Monument Au Massacre De Boston Et À Crispus Attucks : Un Acte De Justice Trop Longtemps Différé

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Monument Au Massacre De Boston Et À Crispus Attucks : Un Acte De Justice Trop Longtemps Différé LA SCULPTURE TRIOMPHANTE : 1850-1880 64 LA SCULPTURE TRIOMPHANTE : 1850-1880 Histoire et commémoration Le Monument au Massacre de Boston et à Crispus Attucks : un acte de justice trop longtemps différé Renée Ater Associate Professor Emerita, University of Maryland, USA Le 14 novembre 1888, la population de tyrannie, il laissa au petit bas-relief ornant le pié- Boston, les représentants de la ville et ceux de destal le soin de relater la mort de Crispus Attucks l’État du Massachusetts étaient rassemblés dans (1723-1770) et de ses compatriotes. À Boston, deux le Boston Common pour assister à l’inauguration groupes souhaitaient rendre hommage à ce héros : du Monument au Massacre de Boston et à Crispus d’un côté, les Africains-Américains emmenés par Attucks. Des milliers d’hommes et de femmes, William Cooper Nell, historien amateur et fervent blancs et noirs, appartenant aux élites comme abolitionniste ; de l’autre, un groupe interracial aux classes laborieuses, s’étaient massés le long de d’éminents citoyens comprenant notamment John Charles Street et de Beacon Street pour écouter les Quincy Adams, Archibald Henry Grimké et Henry discours du gouverneur du Massachusetts et du Cabot Lodge. Dès 1851, Nell lança une campagne maire de Boston. Dessiné par Adolph Robert Kraus pour que soit élevé un monument public à la (1850-1901), un sculpteur d’origine allemande, mémoire d’Attucks et, dans un livre paru en 1855, et conçu pour rappeler le premier affrontement The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution with sanglant de la Révolution américaine, le monument Sketches of Several Distinguished Persons (fig. 2), il comportait un obélisque, une figure féminine avec en faisait longuement l’éloge. Au printemps 1887, un aigle à ses pieds, allégorie de l’« Amérique libre », quarante-six citoyens de Boston présentèrent une un bas-relief représentant le Massacre de Boston, requête devant la Cour générale du Massachusetts, ainsi que diverses inscriptions sur l’obélisque et afin que soit érigé « un monument digne… de la sur son socle (fig. 1). mémoire des premiers patriotes de la Révolution », Nous nous proposons d’examiner les intérêts à savoir Crispus Attucks, Samuel Maverick, James concurrents qui conduisirent à la commande Caldwell, Samuel Gray et Patrick Carr, en qui ils de ce monument et à la façon dont ces intérêts voyaient « les premiers martyrs pour la cause de la influencèrent à la fois sa forme et sa significa- liberté américaine. »2 Les uns et les autres avaient tion. Exploitant diverses références formelles et une vision très différente de la place d’Attucks allégoriques, Kraus choisit de mettre en avant les dans l’histoire des États-Unis. Pour Nell et la sentiments antimonarchistes et républicains. Se communauté africaine-américaine, déjà engagés concentrant sur l’allégorie de la Liberté écrasant la depuis le milieu du XIXe siècle dans une commémo- ration publique du personnage, Attucks, héros et patriote de couleur, était un puissant symbole de Fig. 1 – A. R. Kraus, Monument au Massacre de Boston la résistance et de la protestation des Noirs. Pour et à Crispus Attucks, 1888, granit de Concord et bronze, les autres, il était un « Américain universel », un 7,5 x 3 m, Boston, Massachusetts. homme qui avait sacrifié sa vie au nom des idéaux, Boston Massacre/Crispus Attucks Monument plus vastes, de la nouvelle nation.3 65 LA SCULPTURE TRIOMPHANTE : 1850-1880 Événement sismique de l’histoire américaine, moururent sur le coup, les deux autres quelques le Massacre de Boston fut l’un des premiers affron- jours plus tard. Considéré comme leur chef, tements entre soldats britanniques et colons amé- Attucks, touché deux fois à la poitrine, fut le pre- ricains. S’inspirant d’un dessin de Henry Pelham, mier à expirer.4 le patriote Paul Revere, orfèvre et graveur de son Bien qu’Attucks fût généralement considéré état, illustra la scène dans une gravure coloriée à comme le premier martyr de la Révolution amé- la main devenue célèbre (fig. 3). Bien que com- ricaine et le Massacre de Boston comme le premier prenant quelques erreurs factuelles – Attucks n’y acte de guerre entre les colons et la Couronne bri- figure pas et les civils sont représentés comme de tannique, cent dix-huit ans s’écoulèrent avant que paisibles gentlemen – cette image fut largement la ville ne commémore l’homme et l’événement. À diffusée dans les colonies américaines à des fins de la fin du XIXe siècle, les habitants de Boston étaient propagande. Le 5 mars 1770, par un soir glacial et divisés sur le sens qu’il convenait de donner à cet enneigé, des soldats britanniques tirèrent dans la épisode : les hommes tombés sous les balles étaient- foule d’ouvriers et de marins en colère qui s’était ils des martyrs de la liberté froidement assassinés rassemblée pour protester contre la présence sans par la soldatesque britannique ou une bande cesse croissante de l’armée britannique à Boston. d’émeutiers malintentionnés qui s’en étaient pris à Se sentant menacés par ces manifestants qui agi- de jeunes recrues ? Né d’un père noir et d’une mère taient des bâtons, leur lançaient des projectiles indienne, Attucks pouvait-il être reconnu comme et les provoquaient, ils finirent par ouvrir le feu. le premier martyr de la Révolution américaine ? Lui Cinq hommes s’écroulèrent devant le Town House, et ses quatre compagnons étaient-ils des patriotes siège du gouvernement colonial britannique, et ou des émeutiers ?5 la Custom House, le Bureau des douanes, situés En 1851, arguant du fait qu’Attucks était « le dans King Street. Trois d’entre eux, dont Attucks, premier martyr de la Révolution américaine », Nell demanda officiellement à la Chambre des représentants du Massachusetts d’allouer la somme de 1 500 dollars à l’érection d’un monument à sa mémoire. La Commission des affaires militaires refusa, car, selon elle, un autre homme était tombé avant lui pour la cause. Dans The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, après avoir de nouveau souligné le rôle décisif d’Attucks, Nell précisait qu’il avait entrepris un important travail de mémoire destiné à « sauver de l’oubli le nom et la gloire de ceux qui, quoique “marqués d’une tache honnie”, avaient un cœur vif et des mains vaillantes en “ces temps qui mettaient l’âme humaine à l’épreuve.” » Le 5 mars 1858, Nell institua le premier Crispus Attucks Day, que les Africains-Américains célèbreraient chaque année pendant trente ans, à la place du 4 Juillet, jour officiel de l’indépendance des États-Unis.6 Fig. 2 – « Crispus Attucks, premier martyr de la Révolution américaine, King Street Trente-cinq ans plus tard, une autre pétition (aujourd’hui State Street), Boston, 5 mars 1770 », réclamant un monument en l’honneur du Massacre in William C. Nell, The Colored Patriots of the American de Boston fut présentée devant les autorités de Revolution with Sketches of Several Distinguished Persons, l’État du Massachusetts par un groupe de notables Boston, 1855, p. 16. New York Public Library Digital Collections. blancs et noirs. Le 17 mai 1887, le gouverneur Oliver Ames signa une résolution en ce sens, “Crispus Attucks, the first martyr of the American Revolution, King (now State) Street, Boston, March 5th, autorisant les responsables de la ville et les élites 1770” culturelles à rassembler les fonds nécessaires et à 66 LA SCULPTURE TRIOMPHANTE : 1850-1880 Fig. 3 – P. Revere, Le Massacre sanglant perpétré dans King Street, Boston, le 5 mars 1770, par un groupe de soldats du 29e Régiment, 1770, gravure, 25,8 x 33,4 cm, Library of Congress. The bloody massacre perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th 1770 by a party of the 29th Regt construire un monument dans le Boston Common. jouerait un rôle décisif dans l’attribution à Kraus C’est ainsi que le monument revêtit une nouvelle de la commande du monument commémorant le signification : au lieu de commémorer un moment Massacre de Boston. Pendant les deux décennies important de l’histoire africaine-américaine, il suivantes, Kraus continua à résider et à travailler inscrirait le récit triomphal du Massacre de Boston à Boston – jusqu’à sa mort en 1901 dans un asile dans le récit national plus vaste des États-Unis.7 d’aliénés en périphérie de la ville.8 Né en 1850 à Zeulenroda, en Allemagne, Le Monument au Massacre de Boston et à Crispus Kraus commença, dès son adolescence, à travailler Attucks est situé dans le Boston Common, le plus comme tailleur de pierre et sculpteur sur bois. ancien parc public des États-Unis, puisqu’il date En 1873, il se rendit à Rome pour étudier auprès de 1634. Le Boston Common servait d’espace du sculpteur allemand néoclassique Emil Wolff. collectif : les vaches pouvaient y paître dans le pré L’année suivante, il remporta le premier prix de communal ; là se trouvait aussi le gibet de la ville ; sculpture de l’Académie royale des Beaux-Arts pendant la guerre d’indépendance américaine, de Rome. En 1877, ayant achevé sa formation, il les Britanniques y installèrent un camp militaire partit pour Londres et y ouvrit un atelier. En 1881, et, surtout, c’était l’endroit où se déroulaient les n’ayant pas rencontré le succès espéré, il émigra célébrations et les manifestations publiques. En aux États-Unis, s’arrêtant d’abord à Philadelphie, 1834, les autorités municipales décidèrent de puis à New York, avant de s’installer définitivement transformer le Boston Common en un vrai parc à Boston, où il ne tarda pas à recevoir sa première public avec jardin. Au moment de son inauguration, commande : un ensemble de sculptures ornemen- le Monument au Massacre de Boston et à Crispus tales pour la nouvelle demeure du gouverneur Attucks occupait les lieux avec deux autres œuvres Oliver Ames.
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