEurope was set up in 1992 to enable contribute; and • Europe to play a more proactive and influen- level of commitment. tial role on key issues; strengthen the policy, 4. Plenary meetings and workshops, at research and development environment; which key issues are reviewed in con- and promote European impact within the sultation with the Group’s development international effort. partners, and future plans developed. 5. Promoting IPM research and development with regional groups in developing countries. Research partners 6. Access to European expertise for teams or individual assignments on project cycle IPMEurope is a network for coordinating investment consultation. European support to IPM in research and 7. Representation of European interests in development and concerted European effort IPM and international fora. on IPM policy and implementation in IPMEurope: Adding Value to Research Effort 469

development cooperation. It involves insti- General (DG) Research, special program tutions of the European Commission (EC), for scientific cooperation with developing EU member states, Norway and Switzerland countries. Details are given in Table 36.1. (the associate states) with an interest in promoting integrated pest management in developing countries. The raison d’être of Project Results and Impact the Group is concerted European effort on IPM research, policy and implementation Main results in development cooperation. The Group consults widely in the Pan-European collaborative mechanism course of developing activities with its developed a project database, partnerships key development partners in: developing with other key stakeholders, a series of countries, regional fora, civil society, the strategic and policy workshops and other CGIAR System and other IPM networks. advisory services (technical workshops Although some consultation is informal, planned). The IPMEurope functions as a it also draws on European expertise for sectoral network of the EU and associated consultancies to prepare resource papers states concerned with the promotion of IPM for formal workshops, at which these issues as a means of meeting the policy objectives are reviewed and future plans developed. identified under Agenda 21 and the Inter- national Convention on Biodiversity. Both identify IPM as the preferred approach to Donors and budgets crop protection. This will be achieved through continued consultation between The EU member states provide joint sup- EU scientists, research partners and port for the participation of their national donor agencies on policy and technical institutions through contributions in kind matters; increased research collaboration; and direct support when hosting meetings. strengthened web-based information flow; GTZ, Netherlands Development Aid and further development of EU guidelines and NRI have also provided support for specific standards on IPM and providing project activities. Core support has been provided cycle and program support for sustainable by the European Commission’s Directorate pest management.

Table 36.1. Estimated IPMEurope expenditure, October 1996–October 2002 (core support, contributions in kind).

Euros

Details EC support Member state contributions

Activities Annual plenary meetings and workshops 170,000 1,500,000 Information (database, website) 130,000 1,130,000 Studies Policy study Guidelines study 1,110,000 Task forces 40,000 1, 40,000 Organization Steering committee and planning 80,000 1,140,000 Secretariat 200,000 1,150,000 Operating costs 60,000 1, 60,000 Totals 680,000 1,170,000 Total 1,850,000 470 M. Iles

Dissemination of results such constraints are severe, optimal IPM control could include alternative non- Results are disseminated as hard copy, chemical control techniques and chemical through the Internet, as publications and pesticides. newsletters via mail, poster displays at During 2002, the Group was evaluated workshops, and as presentations to key by an external team. They concluded that stakeholders. Novel means of dissemi- IPMEurope has achieved outputs that are nation to improve farmers’ access to directed to its broad objectives: a working information were sought through the IPM network of IPM specialists; an accessible Information Partnership. IPM database; active topical meetings both in Europe and in Africa; policy papers on IPM planning and strategy. Areas suggested for improvement in the future were: Impact of the project increased advocacy in bringing about policy changes; further strengthening of support IPM is an interdisciplinary approach to to developing-country partners; increased reducing losses through the use of an promotion of the Group’s work; greater man- optimum combination of pest control agement transparency and inclusiveness, techniques. It has arisen out of the need and more diversified funding. to avoid the problems of pest resistance The impacts therefore include: wide- build-up, secondary pest outbreaks, human spread increased awareness of the IPM health problems, the high cost of pesticide concept; significant increased incorporation control and environmental degradation of the IPM approach in European projects; caused by excessive and inappropriate several Projects benefiting improved plan- chemical pesticide use. The approach com- ning of European IPM investment; several bines the aims of agricultural productivity, initiatives started to improve flowof IPM environmental sustainability and cost information to implementers in Africa; sig- effectiveness, enabling farmers to make nificant steps towards policy-level collabo- management decisions in full awareness of ration; significant steps towards field-level factors operating their agroecosystems. It is partnerships between European institutions a knowledge-intensive approach. and development partners (CGIAR Centers, A key dimension of the work of NGOs, NARS, private sector, universities), IPMEurope and other IPM networks has and increased use of European expertise. been to stress the important effect non- technical factors have on adoption. Policy, institutional (principally research/ Partnership extension/farmer linkages), recognized as equally significant. This offers parallels for Respective roles of the different stakeholders other sectors. The IPM philosophy is equally and coordination mechanisms applicable to the crop protection, postharvest, livestock and forestry sectors. With Project design emphasis on making the best use of local and human resources, IPM encourages, Shaping of Group activities takes place wherever appropriate, the use of natural through a regular process centered on its control mechanisms (such as enhancing meetings at which progress is reviewed and the role of pest predators and parasites) and future plans agreed. The key elements of the ‘traditional’ pest management techniques structure are the annual plenary meetings, known to farmers. However, the adoption of when all available members attend and agree practical alternatives to chemical methods on the program for the coming year. The of control may be constrained by the absence steering committee and Secretariat, which of technical solutions, the lack of resources, execute the agreed plans, monitor progress or socioeconomic and other factors. Where and report to the next annual plenary. The IPMEurope: Adding Value to Research Effort 471

Group’s development partners will partici- datasets within the Web-based Information pate in these annual meetings. These meet- System for Agricultural Research for Devel- ings are associated wherever possible with opment (WISARD), which allows interac- policy-related and technical workshops tive data management by the national nodes. in areas where EU scientists have a clear The Secretariat is managed by an Execu- international comparative advantage. tive Secretary, supported by a part-time assistant. Plans are in hand to provide the Project implementation Secretariat with a Technical Secretary, who will take responsibility for the routine The Group has an advisory position within administrative tasks required to ensure Europe. Although this is an increasingly efficient and timely operation. The Secre- important function, it does not implement tariat is responsible for maintaining the projects per se. flowof communication betweenmembers, largely through electronic means based on Project management a dynamic, and increasingly interactive, website. NRI also provides IT support and Representation on the Group has been inputs from ICT specialists in the design determined on a national basis with and maintenance of the website hosted on members of the INCO-DEV (International the NRI server, and professional support in Committee for Development of the Euro- accounting and financial matters. pean Commission) Committee nominating The decision-making body of IPM- institutions as national nodes. Active Europe is the 2-day Annual Plenary Meeting members have been provided by Belgium, (APM), which insofar as is practicable is France, Germany, Spain, The Netherlands, held in different member states each year. Portugal, Greece, Italy, UK and more The APM elects a chairperson and a five per- recently Denmark, Finland, Norway, son Steering Committee. The Chair assumes Sweden, Austria and Switzerland. Other overall responsibility for the conduct of the member states have been represented APM and for the operation of the Steering occasionally. National representatives will Committee. The Steering Committee (each take responsibility for data collection from member 10 days/annum) meet three times a and information flowto relevant bodies year and is responsible for oversight of the and individuals within their country. DG agreed annual program of activities, provid- Research will nominate an appropriate rep- ing support and advice to the Technical resentative associated with the INCO-DEV Secretary and other activity leaders. The program and members of other Directorates program of activities is determined by General and of the Service Commun Relex consensus at the APM. Officers of the Group will be invited, as at present, to participate. may stand for re-election at the end of The activities of IPMEurope have been each 1-year period of service. The Chair, funded jointly by DG Research and the Secretary or another member of the Steering member states. The UK’s NRI, which hosts Committee represents IPMEurope as appro- the Secretariat, undertakes contract manage- priate in other IPM fora. Wherever possible ment on behalf of the Group, taking respon- the management of particular core activities sibility for disbursement of funds associated will be devolved to member institutions to with agreed activities, maintaining audited encourage ownership and a decentralized accounts and providing annual technical and mode of operation such that the Secretariat financial reports. Consistent with IPMEurope role is primarily one of coordination, policy to initiate activities centrally and facilitation and support. decentralizing them to other institutions after inception whenever possible, the IPD Result dissemination is subcontracted to the International Agri- cultural Centre (IAC) at Wageningen which The basic functions of the Group com- is responsible for integrating the national prise the maintenance of the website as a 472 M. Iles

dynamic tool for information exchange, the environmental quality through hazards projects database, a register of European to human health and well-being. Pesticide- IPM expertise, and a response capacity to induced crisis is well documented in a range access advisory and support activities in of developing country crops, including cot- the broad field of IPM. ton, coffee, maize and rice. IPM arose from the need to escape from pesticide dependence and to seek more environmentally benign alternatives. Added value of the partnership IPM provides a ‘basket of technologies’ from which the user can select technical IPMEurope adds value in three key areas. interventions relevant to the specific pest problem to be solved. The technologies Tackling challenges faced by may include genetic variation (e.g. resistant developing countries plant varieties); exotic biological control agents; enhancing the impact of indigenous Developing countries must intensify the pathogens, parasites and predators; cultural production of food and fiber and safeguard control through habitat management; inter- health while giving due regard to conserv- ference with pest behavior; or judicious use ing the ecological base on which sustain- of chemical pesticides. IPM is knowledge able livelihoods depend. Humankind must based and requires that the user is empow- manage agroecosystems effectively and ered to analyze the constraints operating wisely to minimize losses in crops, live- in his or her system and take appropriate stock and stored products without undue decisions. Making available existing knowl- and often damaging effects on functional edge and developing the capacity of devel- biodiversity. The causal organisms of such oping country individuals and institutions losses and those that transmit human and to adopt such an approach is a powerful animal diseases are commonly described contribution to promoting independence as pests; this term is currently used to des- and internalizing the processes that lead to cribe all organisms with adverse effects on sustainability. human well-being, including insects, nema- The adoption of IPM leads to a newand todes, fungal and viral pathogens, weeds, more relevant basis for the derivation of and vertebrates such as rats and birds. research priorities in sustainable plant and Enhancing productivity through reduc- animal production and will have impact ing losses and maintaining the health of the far beyond the issues of protection that human population is particularly important it addresses directly. An approach based given the rising pressure on productive land on rational analysis, knowledge and user and the trend towards inappropriate use empowerment is broadly applicable to many and degradation of marginal areas. The sus- of the challenges faced in both North and tainable management of natural resources South. can only be achieved through an integrated approach to all aspects of the production Mobilizing the European science and cycle and the systems that support it. IPM technology community with developing provides a key element of such an approach. country partners In the past chemical pesticides have provided a relatively simple and undeniably The Group has already demonstrated con- powerful means of controlling pest organ- siderable achievements in mobilizing the isms. However, experience has shown that European IPM community and forging new secondary effects have worsened the impact links between individuals and institutions. of existing pests, induced pest status in It has also involved developing-country previously benign organisms and led to nationals in its deliberations. unforeseen effects on the underlying IPMEurope was established in 1992 ecology of production systems and to promote European pest management IPMEurope: Adding Value to Research Effort 473

research in international fora dominated by for managing European scientific infor- multilaterals. Europe has a considerable mation across sectors and institutions skill base and direct involvement in IPM- and providing access to development related development activities through partners; donor funding and in project imple- • holding two policy workshops with mentation. Improving the coherence of other IPM stakeholders that gave rise this approach was seen as a way of promot- to a European Strategy for IPM as a ing the European position in sustainable contribution to sustainable develop- development. ment which was later endorsed by the The initial focus of IPMEurope was EIARD; on research and creating a framework for • expanding the remit of the Group from improved European collaboration through research to cover IPM implementation information exchange. During the first phase and initiating dialogue with other from 1992 to 1996 an encouraging start was Directorates General (DGVIII, DGI, made by: DGXIII) on the potential for IPMEurope • intensifying European efforts to pro- to take a wider role in EC development mote interest in the IPM concept programs; within the international development • cooperating with the DGVIII study community; on the development of guidelines for • sustaining the costs of participation pesticide management and IPM for its from the member state’s institutions to officers; match the core grant from EC DGXII; • establishing National IPM Fora around • through the creation of growing the IPMEurope National Nodes to confidence in collaboration between broaden involvement and increase the member states’ institutions; national legitimacy; • supporting a number of secondments • providing European representation to from member institutions to the the FAO/World Bank IPM Facility, the Secretariat; CGIAR Systemwide Initiative on IPM • helping to steer the DGVIII-funded and regional IPM meetings in Africa, study on pesticide use and IPM policy; Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America; • establishing the European Projects • co-sponsoring a regional meeting in Database using the CDS-ISIS software East Africa on IPM information needs; developed for SPAAR; • preparing the European IPM Guide- • Establishing a node of the IPMNet lines based on the Strategy Paper and for the exchange of IPM information drawing on the existing guidelines on the Internet, in collaboration prepared by individual member states; with the USA-based Consortium for • sponsoring a meeting with IPM International Crop Protection. researchers and implementers in Africa to identify regional needs and assess During the period 1996–2002, these the relevance of the IPM Guidelines; achievements were extended by: • co-sponsoring a regional meeting in • establishment of a website carrying Asia to strengthen NGO–GO collabora- information about IPM, IPMEurope and tion on IPM; its activities and integrated with inter- • launching the Task Force initiative for national efforts through membership of Food Safety and Quality, Biopesticides, the IPM Information Partnership with Advanced Biotechnology, and Farmer colleagues from the CGIAR, USA and Innovation; other institutions; • sponsoring a TF workshop ‘Sharing • improvement and expansion of the responsibility for food quality projects database and its transfer to an standards and its implications for interactive web-based format as part of small scale producers in developing a pilot with InfoSys to explore methods countries.’ 474 M. Iles

Using research and technological of this facility. They can be of a policy, development (RTD) cooperation to support institutional, social, economic, technical or EC development cooperation policy methodological nature, in which European institutions have a comparative advantage. The range of actions described above has It is anticipated that at least three will had both direct and indirect effects in sup- operate at any one time with a start-up rate port of EC development policy. Enhanced of one or two per year. communication, collaboration and information exchange between EU scientists has led to greater common understanding and Sustainable agriculture a more consistent appreciation of the technical nature of IPM and the contribution it can make to sustainable management of IPM makes a dual contribution as an renewable natural resources. This strength- approach to sustainable agriculture ens the coherence of action of EU scientists (through beneficiary empowerment and operating under nationally funded develop- agroecology management) and development ment programs and promotes consistency of appropriate pest management technolo- in their dealings with development partners gies. Improvements made by the Group such that European approaches are more through IPM are sustainable. readily identifiable. The joint undertaking in preparing a European IPM Strategy has further strengthened this position and a Partnership continuation common position has nowbeen accepted at the technical level, which will influence All Group activities are supported by the the nature of project proposals submitted member states and the European Commis- to programs such as the forthcoming sion. The work of the Group is aligned Framework 6 and individual member states to the broader information (InfoSys) and R&D initiatives. policy (EIARD) European initiatives, in turn providing European collaboration with a functioning model in a key theme area. The Conclusion partnerships sponsored by the Group are independent of its functioning. The impor- Next steps tance of joint support from a wide range of key stakeholders shows a willingness to see There is a demonstrated need for IPM- the benefits of the common good beyond Europe to continue. It is in a unique the immediate needs of the organization. position to encourage IPM as a tool for IPMEurope continues to redefine its sustainable agricultural development, role and activities in response to growing which should be used to enhance the European collaboration and strong inter- output of European institutions. national interest in IPM. Harmonization of The Task Force facility is a priority European policy and implementation effort mechanism for delivery of IPMEurope out- remains the priority. Current activities will puts and will play an important role in the continue; through strengthening links with future of the Group. It is anticipated that local, national and regional organizations the direction taken by TFs will define the in the South; capacity development by nature of the Group. promoting North–South partnerships; and There is an open invitation to European needs identification and prioritization by institutions to form TFs around important agencies implementing IPM in developing issues in which their institutions are countries. involved in improvment of understanding The current structure and approach or delivery of development. Members are expected to continue; through inter- should inform institutions in their country institutional collaboration on specific IPMEurope: Adding Value to Research Effort 475

activities with the Secretariat augmented 8–9 June, 1998, IPMEurope, Chatham Maritime, by secondments from European institutions, UK. and furthering the involvement of European 4. Concerted European Policy on IPM in Inter- development institutions. The Group con- national Cooperation: A Framework Towards a Strategy. December 1998, IPMEurope, Chatham tinues to serve as a key sectoral network in Maritime, UK. association with the EIARD. It will work 5. IPMEurope IPM Guidelines Workshop. Biri, closely with international IPM networks Norway. 7–8 June, 1999, IPMEurope, Chatham and initiatives that have emerged, which Maritime, UK. focus on different aspects relating to pest 6. IPM Planning Meeting for East Africa: management. Reviewing the IPM Situation in East Africa, and In its longer-term research perspective, Reviewing and Re-drafting European Guidelines the Group’s work will continue to empha- for the Design and Appraisal of IPM projects. New size: IPM as an influence pathway, policy Arusha Hotel, Arusha, Tanzania. 23–26 January, research, system research, alternative tools 2000, IPMEurope, Chatham Maritime, UK. research through participatory technology 7. European Group for Integrated Pest Manage- ment in Developing Countries. Phase II Final development, food crops for resource poor Report. 1996–2000. April, 2000, IPMEurope, groups, and perennial crops. Chatham Maritime, UK. 8. Guidelines for IPM Planning for Donors. For the harmonization of European support to developing countries in the use of IPM to Additional Resources on IPMEurope improve agricultural sustainability. December, 2000, IPMEurope, Chatham Maritime, UK. 1. IPM in Development Cooperation: The role 9. IPME Annual Report 2000–2001. June, 2001, of Europe. IPMEurope Consultation Workshop, IPMEurope, Chatham Maritime, UK. Friedberg, Germany. IPMEurope Proceedings 10. A Future for IPMEurope, Final Evaluation No. 1.16–18 June, 1997. Report. April, 2002, IPMEurope, Chatham 2. Integrated Pest Management Communica- Maritime, UK. tions and Information Workshop for Eastern 11. IPME Annual Report 2001–2002. June 2002, and Southern Africa. ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya. 1–6 IPMEurope, Chatham Maritime, UK. March 1998. (ICWESA Publication). 12. Sharing Responsibility for Food Quality 3. Concerted European Policy on IPM in Standards and its Implications for Small Scale International Cooperation: towards a Policy Producers in Developing Countries. Food Quality Framework. IPMEurope Consultation Work- and Safety Task Force; Workshop Report, shop, Accademia dei Georgofili, Florence, Italy. Wageningen, The Netherlands, October 2002.

Chapter 37 Building IPM Programs in Central America: Experiences of CATIE

Charles Staver and Falguni Guharay Regional program CATIE/IPM-AF (NORAD), Managua, Nicaragua

Background for IPM in Central America These challenges called for a multi- dimensional approach to improving Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicara- national IPM programs at the farmer level. gua, Belize, and Costa Rica are traditionally known for exporting coffee, bananas, and sugar. More recently, export agriculture has diversified into vegetables, ornamentals, CATIE – a regional center dedicated to and tropical fruits. Although the percentage agriculture and natural resources of the population dependent on agriculture has declined from 65% in 1950 to 26% CATIE is a non-profit international associa- in 2000 (FAOSTAT, 2002), agriculture tion, whose mission is to improve the well- continues to be an important segment of being of humanity through the application the economy and food supply. of scientific research and higher education In Central America, pesticide use to development, conservation and sustain- became increasingly common in the 1960s, able use of natural resources in tropical especially in export crops and vegetables America. Established in 1942, CATIE is (Hilje et al., 2003). Pesticide use escalated in governed by 12 member countries in crops such as cotton and rice through the Central and South America and the 1970s and 1980s. Low-cost credit programs Caribbean. CATIE administers programs in contributed to the expansion of pesticide research, graduate education and regional application in food grains such as maize and outreach focused on improving sustainable beans, although the increase in pesticide management of tropical ecosystems. CATIE use did not significantly affect pest damage. is internationally recognized in areas such However, economic changes in the late as plant protection, crop genetics, agro- 1980s increased interest rates and the price forestry, and natural forest management. of pesticides. At the same time, commodity The graduate education program offers prices became more volatile. Extreme Master of Science in ecological agriculture, weather conditions due to El Niño affected agroforestry systems, watershed manage- farming communities that often faced ment, tropical natural forest and bio- drought and hurricanes in a single year. diversity management, and environmental

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 477 478 C. Staver and F. Guharay

economics. The PhD program, created in included education and scientific outreach. 1996, is a cooperative program with partner Over 100 students completed master’s universities abroad. Current partners degree training, and thousands participated include the University of Gottingen (Ger- in short courses. CATIE established the IPM many), Colorado State University (USA), Journal in 1986, which has become a leading the University of Idaho (USA) and the scientific publication in the area (www. University of Wales (UK). CATIE works catie.ac.cr/informacion/rmip). with member countries to conduct regional In the past decade, the number of outreach and development of human scientists in the plant protection unit has resources through donor-funded projects. declined, but a core staff in entomology, Use of interactive methods for planning, plant pathology, and biological control has monitoring and analyzing local needs form continued to work in cocoa, plantain, food the core of CATIE’s outreach strategy. CATIE grains, timber trees, vegetables, biopesti- gives priority to small and medium house- cides, and management of whiteflies. A holds and recognizes that the pernicious whitefly network, established in 1993, is interaction between environmental degra- coordinated by CATIE with rotating annual dation and poverty can only be tackled meetings (www.catie.ac.cr/informacion/ through sustainable management practices, rmip). This network, operating without human resource and institution strengthen- ongoing project funding, serves to keep its ing, and appropriate policies. participants abreast of new developments.

CATIE Programs IPM program in Nicaragua

Programs in plant protection In 1989, two agencies from Norway and Sweden (NORAD, Norwegian Agency for CATIE began work in plant protection in the Development Cooperation and SIDA, Swed- late 1970s with a farming systems project ish International Development Agency) in El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and provided financing for CATIE to place a Guatemala. This integrative project brought team of IPM specialists in Nicaragua. This together scientists from several disciplines project was designed to integrate Nicaragua to improve crop production. Researchers into the Central American Plant Protection worked with farmers to develop research network. The Nicaraguan project, financed priorities and plan experiments. Many of for 5 years, proposed to strengthen national these scientists continued to work at CATIE capacity in IPM by following a stepwise in other projects in the 1980s. approach. Crop losses were assessed in year In the 1980s USAID provided financial 1, research on IPM components in years support for CATIE to establish a Plant Pro- 2–4, and transfer of IPM packages in year 5. tection Unit in Central America with exper- Key crops included cotton, tomato, and tise in several disciplines of pest manage- coffee. However, while the project team was ment. A Central American IPM Network was still engaged in diagnostic studies and the funded until 1991. CATIE staff worked with organization of short courses to strengthen country coordinators in Costa Rica, Hondu- basic research skills, a change in govern- ras, Panama, El Salvador, and Guatemala. ment brought a 2–3 year period of reorgani- Country coordinators carried out field zation and attempts to privatize the agricul- experiments and tested demonstration IPM tural research and extension service. During plots in crops characterized by high pesti- the same period, the Central American cide use. The results of this work were pub- plant protection network lost financing. lished in four IPM guides in vegetables By early 1992 the project team had and food crops (CATIE, 1990a,b,c, 1993). concluded that a newapproach to IPM Another essential part of the IPM network development was needed to make IPM Building IPM Programs in Central America 479

practical at the farmer level. Later, NORAD in planning, monitoring and evaluation with provided continued financing for the CATIE coordinating institutions. CATIE staff and IPM project in Nicaragua. The approach teams of collaborators worked together was modified to be more flexible and site- on year-long projects focusing on multi- specific. Training programs at each level institutional coordination, training for were coordinated by multi-institutional extension workers and farm families, and networks. Early on, the project team experi- research. Newlearning tools werecontinu - mented with actively involving farmers in ally emphasized, such as discovery exer- IPM development, prioritized crops to use as cises, experimentation and testing of alter- model systems (Table 37.1), and promoted native practices, and analysis of pest and the formation of multi-institutional and crop variability based on farmer data. CATIE multi-disciplinary working groups. has financed over 1000 small IPM projects After the initial phase, interactive train- with counterparts in Nicaragua (Table 37.2). ing programs geared toward understanding CATIE’s annual budget for IPM in Nicaragua of pest cycles, natural pest control mecha- of US$400,000 in small projects and a nisms, and scouting techniques were held similar amount in technical advising is for both farmers and extension workers. The matched by a counterpart contribution in training sessions progressed into developing time, transportation, and facilities of over pest management skills based on an ecologi- US$1 million. cal understanding of the crop. The program This program is being tested in three also began to focus on sustaining small other Central American countries with family-run farming operations. The program CATIE staff and country offices. The inter- formed a national advisory committee, active methods used by the program have with local IPM coordinators meeting at been incorporated into a SIDA-financed collaborating institutions. watershed project, a tomato IPM project in In 1998, CATIE began to take a different Costa Rica financed by The Netherlands, approach to financing IPM activities, by and a degraded pastures program under focusing on small projects developing skills design with NORAD. The Nicaraguan

Table 37.1. Model crops used by CATIE’s Nicaraguan IPM program.

Extension learning routine with Production problems Pest problems Pesticide use farmer groups

Coffee Unproductive plant Berry borer, disease Minimal to low Yearly cycle with architecture, complex, weeds 30–50% of growers meeting every 2 shade management, make occasional months plant nutrition use of pesticides

Vegetables Poor variety selection Whiteflies or virus, High Six meetings and seed quality, insect pests of fruits, frequent applications during 4–5 month plant nutrition, soil diseases, of insecticides and crop cycle water management leaf diseases fungicides

Maize and Poor seed quality, Beans – virus complex, Minimal to low Five meetings beans low plant population, leaf diseases, weeds; 50–60% of planted during 4–5 month low value crop maize – insects, weeds, area receives crop cycle stalk and ear rot; soil occasional use insects of pesticides

Plantains/ Poor seed material Insect and disease pest Minimal to low Two or three cooking problems accumulate meetings during bananas and reduce useful life year using fields of field of different ages 480 C. Staver and F. Guharay

program serves as an example of this type Farmer group learning of collaborative approach. Although farmers have an intimate knowledge of their crops and local conditions, The CATIE IPM Program in Nicaragua they tend to have a weaker understanding of pest life cycles, trophic relationships, and The CATIE IPM program in Nicaragua is the causes of disease, and as a result often composed of four key elements: apply ineffective pest management practices. To strengthen their ability for accurate field 1. Farmer group-learning based on observations, ecological reasoning, and pest observation and experimentation at each management decision-making, farmers crop stage. meet at key points in the crop cycle to 2. Parallel training in ecology and discuss their experiences (Fig. 37.1 for methods for extension workers. coffee, but also adaptable for annual crops). 3. Multi-institutional working groups The farmer group-learning program with a research agenda linked to begins before crops are planted. A meeting is ecologically sound pest management. held in which farmers discuss their pest 4. Planning and monitoring of national management concerns and drawup a plan infrastructure and capacity for IPM with extension agents to experiment with implementation. IPM methods. Regular meetings are held at

Table 37.2. Participants in CATIE-financed and co-managed training projects in Nicaragua.

1999 2000 2001

Farmer groups in training 196 393 420 (Participants – % women) (3750–29%) (7814–21%) (8400–30%) Training processes for extension agents 16 14 12 (Participants – % women) (196–15%) (306–17%) (317–15%) Trainers of extension agents – % women 66–39% 67–40% 69–40% Local IPM coordinating groups 5 5 5 (institutions) (74) (78) (75) IPM coordinating groups by crop/theme 5 7 6 (institutions) (36) (36) (8) National IPM committee 1 1 1 (institutions) (6) (7) (12)

Fig. 37.1. Farmer group-learning and experimentation by crop stage centers on the pests, crop management, and decisions under conditions of weather, food web, and price uncertainty for successive moments in the crop cycle. Building IPM Programs in Central America 481

each successive stage of the crop where the previous meeting, complete training farmers discuss conditions in their fields exercises in the field, and plan their next and reviewpest management expenditures. session with farmers. At the last workshop, They discuss alternatives for pest control the extension workers analyze the overall measures, and howto render the crop results of the season’s crop management, system less favorable for pests and more report the results from work with their suitable for natural enemies. Each meeting farmer group, and develop a proposal for includes a field exercise to observe and improved farmer training for the following quantify pest problems, crop vigor, and cycle. beneficial flora and fauna. After each meet- This parallel training process for farmer ing, farmers are encouraged to share their groups and extension agents also serves as a knowledge with their families and commu- training format for the scientist instructors nities. Farmers scout their fields and report (Fig. 37.2), who are most accustomed to the results at the next meeting. They may lecturing with material in an academic also conduct simple learning exercises and setting, rather than hands-on workshops. experiments with alternative management First, the group meets to build a curriculum practices in their own fields. At the end of based on the primary problems in local pest the cycle farmers reviewcrop vigor and pest management in the given crop. Throughout problems during the crop cycle, analyze the training process, the instructors strive the effectiveness of their management to teach farmers ecological processes effec- decisions, and plan for the next crop cycle. tively through workshops and interactive exercises. At the close of the season, they report the impact of their training sessions and meet with other instructor groups to Extension agent training exchange results and upgrade the content and methods for the next cycle. In this Extension agents are typically familiar way they build skills for a discovery-based, with a wide range of subjects. However, problem-solving approach to learning. they may not have enough knowledge of pest biology to explain the basis for IPM strategies or assess specific problems in the field. They are accustomed to organizing Multi-institutional working groups with a short workshops for farmers, but often have research agenda linked to ecologically little experience in planning a lengthy sound pest management training process. To develop extension agents’ ability to teach long-term manage- For farmer and extension agent training ment strategies to farmers, extension agents to be effective, certain elements must be and farmers undergo a parallel training available to all instructors: process (Fig. 37.2). • an understanding of the variability in Before the crop is planted, a 2–3-day crop yields and food web dynamics; workshop for extension agents provides a • simple methods for scouting and technical and ecological overviewof IPM for decision making; and the crop, an introduction to interactive train- • alternative management practices ing methods, and a background in designing amenable to farmer resources. small IPM demonstration projects. Between the workshop and the first follow-up ses- Typically this information is incom- sion, each extension agent holds a planning plete and scattered. Collaboration between session with farmers and designs a small CATIE and other research and teaching project. Extension agents meet to review institutions has shown that multi- their results and plan the next workshop institutional working groups can effectively with their farmer group. During each of two assemble this information into an organized to four workshops, extension agents discuss framework. Such groups meet regularly to 482 C. Staver and F. Guharay

Fig. 37.2. Training by crop stage for farmers, extension agents and trainers ensures that training topics are relevant to field problems and that training participants practice what they learn. At each moment in training participants analyze what they have practiced, learn new elements and plan their next steps. The IPM/Agroforestry Program trains trainers and also collaborates with trainers in training extension agents. develop a database summarizing the state emphasize farmer learning, and a favorable of IPM knowledge among farmers and policy environment (H. Waibel, Hannover, extension agents, a training curriculum, 2002, personal communication). This a research agenda, and links for scientific reflects the experience of the CATIE project information exchange (Fig. 37.3). Each of in Nicaragua, although policy change has these elements can be updated regularly been slow and piecemeal. The focus of with data on pest levels and crop yields the Nicaraguan program is establishing a reported by farmer groups, studies of national infrastructure for IPM implementa- training impacts, and research results. tion. CATIE has worked with several collaborating institutions to develop a practical and effective IPM regime for farmers and disseminate the information throughout the Planning and monitoring of capacity for country. This collaborative work has played IPM implementation a crucial role in ongoing improvement in training programs, by linking field-level Two factors are important for successful trainers with institutional leaders (Fig. integration of IPM practices by farm fami- 37.4). Farmer and extension agent training lies – high quality training programs that are coordinated by regional IPM groups, Building IPM Programs in Central America 483

Fig. 37.3. The multi-institutional crop working groups achieve critical elements for effective use of IPM by farm families with group activities which strengthen and integrate individual and small group activities among scientists and trainers. which are linked to multi-institutional crop high priority on improved institutional working groups. A national IPM committee monitoring and evaluation. The annual reports to each institution. small project routine provides a framework to measure increases in farmer knowledge and practices following training. Farmers complete a simple diagnostic workbook at Impact of the CATIE IPM Program the beginning and end of the training cycle in Nicaragua to record activities carried out, IPM options tried, and results obtained. A visual proto- Measuring the impact of the CATIE IPM type for testing pest identification and program has been the focus of several sus- ecological reasoning has also been used tained and continually improving efforts. with some groups (after Wiegel et al., A DANIDA (Danish International Develop- 2000). During farm visits, extension agents ment Assistance)-financed project placed a also document farmer activities. Similar 484 C. Staver and F. Guharay

Fig. 37.4. Collaboration among national and local institutions and organizations at several levels is designed to strengthen national IPM capacity. Groups of farm families increasing their pest and crop management ability are the reference point for the system (represented as the * in the figure). The other levels in the system operate to make the work more effective with farm families. This system links decision makers through levels of specialists, trainers, and extension agents to put IPM in the hands of farm families. procedures are used with extension agents households in seven municipalities related and with scientist instructors. Each par- progress in learning and practice among farm ticipant records their own activities; they households in IPM training programs vs. are tested on their technical and ecological households not in training (Dumazert, 2002). knowledge; and independent monitoring is used to verify actual practice. For a deeper understanding of how and why certain training methods are most effec- The extent of the Nicaraguan IPM program tive, thematic studies have been used in areas such as farmer perception of technolo- CATIE’s collaboration with field-based gies and training approaches (Diestch and institutions and organizations working in Kuan, 2002; Paredes, 2002); farmer practices IPM is directed towards improving the vs. small project reports (van Aalsburg et al., quality of existing IPM programs rather 2002); institutional perception of CATIE IPM than increasing the coverage too rapidly. working methods (Rodriguez and Meyrat, The promotion of farmer-to-farmer commu- 2001; Paredes et al., 2002); and the role of nication contributes somewhat to increas- gender in training (Schibli, 2001). These ing the reach of the IPM program. In a 2001 primarily qualitative studies have involved study, 22% of farm households reported participant observation and used a case currently receiving IPM training and study approach. A survey of over 1000 farm technical assistance (Dumazert, 2002). A Building IPM Programs in Central America 485

nationwide study reported 16% of house- Increase in pest scouting holds receiving IPM assistance (Programa Nacional de Transferencia de Tecnología A study of 1000 farmers indicated that there Agropecuaria World Bank/IFAD/COSUDE was no difference in the use of pest scouting (Swiss Agency for Development and by farmers in training and those not in Cooperation)/Government of Nicaragua). training with only 3.3% using scouting. Approximately 21% of small-scale coffee However, in the small project reports, the growers, 35% of vegetable growers, and percentage of farmers reporting use of pest only 0.4% of maize and bean growers scouting was much higher (Table 37.5). have participated in IPM training for Farmers were motivated to try scouting dur- more than two seasons. Farmer attendance ing the training program, although they did at in-season training workshops is another not always continue afterwards. A follow- issue. Although highly variable from one up visit to coffee farmers in Aranjuez and group to another, on average only about San Ramon found positive results: 50–70% of farmers participate in more than [Some of the coffee farmers] have half of the farmer meetings during the crop continued to use some IPM practices, cycle. Earlier studies have showed that despite problems with declining coffee farmers attending irregularly were much prices. They carry out routine observation less likely to try alternative management of pest and disease levels, although in a practices (Wiegel et al., 1997). much less rigorous way than during the training, and some substitute non-chemical methods for certain practices. The fact that farmers are still using the methods pro- Improved farmer ability for pest moted by the Program despite the changes identification and ecological reasoning in the market is an important indicator of the effectiveness of the Program’s work. In two training cycles, farmers improved (CABI Bioscience, 2001, p. 10) their recognition of most insect pests (Table 37.3). However, recognition levels were still lowfor less apparent problems such as Increase in non-chemical pest diseases and soil imbalances. Over half management practices of farmers correctly answered questions relating pest damage to a specific crop stage The study of 1000 farmers shows that IPM or to shade levels in the case of coffee pests training contributes to increased use of IPM (Table 37.4). Farmers with better skills practices, soil conservation, agroforestry tended to identify ecological understanding (where applicable), and crop diversification as important to decision making. (Table 37.6). Specific practices such as

Table 37.3. Progress in the improvement of knowledge among men and women coffee farmers at the end of two cycles of group learning and experimentation 1999–2000 in Nicaragua. Values are per cent of farmers who could identify the pest correctly. (Source: small project final reports IPM/AF Program.)

1999 2000 1999 2000

Coffee All Total Men Women Vegetable All Total Men Women pests farmers n = 3665 n = 3020 n = 645 pests farmers n = 1682 n = 1196 n = 486

Berry borer 71 96 92 89 Whitefly 57 90 91 87 Rust 72 93 94 89 Pepper weevil 6 57 58 56 Brown leaf 55 77 79 69 Diamond-back 59 52 57 40 spot moth Leaf miner 43 54 55 48 Damping off 67 32 36 21 Nematodes 19 22 23 16 Tomato blight 21 62 67 49 486 C. Staver and F. Guharay

Table 37.4. Farmer capacity for ecological reasoning measured by farmer understanding of pest relations to microhabitat conditions. (Source: small project final reports IPM/AF Program.)

% farmers who identify shade effects % farmers who can relate crop on coffee pests 2000–2001 stages with pest damage 2000–2001

Men Women Men Women

0 of 5 answers correct 1 2 4 6 1–2 of 5 answers correct 22 27 39 57 3–5 of 5 answers correct 77 71 56 38

Table 37.5. Farmer use of scouting in coffee, vegetables and food grains after two seasons of training. (Source: small project final reports IPM/AF Program.)

% farm households carrying out pest scouting activities during 2000–2001

Pest scouting activities Coffee Vegetables Food-grains

Observe plots regularly 77 82 82 Do integrated pest counts 63 55 63 Do weed sampling 38 – 37 Note down data on a sheet 41 48 51 Teach others to do pest count 25 29 –

Table 37.6. Frequency of use of alternative may apply it widely in their fields. The IPM practices (IPM, soil conservation, crop scale of practice has generally not been diversification) among men and women farmers measured in any of the studies. Alternative in group learning and experimentation (n = 936) pest management strategies include techni- and not in groups (n = 360) in three regions of cal innovations such as covered nurseries, Nicaragua (Dumazert, 2002). non-chemical soil disinfection, and botani- Number of Farmers in training Farmers not cal pesticides, and also manual techniques practices in use groups (%) in groups (%) such as shade management, gleaning of infected coffee fruits, and the use of higher 0 9 32 planting density. 1 9 18 A farmer perception study examined 2 13 13 3 23 18 the benefits and motivation for IPM imple- 4 24 13 mentation. The information was generated 5 14 5 through farm visits and interviews of 80 6 7 1 farmers selected by their institution as outstanding collaborators, frequently using from two to 16 different IPM practices. Most botanical insecticides were used more fre- commonly used IPM strategies are home- quently by farmers in training, although the made botanical pesticides, pest scouting, increase was from 1% to only 7%. Farmers trap crops and organic fertilizer. Farmers in training were three times more likely to were motivated to implement IPM to reduce use IPM practices as farmers not in training. cost, to discover newpest management Data from the small projects also indicated methods, to protect their health and the an increase in the use of specific IPM prac- environment, to have more effective pest tices (Table 37.7). This indicates the impact suppression and to improve the produce of sustained participation in the process of quality. Higher yield was claimed by 82% of learning and experimentation at each crop farmers and 96% reported improved prod- stage. Farmers may try an IPM method in a uct quality. A total of 73% have planted new small area, on a larger scale test plot or they crops in their farm over the last 2 years, 87% Building IPM Programs in Central America 487

had more trees in their farms and 93% con- pesticide. The reduction in pesticide use sider that their farms nowhave better value. was most dramatic in vegetables and food However, farmers stated that the availability grains, with 20–30% of farmers reporting of many IPM options is hindered by lack fewer pesticide applications. A 1997/98 of financial resources and difficulties in study of five communities showed a sharp obtaining the biological control agents. They decline in current levels of pesticide use report only about 50% of the farmers in their (Table 37.8). This was most apparent in respective communities are employing some food grains (71%), coffee (62%), and IPM practices. vegetables (37%). Of the 80 farmers in the perception study 78% claim to apply fewer synthetic pesticides, and some may have Reduction in pesticide use completely stopped pesticide applications. About 50% report less pest damage and Overall, pesticide use declined after farmer 38% report observing more beneficial training, depending on the crop and type of natural enemies.

Table 37.7. Implementation of non-chemical pest management options by farm households participating in program supported training. (Source: small project final reports IPM/AF Program.)

% farm households implementing practices Alternative non-chemical pest Crop management practices 1999/2000 2000/01

Coffee Shade regulation 56 75 Gleaning of fruits after harvest 55 67 Removal of berry borer infested berries 61 74 Sanitary pruning for anthracnose 42 47 Selective weeding 39 62

Vegetables Seed bed disinfection with lime 58 59 Covered nurseries 10 35 Barrier crops 10 22 Use of yellow sticky traps 13 35 Use of homemade botanical pesticides 25 33 Intercropping 8 14

Food grains Higher planting density 17 61 Use of disease tolerant varieties 22 49 Elimination of host plants of pests 57 61 Use of homemade botanical pesticides 13 31 Use of neem 8 22

Table 37.8. Reduction in synthetic pesticide use by farm households participating in program supported training.

Coffee Vegetables Food grains

Pesticide use in 1997–98 (l/mz)a 335,004.5 35,007.5 35,002.8 Pesticide use in 2000–01 (l/mz)b 335,001.7 35,004.7 35,000.8 Number of participating farm households 2000–01 4,565.8 2,338.8 35,911.8 Average cropping area (mz) 335,002.8 35,001.8 35,002.8 Total saving/season (US$) 2000–01 383,000.8 98,000.8 35,000.8 aSource: study of 90 farm households in 5 communities. bSource: small project final reports IPM/AF Program. mz, manzana (equivalent to 7000 m2 or 0.7 ha). 488 C. Staver and F. Guharay

Improved teaching skills of extension agents Multi-institutional working groups

During 2000/01, 90% of extension workers Over 50 professionals participate in collab- used hands-on exercises as a method of orative working groups in coffee, vegeta- learning. About 40–50% have begun to bles, plantains and bananas. Most working use small demonstration experiments, and groups meet regularly (Table 37.9). These 85% use interactive learning methods professionals are also active in training employing open questions, promoting extension agents. Self-evaluation revealed exchange of experiences and stimulating that while they had strengthened many discussion. About 75% of participating areas, there are still many areas for improve- extension workers reported that they have ment (Table 37.10). For example, the coffee increased their knowledge on the ecology of program was strongest in ecology and man- pests, crops and trees and have improved agement of coffee and its pests and weakest their capacity for planning, teaching and in addressing gender and family issues. evaluating farmer group workshops. Three measures are currently used to

Table 37.9. Work themes developed by multi-institutional crop or theme groups in Nicaragua. (Original data based on group reports 1999–2001.)

Work themes established by groups directed towards capacity for field implementation of IPM

Representative Regular Analysis Research Training Regional and institutional work of system agenda curriculum international Groups membership routine capacity field-oriented field-oriented links

Coffee X X X X X Vegetable systems X X X X X X Bananas/plantains X X X X X X Food grains X Gender and X X agriculture

Table 37.10. Self-evaluation of improvement in knowledge and skills by trainers and scientists in coffee IPM and agroforestry in Nicaragua in collaboration with CATIE. (Original survey data 2001.)

Coffee Plantains/bananas

Before contact Current Before contact Current with CATIE IPM state with CATIE IPM state

Themes Rating on scale 1–10 (n = 14) Rating on scale 1–10 (n = 11)

Ecology and management of crops and 3.8 6.5 2.9 6.8 pests

Participatory methods 2.8 6.6 3.7 7.5

Project formulation and evaluation 2.7 5.7 3.1 6.5

Gender and family 2.5 5.2 3.5 6.2

Writing of training materials for beginning 2.8 5.5 4.3 7.0 readers

Multi-institutional coordination 2.8 5.7 2.8 6.0 Building IPM Programs in Central America 489

evaluate progress towards greater national training events. The integration of gender capacity for supporting effective IPM pro- issues is seen in different ways: more grams: (i) consolidation of working mecha- women participating in project activities nisms of multi-institutional working groups; (30%); more equity of access to information (ii) attitudes of institutional leaders; and and income-sharing (28%); empowerment (iii) continued development of newprojects of women (20%); and planning and imple- based on experience. CATIE is continuing mentation of actions based on a better under- to develop its evaluation criteria to reflect standing of the different roles of family institutional and national capacity for IPM members (17%). More than 50% of the implementation (Paredes et al., 2002). institutional decision makers express that The working groups (Table 37.9) have IPM and agroforestry are important themes undertaken many different types of activi- for their institutions because they contribute ties. However, these may not be related to to a sustainable and organic agriculture. their sustainability after the funded small Of the 117 member institutions projects come to an end. Since 1999 the five participating in the five regional groups in IPM coordinating groups in Nicaragua have Nicaragua, the majority incorporated IPM– coordinated their annual work plans through agroforestry activities in their 2000/01 work a joint planning process, organizing activi- plan, and 19 newprojects weredesigned and ties in work areas and projects. The level financed by different sources for imple- of execution of the work plans of different mentation of IPM with farm households groups has varied. In 2000/01 it ranged from (Table 37.11). A study of 23 institutions col- 43% to 97% with an average of 64%. Most of laborating with CATIE in IPM in Nicaragua the activities coordinated by the groups have found that institutions take several years been financed through the CATIE program to develop their capacity to incorporate or Promipac, a COSUDE-financed IPM ecology, participation, gender–family focus project. The national IPM committee was and multi-institutional working procedures recently recognized as an official advisory satisfactorily into their institutional routine. body by the Ministry of Agriculture, which Longer-term partners formulate most of may create opportunities for an ongoing role the newprojects based on making IPM in national IPM support. accessible for farmers. Based on a survey conducted in 2000, the collaborating institutions have different concepts of IPM: use of biological control Future of the CATIE IPM Program (28%); improving crop and pest manage- in Nicaragua ment decisions (26%); using a combination of pest management practices (24%); and Expanded farmer education practicing organic agriculture (22%). Most institutions do see the season-long training A reviewof the IPM program found that process as important, rather than as isolated the involvement and support of Nicaraguan

Table 37.11. Institutional uptake of IPM advances as shown in IPM planning framework and formulation of new projects. (Source: 2002 regional planning workshops.)

Regions of Nicaragua

Nueva Southern Matagalpa Western South Segovias Pacific Jinotega Plains Central

Number of collaborating institutions 25 27 26 14 25 % of institutions with IPM–AF activities 84 60 100 66 31 in their 2000–2001 work plan Number of new IPM–AF projects 2 7 4 5 4 approved during 2000–2001 490 C. Staver and F. Guharay

organizations and donors was critical to Incorporating agroecological concepts into realizing the potential of CATIE’s work on university and technical school programs of development of agroecological management studies skills among farmers, extension agents, and scientist instructors. The reviewalso rec - The CATIE IPM project in Nicaragua has ommended that the program be expanded invested approximately US$500 in training to include organization, financial manage- each extension agent, above and beyond ment, and marketing skills. The crisis logistical costs. Without major retooling of created by lowcoffee prices had already university and technical school programs generated pressure from farmer groups to throughout Central America, there will be incorporate these areas of knowledge in an ongoing need for this expensive on-the- training programs. CATIE is working on job training. CATIE and collaborators have programs for coffee quality and certifica- started to explore approaches to incorporate tion, small-scale capitalization, and finan- agroecological concepts and learning cial management. These are in addition approaches into university and high school to continuing education on ecological curricula. Existing networks such as the processes and IPM strategies. Central American Education Network will help to promote these programs.

Improving outreach of the IPM program Rural community learning in an Although the Nicaraguan IPM program academic context reaches 22% of farm families in some areas, this percentage is often lower nationwide CATIE has a tradition of scientific research and in other Central American countries. and academic training linked with national Improving outreach to the farm sector is systems for agricultural research and exten- critical. CATIE, in its role as a regional orga- sion. Also, CATIE has traditionally priori- nization in support of national and local tized small farmers and natural resources. institutions, prioritizes the development of In recent decades, two contradictory forces programs that can be continued following have emerged in Central American agricul- CATIE involvement. The project team in tural development – an expansion of NGOs Nicaragua is currently developing printed which promote participatory mechanisms, training materials to communicate training the use of local resources, and sustainable methods to newaudiences. Materials on agriculture; and donor-financed private sec- curriculum design, crop-specific guides for tor projects promoting genetically modified extension agents on the farmer group- crops. The centralized government system learning approach, and farmer workbooks for agricultural research and extension is are currently underway. Summary guide- still important, but is nowsupplemented by books and videos are produced to com- the efforts of other organizations. municate the importance of interactive The experience gained from field-level season-long farmer training to institutional CATIE projects such as OLAFO (conserva- policy-makers and planners. The project tion for sustainable development in Central team also continues to incorporate horizon- America project) in community manage- tal communication into the training ment of natural resources (Ammour and model. Understanding howfarmers, exten - Ramirez, 1999) and TRANSFORMA (tech- sion agents, and scientist instructors access nology transfer and formation of technical information, build a personal network, and personnel for sustainable forest manage- use their experiences for program improvement project) in sustainable forest management is essential to continued growth of the ment (Galloway, 1997) have remained IPM program. largely outside the graduate program Building IPM Programs in Central America 491

teaching curriculum. CATIE academic Galloway, G. (1997) Proyecto regional TRANS- programs face an important challenge in FORMA (CATIE/COSUDE): transferencia de maintaining the scientific basis for the tecnología y promoción de la formación graduate programs, while incorporating profesional en manejo de bosques naturales. In: Resúmenes de Ponencias, III Congreso interactive and farmer-driven approaches, Forestal Centroamericano. San José, Costa cross-disciplinary analytical skills, and Rica, pp. 188–190. an understanding of the interface between Hilje, L., Araya, C.M. and Valverde, B.E. (2003) social and ecological systems. Pest management in Mesoamerican agroecosystems. In: Vandermeer, J. (ed.) Tropical Agroecosystems. Advances in Agroecology Series. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, References pp. 59–93. Paredes, M. (2002) Estudios de Aprendizaje Ammour, T. and Ramirez, S. (1999) Desarrollo Amplio – Definición y justificación de la rural basado en el manejo de ecosistemas selección de comunidades con niveles de naturales: experiencias de investigación impacto diferentes. External Monitoring and participativa en los proyectos OLAFO y Evaluation of CATIE IPM-AF (NORAD) Pro- Manglares. In: Prins, K., Galloway, G., gram Phase 2 – Output II. CABI Bioscience, Fasseart, C. and Nilsson, M. (eds) II Taller Egham, UK. (CABI Ref: XB 2980a) de Investigación Participativa Buscando la Paredes, M., Meir, C. and Stonehouse, J. (2002) Convergencia. CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Wider learning: CABI Consortium for the pp. 61–67. External Monitoring and Evaluation of CABI Bioscience (2001) External Monitoring and the CATIE IPM/AF (NORAD) Program – Review of CATIE IPM/AF (NORAD) Program. conceptual Framework. External Monitoring Final report (Contract CS/2000-231). CABI and Evaluation of CATIE IPM-AF (NORAD) Bioscience, Egham, UK. Program Phase 1 – Output IV. CABI CATIE (1990a) Guia para el manejo integrado de Bioscience, Egham, UK. plagas del cultivo de repollo. Serie Técnica – Rodriguez, L. and Meyrat, M. (2001) Informe Técnico No. 150. CATIE, Turrialba, Incorporación de los Enfoques de Manejo Costa Rica. Integrado de Plagas y Agroforestería en CATIE (1990b) Guia para el manejo integrado de Café por Instituciones Colaboradores en plagas del cultivo de tomate. Serie Técnica – Nicaragua. Report presented to CATIE IPM Informe Técnico No. 151. CATIE, Turrialba, Program, Managua, Nicaragua. Costa Rica. Schibli, C. (2001) Percepciones de familias CATIE (1990c) Guia para el manejo integrado de productoras sobre el uso y manejo de plagas del cultivo de maíz. Serie Técnica – sistemas agroforestales con café en el norte de Informe Técnico No. 152. CATIE, Turrialba, Nicaragua. Agroforestería de las Américas Costa Rica. 8(29), 8–14. CATIE (1993) Guia para el manejo integrado van Aalsburg, C., Kuan, E. and Guharay, F. (2002) de plagas del cultivo de chile dulce. Serie Validación del sistema de evaluación Técnica – Informe Técnico No. 201. CATIE, participativa con familias productoras en Turrialba, Costa Rica. proyectos de capacitación MIP en café en Diestch, L. and Kuan, E. (2002) Evaluación las zonas de Matagalpa y Nueva Segovia. Campesina Sobre el Uso y la Efectividad de Sixth National Congress on IPM, Managua, Prácticas MIP y Agrofoestería en Sistemas de Nicaragua, 24–26 July, 2002. Café, Hortalizas y Granos básicos en Nicara- Wiegel, J., Padilla, D., Gómez, D., Zeledón, R. and gua. Universidad Centroamericana/CATIE/ Peralta, A. (1997) Transferencia de ofertas PROMIPAC, Managua, Nicaragua. tecnológicas MIP en tomate con metodología Dumazert, P. (2002) Evaluación Cuantitativa del participativa en El Barro, Esquipulas. V Impacto de los Programas Participativos de Congreso Nacional MIP, León, Nicaragua, MIP y Agroforestería en Café Implementados 26–28 November, 1997. en Nicaragua por CATIE y Promipac. CATIE/ Wiegel, J., Staver, C., Mendez, E., Carcache, M. MAGFOR/Promipac, Managua, Nicaragua. and Chaput, P. (2000) Una herramienta FAOSTAT (2002) FAOSTAT Statistics Database sencilla para evaluar conocimientos claves Agriculture. Internet: http://apps.fao.org/ de extensionistas y productores/as para el cgi-bin/nph-db manejo integrado de plagas. Memoria VIII 492 C. Staver and F. Guharay

Congreso Latinoamericano y del Caribe de campesinas. CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica, Manejo Integrado de Plagas, Panama, 22–24 pp. 58–65. November, 2000, p. 108. Nelson, K. (1996) Estudio comparativo de la generación de tecnología MIP en el cultivo de tomate, Nicaragua. Manejo Integrado de Plagas (Costa Rica) 41, 16–28. Additional CATIE Publications Staver, C. (1998) Managing ground cover heterogeneity in perennial crops under trees: CATIE (2001) Manejo integrado de plagas from replicated plots to farmer practice. en sistemas agroforestales con café en In: Buck, L., Lassoie, J. and Fernandes, E. Nicaragua. Agroforestería en las Americas (eds) Agroforestry in Sustainable Agri- 8(29). www.catie.ac.cr/informacion/rafa/ cultural Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Díaz, J., Guharay, F., Miranda, F., Molina, J., Florida, pp. 67–96. Zamora, M. and Zelendón, R. (1999) Manejo Staver, C., Aguilar, A., Aguilar, V. and integrado de plagas en el cultivo de Repollo. Somarriba, S. (1995) Selective weeding for CATIE Serie Técnica – Manual Técnico soil conservation in coffee in Nicaragua. No. 38. Managua, Nicaragua. ILEIA Newsletter 11(3), 22–23. Gómez, D., Prins, C. and Staver, C. (1999) Staver, C., Guharay, F., Monterroso, D. and Racionalidad en la toma de decisiones de MIP Muschler, R. (2001) Designing pest- por pequeños y medianos caficultores de suppressive multi-strata perennial crop Nicaragua. Manejo Integrado de Plagas systems: shade-grown coffee in Central (Costa Rica) 53, 43–51. America as a case study. Agroforestry Guharay, F., Monterrey, J., Monterroso, D. Systems 53, 151–170. and Staver, C. (2000) Manejo integrado de SIMAS/CATIE (1996) Nicaragua: Experiencias plagas en café. CATIE Serie Técnica – Manual con el MIP en el Proyecto CATIE-INTA/MIP. Técnico No. 44. Managua, Nicaragua. In: Thrup, L. (ed.) New Partnerships for Monterrey, J. and Guharay, F. (1997) Proceso Sustainable Agriculture. World Resources investigación-transferencia participativa Institute, Washington, DC. con comunidades de productores hortícolas: Valenzuela, G. and Prins, K. (2002) Involu- la experiencia del proyecto CATIE/ cramiento de las mujeres en procesos INTA-MIP, Nicaragua. In: Memoría del Taller participativos en manejo integrado de plagas Investigación, participación, generación e en café en Nicaragua. Manejo Integrado de intercambio de conocimientos con familias Plagas (Costa Rica) 63, 56–63. Chapter 38 Integrated Pest Management at CAB International

D.R. Dent, M. Holderness and J.G.M. Vos CABI Bioscience UK Centre, CAB International, Egham, Surrey, UK

Introduction and beneficially co-exist. CABI, through its science division CABI Bioscience, has such CABI, an intergovernmental not-for-profit an approach in its delivery of IPM. enterprise, has been a leader in sustainable agriculture for 90 years. The issues that currently dominate the world agenda on CABI Bioscience – a Global Reach agriculture are those concerned with: (i) with Local Impact the development and use of both newand established technologies (agbiotechnology, CABI includes both CABI Bioscience and continuing problems with pesticide use); CABI Publishing divisions. It has inter- (ii) the need for sustainable production national centers in the UK, Pakistan, Kenya, systems; (iii) farmer futures (setting the Switzerland, Malaysia, and Trinidad and research agenda, access to markets, fair Tobago and country offices in Costa Rica, and global trade, knowledge generation and India, Vietnam and China. These centers delivery); (iv) Small to Medium Enterprise provide us with a global reach in under- development in the sector; (v) estate crops; taking projects and initiatives in IPM. Over and (vi) poverty alleviation among rural the last 5 years CABI has worked on IPM communities. Alongside all of this, pests projects in Australia, Bangladesh, Bolivia, still remain one of the major production Canada, China, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, constraints and have significant direct and Ghana, India, Indonesia, Italy, Pakistan, the indirect effects on produce quality and Philippines, Spain, South Africa, Trinidad, marketability. Aside from crop losses, the Uganda, UK, USA, Venezuela, and Vietnam limits set by importing markets on pesticide to name but a few. residues and mycotoxin contamination CABI’s approach is based on the use of create trade barriers to small producers, scientific knowledge by farmers to advance particularly those unable to invest in large- productivity, rather than production, an scale capital equipment to ensure quality. essential consideration in markets that are The agricultural sector and its many inves- already prone to over-supply. tors are looking for an approach to agri- Knowledge empowers individuals, culture where the social, scientific, ethical communities and nations to make effective and profit components can proactively and informed choices to sustain and develop

©CAB International 2003. Integrated Pest Management in the Global Arena (eds K.M. Maredia, D. Dakouo and D. Mota-Sanchez) 493 494 D.R. Dent et al.

livelihoods. Knowledge is generated by demanding newenvironment. National CABI through research in areas relevant to quarantine systems are sometimes poorly IPM, while access to knowledge is ensured equipped to predict and manage the threat at a range of levels (from the community posed by alien invasive species. There to the policy maker) through innovative is a need for sanitary and phytosanitary methods of information compilation and provisions in trade; a dire need for effective delivery. CABI promotes knowledge use systems – reliable, balanced yet rapid – through farmer participatory training and to support free trade and prevent the research approaches, so that the research introduction of injurious pest species. agenda is driven more by the actual Global plant health depends on func- demands of small producers and impor- tioning quarantine systems and world class tantly directly engages small producers back-up diagnostic services. CABI pioneers as key participants in development of a Global Plant Health Clinic that provides appropriate and effective technologies. customers with direct diagnostic support Our focus in CABI is actively support- for the identification of newproblems, and ing the generation of biologically based advises on management and containment. technologies to overcome specific major pest The Clinic examines diseased specimens, constraints where pests are taken to mean potential pathogens and related microorgan- insects, pathogens, weeds and nematodes. isms and analyzes the cause of ill-health in Many of the initiatives undertaken by all crop plants and trees. For example, in a CABI involve pest complexes emphasizing study of the epidemiology of Phytophthora a crop-based approach that includes crops diseases in Indonesia the breeding of as diverse as coconut, oil palm, bananas, coconuts for improved varieties represents coffee, cocoa, fruit trees, cotton, vegetables a national priority. However, one of the (tomatoes, chilis), and brassicas (rape, improved hybrids PB121 was susceptible to cabbages, canola). a disease causing bud rot and premature nut fall and nowrates as the most significant disease affecting coconut in the country. An understanding of the disease (its genetic Global Plant Clinic: Diagnostic and structure, mating type, host specificity and Advisory Services distribution) was required to ensure appropriate management practices could be intro- One of the key aspects of IPM is the ability duced. CABI identified the causal agent of to identify pest species and to exclude them the disease as Phytophthora palmivora. The wherever possible as a preventative mea- isolates taken from the coconut were shown sure. Exclusion of pests is one of the first to be genetically distinct from those P. lines of defense whether undertaken at the palmivora that affect cocoa. The information field level or at national boundary through has been used to ensure that the next genera- quarantine sanitary and phytosanitary tion of coconut varieties planted in Indone- measures. With an increase in globalization sia are not susceptible to P. palmivora. and free trade the necessity for effective The Clinic forms the basis for much of quarantine procedures are essential for CABI’s efforts to prevent the transfer of crop countries to prevent invasion from diseases in trade and germplasm exchange, imported alien species. an area of increasing significance under Imported species can become invasive, the GATT/WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary presenting a major threat to the sustain- provisions for world trade. Correct diagnosis ability of natural systems and agricultural and characterization of the causal agents of productivity. Pests reduce yields and crop diseases also provides an essential income through pest management costs. basis for subsequent research to develop Existing plant health services are often disease management solutions. The estab- outmoded and under-resourced to face the lishment of farmer-based systems for pest demands of free trade in a competitive and monitoring and management is also a key IPM at CAB International 495

focus, addressing both farmer awareness • develop and promote biologically and assurance of Good Agricultural Practice. specific and safe products. Initiatives undertaken in this area include: improved use of chemical applica- Rational Pesticide Use tions to fruit trees, tea, coffee, sugarcane and rice crops; preparation of various Conventional chemical pesticides have biopesticide formulations for commercial been used extensively to reduce crop losses companies and donor-funded research pro- to pests but they have posed threats to jects; assessment of sprayer performance, the environment and to human health. The especially droplet sizing; form commercial WHO estimates that there are 25 million product development and registration. cases of acute chemical poisoning in developing countries each year. Newchemicals with improved properties are becoming Biological Control and Biopesticides available but are often beyond the means of developing country farmers. Biopesticides CABI has a long history of supporting are pesticides based on natural microbes and encouraging the use of biologically such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and nema- based agricultural technologies with many todes that attack pests and can be devel- decades of experience in the development oped to control them. They can provide an and use of biological control against environmentally friendly alternative to pests and in understanding the complex chemical pesticides but they face a number interrelationships of microorganisms and of constraints to their development, plants in agriculture. manufacture and use, one being a major Invasive alien species pose a significant development cost versus restricted market. threat to human livelihoods and ecological Despite the public concern about systems, threatening economic productiv- pesticide misuse, the total value of world ity, ecological stability and biodiversity sales has increased by 2.5 times in the last in agricultural systems. Introduced species 20 years to US$30 billion (Bateman, 2003). cause unanticipated havoc and extensive Scientists, practitioners and policy makers costs. This problem is growing in severity involved in IPM have tended to view and geographic extent as global trade and any activity associated with pesticides as travel accelerate. Invasive weeds cause belonging to the pesticide companies and agricultural production losses and degrade often have been avoided. In turn the chemi- water catchments, clog rivers and irrigation cal companies, which often provide farmers systems, while imported pests of livestock, with most of their information on products, crops and forests reduce yields drastically. are unlikely to develop or promote tech- Moniliasis or frosty pod (Monilioph- niques that reduce pesticide use, although it thora roreri) of cocoa causes losses of up to is in their interests to promote practices that 100% in many Latin American countries maintain the longer term viability of their (Evans et al., 1998). Cocoa is typically pro- products. Thus truly Rational Pesticide duced in smallholdings, and many farmers Use techniques have been ignored in the have abandoned their cocoa because of the ‘no-mans land’ between the environmental impact of this disease. In January 1997, CABI and the agrochemical industry camps. CABI initiated a program in the Huallaga valley of has sought to bridge the gap and provide Peru in which cultural disease control in farmers and practitioners with an alterna- cocoa was combined with biological control tive, pragmatic approach to pesticide use to: using local antagonists, which had been iso- • improve dose transfer of pesticides lated from cocoa farms in the valley. The to the biological target (e.g. by precise success of this program in Peru was marked spray application); – combining cultural and biological control, • enable better timing of application; losses from moniliasis were reduced from 496 D.R. Dent et al.

100% in abandoned plots and 78% in plots farmers. CABI, as part of a rice–wheat cons- with cultural control alone to 36% in plots ortium in a project in Bangladesh examined treated with biocontrol antagonists. The the effects of conservation tillage practices program has nowbeen extended to Costa on the microbial population of soils to det- Rica and Panama. ermine the implications of changing agro- Biopesticides provide environmentally nomic practices on system sustainability. friendly and safe alternatives to chemical The results showed that the microbial pesticides for the control of insects, weeds, diversity was not diminished by resource- pathogens and nematodes. CABI has a multi- conserving technologies and that disease disciplinary team who take biopesticides regulating mechanisms and organic matter from concept through to commercialization turnover were maintained in such systems. and their use in developing countries. Application of these approaches has led to Biopesticides are being developed for con- 8% mean increase in rice yield in Bangladesh trol of cattle ticks, sheep scab, storage pests and 13% increase in rice yield in Tanzania. and white grubs. The most notable success Potato is an increasingly important has been with the development of the oil staple component of sub-Saharan African formulation mycoinsecticide called Green diets. Production is dominated by lowinput Muscle, based on the naturally occurring smallholder agriculture and rarely achieves fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. This attainable yields. Lowyield has been attrib - product has been commercialized and is uted to near continuous potato production manufactured in South Africa, is purchased increasing the incidence of diseases. Capac- by international donor agencies and is now ity and or linkage constraints in certified used against locusts and grasshoppers in seed production prevents smallholders Africa (Neethling and Dent, 1998). planting good seed. In collaboration with The sugarcane froghopper Aeneolamia KARI and CIP and the farming community in saccharina is a serious constraint to produc- Njabini, Kenya a small-scale seed production in Trinidad and Tobago and can reduce tion system (SSPS) was established. After sugarcane yields by as much as 30%. five seasons of trials, seed–tuber production The estimated annual costs for froghopper per unit area of land has been shown to be control is approximately US$4.76 million. some two to three times greater under the An integrated approach utilizing the SSPS regime. In addition, the reduction in fungus Metarhizium anisopliae as a bio- land needed for seed–tuber production freed pesticide has been successfully introduced land for production of other crops. The pro- by Caroni Ltd. CABI Bioscience staff ject has been extended to Uganda, South have made recommendations for improving Africa and Bolivia. production and application methods for M. anisopliae utilizing newspore separation equipment developed by CABI. Farmer Participatory Training and Research

Soil and Seed Health Farmer participatory approaches are rapidly gaining acceptance as effective and sustain- Production and management of good seed able methods towards developing more is crucial to food security and agricultural ecological crop and pest management sustainability. In developing countries strategies. Since the early 1990s, CABI Bio- 90–95% of staple crop seed is farm saved or science has been playing an important cata- farmer traded. Quality and health of infor- lytic role in the development and support of mal sector seed are greatly neglected. Seed such programs. The goal of the Farmer Par- is one of the simplest and most effective ticipatory Training and Research initiative means by which innovative crop produc- is to develop and strengthen farmer partici- tion technologies can be made available to patory approaches to training and research IPM at CAB International 497

globally in order to increase the knowledge Under the Technical Support Group, and decision-making skills of farmers. over 60 IPM information products have Highlights of curriculum development been developed and disseminated to IPM efforts to date have been discovery learning practitioners, extension staff, scientists, manuals for vegetables in general and cab- donors, policymakers, etc. Support is given bage specifically, cotton, coffee and cocoa. to the development of FPR in countries not Pilot IPM implementation projects have been introduced to the approach. An example of implemented in collaboration with national the support to the development of end-user stakeholders and others on cabbage in the linkages with delivery of biologically based highlands of Luzon in the Philippines, cot- products is the work to promote and utilize ton in Asia, coffee in Kenya, rainfed rice in traditional knowledge on the use of local eastern India, and there are ongoing collabo- biodiversity in Vietnam, where the weaver rative regional implementation IPM projects ant is being used in traditional citrus in eastern Africa and the Caribbean. FPR is orchards for pest management. Technical becoming an increasingly important ele- and methodological support in general is ment in the CABI Bioscience portfolio with given through dissemination of information examples such as FPR on soil-borne vegeta- products and, if needed, consultancy visits bles in Vietnam, FPR on rice seed health to help in development of programs and in Bangladesh, and a case study on FPR activities. in community forestry. Policy development and aid programs are influenced through project development and studies, such as Commodities the farmer decision-making study to inform the DFID crop protection program, a study Smallholder producers face particular on delivery of biological control products difficulties in producing and marketing to farmers, and awareness raising through commodity crops. Returns from globally workshops and information products. traded commodities are subject to price fluctuations, quality controls and market forces beyond the control of small pro- Technical Support Group to the ducers and in which they are considerably Global IPM Facility disadvantaged; global prices and local economic returns dictate the viability of pro- CABI Bioscience assisted FAO and others duction. CABI is applying its knowledge in the establishment of the Global IPM resources to specifically understand and Facility, a multi-donor funded body, hosted support the needs of small producers in this by FAO, that was setup to capitalize on competitive sphere and thus to support eco- lessons learned in farmer participatory IPM nomic and social development in producer in Southeast Asia and enhancing synergies countries. CABI’s core skills in knowledge with other actors on a global level. Since the generation, access and use are nowengaged establishment of the Global IPM Facility in the wider frame of support to grower and in 1997, high quality technical support is civil society organizations. This help will being provided by CABI Bioscience’s Tech- ensure smallholders are armed with the nical Support Group through a partnership knowledge required to make informed and program to support development and dis- effective choices in production and trade. semination of farmer participatory IPM CABI has made significant inputs in this information products, develop and pilot way to a number of commodity crops newcurricula and methodologies and systems and communities worldwide, par- improve the quality of IPM programs that ticularly coffee, cocoa, oil palm, bananas, are operated by government extension, cotton and sugarcane. NGOs, national and international research CABI has a major Coffee Commodities organizations, and food supply chains. Program that works with the International 498 D.R. Dent et al.

Coffee Organization, the International Fund consumer preferences and fiscal margins. for Commodities, fair trade organizations, CABI evaluates disease or herbicide resis- national coffee research institutes and mul- tance and pesticide management regimes. tinational coffee houses. Work carried out by Assessing environmental impact of trans- CABI in Colombia for instance, involving genic crops is also of great importance. CABI extensive economic and anthropological programs conduct, advise and direct inde- studies of howfarmers control the coffee pendent research on biodiversity impact of berry borer, the costs and their attitudes crop-related GM technologies, for example led to the introduction of a newparasitoid the long term effect on soil fertility, gene Phymastichus coffea as a biological control flow, pollen contamination, effects on non- agent. The parasitoid was successfully target organisms and the development of introduced and has become established. pest and pathogen resistance. Banana diseases including wilts, leaf CABI Bioscience in collaboration with spots and parasitic nematodes have been partners, is assessing the suitability of cotton found to be major constraints to the produc- plants genetically modified to produce the tion of both indigenous and exotic bananas insecticidal toxin Cry1Ac for control of fruit- in Uganda and a key contributor to the recent feeding caterpillars in smallholder farming decline in production. CABI have assisted systems in China. CABI is involved in UNBRP with evaluation of new technologies assessing the impact of the Bt cotton on non to manage banana diseases including: target organisms, working proactively on the selection and use of host plant resistance, likely evolution of resistance of Bt trans- improved use of organic fertilizers and genic cotton to the key pest Helicoverpa related cultural treatments to improve plant armigera and providing all the relevant vigor, use of clean planting material and use information necessary in recommending the of break crops. A total of 128 farmers in 24 deployment and management of transgenic villages are participating in on-farm trials. cotton. CABI’s intergovernmental status and Early impact of the trials is encouraging in its mandate from member governments terms of the excellent performance of the allows for the provision of independent and cultivars and the positive response of the impartial information relating to the issues farmers. This has been confirmed by consid- of GM technologies as a service for decision erable newdemand for planting material of makers within governments. the hybrids tested and a shift in production to bananas back from annual crops. Information and Publications

Agbiotechnology Facilitating pest management information access and use in developing countries is Agricultural biotechnology is relatively being addressed through a range of global newand surrounded by confusion, mis - mechanisms. The Crop Protection Compen- understanding and hyperbole. CABI Bio- dium developed by an international multi- science acknowledges these problems, stakeholder consortium of over 40 organiza- the pitfalls and the gaps in knowledge. We tions led by CABI, has provided a powerful acknowledge the sense of the unknown and model of howinformation technologies and the ethical issues, but we also acknowledge global scientific knowledge can be combined the potential of the technology. to create an encyclopedic resource provid- Crop-related GM biotechnologies are ing rapid access to knowledge of a very wide just one of a set of options open to farmers to range of pests (see www.cabicompendium. improve the sustainability of cropping sys- org/cpc). This core knowledgebase is being tems. CABI tests agronomic merit on a case used to generate tools to assist decision by case basis, looking at soil type, climate making for policy makers, farmer advisors factors, yield, quality, farmer ergonomics, and those concerned with the spread of IPM at CAB International 499

pests in trade. CABI Publishing has devel- is strongly focused on field-based IPM and oped newInternet gatewaysto establish farmer participatory training and knowl- knowledgebases, for example for Integrated edge generation and transfer. As such, CABI Crop Management (ICM Focus, see will continue to play an innovative and sig- www.icmfocus.com). This gateway brings nificant role in IPM globally as a strategic together a wide range of information ally of other global leaders, such as the through a common access point, allowing Global IPM Facility and the CGIAR SP-IPM. cross linkage between different types and sources of information. CABI produces an extensive range of publications relating to References IPM including the CAB ABSTRACTS database (in printed abstracts journals, on-line Bateman, R.P. (2003) Rational Pesticide Use: and on CD), books, primary journals, other spatially and temporally targeted application CD-ROMS, and informal publications, all of specific products. In: Wilson, M. (ed.) Opti- aimed at addressing ‘knowledge gaps’ mising Pesticide Use. John Wiley & Sons, that constrain the uptake of beneficial Chichester, UK. approaches and technologies. Evans, H.C., Krauss, U., Rios, R.R., Zecevich, T.A. and Arevalo-Gardini, E. (1998) Cocoa in Peru. Cocoa Grower’s Bulletin 51, 7–22. Neethling,D.C. and Dent, D.R. (1998) Metarhizium Conclusion anisopliae, isolate IMI 330189; a mycoinsecticide for locust and grasshopper CABI Bioscience has a global base and has a control. BCPC Conference Proceedings knowledge for development agenda, which 16–19 November 1998, pp. 37–42.

Chapter 39 Making IPM Successful Globally: Research, Policy, Management and Networking Recommendations

Karim M. Maredia1, Dona Dakouo2, David Mota-Sanchez3 and K.V. Raman4 1Institute of International Agriculture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 2INERA, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; 3Center for Integrated Plant Systems, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA; 4Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA

IPM strategies have been successfully development and implementation/adoption implemented in a fewcountries and regions have been the following: of the world. In some cases this has helped 1. Lack of national IPM Policy. Many in reducing the overuse and misuse of countries do not have a national IPM policy. pesticides and in other cases it has pro- 2. Lack of institutionalization of IPM moted the use of biological control for sus- to help develop and coordinate IPM tainable pest management. Globalization of programs. the agriculture and food system is increas- 3. Lack of a multi-disciplinary approach ingly demanding foods produced in a safe leading to inadequate problem identifica- and environmentally friendly way. This tion/definition and poor project design for means that food which is consumed or the development and implementation of exported has tolerable pesticide residue IPM. Current IPM packages have been based limits as recommended by the CODEX on the management of a single pest, leading commission of the FAO. to the outbreak of the secondary pests. The experiences from Asia, Africa and 4. Lack of appropriate research to develop Latin America indicate that specific IPM technologies and integration of various packages have been developed and success- tactics to be used in IPM programs. The fully adopted for the management of a majority of the IPM packages have focused single pest in a specific crop. Developing on the use and integration of one or two and implementing IPM for multiple pest, tactics. This has exerted selection pressure disease and weed complexes affecting crop on pests to develop resistance. There has production in developing countries has not been a good integration of various pest been difficult and progress in this area has management tactics. been limited. The general constraints to the

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5. Lack of well-trained human resources, Farmer participation and research facilities, financial resources, and empowerment in IPM institutional linkages (lack of collaboration among various government departments Scouting and monitoring of pests and bene- and ministries). IPM is a multi-disciplinary ficial organisms is the foundation of any approach. Plant protection specialists must IPM program. Government extension ser- collaborate and work hand-in-hand with vices or private agencies should conduct breeders, agronomists, social scientists, area-wide monitoring and provide the and specialists from all other appropriate appropriate information on pest outbreaks disciplines. to farmers on a regular basis. Training and 6. IPM is an information intensive strat- education of farmers and extension workers egy. Farmer participation in the design, in pest identification, monitoring and man- development and implementation of agement approaches should be provided. IPM packages is critical. The research– Farmer participation and empowerment is extension–farmer linkages are critical critical for the adoption of IPM packages. for the information flowand successful The weather data should be utilized in the implentation/adotion of IPM. Also, the development of predictive models for fore- linkage with the private sector is critical. casting the outbreaks of pests, especially migratory pests. Newand emerging tech - Based on our combined international nologies such as mating disruption using experience and networking within the Global sex pheromone technologies are increas- IPM arena, we are making the following gen- ingly utilized in commercial agriculture. eral and specific suggestions/recommenda- However, the use of such technologies tions to various stakeholders involved in the is complex and very information intensive. design, development and implementation of Therefore these technologies must accom- IPM programs at national, regional and inter- pany appropriate information on their use. national level. These stakeholders include local and national governments, farmers/ commodity organizations, academia, NGOs, private sector, international organizations/ Botanicals and biological control enterprises centers, and the donor community. The local governments and rural development programs should encourage the Education, Training and Capacity development of cottage industries to mass Building produce beneficial organisms and botanical pesticides for use in IPM programs. This Human resource development may include mass production and commercialization of entomopathogenic fungi Success in IPM relies on well-trained and and nematodes, parasitoids, predators, and skilled human resources. Education, training botanical agents such as neem-based and development of appropriate human pesticides. resources will allow the formation of multidisciplinary IPM teams for planning, designing, development and implementation of IPM Role of international organizations/centers packages for specific crops or ecosystems. A special emphasis should be given to train The international organizations and pro- personnel in IPM project/program manage- grams have served as a very good platform ment, experiment station management, and for providing training and networking in IPM-related business development. IPM-related areas. The CGIAR international Making IPM Successful Globally 503

research centers have played a pivotal role policy. This policy may be a part of an in delivering improved germplasm to NARs. alternative agriculture or sustainable This improved germplasm has provided agriculture policy and should encompass usable sources of resistance for developing issues related to pesticide use, pesticide newvarieties and hybrids that are resistant subsidies, environmental and human/ to major pests and diseases of specific animal health protection aspects. For crops worldwide. These activities have example, the Government of Ghana has helped tremendously in building the developed an IPM policy (see Chapter 11). capacity of NARs worldwide. These efforts should be further supported and strengthened. Intellectual property rights (IPR), biosafety and food safety

Environmental and pesticide use education Many of the emerging biotechnologies are proprietary. Developing countries will have Pesticides have been and will remain an to develop or adjust their policies related integral part of the IPM programs. However, to IPR, biosafety and food safety to access pesticide-use education and proper moni- and commercialize these technologies. toring of pests will reduce the misuse and Public–private sector linkages will become overuse of pesticides. Farmers should be critical to access and commercialize these made aware of and educated on the nega- technologies. tive effects/impacts of overuse and misuse of pesticides on the environment, human health and beneficial organisms such as Institutionalization of IPM natural enemies of pests, honey bees, etc. Also, environmental education using IPM In most countries, IPM programs function as a vehicle should be promoted in primary, in isolation with very poor coordination secondary and high schools. among people working in different departments and ministries. IPM must be institutionalized to provide a better planning Education on grades and standards and coordination at both institutional and national level. For example, the Indian We live in a global marketplace. Education Government has established a National and understanding the requirements of Center for IPM. Michigan State University the international markets (grades and stan- has an IPM Program Office. dards; export regulations on pesticide residues and pest-free products) is becoming very important for food and fiber products Financial support and technical assistance grown for export markets. Governments, national and international donors will have to make IPM a priority and Policy provide financial resources for continual development and implementation of IPM IPM policy programs. Coordination and education of donors that provide financial resources and National governments should encourage technical assistance in IPM will be critical and support the development and imple- to utilize the limited financial resources mentation/enforcement of a national IPM efficiently. 504 K.M. Maredia et al.

Balance between Basic and during the postharvest period. The use of Applied Research appropriate grades and standards is a must for promoting international trade of food Long-term ecological research grains, vegetables and fruits.

Prevention is better than cure. IPM research programs/projects should seek a balance Biotechnology and genetic engineering between basic and applied research. Most IPM research programs are designed as short- Biotechnology will play an important role term programs. Landscape-level long-term in future pest management programs world- ecological research projects will give a better wide. The major applications of biotechnol- understanding of the biological and eco- ogy and genetic engineering thus far have logical interactions within the landscapes. been to develop and commercialize insect- A thorough understanding of biology and and disease-resistant transgenic crops. ecology of pests and natural enemies and Also, many of the emerging biotechnologies their ecosystem may reveal totally new are developed by the private sector. The use approaches for pest management specially of conventional biotechnology tools such as for the preventive IPM programs. The new tissue culture, micropropagation and diag- tools of geographic information systems nostics needs to be further encouraged to and global positioning systems may assist make available pest- and disease-free plant- in characterizing the temporal and spatial ing materials to developing country farmers dynamics of landscapes.

Pest resistance management Integration of IPM into ICM Resistance to pesticides and other methods IPM must be viewed as an integral part or of pest control is a global problem. Educa- component of ICM programs that promote tion and easy to use methods and tools sustainable agriculture. IPM packages for the detection/diagnosis of resistance should be developed and tested by the problems should be developed and utilized. multidisciplinary teams including plant Resistance management will also be critical protection specialists, breeders, agrono- for new and emerging biotechnologies. mists, social scientists, extension workers and farmers. The use of the farmer school approach in getting the farm community Communication, Information, involved in pest and disease identification, Linkages and Networking monitoring and use of effective control components has been effective in Latin Information America and Asia in controlling potato and rice pests. IPM is an information intensive strategy. A free flow(exchange) of information should be promoted at local, regional and inter- Postharvest pest management national level. The recent advances in computer and satellite technologies nowallow Globally, food grains and food products are the storage and worldwide dissemination lost both in the field and in storage. The of large volumes of information through IPM packages must include postharvest electronic media (websites, CDs). pest management approaches. There is a Education and training programs com- need for basic and applied research pro- bining both conventional methods and dis- grams related to the management of pests tance learning methods should be promoted. Making IPM Successful Globally 505

A wealth of information and research data/ of species around the world. Invasive spe- results on IPM exist in different countries. cies pose a serious threat to agricultural Many of these research data and much productivity and human health. Capacity information exists as rawdata or as unpub - building in the development and imple- lished reports. Some of this information mentation of quarantine regulations and is published in country reports in local policies to prevent the introduction of languages. The international community foreign pests is critical. This will require should encourage and provide support well-equipped quarantine facilities and to bring out this wealth of knowledge and trained personnel. information in a format that can be used by IPM programs around the world. Pests and human–animal health interactions

Collaboration and networking Globalization with its increased spread of organisms and increases in emerging Regional and global cooperation and infectious diseases necessitates that the networking (linkages/partnerships) will global community must be actively engaged become increasingly important to efficiently at the interface of pest management and exchange and use the wealth of IPM infor- human medicine. mation. Cooperation between the northern and southern hemispheres and within the southern hemisphere countries will be criti- Conserving and using biodiversity cal to maximize worldwide IPM implementation. (The experience of Farmers’ Field Less than 1% of all organisms on this earth Schools from Asia has been nowtested are harmful pests to agriculture and human successfully in West African countries.) beings. The wealth of useful organisms and biodiversity should be preserved. Many cultures around the world use insects and Communication with consumers other arthropods as food sources in their diets. Honeybees and silkworms provide Consumers all over the world are increas- food or fiber to mankind. Bees also serve as ingly demanding not only more food but pollinators for many important crops. better quality and safe food, water and environment. Communication with the consumers about the food produced through IPM Global climate change practices will be important issues for the easy acceptance (e.g. eco-labeling). There is strong evidence of global climate change affecting the geographic distribution and damage caused by pests. Insects and Global Trends and Challenges other organisms serve as an indicator of global climate change. There is a need to Trade and invasive pests study the effect of global change on the pest populations as well as developing models Globalization of food trade and increased to predict the impact of the global climate human travel has accelerated the movement change.

Index

Actinomyces 36 Azadiracta indica 114, 115 Africa IPM Forum 6, 445 see also neem Africa IPM Link 416 African bollworm 133, 179, 443 see also Helicoverpa armigera Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 3, 16, 31–45, 67, 143, African rhinoceros beetle 150 184, 201, 220, 225, 244, 287, 306, 362, see also Oryctes monoceros 366, 410, 442, 443, 455 Agenda 21 (UNCD) 3, 420 Bactrocera carambolae 460–462 AgNPV 291–293, 295 banana 441, 458, 498 agricultural policy (South Africa) 34, Bangladesh 410, 415, 496 169–170 BBT 32 Agricultural Research Council (ARC–South bean 158, 411 Africa) 169 Beauveria bassiana 203, 304 Agrobacterium tumefaciens 34 beet armyworm 277 agrochemicals see chemical pesticides behavioral control 2 Aleurocanthus woglumi 173, 273 Bemisia argentifolii 69, 289, 306, 307 amplified fragment length polymorphisms Bemisia tabaci 133, 295, 304, 307, 329, 334, (AFLP) 36–37 345, 346, 424, 454 Anaphes nitens 183 benefit–cost analysis 87 Anastrepha ludens 280 biodiversity 449, 505 Anastrepha obliqua 280 bioinformatics 38, 441 Andean potato weevil 308 biological control 2, 19–28, 67–68, 138, 200, Anthonomus grandis 250, 314 202, 212, 213, 231, 276, 290, 293, 302, Anthonomus vestitus 307 324, 327, 330, 332, 334, 345, 357, Anticarsia gemmatalis 288, 290, 291 362–363, 371–374, 389, 445, 461, 495, Aonidiella aurantii 173, 174 502 Aphidius matricariae 363 biological monitoring 79, 82 aphids 334, 346, 363, 374, 441 biological pest control in greenhouse 332 Aphis gossypii 133, 329, 454 biological pest management 4 apiculture 442 biomagnification 227 Argentina 313–324 BioNET International 420 ARPPIS 443 biopesticides 2, 3, 4, 36, 215, 324, 473, 495 Asian corn borer 200, 201, 203, 243 biosafety 33, 38, 43, 45, 503 Aspongopus viduatus 138 biotechnology 3, 31–45, 209, 441, 473, 498, 504 Atherigona soccata 456 botanical extracts 134, 139, 442 augmentation biological control 23–25 see also botanical pesticides Aulacophora Africana 139 botanical pesticides 2, 116, 139–140, 213, 225, Australia 371–381 441, 486, 502

507 508 Index

botanicals see botanical pesticides Costa Rica 479 Brazil 285–296 cost–benefit ratio 117 brown planthopper 22, 226–227, 229, 231, 232 Côte d’Ivoire 400 Bt see Bacillus thuringiensis Cotesia flavipes 445 Bt cotton 33, 67–68, 201, 202, 378–379 cotton 69, 71, 111, 131–137, 200, 201, 209, 214, Bt crops 33, 41–42, 67–68, 379 301, 304, 403, 438 Bt maize 33, 40, 177 cowpea 160, 428, 441 Bt potato 67–68, 181 CPI/OUA 122 Bt transgenic plants 33–36, 40 CPITT 6 Burkina Faso 109–117, 400–403 CropLife International 70 Bussecola fusca 115, 176, 177, 445, 446 Ctenopseustis obliquana 391 cultural control 2, 230, 455, 458 Cycloneda limbifera 363 cabbage 123, 212, 213, 233, 244 Cydia pomonella 258, 322, 347, 348, 374 CABI 195, 493–499 Cylus formicarius 412 CABI Bioscience 5, 420, 425, 485, 493–499 Calidea dregii 148, 149 capacity building 414, 417 DDT 135, 136, 145 see also IPM training Decision Support System 10–12 cassava 25 Desmodium uncinatum 448 Catalonia, Spain 341–354 Diadegma molliplum 180 CATIE 477–491 diagnostic tools 3, 36, 45 CD-ROM 10, 12, 463, 499 diamondback moth 278–280, 302, 441, 442 Central America 477–491 Diatraea saccharalis 286, 302 Ceratitis capitata 280, 304, 348, 349, 459–460 DNA markers 37 CGIAR 5, 349, 420, 470, 473, 502 CGIAR SP-IPM 5, 419–429, 499 chemical pesticides 2, 4,, 49, 50, 87, 88, 97, 119, eco-labeling 505 202, 209, 232, 362 see also labeling chickpea 215, 428 ecological approach 227, 230 Chilo partellus 176, 177, 411, 443, 445 ecological world-view 73, 76, 84 Chilo sacchariphagus 177 economic threshold 92, 101, 133, 138, 176, 197, Chilo zacconius 113 419 China 197–204 Egypt 428 Chromaphis juglandicola 24 Eldana saccharina 115, 178, 179, 446 CICP 6 Empoasca 148 CILSS 112 Empoasca lybica 135 Cinara cronartii 183 Encarsia 363 CIP 305, 496 Encarsia formosa 24, 335, 346 CIRAD 453–464 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) CIRAD-France see CIRAD 37 citrus 301, 460, 461 Ephestia kuehniella 25 IPM 172–175 Ervinia amylovora 363 thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii 173 Ethiopia 441, 443 Clavigralla tomentosicollis 114 eucalyptus tortoise beetle, Trachymela climate change 505 tincticollis 183 Coconut IPM 150–151 Europe 327–336 CODEX Commission 501 evaluation of IPM 254 codling moth 374 coffee 438, 485, 497 coffee berry disease (CBD) 146 faba bean 428 coffee leaf rust (CLR) 146 FAO 110, 120, 146, 195, 305, 397–406, 420, 437, Colorado potato beetle 35, 362 439, 473 conservation biological control 21–23 farmer empowerment 5 constraints of IPM 415, 427, 496, 441–450 farmer participation 502 conventional agriculture see traditional farmer schools 4 agriculture see also farmers’ field schools Index 509

farmers’ field schools (FFS) 21, 88–90, 94, India 209–221 120–129, 134, 136, 234–236, 240, 242, indigenous knowledge 159, 162 245, 398, 400, 403, 439, 443, 505 Indonesia 223–236, 439 field water melon 138 insect pathogens 455 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) 3, 256, 267 insect resistance 33 food safety 38, 43, 267, 473, 503 insect resistance management 69 forestry IPM 182 Integrated Crop Management (ICM) 157, 499, French Guiana 461 504 fruit flies 280–282, 459 Integrated Pest and Vector Management (IPVM) Fusarium 158, 162, 163, 329, 333, 344, 411 443 Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum 148 Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC) 11 Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) 38–39, 43, 45, 503 gender issues in FFS 128 International Organization of Biological Control genetic engineering 504 26 see also biotechnology Internet 9–17 genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 2, 36, invasive pests 505 43, 70, 170 IPM adoption 97–105, 254, 412, 427 Geocoris 67 IPM CRSP 5, 407–418 Geographic Information System (GIS) 4, 504 IPM education 302, 343, 351, 489, 502–504 Ghana 119–129, 400, 443 IPM Facility see Global IPM Facility Global IPM Facility 5, 397, 399, 402, 420, 425, IPM farmers’ field schools 120, 136 437, 497, 499 see also farmers’ field schools Global Plant Clinic 494 IPM Forum 5 Global Plant Health Clinic see Global Plant IPM Policy 372 Clinic Australia 287 Gonipterus scutellatus 183 Brazil 112 granulosis virus 374 Burkina Faso 421–422 Grapholita molesta 374 CGIAR 199 Green Revolution 31, 435 China 125 Greenhouse agriculture 344, 327–329 Ghana 211 groundnut 131, 158, 428 India 274–275 Guatemala 411, 412, 414, 415 Mexico 386 New Zealand 302 Peru 342–343 habitat management 20, 447 Russia see IPPM policy, Russia Helicotylenchus 115 Spain 132 Helicoverpa armigera 133, 148, 149, 179, 198, Sudan 436 209, 344, 345, 346, 378, 379, 443, 454, World Bank 501, 503 455, 456, 498 IPM program 320–324, 347–349, 366, 388 Heliothis virescens 307 apple 146–147 Heterodera 116 coffee 147–150, 179–180, 305–307, Hirschmanniella spinicaudata 116 314–316, 378, 454 Honduras 415 cotton 114 host plant resistance 2, 136, 212, 226, 231, 294, cowpea 175–176, 347–350, 366, 373–374 455, 457 fruit orchards 329–336 Hylastes angustatus 184 greenhouse 386, 411 horticultural crops 113 kiwifruit 390 IARCs see CGIAR millet 320–324, 349–350 ICARDA 428 ornamentals 330 Icerya purchasii 25, 173 pear 157, 159, 161–164 ICIPE 6, 164, 257, 415, 420, 428, 441–450 pigeonpea 180–181, 306–309, 316–321 ICRISAT 164, 457 potato 113 IFP 388 rice 115, 176, 456 IITA 114, 119, 126, 428 sorghum 287–295 importation biological control 25–27 soybean 177–179 510 Index

IPM program continued Myzus persicae 68, 317, 329 sugarcane 344–347, 367 tomato 330, 366 vegetable 181–182, 366 National Coconut Development Program wheat 352, 438 (NCDP-Tanzania) 150 IPM stakeholders 124 National Committee of Pesticides (Burkina Faso) IPM training 352, 414, 417, 439, 443 112 IPMEurope 5, 467–475 natural enemies 330–332, 455, 487 IPPM 357–367 neem 91, 139, 441 IPPM policy, Russia 362–363 nematode management 318–319 ISAAA 71 nematodes 115–116, 123 see also nematode management Nephotettix virescens 212, 226 Jacobiasca lybica 133 New Caledonia 462 Jamaica 411, 412, 414 New Zealand 385–394 Nezara viridula 289 NGOs 112, 117, 125, 215, 305, 397, 401, 409, Kenya 415, 427, 496, 441–450 420, 429, 437, 441, 450, 470, 473, 497 constraints of IPM 117, 151 Nicaragua 478 KiwiGreen 390–393 Nigeria 428, 457 Nilaparvata lugens 22, 100, 198, 213, 226 Nomureae rileyi 288, 290 labeling 41, 45 NSF 442 leaf miners 329 legumes 158, 165 Leptinotarsa decemlineata 35, 363, 360 olives 302 licensing 41 Online resources 9–17 Liriomyza huidobrensis 411, 413 see also World Wide Web Liriomyza trifolii 210 Opuntia vulgaris 172 Locusta migratoria manilensis 197 Orseolia oryzivora 113 Orthotomicus erosus 184 Oryctes monoceros see African rhinoceros beetle Maecolaspis bridarolii 319, 320 Ostrinia furnacalis 200, 243 maize 21, 34, 158, 160, 176, 200, 201, 202, 203, Ostrinia nubilalis 25, 35 212, 243–244, 411, 428, 441, 447 Malawi 157–165 Male Annihilation Technique (MAT) 461–462 Panonychus ulmi 389 Mali 400–403, 412, 414, 415, 457 parasitic nematodes of rice 116 Maliarpha separatella 113 Pauesia cinaravora 135, 183 mango 460 Pectinophora gossypiella 135, 273, 306, 307, mating disruption 375, 456 456 Mayetiola destructor 428 PEDUNE 114 mechanical control 2, 232 Perkinsiella saccharicida 177 Mediterranean region 341–354 Peru 301–310 Meloidogyne 115, 318, 319 pest resistance management 39, 504 Meloidogyne incognita, M. hispanica 115 Pesticide Policy, Indonesia 240–241 melon bug 138 Pesticide Regulatory Committee (Ghana) 119 Metarrhizium 164 pesticide use Meteorus layphygmarum 138 global 50, 495 Mexico 273–282, 438 India 210 Michigan State University 4, 262–267, 503 Mali 456 Microtermes thoracalis 135 New Zealand 389 Mononychellus tanajoa 25 Nicaragua 487 Morocco 428 Russia 363–364 mungbean 230 pesticides 97 Mycosphaerella fijiensis 458–459 health costs 57, 60 Index 511

health hazards 226, 228 Saissetia oleae 302 see also health risks Schistocerca gregaria 443 health risks 91–92 Schizaphis graminum 133, 285 sales 53, 55–57 Scirpophaga excerptalia 213 subsidies 49–62 Scirtothrips aurantii 173 Phenacoccus manihoti 105 Scutellonema 115 Philippines 239–247, 308, 410, 414, 415 Senegal 401–403 Phthorimaea operculella 35, 305 sericulture 442 Physic nut, Jatropha curcas 115 Sesamia calamistis 113 Phytophthora palmivora 494 sex pheromone 115, 18 Phytoseiulus 180, 363 sigatoka leaf spot 458, 459 Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI–South silk worm, Bombyx mori 443 Africa) 170, 171 Sirex noctilio 183 plantain weevils 123 snow peas 412 Plutella xylostella 225, 244, 304, 443 social and economic considerations 49–62, Podagarica puncticollis 135 87–94 Podosphaera leucotricha 363 socioeconomic data 92–93 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 36–37 Sogatella furcifera 213 postharvest pest management 504 sorghum 131, 441 potato tuber moth 35, 180 sorghum midge, Stenodiplosis (= Contarinia) potatoes 34, 233, 302, 496 sorgicola 115, 456–457 Pratylenchus 115 South Africa 169–186 precision agriculture 4 soybean 34, 230, 233, 428 predatory mites 374 Spain 341–354 Premnotrypes 305, 306 SP-IPM see CGIAR SP-IPM ARPPIS (ICIPE–Kenya) 444 Spodoptera frugiperda 5 Project GREEN 263 Spodoptera littoralis 21 PRONAF 114 Spodoptera litura 329 Puccinia striiformis 202 staggered and targeted control 456 push–pull strategy 448–450 stem borers 176, 445, 447, 456 Pyricularia oryzae 113 Sternechus subsignatus 294 stinkbugs 293 stored grain 286 Quadraspidiotus perniciosus 349 Striga 126, 159–161, 424, 428, 447 Sudan 131–143, 441 sugarcane 213, 286, 302, 204, 496 random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) sustainable agriculture 73, 77, 81, 473 36–37 sustainable development 73–84 rapeseed 214 sustainable production 435–436, 449 resistance breeding 335 sweet potato 230, 411 see also host plant resistance Symmetrischema tangolias 308 resistance management strategy (RMS) 39–40, systems approach 1 42 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) 36 Tanzania 145–152 Réunion 461 Tephrosia vogelii 160 Rhizoctonia solani 149 termites 135 Rhopalosiphum maidis 133 Tetranychus urticae 329, 330, 335, 374, 378 rice 22, 34, 38, 71, 116, 131, 201, 202, 214, 216, thrips 334, 441 223, 224, 226, 229, 234, 239, 242, 245, tobacco 441 403, 410 tomato fruitworm 276 rice IPM schools 401 tomato pinworm 276 Rodolia cardinalis 173, 257 tomatoes 212, 275–277, 286–287, 330, 344 Rural Womens’ Schools (Sudan) 135 Trachymela tincticollis 183 Russia 357–367 traditional agriculture 76, 77, 120–122, Russian wheat aphid (RWA) 180–182 126–128, 400, 403 512 Index

training of trainers (TOT) 120 USAID 126, 478 transgenic USAID–IPM CRSP see IPM CRSP cotton 40 USSR see Russia see also Bt cotton crops 27, 363 see also Bt crops vegetables 71, 134, 233, 403 maize 177 velvetbean caterpillar 291 see also Bt maize Venturia 363 plants 2, 33 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State see also transgenic crops; Bt transgenic University 408 plants Virginia Tech see Virginia Polytechnic Institute potato 35, 181 and State University see also Bt potato Trialeurodes vaporariorum 133 Trichoplusia ni 35, 138 watermelon 135, 138–140 Tricoderma 213, 333 websites see World Wide Web Tricogramma spp. 24–25, 180, 201, 203, 211, weed management 319–320 214, 219, 239, 243–244, 246, 274, 287, West Africa 456 306, 346, 363, 455 wheat 133, 201, 202, 285, 428 Trinidad and Tobago 496 whiteflies 424 tsetse traps 438, 442 World Bank 435–440, 473, 485 Tuta absoluta 286 World Food Prize 441 Typhlodromalus aripo 26 World Wide Web (WWW) 9–17, 20, 32, 118, Typhlodromalus manihoti 26 155, 185–186, 204, 246, 260, 266, 379–381, 388, 406, 415, 428, 441, 463, 498, 499 Uganda 411, 412, 414, 415 ultra low volume (ULV) 363 UN–FAO Plant Protection Service 5 Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum 148 University of California 258–262 Xanthomonas malvacearum 135 USA 249–268, 416 Adkisson Project 252 Haffaker Project 251–252 Zimbabwe 443