Introduction 1 Framing Children's Theatre

Notes

I NTRODUCTION

1 . In 2011, Assitej International changed its name to Assitej, since the “international” is already embedded in the acronym. For consistency, I refer to “Assitej International” before May 2011, and “Assitej” after. 2 . Since the writing of this introduction, the TIN is in jeopardy. Meanwhile a new Assitej Netherlands center has been accepted by Assitej International. 3 . The IDEA website states: “IDEA lobbies regionally and internationally to raise the awareness of governments, key agencies and organisations, as to the importance of drama and theater in the development and lives of children and young people (both in and out of school hours). It also supports members to research in this field.” http://www.idea-org.net/en/ 02–4–11. 4 . See, for example, Philip Taylor, Applied Theatre: Creating Transformative Encounters (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2003); Helen Nicholson, Applied Drama: Theatre and Performance Practices (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Monica Prendergast and Juliana Saxton, Applied Theatre: International Case Studies and Challenges for Practice (Chicago: Intellect, 2009); James Thompson, Digging Up Stories: Applied Theatre, Performance and War Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 2005); and Tim Prentki and Sheila Preston, The Applied Theatre Reader (New York: Routledge, 2009).

1 FRAMING CHILDREN’S THEATRE: HISTORIOGRAPHY, MATERIAL CONTEXT, AND CULTURAL PERCEPTION

This chapter draws on three previously published sources by the author: “Constructed Narratives: Situating Theatre for Young Audiences in the United States,” Youth Theatre Journal 14 (2000); Moscow Theatres for Young People: A Cultural History of Ideological Coercion and Artistic Innovation, 1917–2000 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); and Dutch Theatre for Children: Three Contemporary Plays (Charlottesville: New Plays Inc., 2008; Woodstock: Dramatic Publishing, 2009). 150 Notes

1 . While the understanding of what constitutes “children’s theatre” varies— in part framed by cultures and material contexts, in part reframed through time—the notion of children’s theatre as professional, by adults who earn their living by doing it, for a young audience of children and/or youth has become the most pervasive. This understanding of children’s theatre/TYA as professional theatre by adults for young people is used throughout this book unless otherwise noted. 2 . While it falls outside of the scope of this chapter to go in great detail, it needs to be noted that a number of scholars have contested this periodization, pointing out theatre activities for and with children and youth from the ancient Greeks (hence Plato’s warning against the potential corrupting influence of tales for children, The Republic II [New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976: 377]), to medieval times, religious school theatre, court theatre, wandering theatricals, et cetera. See, for example, the work of Jonathan Levy, especially Gymnasium of the Imagination (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992), which also contains extensive notes and bibliographies and the introduction to Roger Bedard’s Dramatic Literature for Children: A Century in Review, 2nd edition. Clearly, children were exposed to theatre, whether through domestic performances, school rhetoric classes, festivals and parades, street performances, professional pantomimes, or other theatrical events to which children were taken. This chapter, however, relies on the assumption that the recognition of children as a special audience separate from adult audiences was not fully materialized until the twentieth century. 3 . I focus on these three countries because they are the primary countries I lived, researched, and worked in. As such, they function as examples of how historical narratives are constructed, and contested, in different nations under different material circumstances. 4 . In 1965 Assitej/USA was founded, the US chapter of Assitej International, the International Association of Theatre for Children and Young People (L’Association Internationale du Théâtre pour l’Enfance et de la Jeunesse). In 2007, the US chapter was renamed TYA/USA for easier recognition and accessibility, and, albeit unstated, pronunciation for anglophones. According to the website, TYA/USA is “the only theater organization in the U.S. which has the development of professional theater for young audiences and international exchange as its primary mandates” (http://www.assitej-usa.org/about. html, accessed Jan. 7, 2010) 5 . See Laura Gardner Salazar, “Theatre for Young Audiences in New York City, 1900–1910: Heritage of Jolly Productions,” In Spotlight on the Child , Roger L. Bedard and C. John Tolch, eds. (New York: Greenwood, 1989). 6 . While at the time of Mackay’s first writings, professional theatre for children was still produced on Broadway, records show that by the 1920s such activities had virtually ceased and “the only professional productions of children’s plays presented in New York consisted of limited revivals of the few plays available, such as Peter Pan and The Little Princess” (Roger Bedard, Dramatic Literature for Children: A Century in Review [New Orleans: Anchorage, 2005: Notes 151

10]). Theatre for Children had been taken over by the Junior League and the Educational Theatre Movement. 7 . The 1987 edition has a different title, Historical Guide to Children’s Theatre in America , and a more encyclopedic organization, which gives it a more “objec- tive” veneer. Comparing the three editions, however, it is quite obvious that the material is selected and discussed with the same ideological objectives— paradoxically emphasizing the positivist discourse of the 1987 edition. 8 . Tellingly, she was commissioned to write the US entry to Lowell Swortzell’s International Guide to Children’s Theatre and Educational Theatre as well as the “children’s theatre” entry in the first edition of the Cambridge Guide to American Theatre . 9 . In 1990, for example, a consortium of TYA practitioners gathered in Tennessee to discuss the status of TYA. Seemingly avoiding didacticism and ideological agendas, and accepting the prevailing practice in professional TYA of adults performing children , the field was defined as an aesthetic-driven, live performance which includes elements relevant to the child. Although Th eatre for Young Audiences can amaze, challenge, inform, and empower young people by providing access to the humanizing eff ect of theatre, the priority is on the creation of a work of art. (AATE 1990) 10 . This also explains the predominance (and popularity) of fairy tales, which in Jack Zipes’s analysis are models of civilized and appropriate behavior (Jack Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion: The Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization [New York: Wildman Press, 1983]). 11 . The criteria as stated in the document are: (1) Is the story suitable for children of the age level for which you are writing? (2) Is the story worth telling? Does it have content and meaning? (3) Does your play develop along clear, dramatic lines; that is, does it have a beginning, a properly built climax, and conclusion? “Is the end contained in the beginning?” (4) Is the story told without interruption, or without the introduction of extraneous action or characters? (5) Does your story move? Does the audience see rather than hear the action? “Show it, don’t tell it.” (6) Is it clearly established to which character your story belongs? (7) Is there an opportunity for identification? Usually a play is stronger if the child can identify with the character to whom the story belongs. (8) Do your characters react to each other naturally? (9) Have you developed character and story through interaction? (10) Is your dialogue natural to the characters? (11) Have you presented technical difficulties that would be a deterrent to production under ordinary circumstances? (12) In writing an adaptation, have you retained the essential elements of the original, so that the children will not be offended by the change? (13) Are you satisfied that your completed play fulfills its purpose and that you have given it “your best” in preparation, construction, and writing? (“Children’s Theatre Committee,” Historical Papers and Files, Child Drama Archives, Arizona State University: Hayden Library Special Collections, Box PRW/Bus 1 and Box PRW/Bus 2). 152 Notes

12 . Cr i t i c a l e s s a y s o n c h i l d r e n ’ s t h e a t r e a p p e a r p r i m a r i l y i n Youth Theatre Journal, the most important US scholarly journal in the field, published by American Alliance for Theatre and Education (AATE). Significantly, the 1996 ATHE Directory of Theatre Periodicals, published by the Association for Theatre in Higher Education still did not include Youth Theatre Journal , despite the joint conferences of AATE and ATHE every four years, although that has since been corrected. Colleagues confirm that the majority of theory and criticism professors and doctoral advisers have not included Youth Theatre Journal on their lists of recommended journals, neither for publishing nor for class-review purposes. If essays concerning children’s theatre are published in “adult” journals, children’s theatre per se is often appropri- ated to support the main thesis, such as the semiotic interdependence of meaning and material conditions (Manon van de Water, “Mister Twister or Goodbye America!: The Interdependence of Meaning and Material Conditions,” in Essays in Theatre/ Etudes Théâtrales 16 [1997]), or cultural studies and the politics of identity (Sonja Kuftinec, “[Walking Through a] Ghost Town: Cultural Hauntologie in Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina or Mostar: A Performance Review,” in Text and Performance Quarterly 18 [1998]). An extended discussion, such as Klein, Austin, and Zeder’s feminist reading of Mother Hicks in the Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism , seems an aberration. 13 . The Mother Goose Marx controversy refers to the FTP children’s theatre unit’s production Revolt of the Beavers, which was accused of promoting Marxism and in effect caused the demise of the FTP. 14 . These issues are primarily examined in unpublished theses and dissertations of emerging scholars. See, for example, the theses of Mary McAvoy and Annie Giannini, and the dissertations of Stephani Woodson, Andrew Chappell, Oona Kersey, Jamie Romine, and Erika Hughes. Encouraging developments are the inclusion of working groups on issues of Theatre for Youth at the annual American Society for Theatre Research (ASTR) conferences, which consist of plenary sessions and working groups on specific topics in the field of theatre research; the move to Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Publication corporation for publishing Youth Theatre Journal (2009); and the establishment of an ASTR liasion with AATE and the International Theatre for Young Audiences Research Network (ITYARN). 15 . One scholar who went beyond the restricting notions of children’s theatre was Lowell Swortzell. Swortzell published a number of anthologies and other books that widened the scope of what was traditionally seen as children’s theatre, including Six Plays for Young People from the Federal Theatre Project in which he drew attention to the importance of the FTP’s Children’s Theatre Unit, The International Guide to Children’s Theatre and Educational Theatre: A Historical and Geographical Source Book , and the anthology Around the World Notes 153

in 21 Plays in which he included the childhood plays of Stanislaw Witkiewicz, and plays by Gertrude Stein, August Strindberg, Langston Hughes, and Israel Horovitz. 16 . It needs to be noted that this is one of the most well-established TYA companies in the United States in a fairly progressive part of the country. On the other hand, the Minneapolis Children’s Theatre is seen as the largest and best-funded company. 17 . Sats was also the founder of Assitej/USSR in the 1960s and remained active in children’s theatre until her death in 1993, bridging the entire pre- and post-Soviet period. 18 . This publication was basically a report of the First All-Russian Conference of the Workers in the Theatre for Children held in the spring of 1930. In connection with this conference, the chair of the council, V. I. Smirnov, also published an article in Art in the School , in which he warned against “forces that are ideologically hostile to the proletariat” used by the theatres, which dis- tracted youth from the class struggle and the building of socialism. He called for the transformation of the Soviet children’s theatres into “instruments of war, which would strengthen the elements of class-conscious education”: “We don’t need a theatre of psychological realism, we need an ideological theatre,” with new plays that artistically express “questions of collectivization, the dis- patching of children’s brigades to the kolkhozes, the breakdown of the production plants, the gathering of waste, etc.” (qtd. in Lenora Shpet, Sovetskii teatr dlia detei [Soviet Theatre for Children] [Moskva: Iskusstvo, 1971: 199–200]). 19 . According to Marina Smelianskaia and Svetlana Platonova, literary manager and pedagogue of the Moscow Tiuz, one of the main challenges of the tiuzes with perestroika and glasnost was to steer the audience away from precondi- tioned Marxist-Leninist interpretations, and to stimulate their critical thinking skills (Personal Interview, Mtiuz, May 26, 1994; Svetlana Platonova, Personal Interview, Feb. 6, 1996). 20 . The Soviet republic had usually two children’s theatres, a Russian Tiuz and a National Tiuz. 21 . From a historiographical perspective, it is of course necessary to question and contextualize all sources, regardless of subject or nationality. The coercive nature of the dominant ideology in Soviet Russia, however, seems to fore- ground this need for even the most basic understanding of the subject. The history of Soviet theatre is interpreted and constructed from very specific per- spectives, and up to glasnost and perestroika seemed to hinge on binary sets of biases, positions, and assumptions: communist and capitalist, inside and outside, good and evil, and conformist and dissident. 22 . See also Mikhail Epstein’s discussion on Soviet Marxist “ideolanguage” in his highly evocative book After the Future: The Paradoxes of Postmodernism and Contemporary Russian Culture (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995: 101–163). 154 Notes

23 . Ironically his dissertation rendered him a research grant form the Social Science Research Council to spend five weeks in Moscow, Leningrad, and Kiev to study the children’s theatres. 24 . Sosin subsequently went on to work for Radio Liberty from 1952 to 1985. His book Sparks of Liberty: An Insiders Memoir of Radio Liberty was published by Penn State in 1999. It is available online at ftp://realaudio.rferl.org/ru/sosin. pdf (last accessed Feb. 3, 2010). 25 . The party holds that the moral code of the builder of communism includes such principles as:

● devotion to the cause of communism, love of the socialist homeland, and the socialist countries; ● conscientious labor for the good of society: he who does not work, neither shall he eat; ● concern on the part of each for the preservation and growth of public wealth; ● a high sense of public duty, intolerance of violations of the public interest; ● collectivism and comradely mutual assistance: One for all and all for one; ● humane relations and mutual respect among people: Man is to man a friend, comrade and brother; ● honesty and truthfulness, moral purity, guilelessness and modesty in public and private life; ● mutual respect in the family and concern for the upbringing of children; ● an uncompromising attitude to injustice, parasitism, dishonesty, career- ism, and money grubbing; ● friendship and brotherhood of all peoples of the U.S.S.R., intolerance of national and racial animosity; ● an uncompromising attitude toward the enemies of communism, peace and the freedom of peoples; ● fraternal solidarity with the working people of all countries and with all peoples. (qtd. in Alfred B. Evans, Soviet Marxism-Leninism: Th e Decline of an Ideology [Westport: Praeger, 1993: 91–92]). 26 . The important role ascribed to TYA in Soviet Russia is also affirmed by the regular “Theatre and Children” section in the national theatre journal Teatr , as well as by the regular reviews of TYA productions in national newspapers. 27 . Dasberg distinguishes four “milieus” in raising, or educating a child: the family, school, peer groups, and youth literature. Panken includes TYA (and youth film) in the latter. Norbert Elias published his influential study Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation in 1939 (translated as The Civilization Process in English); Ton Zwaan builds on Elias in his edited 1993 volume Familie, huwelijk, en gezin in West Europa (Family, Marriage and Household in Western Europe). Henk Gras, Dutch-theatre historian, debunks Panken’s Notes 155

approach in his critique of the book faulting him of constructing “an evolu- tionary theatre picture, in which he dresses completely incomparable historical phenomena in an Eliasian coat” ( Henk Gras, “Letter to Editor BMGM , 13 Feb. 1999,” Email to author, June 3, 1999), an approach that “because of little structural historical research gives the impression that he simply cleaned out the attic” (“Recensie: Ton Panken, Een Geschiedenis van het Jeugdtheater ,” Email to author, June 3, 1999). 28 . All youth theatre companies, as well as most of their adult counterparts, are touring companies in the Netherlands, with a few exceptions, such as Stella Den Haag. The companies tour to theatres throughout the country, from university theaters to municipal theatres to community centers. Younger children come to the theatre on special field trips, secondary school youth receive vouchers and have a choice which cultural events, including theatre, to attend. For the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Krakeling, a special edition came out in 2003 ( Mieke de Waal and Karin Wilschut, Theater om op the eten! [Amsterdam: Stichting Jeugdtheater, 2003]). 29 . I am not aware of any source in another language than Dutch that details the history of Dutch TYA, and it is not in the scope of this book to give a full comprehensive overview. Scholars of early, pre-twentieth century, educational theatre, however, would find many parallels with better-documented cases in France, Great Britain, and the United States (see, e.g., Levy, Gymnasium of the Imagination ). 30 . Bruintje Beer was a popular comic about a brown bear which appeared in Het Algemeen Dagblad (The Common Daily) in the 1930s. Eduard Verkade turned it into an operetta in the 1930s. 31 . Each “pillar” was marked by its own union, newspaper, church, broadcasting station, school, hospital, grocery store, political party, sports club, etc. The pillars started to disintegrate after WWII in reaction to German National Socialism, and further in the emancipatory 1960s, but traces of its aftermath, as indicated widely in Dutch literature, were perceptible in Dutch social, cultural, and political life well into the 1990s. 32 . This includes my own account in Dutch Theatre for Children (2008) and other publications listed in the bibliography, aside from Erenstein and Panken. 33 . See Hans van Maanen, Het Nederlandse Toneelbestel van 1945 tot 1995 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997: 125–141) and Gouke Hilte’s doctoral thesis (“Vooruitgang of Stagnatie? een onderzoek naar de institutionalisering binnen het jeugdtheater,” Drs. Thesis, University of Utrecht, 2003). 34 . This version of participation theatre is very different from what is usually understood to be participation theatre, which is often manipulative and highly controlled, giving a false sense of “agency.” The most well-known example of the latter is the audience saving Tinkerbell in Peter Pan by clapping in their hands. 156 Notes

35 . Note that the withdrawal of funding by authorities is justified on artistic grounds, not on questionable emancipatory objectives or the sociopolitical character of the performances (Hilte, “Vooruitgang” 13). 36 . The increase in plays for children and youth led to a series of three anthologies, published by the International Theatre & Film Books in 1991 and 1992. 37 . In an interview Verburg recalls how this “beautiful failure” eventually became one the success productions of the 1980s, in part because subsequent discussions with children who did see the performance indicated that they understood and valued much of “the essence and symbolism” (van de Water, Dutch Theatre 3). 38 . In interviews and informal conversations, theatre makers related their biggest fears for the future of TYA in the Netherlands: an “Americanization” of the productions, the allocation of funds to big musicals, and the pressure to com- mercialize. Others, however, reacted more stoically, stating that they would not attract that audience anyway for the “quality” Dutch TYA. 39 . In an interview, Moniek Merkx of Theatre Company MAX. [ sic ] states that as soon as she started to think of outreach as a sort of mini performance, it became exciting again (van de Water, Dutch Theatre 49) 40 . For example, in the plays by Susan Zeder, Step on a Crack (1974), and Johanna Kraus, Ice Wolf (1964), and the emergence of the Paper Bag Players. 41 . In Soviet Russian TYA, age groups were strictly defined, to the point that other than chaperones only children of the “right” age could attend the productions. The popularity of TYA in the Netherlands in the 1990s forced some theatres to request the attending adults to take a child, as otherwise houses would be filled with adults only. In March 2005, several theatre makers called for doing away with the separation between theatre for youth and theatre for adults altogether, and instead just identify minimum ages, such as 6+, 8+, 15+ ( Alladi Venkatesh and Laurie A. Meamber “Verslag van een debat over jeugdtheater,” Tweetakt Festival Discussion Mar. 14, 2005, Utrecht: Stichting Storm).

2 THEORY AND THEATRE FOR YOUNG AUDIENCES: MARGINALIZATION AND CULTURAL PRODUCTION

1 . Bourdieu of course is speaking about a particular kind of culture, the dominant social class in a capitalist culture. For more about Bourdieu’s work as a context for examining the impact of social-class positions, see Annette Lareau, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race and Family Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). 2 . Many practitioners, including myself, globally will take issue with this state- ment. However, few if any are the cultures that consider TYA on par with theatre for adults, evidenced by equal cultural, economic, social, and political support. Notes 157

3 . When I did Theatre Studies as a minor at the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, in the early and mid-1980s, the majority of the courses were linked to semiotics. Semiotics was also foregrounded in Comp Lit and Slavic Lit at the time. 4 . As will be shown further, this is also a reason why US TYA shows are conspic- uously absent in international festivals. During the selection by festival orga- nizers, successful TYA productions in the United States are already struck, and potentially successful shows only exist as an idea. 5 . There is an increased use of contract actors and single performances in Russia, especially in the large cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg, but the repertory theatre still dominates. 6 . Currently, many traditional TYA companies include productions for adults and vice versa. 7 . Shifra Schonmann, for example, argues in her book Theatre as a Medium for Children and Young People: Images and Observations that “theatre in which the audience has an active role, ‘a cooperative venture’ is already an ‘old’ and accepted idea in children’s theatre” (54). I argue that if this is true, it still remains a limited and adult-controlled role. Schonmann uses William Sauter’s distinction between perception and reception to construct a range of interactions in the TYA event: Presentation-Perception-Particip ation-Reaction-Reception (53). Sauter distinguishes between the phenom- enological perception during performance and the sociocultural process of reception after the performance, that is, the result of perception. While Schonmann backs her assertion up with references to various pioneers in TYA and refers to other reception theorists, such as Susan Bennett, this does not explain the marginalized status of TYA, a fact Schonmann too acknowledges (1–4). 8 . I have to caution here that this is highly socioculturally and ideologically determined, and with wide variations within the different cultures. Cf. the United States versus Australia; Turkey versus Sweden; et cetera. 9 . For the Incorporation/Resistance Paradigm, which recognizes the problem and the debate of audience research in whether the audiences are hailed by dominant ideologies or resistant to them, see Nicholas Abercrombie and Brian Longhurst, Audiences (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1998: 15–36); for the Spectacle/Performance Paradigm, which is a response to changes in the nature of the audience and the experience as an audience member, see Abercrombie and Longhurst, Audiences 37–76; 159–179. It needs to be noted that Audiences focuses on electronic medi- ation and reception, rather than performance audiences. 10 . This is different from direct tourism, in which you can attend and perceive a production under the local set of conditions. The difference in perception of a highly acclaimed and sought after, controversial production in an overpacked theatre in Soviet Russia with a Soviet audience, for example, is more than palpable when perceiving the same production on tour in the half-empty national concert hall. 158 Notes

11 . At the time ITYARN was supported by Assitej, but there was no formal affili- ation. Since February 2012, ITYARN is an official member of Assitej as its research network. 12 . Three people bailed out of writing an entry for the Iranian selection for unknown reasons. The play Last Supper, by Eede Theatre Company, was a confusing tale, loaded with religious imagery and inexplicable humor, of five soldiers at the front who are all killed in ambush at the end. 13 . Actors’ Equity was founded in 1913 and is the labor union protecting actors’ and stage managers’ rights. See http://www.actorsequity.org/ (accessed April 3, 2012). 14 . I saw both finalist plays at the Winter Holiday TYA Festival in Buenos Aires in June 2010. Cantata de Pedro y la Guerra (Pedro and the War Cantata), an award-winning play by María Inés Falconi is a funny, poetic, and touching story of Pedro who gets buried under the rubble with an older handyman during a bombing. To survive they tell each other stories. In Tempo by Marcello Katz, his clowns create “a fantastical and funny universe which allows the public to playfully reunite with clocks, metronomes, calendars, pendulums, almanacs, worries, beats, the present, history and with the subjective perspective we have of time” ( Festival 36).

3 TABOOS IN THEATRE FOR YOUNG AUDIENCES

1 . Part of this chapter is informed by those discussions and the papers that are published in the bilingual publication Boletín Iberoamaricano de Teatro Para La Infancia y la Juventud: I Foro Internacional de Investigadores y Críticos de Teatro para Niños y Jóvenos , Nicolás Morcillo, ed. (Madrid: Assitej España, 2011) (CD and Print). References refer to the English original or English translation in the publication. 2 . The colloquium, “Between Fiction and Reality,” was the 5th International Colloquium of Theatre for Children and Young People in Mexico. Part of the papers presented at this two-day colloquium focused on taboos . 3 . I am very wary of making generalizations, especially on taboos and the specific norms and values of specific cultures and societies. While this may sound as a disclaimer, I try further to be as cultural specific as I can be, and refer to written and oral documentation as well as personal observation. 4 . For early theatre by, with, and for children in Western Europe and the United States, see in particular the works of Jonathan Levy. For a comprehensive discussion of theories of childhood, see Hughes Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500 (Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005). 5 . This does not mean that the theories on rearing children remained the same or “progressed” in a linear fashion in any specific culture over the Notes 159

century. The United States moved from the behaviorist theories of John B. Watson to the more permissive influential theories of Benjamin Spock, whose theories were rapidly spread throughout Western culture. Within and across these theories and others, there were many variations, globally and culturally. Generally, however, children gained more attention and while the theories and approaches may differ, the notion of “childhood” gradu- ally took hold in the twentieth century. We see this reflected, for example, in the United States, in the influential and widely disseminated works of Constance D’Arcy MacKay (see also chapter 1); in Japan, in the influential work on domestic theatre theories of Shoyo Tsubouchi (see Takeo Fujikura’s award-winning dissertation, “Reevaluation of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama for Domestic Presentation,” University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2006); in Russia, in the Soviet TYA based on the educational theories of Anton Semyonovich Makarenko. 6 . Suzanne Osten, albeit the best known, is of course not the only TYA artist who shows respect for the child. Melania Torres Williams notes the same deep respect for children of Argentinean-playwright Adela Basch, and Aracelia Guerrero’s and Carla Rodrígues’s articles attest to the respectful attitude of Perla Szuchmacher (see Morcillo, Boletín ). 7 . This is a different approach to the same argument Ric Knowles makes in his treatise on material semiotics (see also chapter 2) and the notions of “convivio” in the theories of Jorge Dubatti and Nora Lía Sormani. 8 . http://www.unicef.org/crc/ (accessed July 5, 2010). 9 . While this section hardly does justice to the amount of literature and studies out on child and childhood in various parts in the world, it is baffling how few of these sources connect with children’s natural impulse to play and make up stories, and how little TYA research has made use of these sources. A search in the international English-language journal Childhood, published in Copenhagen, Denmark, since 1993 renders only a handful results on articles relating to theatre and childhood over the last 12 years (1999–2011). Typically drama gives more results, which indicates that also in the field of child research, research on the aesthetic components of TYA lags behind the educational objectives of improvised theatre, drama, and role play. Beth Juncker, as professor in Child Culture and Children’s Culture at The Royal School of Library and Information Science in Copenhagen, is one of the few researchers who does, but she is little known outside of Scandinavia. She too insists that “[t]hrough aesthetics, we might form bridges between all the oppositions, mastering our concepts of and discourses on the interplay between children and the arts, asking us to let them go, and through late and post-modern conditions, allow us to rethink and redesign them. In order to do that we need research, and we need it now!” (22). (In “What’s the Meaning?: The Relations between Professional Theatre Performances and Children’s Cultural Life,” In TYA, Culture, Society: International Essays on Theatre for Youth. Manon van de Water, ed. [Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012]). 160 Notes

10 . When I started at my institution, a Research One University, in 1998, this was exactly what I was told. Fortunately, I was able to challenge this position and offer new plays with unfamiliar titles, many of them US premieres. While not a cash cow, and often seen as controversial by the adult audience as well as by some of my colleagues, these plays nonetheless arrested the attention of the audience it was intended for, and challenged the attitudes toward TYA as second class by the student body involved. 11 . The attitudes toward sex stand in strong contrast to attitudes regarding violence as a June 27, 2011, supreme court ruling on protecting violent content in video games as a First Amendment right for children shows (http:// caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000 &invol=08–1448). For a comment on the paradox this implies, see Timothy Egan, “Sex and the Supremes” (available at http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes. com/2011/07/07/sex-and-the-supremes/?nl=todaysheadlines&emc=thab1 [accessed July 8, 2011]). 12 . During the winter holidays in Argentina (July), almost all of the 90 theatres in Buenos Aires offer theatre productions for children and families for two weeks, with multiple performances per day. These performance range from intimate performances by the independent theatres to international productions to highly commercialized live popular “television” shows. Families save to purchase tickets to the theatres during this time, as a cultural tradition. 13 . A related trend in the Netherlands is the rise and incredible popularity of musicals, both US and UK classics and original Dutch ones, a phenomenon that only came about in the twenty-first century. 14 . “Theater Instituut Nederland (TIN) will continue as a museum after 2012. That became apparent after the debate in the Dutch lower house last Monday on the cuts to culture. The Secretary of State for Culture, Halbe Zijlstra, indicated that he would be open to such an application from the TIN to preserve the unique collection of theatre heritage for the future. The TIN will submit the application before February 2012. The organization has been forced to accept, with much regret, that the curtain will fall on the TIN as an institute for the sector, including its role in the promotion of theatre internationally, at the end of 2012” (http://www.theaterinstituut.nl/ en [July 2, 2011]. 15 . At the Jana Sanskriti Muktadhara IV Festival in India in December 2010, another Iranian group presenting a very powerful production implored the other participants not to take pictures of them nor post any on Facebook or other social media. 16 . Después de dar muchos tumbos y tropezar una y otra vez, el día que entendí el tipo de dramaturgia para joven público que me interesaba, fue ante la representación de un Quijote con marionetas a cargo del maestro mexicano Leonardo Kosta. Puede sonar estúpido pero fue como una especie de Notes 161

iluminación: en el momento en que Sancho es arremetido con mil azotes por su patrón para quitarle lo endemoniado, inquirió al público sobre la injusticia de que era objeto diciendo “porque a ustedes no les pegan, ¿verdad, niños?” En las primeras filas un pequeño, acompañado de su padre, se levantó y con las manos en alto comenzó a gritar “¡¡¡A mí sí, a mí sí!!!” (Jaime Chabaud, “El nuevo teatro mexicano para niños (parte I) en Artez, revista de las Artes escé- nicas,” available at http://www.artezblai.com/artez/artez157/iritzia/chabaud. htm [accessed July 6, 2011]) 17 . The last military dictatorship under Jorge Rafaél Videla lasted from 1976 to 1981. Estimations of people who were killed or disappeared during that time range from 9,000 to 30,000. 18 . For more on the kidnapped children in Argentina, see “Children of the Dirty War” by Francisco Goldman, New Yorker March 19, 2012. 19 . Gay Family Values posted a reenactment of the picture book on YouTube. This reenactment, as well as the book itself, challenges the more stereotypical portrayal of the characters and events in the Mexican production of Príncipe y príncipe (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HW__kkEj_iU [accessed July 4, 2011]). 20 . On March 4, 2010, the same-sex marriage law with the right to adopt children went into effect for Mexico City; on August 10, 2010, the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that each of the country’s 31 states must recognize same-sex marriages registered in Mexico City. 21 . For a trailer including audience reactions, see http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=Ff0r_-j7uWo (accessed July 4, 2011). 22 . For a detailed analysis of the Mexican features of the production of Príncipe y príncipe , see Andrew Wiginton, “ Príncipe-Príncipe: Made in México,” In TYA, Culture, Society: International Essays on Theatre for Youth, Manon van de Water, ed. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012). 23 . Cf. Dubatti’s notions of convivio and the material semiotics of Ric Knowles. 24 . Few children were interviewed because they were too shy and often the adult answered (email Guerrero to author, July 8, 2011). 25 . Suzanne Lebeau is an award-winning playwright and artistic director of Le Carrousel, a TYA company she founded in 1975 with her husband, director Gervais Gaudreault. While she is one of the most performed Quebecois playwrights in the world, it is of note that only one of her plays has been performed in English-speaking Canada, “the least controversial” according to Lebeau, and none in the United States. She is well known in Argentina and especially in Mexico where a number of her plays have been produced. 26 . See a trailer of a live production, including a child audience, on YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKLkEQS9bm0&feature=player _embedded#at=11 (accessed July 4, 2011). 27 . All reviews can be found on MAX’s website: http://www.tgmax.nl/ 162 Notes

4 THE REPRESENTATION OF “TROUBLED YOUTH” IN US THEATRE FOR YOUNG ADULTS: GAY AND LESBIAN THEATRE FOR YOUNG AUDIENCES

An older version of this chapter has been published in “We Will Be Citizens”: New Essays on Gay and Lesbian Theatre (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008) under the title “Gay and Lesbian Theatre for Young People and the Representation of ‘Troubled Youth.’” That essay was cowritten with Annie Giannini, whose voice needs to be acknowledged in this chapter. This revised version has been published with the permission of Annie Giannini and the volume’s editor, James Fisher. 1 . I have given numerous drama workshops on homophobia in the past few years that illustrate this point. A lthough never specifically directed to do so, through a variety of dramatic exercises both high school and college youth invariably create a nonheterosexual character (who is never physically represented) that is essentially tragic. Only in discussions after the drama, by pointing to the research in this chapter, are these young people able to acknowledge their own biases and assumptions that perpetuate an image of homosexual youth as inherently “troubled.” 2 . The male-gendered word “gay” is used purposefully throughout this chapter to reflect the disproportionate amount of research regarding gay men as opposed to lesbians. Doing so reinforces the notion that the “troubled gay youth” image emerged out of a male-centric context and its prevalence con- tinues to eclipse lesbian experiences. 3 . Other methodological factors contributing to the “troubled gay youth” image include the separate study of gay youth from heterosexual youth, which obscures similarity between the two groups, not looking for same-sex attraction within “heterosexual” groups, and inadequate examination of circumstances that lead to problems besides “sexual minority status” (Diamond 492–493). Savin-Williams notes a “narrow focus of research on the dramatic” and a “concentration on what goes wrong in the lives of gay youth” (61). Social science researchers have traditionally ignored same-sex-attracted young people who are not victimized because of their sexuality or do not feel com- pelled to take on a sexual-identity label. 4 . There are less than two dozen US-TYA plays with gay and lesbian characters. These include plays created by young people and older plays not specifically for young audiences such as The Children’s Hour and Tea and Sympathy that are performed in high schools. A list of plays that are professionally produced in the first decade of the twenty-first century can be found in van de Water and Giannini, “Gay and Lesbian.” 5 . The Other Side of the Closet originated in Toronto in 1997 (Edward Roy, “The Other Side of the Closet,” In Rave: Young Adult Drama [Winnipeg, MB: Blizzard, 2000: 8]); however, it was produced by the New Conservatory Theatre in San Francisco in 2000 (Benoit Denizet-Lewis, “Putting Tolerance Notes 163

to the Test; Canadian Playwright Hopes to Bring ‘Other Side of the Closet’ to Bay Area Students,” Prev. of The Other Side of the Closet, New Conservatory Theatre, San Francisco Chronicle Feb. 27, 2000: 33; Marijke Rowland, “Teen Gay Issues Tackled by SF Troupe’s Play,” Prev. of The Other Side of the Closet, New Conservatory Theatre, Modesto Bee Oct. 6, 2000, all ed.: H9), and the company produced it again in 2007 (“New Conservatory”). 6 . In a 2007 email, Hartinger writes: “There have been three or four ‘readings’ at theaters, and the first production was … a week ago, I think. Another is scheduled for February. But it’s too ‘controversial’ for most high schools and children’s theaters (so says my agent), so most of the productions are either private companies or GSA programs.” 7 . In a 2012 email, Hartinger also mentions that a number of high schools have produced the play. 8 . Speech & Debate was published in 2008 (see bibliography). The citations here are from the 2007 typescript. 9 . Speech & Debate could of course easily be positioned as a play for young adults. 10 . Australian playwright Stephen House’s The Yum Yum Room , for example, centers around a troubled teenager, but the fact that his single-parent father is gay is but one of the facets in him sorting out his life. Yum Yum Room had its US premiere in 2010 as a theatre for young adults production at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It was directed by Andy Wiginton.

5 THEATRE AS THERAPY IN VOLATILE REGIONS

1 . In the last years of the Soviet Union, North Ossetian intellectuals called for a return to the name of the old kingdom, Alania. The name Alania quickly took hold in daily life and civic and political institutions and was added to the republic’s title in 1994: the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania. While many ethnic Russians do not speak Ossetian, the ability to speak Ossetian is a marker of both cultural and political identity, and for some an alignment with the movement for an independent Ossetia-Alania, which would include South Ossetia. 2 . Schools in Russia are identified by number rather than name. At the time of the hostage crisis there were seven schools in Beslan, a town of about 30,000 people. School #1 was the most prestigious and sought after. 3 . The official death toll is 334. Other estimates cite higher numbers, in part due to related deaths after the crisis. 4. It needs to be noted that this was not the only project started to help alleviate the grief. International organizations such as UNICEF were also involved and had their own team of medical experts. For more on UNICEF’s work 164 Notes

in Beslan, see http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/reallives_2749.html and http:// www.unicef.org/russia/media_8783.html (last accessed March 5, 2010). UNICEF moved from humanitarian aid to sustainability and declared in May 2008, just before the war with Georgia broke out, that the Northern Caucasus had moved to peaceful coexistence. As of March 5, 2010, there are no updated reports, but the center is still there (Popov). 5 . While the second cancellation in August was rightly justified by the war between South Ossetia-Russia and Georgia on August 8, 2008, the first was a last-minute cancellation on the way to the airport: The Ministry of North Ossetia-Alania would not allow me and my colleagues to enter because of visa issues. By 2010, it was clear that the real reason was safety guarantee. 6 . Jacob Levy Moreno (1892–1974) is the originator of psychodrama, which focuses on the concepts of role-taking, spontaneity, creativity, tele(empathy), and catharsis. In the process of acting out conflicts and problems in interper- sonal relationships, participants gain insight and through the group process are able to remedy behavioral patterns and improve coping skills. See also, Jonathan Fox, The Essential Moreno: Writings on Psychodrama, Group Method, and Spontaneity by J.L. Moreno, MD. (New York: Springer, 1987). 7 . I make a direct comparison to practitioners in the West here, who have freely adopted the theories and practices of the Brazilian theorist and practitioner Augusto Boal, but it needs to be noted that in Asian countries, in particular India, Japan, and Korea, as well as in African, Middle Eastern, and Latin American countries, these informal theatre/drama methods and theatre for development are practiced and gaining recognition in academe as well as social work. See, for instance among many more examples the Janasanskriti Centre for Theatre of the Oppressed in West Bengal, India (www.janasanskriti.org); and the activities of Atelier Théâtre Burkinabè (ATB), Espace Culturel Gambidi (ECG) in Burkina Fasso. The ToPnewmedia Forum Facebook group, started after the Muktadhara IV Theatre of the Oppressed Fetsival in India 2010 as a means for Theatre of the Oppressed groups and faciltatores to share their work by digital media and discuss it, has currently (August 2012) 737 members world wide. 8 . An exception is the private art school of Sergey Kazarnovsky in Moscow, which teaches “theatre as a system of humanitarian education.” Although it is set up as a vocational school, exchange students from the United States, mostly Mormon missionaries, have introduced more informal methods (van de Water, Moscow Theatres for Young People: A Cultural History of Ideological Coercion and Artistic Innovation, 1917–2000 [New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006: 184] Print) 9 . Teatr (1) art form showing dramatic works on the stage; (2) the building where such performances take place; (3) the totality of dramatic works of a playwright or a movement, school. Drama (1) type of literary work, written in dialogue and meant to be performed by actors on a stage; (2) literary work in dialogue form with a serious subject (as opposed to comedy) to be Notes 165

performed on stage; (3) a serious event causing moral suffering (Ozhegov, Slovar’ Russkogo Iazyka [Moscow: Russkii Iazyk, 1978] Print). 1 0 . Terapiia (1) healing of internal illnesses in a nonsurgical manner; (2) branch of medicine practicing the healing of internal illnesses. 11 . For the past few years, I have been bringing copies of both Boal’s and Rohd’s work to Russia, both for the library of the Russian Theatre Federation and for people’s personal use. 12 . Kamensky is currently the managing director of Sotheby’s Russia-CIS. 13 . The teachers told me in 2010 that of all the psychologists, both Russian and foreign, that came to their help, they only trust Sasha Kolmanovsky and that to this day they will not go anywhere without him. This is in part, I think, because he stayed with them frequently and over long periods of time, even though he has his own practice in Moscow, showing the people of Beslan through actions rather than words that he cares. 14 . “chuvstvo dushevnogo ochishcheniia i pererozhdeniia.” 15 . Clearly what we miss are the voices of the children. Aside from the difficulties of getting Institutional Review Board (IRB)clearance to interview children, however, I was explicitly forbidden to talk to children by the minister of education of North Ossetia, which makes it impossible to get primary evidence. Although I tried to complicate this narrative as much as possible, the anecdotal evidence used here comes from secondary written and oral reports. 16 . This 2005 production is rather popular in general and toured among others to the Big Break International TYA Festival in Moscow in 2007, and the 2009 Schäxpir Festival in Linz, Austria, as well as to festivals in Estonia, Croatia, and Japan. 17 . See also Nicholson; Prentki and Preston; Sextou; Somers. 1 8 . S e e , The Importance of Art in the New Hospitals (not dated). Available at http:// www.equal-works.com/resources/contentfiles/5613.pdf (accessed October 2, 2009); and the “child life” programs at a number of children’s hospitals in Canada and the United States. 1 9 . Spontaneous communitas is “a direct, immediate and total confrontation of human identities”; ideological communitas is “a set of theoretical concepts which attempt to describe the interactions of spontaneous communitas … Some of these sets of theoretical concepts can be expanded and concretized into a ‘uto- pian’ model of society, in which all human activities would be carried out on the level of spontaneous communitas”; normative communitas is a “perduring social system” (Turner 47–50). 20 . As mentioned above, the theatre-therapy program did not only benefit the direct victims of the terrorist act. The audiences were deliberately mixed, avoiding a singling out of the target group. Additional performances were held for students outside Beslan who had nothing to do with the terrakt , and in some instances were even completely unaware of it (Alexander Kolmanovsky, Personal Interview, March 30, 2010). In part, this was political and negotiated 166 Notes

by the Ministry of Culture in North Ossetia, who had to officially approve all arrangements, and subject to regional politics. Sometimes this had some unfortunate effects; some of the teachers were not allowed to come to the workshop in St. Petersburg, and almost none of the Beslan School #1 children saw the performance of Corona La Balance. Other relief activities were equally mystifying. While part of the teachers went to Prague to participate in a therapy program, others went on a tourist trip in Italy. Kolmanovsky, who went with a group of 20 students to Italy for 20 days, was lodged in a former monastery without transportation and lamented that the help offered was of course very generous, but that it was at times somewhat pointless (although he did a lot of theatre with the students). “[It is] important that these trips are well organized. Some were just shopping trips … Beslan has nothing, only mountains. In Italy they showed them mountains. Our mountains are much better they said.” Litvak adds that often the children to travel were handpicked, which caused rivalry with their peers who stayed home (Personal Interview, March 31, 2010). 21 . Alexander Pushkin, also known in Russia as “nashe vse—our everything,” was himself shot in a duel with George D’Anthès, the adopted son of the Dutch ambassador, in 1837. Pushkin had challenged D’Anthès to a duel because of his incessant courting of Natalia Goncharova, Pushkin’s wife. Pushkin was shot in the stomach and died three days later. He was 38 years old. 22 . Robert Landy conceives of role as: (1) a unit of personality; (2) a container of thoughts and feelings; (3) a personality concept; (4) a performed character in theatre; (5) a metaphor for social life; and (6) a method of treatment in drama therapy (Persona and Performance: The Meaning of Role in Drama, Therapy, and Everyday Life [New York: Guilford, 1993: 8]). 23 . While the notion of clinical drama therapy is fascinating, it falls outside of the scope of this book, as well as my area of expertise, to go into any more detail. Alexander Kolmanovsky told me that he is familiar with Moreno and his concept of psychodrama, but that his work is not focused on the clinical healing aspects of the psychological work. He casts his nets wider, including the community as a whole, and wants to lure participants in, voluntarily, through theatre. In that he stresses the notion of drama/theatre as therapeutic, which is the crux of this chapter. 24 . The theatre performance of the award-winning theatre Ten’ (Shadow) could be seen as a bridge activity. In October 2006, the artistic leaders of Ten’, Maya Krasnopolskaya and Ilya Epelbaum, worked for two weeks with extended families in Beslan to make a joint puppet performance of The Magic Flute . The goal was to restore relationships and bring families together working on one project. It is of note that the artistic leaders maintained that they did not do anything special or therapeutic, just the work they normally do. 25 . This was in great part influenced by my Western perspective on theatre/ drama therapy. As will be clear from this chapter, my subsequent unpacking Notes 167

of this term in the context of the program for Beslan has modified my ini- tial hesitancy and skepticism. 26 . In conversations with Marina Medkova, who heads the Russian Assitej Center and the International Department of the Russian Theatre Federation and who has been a main catalyst and initiator of this behind the scenes, it became clear that the original leaders for this work, and the ones who thought out and set up the organizational structure for the workshops, came from Germany. In the original plan (spring 2007), Odette Bereska, arts educator in Berlin, Germany, proposed an exchange in which the teachers would come to the German Theater Junge Generation in Dresden, followed by a three-days workshop in Beslan. The former fell through because of lack of funds. The workshops in Beslan, which she would conduct together with a British educator, would go on, but also fell through: North Ossetia was (and still is) a “warning zone,” and the educators heeded the advice of the German and British governments not to go. In retrospect, this was a sound decision. Since Marina and I had discussed the plan and underlying ideas in length during research visits to Moscow and professional exchanges, the invitation transferred to me. 27 . When I wrote these words for an American Society for Theatre Research (ASTR) conference paper, on September 4, 2009, a news item flashed up: three police and two civilians were killed in Ingushetia a few hours ago. Revising it in February 2010: two people killed and twenty-eight wounded on February 19. February 22: an eight-year-old girl is killed and two boys are wounded when an explosive device they found went off in Beslan. On March 29, 2010, as I was doing on-site research in Moscow, two female suicide attackers ignited two bombs on the red line of the Moscow Metro. The attacks were attrib- uted to North Caucasian terrorists. In general, the violence in the Northern Caucasus has increased in 2009. The main areas of unrest are Dagestan and Ingushetia, with all but daily violence; Chechnya has been relatively quiet and North Ossetia has been on the periphery of violence (Violence, http:// csis.org/files/publication/100114_Violence_NorthCaucasus_2009optimize. pdf).As a result of the violence and the relative stability in North Ossetia, the amount of refugees has increased, which causes a different set of problems and, according to some, disturbs the traditional ethnic and religious relationships. It also contributes to increased violence. On September 9, 2010 a suicide bomb went off in the marketplace in Vladikavkaz, killing at least 16 people and wounding over 130 more. News sources cite ethnic tensions as the most likely cause. 28 . One of the teachers who was in the school said the blast within the school that caused the storming was unintentional (the blast was caused by an exploding booby trap in the gym which was hung from the basketball hoop). She is con- vinced though that had special forces been allowed a rescue attempt earlier, the bloodbath could have been avoided. On the sixth anniversary in September 168 Notes

2010, Beslan mothers again petitioned Russian president Medvedev for a thorough independent investigation of the proceedings. 29 . During the traditional 40 days of mourning period, memorial services, or Panikhidas, are served to pray for the repose of the soul of the deceased and to comfort their loved ones. During this period, certain days are considered to have special significance: the third day (on which the funeral is usually held), the ninth day, and the fortieth day. Of these three days, the fortieth is the most important, because it is believed that on that day the soul undergoes the Particular Judgment, which will determine where the soul will remain until its reunification with the glorified body at the Second Coming of Christ. Additionally, it is a common practice for the friends and family to request a memorial on the deceased’s anniversary of death. The first anniversary is almost universally celebrated, but some families will continue to request annual memorials on every anniversary of death. 30 . Kamensky remembers the fresh graves when he traveled with the first production to Vladikavkaz: “[A]bove the ground you could hear not so much a weeping—it was a heart rendering howl. These were the women.” It was rain- ing, yet each grave had a family sitting beside it or trying to plant flowers or otherwise make the grave personal to them. Among his accompaniment was the spokesperson during the crisis, who was charged with appeasing the crowd maintaining there were only 350 people inside the school, instead of over 1,100 as everyone around knew. When the mourners recognized him, they attacked him, “How could you say that, does this look like 350?” Kamensky recalls: “[W]e all started crying. They slapped and slapped the poor guy who was of course not really personally guilty … But who was taking that as a justification?” (Kamenskii 4).

6 THEATRE FOR THE VERY YOUNG

1 . (Every child has) the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts. (Member governments) shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life and shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational, and leisure activities.(Article 31, UN Convention on the Rights of the Child , http://www.unicef.org; http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm). 2 . La Baracca-Testoni Ragazzi website: http://www.testoniragazzi.it/index.php. 3 . A crèche (nursery), in Italian nidi d’infanzia (literally “infant nest”), is similar to a day-care center for very young children, usually up to the age of three. Kindergarten/preschool ( scuole dell’infanzia) is from ages three to five. It is not mandatory to send your child to preschool but most parents (96 percent in Bologna) enroll their child in a scuole dell’infanzia, which is free, except for private schools. Notes 169

4 . Within Bologna, with a population of 370,000 inhabitants and divided into 9 districts, the services for children aged 0–6 include: 87 Nidi d’Infanzia (crèches), of which 54 are run by the Municipality of Bologna 118 Scuole dell’Infanzia (pre-schools), of which 69 are run by the Munici- pality of Bologna 4 Spazi bambino, or spaces dedicated to young children 11 centres for children and parents 7 Piccoli gruppi educativi, or “little educational groups” 8 Servizi educativi territoriali, or “regional education services” (qtd. in Mack, “Arts”) See also Anna Paola Corradi and Marina Manferrari, “Bordering Lands— Training and Performative Arts in the Educational Services for Early Years,” In Small Size: A Space to Grow, Jo Belloli, ed. (Bologna: Small Size/Pendragon, n.d.: 17–26). 5 . Cf. Rosa and Carolina Agazzi (the Agazzi method, based on the principle that the child is naturally inclined to express him or herself), Maria Montessori (the Montessori method with its emphasis on independence and freedom within limits), Bruno Ciari (the Movement for Educational Cooperation, without hierarchies and a close relationship between students, teachers, and families), and Loris Malaguzzi (the Reggio Emilia Approach, which focuses on the natural development of children and their relationship with their environment). 6 . For example, the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Wisconsin-Madison just started a new certification program for Pre-K— third grade—with a focus on bilingual education and mathematics (to the cost of the arts methods classes for prospective teachers). See also an article by Amanda Moreno, associate director of the Marsico Institute for Early Childhood and Learning, “Killing Kindergarten” on the latest developments in US kindergartens and its focus on academic skills. According to Moreno, early learning expectations are a full year ahead of what they were 20 years ago, causing education- and play-expert Alphie Kohn to state in his article on the importance of play in child development that the “typical American kindergarten now resembles a really bad first grade classroom.” 7 . Not all European countries have a similar system. Gerd Taube, for example, points out the societal and cultural obstacles in legitimizing theatre for the very young in Germany, versus in countries like Italy, France, and Norway (“Zu ästhetischen Eigenarten des Theaters für die Jüngsten,” In Theater von Anfang an!: Bildung, Kunst und frühe Kindheit, Gabi dan Droste, ed. [Bielefeld: Transcript, 2009: 89]). 8 . Kolibri Theatre, Budapest, Hungary; Oslo University College, Oslo, Norway; Skoftofte Socialpaedagogiske seminarium, Copenhagen, Denmark; The Wings, Helsinki, Finland; Amalys, France/Italy. 9 . Fugl means “bird” but klang is somewhere between a notion of sound and music, hence they found it easier to find another word in English (Ivar 170 Notes

Selmer-Olson, “Art for the Very Young,” Glitterbird, available at http://www .dansdesign.com/gb/articles/index.html: 1). 10 . There is a substantial body of research out on art and early childhood, much of it, however, is conducted in Scandinavia and not published in English. 11 . For those working in the field of TYA and directing or acting in productions, the difference between a school/peer audience and a public performance of parents and children is palpable. While some may complain about the rest- lessness of the school/peer audience, the inhibited reaction of the child with family/adults is equally disturbing to others. 12 . For a more in-depth article on Small Size and its influence, see Gabi dan Droste “Distinguished Theatre for Young Children: About the European Network Small Size,” In Theatre for Early Years: Research in Performing Arts for Children from Birth to Three, Wolfgang Schneider, ed. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009). 13 . It is interesting that one of the innate fears Ildikó and Orsolya mention is fear of masks, which indeed are from an adult perspective also somewhat spooky in this production. For more on Suzanne Osten’s work, including the production Babydrama, see Merete Elnan, “The Notion of Children: How Can the Idea of Childhood, of Children as Spectators and of Understanding Influence Theatre for Young Audiences?” In TYA, Culture, Society: International Essays on Theatre for Youth, Manon van de Water, ed. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012) and “Staging the Impossible for Young Audiences,” Youth Theatre Journal 23.1 (2009 ). Dan Höjer’s article “Big Drama for Small Spectators: Unga Klara’s Swedish Experiment” gives a close account of the production process of Babydrama . 14 . Sweden offers up to 16 months parental leave with pay, the costs are shared by employers and state. Italy offers 22 weeks (five months), two before birth with pay. The United States has zero weeks mandated, typically women work up to childbirth, and depending on type of work, they may receive six weeks paid or unpaid leave after birth. 15 . For a historical overview of the specific development of TYA in the United Kingdom, see David Broster, “TYA-UK Developments—Reflections through a Looking Glass,” In TYA, Culture, Society: International Essays on Theatre for Youth, Manon van de Water, ed. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012: 127–136). 16 . For scholarly papers on Geesche Wartemann’s project in connection to Holzklopfen , see her articles “Theatre as Interplay: Processes of Collective Creativity in Theatre for Young Audiences,” Youth Theatre Journal 23.1 (2009) and “Wechselspiele—Playing with Interplay: Staging the Theatrical Structure, and the Fragility of the Ground Rules, in ‘Theatre for Early Years,’” In Theatre for Early Years: Research in Performing Arts for Children from Birth to Three. Wolfgang Schneider, ed. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009). 17 . In the United States, for example, TYA companies tend to create study guides for teachers that explicitly link suggested activities to the national standards Notes 171

in general school subjects (in, for example, social studies, history, English, literature, etc.). 18 . “Bildung” in German connotes both education and development. I prefer development because it is less top down than education and more child cen- tered. Kirsten Winderlich explains in her article, “Kooperationen im Kontext ästhetischer Bildung: Zum Zusammenspiel von Kunst und Pädagogik im Theater für die Allerkleinsten,” that the “bildung” in young children depends on their own development of self, an interplay between cognitive, aesthetic, and emotional acquired forms. At the same time, this self-development process doesn’t happen in a vacuum; it takes place in a social community including adults—parents, caregivers, educators (In Theater von Anfang an!: Bildung, Kunst und frühe Kindheit, Gabi dan Droste, ed. [Bielefeld: Transcript, 2009: 72]). This goes also along with the conviction of Italian education experts Marina Manferrari and Anna Paola Corradi that “knowledge about performative arts cannot . . . be ‘taught’; it should instead be ‘cultivated’” (“Bordering Lands—Training and Performative Arts in the Educational Services for Early Years,” In Small Size: A Space to Grow, Jo Belloli, ed. [Bologna: Small Size/ Pendragon, n.d.: 15]). 19 . In English, two of the most closely researched and documented performances are Holzklopfen (see Wartemann) and Babydrama (see Höjer, “Big Drama” and Elnan). 20 . For US readers, again, the material circumstances under which US theatre makers typically create their productions work against them: there is generally neither time nor money to devise extensively (and recreate an entire set, as also described by Rable), and the typical runs are too short. 2 1 . Buddha boards are based on the Zen concept of living in the moment. The artist paints on the surface with water and the creation will appear in bold strokes. Then, as the water slowly evaporates, the art will magically disappear leaving the artist with a clean slate and a clear mind—ready to create a whole new masterpiece. http://www.buddhaboard.com/noflash/html.html.

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1 . Further evidence on how quickly climates may change is the public declara- tion of President Obama that he endorses same-sex marriages, just days before I am to send out this manuscript. 2 . The Austin Independent School District (AISD) initiative supports and awards teachers based on classroom success. 3 . Roy, Silo, and Tango can still be visited in the Central Park Zoo in New York City. The couple drifted apart, and Silo now pairs with a female; Tango engaged in a same-sex relationship with a female penguin. 4 . The uncritical rhetoric that TYA somehow can change the world (and if it doesn’t is a failure) is dangerous but prevailing, as a recent article in The 172 Notes

Huffington Post , “How Theatre for Young People Can Save the World,” including the many comments attached to this article, demonstrates (Lauren Gunderson, March 19, 2012). These sweeping generalizations and the ten- dency to place children in one homogenous category are aligned with the erasure of both differences in objectives of performances (does all TYA need to change the world? Why?) and individual tastes in children (do they all need to “like” all TYA as a measure of its success?). 5 . For more on the new Russian Drama, see John Freedman, “Contemporary Russian Drama: The Journey from Stagnation to a Golden Age,” Theatre Journal 62.3 (2010): 389–420. For an in-depth analysis of the Natasha Plays, see Mary McAvoy, “Negotiating Contemporary Russian Femininity in Yaroslava Pulinovich’s Natasha Plays,” Youth Theatre Journal 27.1 (2013). (forthcoming). 6 . This is in contrast with many northern European productions that are com- plete fusions of text, sound, and images. 7 . Teacher guides or educational materials around productions is still frowned upon in Russia where educational outreach remains associated with the ideological indoctrination during Soviet times. Thus in Russia, the gritty productions need to speak for themselves, which at times leads to heated discussions such as after a performance of Yury Klavdiev’s The Bullet Collector about a teen being bullied and increasingly retreating in a fantasy world of his own, ultimately causing his own death. In February 2012, Sobiratel’ Pul’ (The Bullet Collector ) was released as a movie. The trailer can be found on YouTube. 8 . Other than some isolated conference papers and journalistic articles in LowDown Magazine, a short monograph by Sandra Gattenhof, Drivers of Change: Contemporary Australian Theatre for Young Audiences (City East, Qld.: Drama Australia, 2006), which includes interviews with practitioners and observations of 39 performances in a mere 57 pages, including bibliography; an article by Gattenhoff based on her 2004 dissertation, “The Poetics of Deterritorialization: A Motivating Force in Contemporary Youth Performance,” in Youth Theatre Journal 18.1 (2004) (which however is more focused on youth performance than professional TYA); and a sketchy overview in Rachael Hains-Wesson’s 2011 doctoral thesis, I am not aware of any systematic research on Australian TYA.

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AATE (American Alliance for Th eatre Arena, 32–3 and Education), 2 , 3 , 151n , 152n Argentina, 3 , 6 , 59 , 67–75 , Abercrombie, Nicholas and Brian 160n , 161n Longhurst, 49–50 , 157n military junta, 70 , 71 access (accessible), 47 , 51 , 55–7 , Ariès, Philippe, 61–3 140 Artemis, 34 , 53 Actie Tomaat (Action Tomato), 33 , 36 artistic integrity, 35–6 Actors’ Equity, 47 , 55 , 151n Assitej (International), 1–3 , 7 , 11 , 42 , Adam, Roel, 34 , 37 53 , 56 , 59 , 130 , 133 , 135 , 147 , adaptations, 19 , 32 , 35 , 53 , 67 149n , 150n , 158n Addams, Jane, 12 Russia (USSR), 7 , 24 , 29 , adolescents, 27 , 84 , 86 , 99 , 121 102 , 167n adoption, 70 , 73 USA (TYA/USA), 2 , 150n aesthetics, 7 , 14–15 , 28 , 55 , 65 , 109 , assumptions, 18 , 19 , 36 , 41 , 56 , 73 , 131 , 159n 81 , 86 , 139 , 153n , 162n aesthetic appreciation, 123 cultural, 54 , 56 aesthetic development, 12 , 133 , 171n historiographical, 10 , 15 aesthetic education, 20 , 22 , 133 , ideological, 12 , 13 , 16 140 see also ideology aesthetic experience, 21 , 65–6 , 131 , audience 133–6 , 140 , 144 perception, 6 , 10 , 23 , 30 , 36 , 42–3 , agency, 30 , 33 , 44 , 45 , 116 , 155n 46 , 48–9 , 52–3 , 65 , 109 , 131 , Alania, 101 , 102 , 163n 157n see also Ossetia reception, 4 , 5 , 45–51 Alrutz, Megan, 132 test-, 64 And Th en Came Tango , 141–2 Australia, 3 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 74 , 135 , applied theatre and drama, 2 , 3 , 8 , 144–6 , 163n , 172n 104 , 149n appropriateness, 12 , 15 , 18 , 49 , 51 , Babydrama, see Suzanne Osten 59 , 66 Bakhtin, Nikolai, 21 , 29 appropriate, 12 , 18 , 43 , 53 , 56 , 63 , Bank of Moscow, 7 , 102 , 103 , 105 , 69 , 83 , 151n , 168n 106 , 107 , 108 appropriate entertainment, 11 , 13 , La Baracca, 7 , 122–3 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 15 , 18 , 38 , 39 130 , 168n 196 Index

Bartenev, Mikhail, 110 as infants, 125 Happy Hans , 110 , 113 visibility of, 63 Batelaan, Jetse, 37 , 76 Children’s Th eatre Committee (CTC), Th e Wagging Finger , 76–9 10 , 16 , 151n Bedard, Roger, 9 , 16 , 19 , 38 , 150n Chorpenning, Charlotte, 10 , 16 Belgium, 39 , 127 , 130 class, 6 , 18 , 43 , 48 , 49 , 63 , belief systems, 38 , 43 , 44 , 60 , 81 81 , 83 , 96 see also ideology codes, knowledge of, 42–4 , 46 , bisexual, 81 , 88 , 94 , 95 , 96 48 , 73 Boal, Augusto, 34 , 104 , 105 , 116–17 , colonialism, 61 164n , 165n Coltof, Liesbeth, 34 , 37 forum theatre, 34 , 117 commercial TYA, 12 , 13 , 17 , 44 , 68 , Bourdieu, Pierre, 5 , 41 , 42–5 , 46 , 48 , 69 , 160n 55 , 141 , 156n Communism, 22 , 26 Boyakov, Eduard, 29 moral code, 154n Briantsev, Aleksandr, 21 see also Marxism-Leninism Broadway, 12 , 18 , 97 , 150n communitas, 112–13 , 165n Brockett, Oscar, 17 conditions of production, 5 , 46–8 , 51 Brooks, Laurie, 86 , 88 conditions of reception, 5 , 46–8 , 51 Th e Wrestling Season , 85 , 86–9 , 90 consumers, 5 , 42 , 43 , 55 , 67 , 144 B u ff alo Bill spectacles, 12 controversy, 16 , 17 , 35–6 , 37 , 66 , 83 , Bulgakov, Mikhail, 29 147 , 152n Dog’s Heart , 29 Cootie Shots , 83 Butler, Judith, 83–5 Corona La Balance, 106 , 107 , 108–9 , 111 , 166n Carl, Polly, 100 Corsaro, William, 6 , 43 , 62 , 64–5 , 66 catharsis, 105 , 108 , 116–17 , 164n interpretive reproduction, 64–5 censorship, 49 , 61 , 67 , 72 , 75 , 82–3 CRC, 1 , 6 , 66 , 121 , 159n , 168n self-, 67 , 75 , 82 cultural capital, 5 , 42–5 , 48 , 51 , 52 , Central Children’s Th eatre, 23–5 , 29 54 , 56 Chapman, Jennifer, 67 , 82 cultural materialism, 1 , 45 , 56 Chechnya, 102 , 167n cultural tourism, 52 , 55 , 56 , 157n child and childhood concepts (notions), 6 , 18 , 34–5 , 39 , 49 , dan Droste, Gabi, 133 , 134 , 143 , 159n 62–7 , 76 , 84 , 100 , 121 , 123 , 124 , de Bont, Ad, 34 , 37 129 , 131 , 133–4 , 140 , 144 , 159n , delegate assembly, 21–2 170n Denmark, 53 , 66 , 68 , 123 child psychology, 7 , 103 , 107 , 124 , Dewey, John, 133 125 , 126 , 132 , 139 , 143 Diamond, Lisa, 84 children discourse of troubled gay youth, 82 , as babies (and theatre), 7 , 125–8 , 84–7 , 93 , 94 , 99 129 , 130 diversity, 36 as beings vs. becomings, 63 , 66 , 121 , cultural, 51 , 56 124 , 131 identity, 93–4 Index 197

Dolan, Jill, 112–13 FML: How Carson McCullers Saved My drama methods, 3 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 107 , Life , 99 113–17 , 139 , 142 , 162n , 164n Frabetti, Roberto, 122 , 130 see also theatrical methods France, 123 , 127 , 155n , 169n Dubatti, Jorge and Nora Lía Sormani, FTP (Federal Th eatre Project), 17–18 , 67 , 69 , 70 , 159n , 161n 152n Fun Home , 100 Eagleton, Terry, 41 , 45 , 60 , 141 Efremov, Oleg, 23–4 Gellar, Samantha, 82–3 Efros, Anatoly, 23–4 , 26 gender, 6 , 18 , 43 , 48 , 49 , 81 , 83 , 84 , Ekaterinburg Tiuz, 106 , 107 , 110–11 98 Elias, Norbert, 31 , 154n , 155n generalizations, 60 , 62 , 158n , 172n Elnan, Merete, 64 , 65 , 170n , 171n generation (of plays/theatre), 5 , 6 , 19 , emancipatory theatre, 17 , 34 , 39 , 156n 22 , 38 , 39 , 42–3 , 46 , 52 , 56 emotions, 30 , 35 , 112 , 113 , 123 , 125 , Th e Geography Club, see Brent 132 , 134 , 137 , 138 , 143 Hartinger empowerment, 74 , 116 Georgia, 24 , 101–2 , 164n Erenstein, Rob, 30 , 31 , 155n Gerbaulet, Françoise, 126 , 135 Et Cetera, 106 , 109 Germany, 2 , 3 , 33 , 36 , 39 , 127 , 133 , European Commission, 124 , 127 167n , 169n experiences, theatrical, 21 , 50 , 65 , 113 , glasnost, 20 , 24 , 27 , 28–9 , 38 , 104–5 , 125 , 126 , 136 , 139 144 , 153n everyday, 50 , 125 , 126 Glitterbird, 123–6 , 133 , 170 experimental theatre, 30 , 33 , 39 , 67 , Goldberg, Moses, 13 , 14 , 16–17 , 19 68 , 127 , 128 , 130 , 134 , 136 Goldfi nger, Evelyn, 74–5 , 130 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 27 , 104 fairy tales, 22 , 32 , 33 , 106 , 151n Gozenpud, Alexandra, 9 , 24 , 25 Falconi, María Inés, 67 , 75 , 158n Grips theater, 17 , 33 Cantata de Pedro y la Guerra , 74–5 , 158n Hartinger, Brent, 94 , 96 , 97 , 163n Farmer, Katherine, 137–9 Th e Geography Club , 95–7 festivals, 1 , 4 , 6 , 42 , 46 , 51 , 52 , 55 , 56 , Herts, Alice Minnie, 9 , 12 , 13 122 , 127 , 135 , 157n , 165n Children’s Educational Th eatre, 9 , XVIth Assitej World Congress and 12 , 13 Festival, 56 , 144 heteronormativity, 6 , 82 , 85 , 88 , XVIIth Assitej World Congress and 90 , 91 , 94 Festival, 53 , 55 , 56 , 59 , 143 see also homophobia Big Break (Bol’shaia Peremena), 29 , heterosexuality, 72 , 73 , 84–90 , 94–6 , 114 , 165n 100 , 162n Bursa Children’s Th eatre, 51–2 , 53 Hilte, Gouke, 30 , 155n IPAY, 53 historical framing, 4 , 5 , 10 , 13 , 15 , Visioni di futuro, visioni di teatro , 7 , 17 , 39 122 , 130 historical materialism, 33 Winter Holiday festival, 70 , 158 n, 160 n historical narratives, 4 , 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 15 198 Index

historiography, 4 , 5 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 17 , 19 , Japan, 2 , 159n , 164n , 165n 26 , 31 , 36–7 , 76 , 141 , 153n Jennings, Coleman, 10–11 , 17 Hitler’s Daughter , 145–6 Jordens, Patrick, 34–5 Holzklopfen , 130 , 170n , 171n Juncker, Beth, 52 , 65–6 , 68–9 , 143 , homophobia, 8 , 84 , 85–6 , 88–91 , 93 , 159n 162n Junior League, 12 , 15–16 , 151n homosexuality, 82 , 88 , 94 , 95 , 142 Play Bureau, 15–16 see also same-sex attraction Hoods , 146 Kamensky, Mikhail, 105 , 107 , 109 , hostage crisis, 7 , 102 , 103 , 105 , 107 , 165n , 168n 108 , 118 , 142 , 163n Kashtanka , 110–11 , 113 Hungary, 123 , 126 , 127 Kennedy, Dennis, 49 , 50 , 52 Klangfugl, 124 Ianovskaia, Genrietta, 29 , 106 Klavdiev, Yury, 29 , 144 , 172n IDEA, 3 Knebel, Maria, 23–4 identity, 1 , 28 , 74 , 84 , 85 , 88 , 93 , 94 , Knowles, Ric, 4 , 5 , 42 , 45–52 , 141 , 152n 159n , 161n categories, 83 Kolibri, 126 , 169n cultural, 144 , 163n Kolmanovsky, Alexander, 103 , 107 , location, 5 , 6 , 9 , 43 , 52 , 96 109–10 , 112 , 113–17 , 165–6n positions, 82 Korea, 2 , 3 , 51 , 55 , 69 , 164n sexual, 87 , 162n Krakeling, 31 , 155n ideological assumptions, 12 , 16 , 19 , Kruckemeyer, Finegan, 74 , 75 153n Kushner, Tony, 10 , 11 , 83 ideological education, 20 , 27 , 28 , 32 , Only We Who Guard the Mystery Shall 38 , 104 Be Unhappy , 10 ideological indoctrination, 20 , 22 , 42 ideological position, 5 , 9 , 43 , 52 Landy, Robert, 104 , 114–15 , 166n ideology, 18 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 , Lebeau, Suzanne, 75 , 161n 27 , 28 , 60 , 153n , 154n Leningrad Tiuz (Lentiuz), 21 , 25 changes in, 27 , 39 Levy, Jonathan, 150n , 155n , 158n Ildikó and Orsolya, 125 , 170n LGBTQ, 6 , 81 , 99 inclusion, 18 , 152n linear (structure of plays), 30 , 35 , 138 Ingushetia, 102 , 118 , 167n Litvak, Mark, 103 , 106–7 , 113 , 166n innovation, 26 , 33 , 68 Loevsky, Oleg, 110–11 internationalization, 31 Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 20 interpretation, 4 , 9 , 26 , 30 , 51 , 61 , 104 , 126 , 153n Mack, Tony, 123 , 144 Iran, 68 , 158n , 160n Mackay, Constance D’Arcy, 10 , 12–13 , Italy, 3 , 7 , 122–3 , 127 , 128 , 130 , 15 , 150n , 159n 166n , 169n , 170n Malmcrona, Niclas, 51 , 53–4 ITYARN, 3 , 6 , 7 , 54 , 56 , 65 , 129 , marginalization, 5 , 14–15 , 38 , 42 , 130 , 147 , 152n , 158n 49 , 141 Index 199 marketing, 51 , 55 , 142 ontological, 76 , 83 Marshak, Samuil, 23 ontological relationship, 15 , 38 , 39 , 51 Marxism-Leninism, 20 , 22–6, 38 , 104 Ossetia, 101–2 , 119 , 163n , 164n see also Communism North Ossetia-Alania, 7 , 101–3 , material circumstances, 1 , 4 , 14–15 , 106 , 108 , 111 , 118 , 167n 19 , 27 , 28 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 51 , 52 , Osten, Suzanne, 33 , 64–5 , 67 , 132 , 134 , 140 , 150n , 171n 128, 159 n material conditions, 46 , 51 , 52 , 152n Babydrama , 128 , 170n , 171n material context, 4 , 6 , 9 , 37 , 54 , 60 , Unga Klara, 33 , 64–5 , 170n 150n Th e Other Side of the Closet , 85 , 89–91 , material semiotics, see semiotics 162–3n MAX, 37 , 76 , 135–6 , 156n , 161n McCaslin, Nellie, 9 , 11–13 Panken, Ton, 9 , 30 , 31 , 154–5n McNiff , Shawn, 114–15 paradoxes in TYA, 42–3 meaning, creation of, 5 , 23 , 43 , 45 , 48 , Park, Joohee, 69 49 , 50 , 52 , 65 , 139 Patrignoni, Silvina, 74 meaning, production of, 5 , 45 , 46 , pedagogical, 21 , 23 , 29 , 32 , 34 , 39 , 48 , 56 104 , 123 Merkx, Moniek, 135 , 156n pedagogues, 21 , 23 , 25 , 153n Falling Girls , 135–9 pedagogy, 33 , 94 , 131 , 135 Mexico, 59 , 69 , 70 , 71–3 , 158n , 161n perception, see audience Meyer, Dennis, 31 , 36 perestroika, 20 , 24 , 27 , 28–9 , 38 , Meyerhold, 21 , 47 104–5 , 144 , 153n Montrose Moses, 15 performativity, 50 , 83 , 112 moral, 5 , 10 , 12 , 21 , 25 , 34 , 60 , 63 , Peter Pan , 31 , 150n , 155n 79 , 86 , 93 , 146 , 154n Plato, 60–1 , 62 , 67 , 76 , 150n moralistic, 13 , 16 , 89 , 93 Polka Th eater, 127 , 128–9 morality, 90 , 98 positivism, 11 , 13 morals, 61 , 110 Post, Robert, 107–8 , 110 , 112 Moreno, Jacob Levy, 103 , 164n , Postlewait, Th omas, 11 166n power relations, 34 , 43 , 49 , 109 Moscow Tiuz (Mtiuz), 20 , 27 , 29 , 102 , Presa, Héctor, 71 106 , 107 , 108 , 153n Prime , 53 multiculturalism, 51 , 56 , 57 Progressive Movement, 11 provocation, 53 NEA, 11 , 14 psychodrama, 103–4 , 164n , New Generation Th eatre, see Moscow 166n Tiuz Puck, 32–3 Noddings, Nel, 93–4 Pushkin, Alexander, 114 , 166n North Ossetia, see Ossetia Northern Caucasus, 7 , 102 , 103 , Queer, 2 , 6 , 74 , 81 , 89 , 94 , 104 , 164n 97 , 98 , 99 Norway, 2 , 3 , 123 , 124 , 126 , 169n Qvortrup, Jens, 6 , 63–4 , 67 200 Index

Rable, Stephan, 124 , 134–5 , 136 , 171n semiotics, 5 , 23 , 157n Surprise , 135 material, 45 , 46 , 51 , 56 , 159n , 161n race, 6 , 18 , 43 , 48 , 49 , 63 , 81 , 83 , 96 A Service for Jeremy Wong , 85 , 91–3 Ramløse, Michael, 53–4 , 111 settlement houses, 11–13 , 63 RAMT, see Central Children’s Th eatre Sextou, Persephone, 111–12 Rancière, Jacques, 48–9 , 65 , 66 , 125 , sexual orientation, 81 , 83–5 , 93 129 , 141 sexuality, 6 , 34 , 37 , 43 , 48 , 53 , 67 , 70 , ignorance, 48–9 , 65 73 , 74 , 82–9 , 94 , 98 , 99 , 162n realism, 32 see also heterosexuality realistic, 17 , 32 , 67 homosexuality socialist realism, 22 , 23 Shail, George, 21 , 22 , 24 , 25–6 Refl ections of Rock Lobster , 99 Shpet, Lenora, 20 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 153n representation, 6 , 7 , 8 , 22 , 23 , 38 , 39 , Shvarts, Evgenii, 23 , 26 , 29 57 , 81 , 82 , 94 , 95 signifi ers, 23 rhetoric, 8 , 25 , 26 , 171n Small Size, 7 , 127–8 , 129 , 170n antihomosexual, 82 Smeliansky, Anatoly, 23 RiDE, 2 , 19 social media, 50 , 160n rights, 66 , 67 , 83 , 92 , 124 , 140 , 161n socialist realism, see realism of existence, 18 , 20 , 28 , 38 socialization of the child, 31 , 64 , 125 human, 102 Sosin, Gene, 24 , 25–6 , 154n see also CRC Sovietism, 25 , 26 Rohd, Michael, 105, 116 , 165n Speech & Debate , 97–8 , 163n role-play, 115 , 117 Spencer, Sara, 16 Rozov, Victor, 24 , 26 Spivak, Gayatri, 56–7 rumors, 35 , 85 , 88–9 , 90 , 97 Starcatchers, 128–9 Russian Drama, New, 145 , 172n Stella Den Haag, 32 , 34 , 155n Russian Th eatre Federation, 29 , 106 , stereotypes, 73 , 84 , 86 , 88 , 93 , 96 , 129 165n , 167n stereotypical, 72 , 73 , 86 , 90 , 91 , 126 , 161n SamArt, 106 , 107 , 110 Th e Stones , 145 same-sex attraction, 84 , 85 , 88 , 89 , 90 , subsidies, 18 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 47 , 55 , 68 , 95 , 162n ; 69 , 128 , 140 see also homosexuality subversion, 23 , 26 , 44 , 99 same-sex marriages, 72 , 73 , 81 , 161n , support of state, 18 , 20 , 32 , 55 , 68 , 171n 69 , 123 Sats, Natalia, 20–1 , 23 , 24–5 , Surprise , see Stephan Rable 26 , 153n Sweden, 3 , 33 , 39 , 53 , 128 , 157 n, 170 n Savin-Williams, Ritch, 84–5 , 162n Swortzell, Lowell, 13 , 20 , 152n Scapino, 32 symbolic capital, 43–4 , 45 Schneider, Wolfgang, 133 , 134 , 135 symbolic culture, 62 Scotland, 128–9 Szuchmacher, Perla, 70–3 , 159n Seattle Children’s Th eatre, 18–19 , 88–9 Malas palabras , 70–1 Selmer-Olson, Ivar, 124 , 170n Príncipe y príncipe , 71–3 Index 201 taboo colloquium, 59 , 73 , 158n universalizing, 108 taboo forum, 6 , 59 , 70 , 71 , 73 , 75 Uvarov, Mikhail, 106 , 109–10 , 113 , 119 Taube, Gerd, 20 , 121 , 130–1 , 133 , 140 , 169n van den Boom, Hans, 34 , 37 Teneeter, 32 , 34 , 35 Van Der Velden, Mark, 194 terrakt, 107 , 112 , 115 , 118 , 119 , 165n van Maanen, Hans, 33–4 , 36, 155n terrorists, 101–2 , 112 , 118 , 167n Verburg, Heleen, 35 , 37 , 156n Th aw, 23–4 Visioni di futuro, visioni di teatro , 7 , theatrical methods, 103 , 104 , 105 , 122 , 130 107 , 113–17 Vos, Eric, 32 see also drama methods vouchers, 37 , 38 , 69 , 155n TIN, 1 , 30 , 68 , 160n tolerance, 82 , 83 , 91 , 93 , 99 , Ward, Winifred, 12–13 142 , 146 Wartemann, Geesche, 49 , 130 , total theatre, 35 170n , 171n Tovstonogov, Georgy, 24 Wederzijds, 32 , 34 , 35 Turner, Victor, 112 , 115 , 165n White, Hayden, 38 Twaalfhoven, Anita, 31–2 , 34 , 35 Williams, Raymond, 41 , 45 Twain, Mark, 9 , 19 Wolfed Down! , 53 TYA/USA, 2 , 150n Th e Wrestling Season, see Laurie Brooks see also Assitej WWII, 25 , 32 , 33 , 155n

United Kingdom, 39 , 127 , 128 , 129 , Youth Th eatre Journal , 2 , 152n 144 , 170n universal, 16 , 46 , 54 , 65 Zipes, Jack, 151n universalisms, 60 Zonneveld, Loek, 34 , 35 universality, 30 zuilen (pillars), 32 , 155n