Democracy by Assocation: A Comparative Exploration of the Effects of Inequality and the State on Civic Engagement by Nanda S. Purandaré A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Nanda S. Purandaré 2011 Democracy by Assocation: A Comparative Exploration of the Effects of Inequality and the State on Civic Engagement Nanda S. Purandaré Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2011 Abstract The dominant civic engagement literature has focused on the many positive outcomes that stem from leading an active associational life, linking it to lower crime rates, economic growth and a healthy democracy. However, it has been less effective at recognizing how much of a dependent variable civic engagement actually is, exploring what shapes it and how. Yet, in light of its centrality to the democratic process and the benefits that accrue from strong, active communities, it is important to understand what shapes civic engagement to establish who is in a better position to participate and why. Drawing on personal interviews with single mothers, policy analyses, and World Values and ISSP survey data, this dissertation explores how inequality and the state shape civic engagement. The findings underscore the impact of class- and status-based inequalities on civic engagement, focusing on women as a case study. Women’s dual roles as caregivers in the home and paid workers in the labour market contribute to the gender gap in participation. However, the presence of ii children is linked to higher levels of participation for women, and parent-, child- and care- related groups are found to build trust, foster a sense of community, and act as a catalyst for civic involvement. The thesis also highlights the extent to which the state structures citizenship and participation, focusing on welfare regimes as case studies. It develops theories that test the effect of interventionism, egalitarianism and statism on the civic engagement levels of welfare regime-types. The findings suggest that while egalitarian policies may help reduce the impact of inequality on civic life, comprehensive social policies alone do not necessarily lead to more active societies. The way political authority is structured can have a deep impact on civic habits, and creating openings and opportunities for citizens to participate can inspire collective action. iii Acknowledgments I am most grateful to my dissertation committee for their unceasing guidance and support throughout the dissertation process – from the proposal stage to the defense and beyond. Thank you to my supervisors Jennifer Nedelsky and Jeffrey Kopstein for their commitment to the project in all of its incarnations, constructive feedback, as well as their unwaivering encouragement over the many years it takes to tackle an interesting research question. Thank you to Lorne Sossin, who inspired me to pursue graduate school in the first place, and for his feedback and counsel over the course of research and writing the thesis. I am also extremely grateful to Peter Loewen and Livianna Tossutti for their invaluable insights and advice at the later stages of my research, and to Sylvia Bachevkin, for her helpful comments earlier on. I gratefully acknowledge the generous funding for my research from the University of Toronto School of Graduate Studies’ Doctoral Thesis Completion and Travel Grants, the Special Matching Fund Dissertation Fellowship from the Munk Centre’s Joint Initiative in German and European Studies, and the Sir Val Duncan Travel Grant. Last but not least, I wish to thank my friends and family, especially mom, dad and Jason, for their patience and support through thick and thin. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... iv List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...,,,,,,...vi List of Figures………………………………………………………………..…………………viii Glossary of Terms .......................................................................................................... xi Introduction: Ingredients for Participatory Democracy ..................................................... 1 PART I: INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL FACTORS ...................................................................... 26 Chapter 1: All Things Being Equal: Gender, Citizenship and the Authors of an Indifferent Democracy ............................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2: Exploring the Roots of Gendered Civic Life ................................................. 68 Chapter 3: Count Me In: Taking Stock of the Networking Habits of Single Mothers .... 109 Appendix: Interview Schedule ..................................................................................... 151 PART II: COUNTRY-LEVEL FACTORS ...................................................................... 155 Chapter 4 The Impact of Welfare Worlds on Citizenship ............................................. 156 Appendix: Comparative Social Policies and Outcomes ............................................... 202 Chapter 5: A Hinderance or a Catalyst? Theorizing the Role of the State in Civic Engagement ............................................................................................................ 224 Chapter 6 Interventionism, Egalitarianism, and Statism: The Impact of Three State Dimensions on Associational Involvement .............................................................. 278 Conclusion A Recipe for Participatory Democracy ...................................................... 330 References .................................................................................................................. 351 v List of Tables Table 2.1 Predicting the Causes of Gender Differences in Civic Engagement: OLS Regression Results…………………………………………...………p.105 Table 4.1 A General Outline of Three Welfare Regime-Types……………...…............p.203 Table 4a.1 Provincial Demographic Profiles………….................................................p.206 Table 4a.2 Overview of Provincial Social Assistance Histories...................................p.207 Table 4a.3 Provincial Family-Related Supplements, Subsidies and Allowances.............................................................................................................p.208 Table 4a.4 Provincial Leave Policies…………………..................................................p.209 Table 4a.5 Provincial Child Maintenance Enforcement Programs…………………………………………….........................................................p.210 Table 4a.6 Information on Early Childhood Education and Care by Province…………………………………….................................................p.211 . Table 4a.7 Provincial Social Assistance, Rance and Adequacy of Benefits, and Employability Programs……………….................................................p.212 Table 4a.8 The Status of Women by Province: Poverty, Work and Political Representation…………………..….................................................p.213 Table 4a.9 The Status of Women by Province: Violence Against Women, Shelters and Victims Services……....................................................p.214 Table 4b.1 Family and Childrearing Leave Policies in Canada, France and Sweden………………………...................................................p.215 Table 4b.2 Early Learning and Child Early Learning and Childcare Policies in Canada, France and Sweden......................................................p.216 Table 4b.3 Family or Child Benefits and Services in Canada, France and Sweden…………………..........................................................p.218 Table 4b.4 Housing and Housing Policies in Canada, France and Sweden………………………………………................................................p.219 vi Table 4b.5 Income Security Policies in Canada, France and Sweden……………………………………...................................................p.221 Table 4b.6 Comparing Welfare Regimes: The Status of Women in Canada, France and Sweden.................................................p.222 Table 5.1 Predicting Civic Engagement by Religious Denomination: OLS Regression Results……………….................................................p.231 Table 5.2 The Cross-National Voluntary Sector, by Field…………………………………………………………...............................................p.254 Table 5.3 Sources of Nonprofit Sector Revenue………...............................................p.256 Table 5.4 Predicting the Effect of Social and Political Trust: OLS and Logistic Regressions………………………………..................................................p.271 Table 5.5 Dimensions of Variation Between Selective and Universal Welfare Policy........................................................................p.274 Table 6.1 Hypothesizing the Effects of Interventionism on Civic Engagement Across Welfare Regime-Types..................................................p.282 Table 6.2 Gross, Net and Share of Private Social Expenditure Across Welfare Regimes…………………....................................................................p.284 Table 6.3 Hypothesizing the Effects of Egalitarianism on Civic Engagement Across Welfare Regime-Types.................................................p.288 Table 6.4 Income Inequality and Poverty Rates by Regime-Type................................................................................................p.289 Table 6.5 Hypothesizing the Effects of Statism on