DESTINATION BRAND BUILDING FOR EMERGING NATIONS:
THE CASE OF TIMOR-LESTE
by
Sara Lorraine Currie
Bachelor of Arts (Media & Communications) & Bachelor of Commerce
The University of Melbourne
Faculty of Arts, Health & Design School of Social Science Swinburne University of Technology
This thesis is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
2016
Abstract
This thesis examines how destination branding techniques can be applied to the half-island nation of Timor-Leste. Its contribution is four-fold. First, the thesis contributes to a better understanding of the Timor-Leste tourism product and current image in the marketplace. Second, it develops a three-stage destination brand-building model applicable to Timor-Leste, and other emerging or post-conflict nations wishing to develop or refresh their brand image. Third, the thesis contributes an empirically researched destination brand for Timor-Leste, positioned against the country’s unique strengths and targeted to its preferred market. Finally, through the application of destination branding techniques to the case of Timor-Leste, this thesis critically evaluates the concept of destination brand development, suggesting refinements to improve its effectiveness in overcoming a negative image and growing tourism.
Since independence in 2002, tourism has been promoted in Timor-Leste as a means to create jobs, build businesses, improve regional economic imbalances and diversify the oil-dependent economy. Timor-Leste is a strong candidate for niche tourism, blessed with unique natural, cultural and historic assets. However, progress to date has been slow. Annual tourism numbers remain low and accurate data is hard to source and in many cases contradictory. The nation still works without an official plan for tourism development, while poor infrastructure, inflated prices and limited accommodation choice further impede growth.
Due to its tumultuous history, Timor-Leste also struggles with negative international perceptions. While tourism prospers across the Asia-Pacific and contributes to the economic development of many neighbours, Timor-Leste continues to be perceived as war-torn and dangerous, overpriced and hard to reach, or simply ‘unknown’. Communicating the positive and unique elements of the country is a necessity if Timor-Leste is to market and grow its tourism product.
To develop a theoretical framework for branding Timor-Leste, this thesis critically analyses existing brand building models, combining the strengths of each with an understanding of Timor-Leste’s current situation as a small and developing island state, post-conflict nation and newly independent country. The result is a new, three-stage model proposed specifically for the branding of Timor-Leste and other emerging nations.
Two stages of qualitative research inform this thesis. First, semi-structured interviews and focus groups were undertaken to elicit the views of 56 of Timor-Leste’s leading tourism stakeholders. Purposive sampling ensured the representation of stakeholders from all tourism sectors and geographically across Timor-Leste. The second stage of research was conducted with a ii consumer audience in Australia through an online, qualitative survey, quota sampled to ensure equal representation across three age groups. The survey enabled an assessment of the effectiveness of the proposed destination brand for Timor-Leste, and more broadly, the effectiveness of branding in post-conflict and emerging nations.
This thesis finds that destination branding can have a significant and positive effect on the negative image of Timor-Leste, and develop new and favourable associations in the target audience. The research findings therefore suggest that the brand building model developed in this thesis could be applied to other emerging and post-conflict nations. It is argued that branding is a powerful marketing tool capable of managing a destination’s image, and growing international tourism.
iii Acknowledgements
This journey began as a Masters by Research project, which I anticipated I would finish in a little over one year. Instead, it has taken nearly four years, become a PhD, a consultancy and ensured my continued involvement in Timor-Leste for over five years. It has become a different journey to the one I expected, but the challenge and personal growth have formed perhaps the largest part of the reward.
First and foremost, I thank my ‘support crew’, those who believed in my ability to complete this project, no matter how time consuming or difficult it felt. Particular thanks go to my Mum, for the continued conversations, moral support and for being a constant source of strength and encouragement. To Charlie, who supported me throughout my time in Timor and who found nearly as much pride and passion in the work as I did. To Pauly, for the enthusiastic encouragement and for being the first to actually read this thesis! To my Dad, for the support, coffee chats and debriefs, and to my grandmas, who have been so proud and excited about my undertaking this journey and have cheered my achievements every step of the way.
To my family and friends in Australia and abroad – Lisa, Suzanne, Heena, Zalie, Steph, Jules, Laura, Pablo, Blake, Kirsten, Lucas, Diana and Tony – thank you for constantly listening and encouraging me across these many years. It is easy to become frustrated working on a project as involved as this one and throughout the challenging times I have realised just how lucky I am to have such true and unwavering friendships.
Importantly, thank you to my supervisors for guiding this work and providing such useful advice throughout the process. To Michael - I would never have thought a fortuitous meeting at Hotel Esplanada would lead to such a productive working relationship and a wonderful friendship. Thank you for your great guidance throughout this project. To Ann, thank you for your constant patience, your astute advice and valuable feedback. Thank you also to the academics at Swinburne and Victoria Universities who attended my panel sessions and provided timely advice.
Thank you also to my friends Joseph Cheer and Sara Niner at Monash University for providing academic opportunities and wonderful support and feedback. To Sarah and Hannah, my PhD ‘buddies’, thank you for being such amazing companions and weathering this adventure alongside me. Your advice has been invaluable and I’m not sure how I would have coped without our constant debriefs over wine.
iv To those in Timor-Leste: what a journey! Acknowledgment must firstly go to the team at the Ministry of Tourism, most particularly Aquilinio Santos Caiero, Jose Quintas and the Minister of Tourism, Francisco Kalbuadi Lay. This project was born in 2011 when we realised the need for Timor-Leste to develop its first official destination brand and it has been my honour and pleasure to work with the Ministry to see it through to completion. It is my great hope that this work contributes to the Ministry’s quest to develop a marketing strategy for Timor-Leste that will assist us in promoting this beautiful and peaceful destination internationally.
A big thank you to The Asia Foundation, most particularly Gobie Rajalingam, for realising the value of this research in 2015 and employing me as a consultant to deliver the proposed brand strategy. The Foundation’s support and belief in this work has allowed the brand to become a reality, one that I hope can make a positive difference to tourism in Timor-Leste.
To the tourism stakeholders of Timor-Leste whom I had the pleasure to interview throughout this process - thank you for your incredible contribution to this work and for sharing your knowledge and passion for this country. This thesis has been possible through your insights and your openness to collaborate. It is testament to the close-knit tourism environment of Timor-Leste that while most of these relationships began from a work perspective, it has been wonderful also getting to know each of you as a friend. In particular, I must mention Ashley Rees who was the first person in Timor-Leste to ‘teach me the ropes’ and who has supported my work ever since. And also Sean Borrell, who offered me my first opportunity as a photographer to the President. It was at this moment that my involvement in Timor-Leste really began.
Thank you to the wonderful organisations I have worked with across my time in Timor- Leste. Firstly at the Office of the President where we enjoyed an amazing two years running the Tour de Timor and Dili Marathon. Thank you to former President HE Jose Ramos Horta for being a constant supporter of my work - you can no longer joke that this PhD seems ‘endless’! To the team at Victoria University - it was a privilege to run two conferences for you in Dili, which allowed me to further invest in the academic community. To the wonderful team at the Balibo House Trust - with whom I worked on the launch of the Australia Flag House in 2013 - thank you for the opportunity to be part of the organisation and I am now honoured to be a member of your Board.
Finally, to my colleagues at all organisations and the Timorese I have had the pleasure of meeting along this journey. I have lost count of the number of times I have been thanked v for doing this work and for continuing to come back to your country. It is this incredible gratitude and support that has driven me to continue this project. I have loved working so closely with so many gifted and passionate people and it has been one of the greatest privileges to learn, so intimately, about such a young, vibrant and dynamic nation. Thank you for sharing your nation with me. This thesis is dedicated to you.
vi
DECLARATION STATEMENT
I declare that this thesis contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other institution. I affirm to the best of my knowledge that the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Sara Lorraine Currie
vii List of Publications
Currie, Sara & Turner, Lindsay (2014) Destination brand building from an internal perspective: The case of Timor-Leste in: Monica Chien (ed) CAUTHE 2014: Tourism and Hospitality in the Contemporary World: Trends, Changes and Complexity. Brisbane: School of Tourism, The University of Queensland, 2014: 799-803.
Currie, Sara (2014) The case for developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste in Understanding Timor-Leste 2013. National University of Timor Lorosa’e, Dili, Timor-Leste, Swinburne University Press, 2014: 94-99.
Currie, Sara (2016) Key factors in marketing Timor-Leste as a destination in Sarah Smith, Antero da Silva, Nuno Canas Mendes, Alarico da Costa Ximenes, Clinton Fernandes and Michael Leach (eds) Timor-Leste: the local, the regional and the global. Melbourne, Swinburne University Press, 2016: 271-276.
Forthcoming Publications
Currie, Sara (2016) Positioning Timor-Leste as an unspoilt and undiscovered destination: The development of a destination brand. In conference proceedings: ‘International Conference in Emergent Tourism Destinations’, held at Dili Institute of Technology (DIT), October 2016.
Currie, Sara (2017) Promoting cultural landscapes through destination branding: the case of Timor-Leste In SHIMA: The International Journal of Research in Island Cultures Due for publication: April 2017.
Currie, Sara (2017) The commodification of paradise in marketing island nations In The Contemporary Pacific Due for publication: 2017.
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ...... 1
1.1.1 Branding tourism destinations ...... 1
1.1.2 Ethical implications of marketing emerging nations ...... 3
1.1.3 The case of Timor-Leste ...... 4
1.2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ...... 5
1.2.1. Problem Statement ...... 6
1.2.2. Research Questions ...... 6
1.2.3. Overview of research methodology ...... 6
1.3. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION ...... 7
1.3.1. Practical contribution: impact upon Timor-Leste and its people ...... 7
1.3.2. Academic contribution: advancements in theory and marketing knowledge ...... 8
1.4. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ...... 10
1.4.1. Limitations of the research design ...... 10
1.4.2. Limitations of the research methodology ...... 11
1.5. RESEARCH CONTEXT: OVERVIEW OF TIMOR-LESTE ...... 13
1.5.1 Geography ...... 13
1.5.2. Historic and political background ...... 14
1.5.3 Demography ...... 16
1.5.4 The economy ...... 17
1.5.5 Tourism background ...... 19
1.5.6 Current tourism situation ...... 20
1.5.7 The case for tourism ...... 22
1.5.8 Image and destination marketing ...... 24
1.6. THESIS STRUCTURE ...... 25
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 27
ix 2.1. UNDERSTANDING DESTINATION BRANDING ...... 27
2.1.1 What is a brand? ...... 28
2.1.2 Nations as brands ...... 30
2.1.3 Destinations as brands ...... 31
2.1.4 Brand identity and brand image ...... 33
2.1.5 Brand position ...... 35
2.1.6 Brand personality ...... 37
2.1.7 Destination branding challenges ...... 39
2.2. CREATING A DESTINATION BRAND ...... 40
2.2.1 Brand Building Models ...... 41
2.2.2 Image measurement techniques ...... 50
2.3. TOURISM IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD ...... 52
2.3.1 The context of marketing a developing nation ...... 53
2.3.2 Branding a small island developing state (SIDS) ...... 56
2.3.3 Branding a post-conflict nation ...... 59
2.3.4 Branding a ‘brand new’ nation ...... 61
2.4. BRANDING AND TIMOR-LESTE ...... 63
2.5. CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 65
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 67
3.1. RESEARCH APPROACH ...... 68
3.2. A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR BRANDING ...... 69
3.2.1 A stakeholder-led approach ...... 70
3.2.2 Developing a ‘sense of place’ ...... 71
3.2.3 A process of ‘brand assessment’ ...... 72
3.3. STAKEHOLDER PRIMARY RESEARCH ...... 75
3.3.1 Exploratory interviews ...... 76
3.3.2 Main round: Semi-structured interviews ...... 77
3.3.3 Follow-up interviews ...... 81 x 3.3.4 Focus groups ...... 84
3.3.5 Field observations ...... 86
3.3.6 Stakeholder Data Analysis ...... 87
3.4. CONSUMER PRIMARY RESEARCH ...... 88
3.4.1. Online survey ...... 89
3.4.2 Survey data analysis ...... 91
3.5. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS ...... 92
3.6. CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 93
Chapter 4: STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT ...... 95
4.1. STAKEHOLDER RESPONSE TO TOURISM ...... 96
4.1.1 Impact of tourism ...... 96
4.1.1.1 Economic ...... 97 4.1.1.2 Employment ...... 99 4.1.1.3 Cultural exchange ...... 101 4.2. STAKEHOLDER RESPONSE TO BRANDING ...... 104
4.2.1 Understanding of destination branding ...... 105
4.2.2 Support for branding Timor-Leste ...... 106
4.2.2.1 External image ...... 107 4.2.2.2 Internal message ...... 108 4.2.3 Challenges in branding Timor-Leste ...... 110
4.2.3.1 Government leadership and management ...... 110 4.2.3.2 Stakeholder coordination ...... 114 4.2.3.3 Involving the community ...... 117 4.2.3.4 Developing the brand ...... 120 4.3. CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 123
Chapter 5: DESTINATION PRODUCT ...... 126
5.1. PRODUCT STRENGTHS ...... 126
5.1.1 Natural assets ...... 128
5.1.1.1 Marine environment ...... 129
xi 5.1.1.2 Coastal environment ...... 131 5.1.1.3 Hinterland and mountains ...... 133 5.1.1.4 Diversity ...... 134 5.1.2. Culture ...... 136
5.1.3 History ...... 139
5.1.4 Unspoilt and Undiscovered ...... 142
5.1.5 Other factors ...... 145
5.2. PRODUCT WEAKNESSES ...... 146
5.2.1 Hospitality and ‘culture of tourism’ ...... 147
5.2.2 Infrastructure ...... 149
5.2.3 Cost and accessibility ...... 152
5.2.4 Preservation ...... 154
5.2.5 Other factors ...... 157
5.3. CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 158
Chapter 6: CREATING THE BRAND ...... 161
6.1. PERSONALITY ...... 162
6.1.1 ‘Brand story’ of Timor-Leste ...... 162
6.1.2 Personality Traits ...... 164
6.2. POSITION ...... 166
6.2.1 Target Markets ...... 167
6.2.1.1 Country of Origin ...... 167 6.2.1.2 Age ...... 171 6.2.1.3 Travel motivation ...... 174 6.2.2 Competition ...... 177
6.2.2.1 Competitive Analysis ...... 178 6.2.3 Positioning statement ...... 181
6.3. CREATING THE BRAND IDENTITY ...... 183
6.3.1 Brand Strategy ...... 184
6.3.2 Depicting a sense of place ...... 187
xii 6.3.2.1 Images and Logo ...... 188 6.3.2.2 Slogan ...... 189 6.3.3. Final brand ...... 191
6.4. CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 192
Chapter 7: DESTINATION IMAGE ANALYSIS ...... 195
7.1. PRE-BRAND IMAGE ...... 196
7.1.1 Awareness ...... 197
7.1.2. Organic image ...... 198
7.1.3 Intent to visit ...... 201
7.1.4 Discussion ...... 204
7.2. POST BRAND IMAGE ...... 205
7.2.1. Induced image ...... 207
7.2.2. Intent to visit ...... 210
7.2.3 Discussion ...... 214
Chapter 8: CONCLUSION ...... 219
8.1. KEY FINDINGS ...... 220
8.1.1 Findings into the process of brand building ...... 220
8.1.2. Broader findings of this thesis ...... 221
8.2. WIDER IMPLICATIONS ...... 222
8.2.1 Practical contribution: impact upon Timor-Leste and its people ...... 222
8.2.2 Academic contribution: advancements in theory and marketing knowledge ...... 223
8.3. FURTHER RESEARCH DIRECTIONS ...... 224
8.4. CONCLUDING REMARKS ...... 225
Reference List ...... 231
List of Appendices ...... 257
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Map of Timor-Leste
Figure 2: Pike’s Brand Identity Model
Figure 3: Destination brand building model; developed by the author
Figure 4: Timeline of research methods
Figure 5: Process of interviews across first two stages
Figure 6: Stage Two interview participants by industry
Figure 7: Stage Two interview participants by location
Figure 8: Process of interviews across four interview stages
Figure 9: Concept map of Timor-Leste’s strengths as a destination, developed by the author.
Figure 10: Concept map of Timor-Leste’s weaknesses as a destination, developed by the author.
Figure 11: Word cloud representation of the organic image of Timor-Leste, developed by the author Figure 12: Word cloud representation of the induced image of Timor-Leste, developed by the author
xiv List of Tables
Table 1: Author’s overview of 14 theoretical brand building models currently available in academic literature.
Table 2: Exploratory interview participants by industry
Table 3: Stage Two interview participants by nationality
Table 4: Stage One follow-up interview participants by industry and previous participation.
Table 5: Stage One follow-up interview participants by industry and previous participation.
Table 6: Focus Group One participants by industry
Table 7: Focus Groups Two and Three by industry
Table 8: Consumer survey participants by age and gender
Table 9: Travel expectation and recommendation by country
Table 10: Travel expectation and recommendation by age
Table 12: Organic image of Timor-Leste by theme and respondent age
Table 12: Intent to visit Timor-Leste by respondent age
Table 13: Intent to visit Timor-Leste post-brand by respondent age
Table 14: Intent to visit Timor-Leste post-brand by respondent gender
xv Prologue
Before my first trip to Timor-Leste, I visited a local travel agent to see if I could get a comparative rate on flights to Dili. She asked me if I planned to stop by Mumbai; or perhaps I wanted to visit Goa? I realised she was looking at fares for Delhi. I clarified that I was visiting Timor-Leste, not India, and she responded with a blank stare.
“It’s close to Indonesia?”
“It’s just north of Darwin.”
She had no idea where I was talking about.
Even before I first set foot in Timor-Leste, I knew the young nation was struggling to grow tourism. I had read an article written by then President Ramos-Horta urging Australians to visit. I had heard stories from work colleagues who had ridden the infamous ‘Tour de Timor’, pioneered by Ramos-Horta in 2009 to bring in international visitors and demonstrate that Timor-Leste was peaceful and ready for tourism. Yet I didn't know anyone who had ever visited the nation as a leisure tourist, despite it being only 640km from the mainland of my home country.
When I landed in Dili, I was impressed by the size of the shed-like terminal and the huge ‘welcome’ sign above it. I was greeted by the smell of sandalwood, mixed with sewerage, mixed with the sweat from a tropical humidity that always reminds me of Asian holidays. At the airport I found no signage, no tourism brochures and certainly no visitor information centre. I jumped in a taxi and hoped for the best. During that first visit, I loved the beachside esplanade, was horrified by the prices of a UN-inflated economy and was enchanted by the locals. I visited Maubisse, and was surprised at how the beautiful, undeveloped districts contrasted with the ‘thriving capital’ of Dili. I got food poisoning, avoided dengue and I never once felt unsafe.
Timor-Leste didn't strike me as an ‘undiscovered paradise’, or the next Bali, but it clearly had huge potential for niche cultural and nature-based tourism. It wasn’t long before I was offered the opportunity to work in marketing for Ramos-Horta’s office, supporting and promoting the ‘Tour de Timor’.
And thus began five years of working in numerous tourism-related roles, living in beach huts or government compounds, enjoying countless adventures and friendships as well as the journey of this research project. Across the five years, I have seen only one change in government but
xvi approximately four different government tourism websites, three different logos, countless brochures and still no coordinated or consistent brand. Progress has been slow and government strategy inconsistent. However there is such dedication and commitment amongst the staff in the Tourism Ministry and I know many believe they can, and will, contribute to the growth of international tourism to Timor-Leste.
After only five years I am by no means an expert, although I too am optimistic about the potential of tourism in Timor-Leste and the importance this could have on the people’s livelihoods and the nation’s future. I hope that through this research I can make a contribution, however small, to the tourism aspirations of Timor-Leste.
xvii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
This thesis examines how destination branding techniques can be applied to the emerging nation of Timor-Leste. This thesis is practical in its approach, with the aim of supporting the government of Timor-Leste in its quest to develop a destination brand and grow international tourism.
At the same time, this thesis is grounded in academic theory and draws upon literature from the marketing, branding and tourism disciplines. Three core areas of enquiry underpin this research: 1) the branding of tourism destinations, 2) the ethical implications of marketing the developing world, and 3) a case study of Timor-Leste.
Through an application of branding techniques to the case of Timor-Leste, this thesis has wider implications for the branding of other emerging and post-conflict economies. This thesis also contributes to the current dearth of literature on creating a successful destination brand. It argues there is incongruity between practical brand strategies and academic discourse, and aims to make a contribution towards bridging the gap between theory and practice.
This introductory chapter will outline the research framework of the thesis, its research objectives, including an overview of the research methodology, its anticipated contribution to knowledge and its limitations. The chapter will then provide a detailed context to the case study of Timor-Leste before concluding with an outline of the structure of the thesis.
1.1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
To introduce the research objective and questions, this section looks at the three key areas of debate that combine to create the research framework. These are the branding of tourism destinations, the ethical implications of marketing the developing world, and a case study of Timor-Leste.
1.1.1 Branding tourism destinations
In today’s competitive marketplace, destinations must distinguish themselves as more favourable than their competitors to establish consumer preference (Anholt, 2006a, Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Harrison-Walker, 2011, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Pomering and White, 2011, Morgan and Pritchard, 2014). Effective positioning and differentiation have become critical to 1 success and thus many see the concept of ‘branding’ at the heart of any destination marketing strategy (Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Pike, 2009a, Morgan et al., 2003, Pike, 2005, Santos and Campo, 2014).
For nations with a negative international perception, branding is even more crucial as it emphasises the three R’s: recovery, rebuilding, and re-imagining (Volcic et al., 2013). A strong destination brand can overcome negative stereotypes created by sensationalised media coverage (Avraham and Ketter, 2013), help the process of social renewal (Causevic and Lynch, 2011) and encourage tourism to assist both reconciliation and peace (Buultjens et al., 2015). The key components and merits of destination branding will be discussed in greater detail in the literature review.
Recent statistics, however, have found that over 86% of place brands actually fail (North, 2015) suggesting that the creation of a successful destination brand, whilst important, is not straightforward. Leading brand strategist, Wally Olins, contends that “nobody can really claim that we have sufficient experience to make it work effectively. It is all trial, error and experience” (Olins, 2005, p.179).
Traditionally, destination branding has been a practitioner-led domain (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012) and in the world of academia remains a ‘relatively new’ development (Mocanu, 2014). Scholars assert there is a need for a deeper understanding of creating a destination brand (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014) and more analysis of the specific activities involved (Saraniemi, 2011). Further, it appears that at present there is no accepted theoretical framework for destination branding (Divandari et al., 2014, Hankinson, 2009) particularly for those destinations suffering from long- term and continued image problems (Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
Thus, while its proponents suggest that branding is “perhaps the most powerful marketing weapon available to contemporary destination marketers” (Santos and Campo, 2014, p.88) and an essential component of a nation’s toolkit (Baker, 2012), it appears that creating a successful destination brand is a gamble rather than a guarantee. For developing nations, this challenge can be compounded, given branding is often seen as a ‘new issue’ and many governments lack a strong understanding of the concept (Divandari et al., 2014).
One of the main objectives of this thesis, therefore, is to synthesise current academic theory to find ‘best practice’ techniques for creating a destination brand. These techniques, in the form of a brand building model, can then be tested on the developing nation of Timor-Leste, with wider implications for other emerging nations, particularly those struggling with a negative international image. 2 1.1.2 Ethical implications of marketing emerging nations
This thesis is also cognisant of the broader theoretical context in which destination branding is situated. While branding can ‘work economic miracles’ for developing economies (Volcic et al., 2013) it has also ethical implications for the destination’s residents, who will be impacted not only by tourism, but also by the manner in which their nation is promoted.
Tourism is commonly prioritised as a key development option for struggling economies (Chok et al., 2007), given it can support communities with few other growth options (Scheyvens, 2007, Briedenhann, 2011), contribute to foreign-exchange earnings, GDP and employment (Akyeampong, 2011), help fund basic facilities, education, and training (Truong, 2014) and build international understanding and peace (Handszuh, 2007). As a result, arrivals to developing destinations have been steadily climbing over the past several decades (Zhao and Li, 2006).
However there is a lack of convincing evidence that tourism does indeed benefit the poor (Chok et al., 2007). Through its investment and consumption, tourism has been accused of creating a power dominance between the core and periphery nations (Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy, 2015), and not only reflecting, but also accentuating, existing economic and social inequalities (Handszuh, 2007). In this way, local people become the objects of development as opposed to the subjects of it (Mitchell and Reid, 2001).
Such a power imbalance is often replicated in the promotion of developing destinations. Indeed the marketing of developing nations is commonly created and distributed by developed world promoters, such as tour operators, who are economically motivated to sell a product to a developed world market (Echtner and Prasad, 2003). The depiction of developing destinations can therefore become reminiscent of a colonial attitude towards the ‘third world’ (Kokkranikal et al., 2011) in which ‘first world’ tourists seek ‘exoticism’ in former colonies (Amoamo, 2007). MacCannell (1973) argues this can reduce hosts to nothing more than objects of ‘wonderment’, where ‘less developed’ people become fixed in a timeless present as opposed to modernity (Olsen, 2008). This issue is discussed in greater depth in section 2.3.1 of the literature review.
While the purpose of this thesis is not to debate the merits and pitfalls of tourism, it is important that before branding a developing destination, the risks and implications of tourism promotion are clear. As D'Hauteserre, (2011) argues, representations are not a simple reflection of reality, they actually produce it. Destination marketers therefore hold power not only over tourists, but also over the destinations they promote (Cornelissen, 2005), reinforcing Morgan et al’s (2004, p.8) contention that “contemporary place branding is not simply a rational marketing activity: it is also a political act.”
3 In creating a destination brand for Timor-Leste, it is vital not only that a theoretical framework is developed to maximise its chance of success, but also that the branding process is ethical and does not generate a stereotypical representation of the nation it seeks to benefit. This in turn will help support a responsible approach to tourism development in Timor-Leste.
1.1.3 The case of Timor-Leste
Timor-Leste is a small island state, recently emerged from decades of conflict and ranked only 133rd out of 188 countries in the most recent UNDP Human Development Index (UNDP, 2015). While tourism has been promoted since independence as a means to create jobs and improve regional economic imbalances (Timor-Leste-Government, 2011), progress to date has been slow. While many factors contribute, one major impediment is its negative image as a ‘dangerous place’, reinforced by the travel advisory warnings for many developed nations (Carlos and Carlos, 2011).
The current DFAT warning for Australians in Timor-Leste is to ‘exercise a high degree of caution... because of the uncertain security situation’ (smartraveller.gov.au, 2016). Former President Ramos-Horta claims this is “blatantly and maliciously misleading”, given the country has been peaceful and politically stable since 2008, with a very low incidence of violent crime (Ramos-Horta, 2015). Unfortunately, however, the image of a nation as ‘politically unstable’ can become an institutionalised barrier to tourism development, regardless of whether perceptions are worse than reality (Novelli et al., 2012).
While the government of Timor-Leste is keen to grow tourism and overcome its negative image, destination marketing across the past decade has been scant. Indeed many governments struggle with the proficiency and flexibility required to manage a brand (Baker and Cameron, 2008), and, as Gertner (2007) suggests, while a few destinations have overcome their image problems and enhanced their brand, many still struggle. This thesis therefore presents a valuable opportunity for Timor-Leste, both to help change its damaging international perception and to grow tourism. As section 1.5 will detail, an increase in tourism will also help the government of Timor-Leste diversify its economy and support the current reliance on oil-exports (The World Bank, 2011, Tempo Semanal, 2015).
At the same, Timor-Leste is an ideal candidate for this research case study, given its unique position. When the nation gained independence in 1999, Ximenes and Carter (1999) argued that because Timor-Leste was comparatively late in beginning to market its tourism product, it could
4 learn from the successes and mistakes of other nations. In developing its first brand there is hope that, through this thesis, Timor-Leste can employ a ‘best practice’ and ethical approach to branding, one which utilises current research and the experiences of other nations. This, in turn, can inform a theoretical framework for the branding of other developing nations.
As discussed, there is a need for a greater understanding of creating a destination brand (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014) and limited research on destinations suffering from long-term and continued image problems (Avraham and Ketter, 2013). Therefore this thesis will provide an important and timely addition to the literature. Its contribution to knowledge will be discussed in section 1.3.
1.2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This thesis takes the position that the development of a destination brand is vital for Timor- Leste. As the literature review will attest, negative stereotypes and prejudices affect destination image (Nuttavuthisit, 2007, Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012) and many tourists are reluctant to visit countries they believe to be prone to political strife and perceived internal problems (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010). Not only is branding valuable in aiding nation recovery (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011), it also allows a destination to promote its unique identity (Morgan et al., 2003), stand out amongst its competitors and help replace the theme of conflict with more positive narratives (Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014).
While there are many challenges to tourism development in Timor-Leste, this thesis will specifically focus on the destination’s marketing and promotion, arguing that the development and implementation of a destination brand could significantly and positively impact tourism to Timor-Leste and help change its damaging international perception.
After discussing the merits of branding, this thesis will then develop a destination branding model, mindful of the negative implications of marketing a developing nation and based on the unique conditions of Timor-Leste: that being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a new nation. This thesis will then undertake a practical, step-by-step branding process, the result being the development of a new destination brand for Timor-Leste.
Given the process of developing a successful brand is not straightforward, the destination brand will then be tested on a consumer audience in order to make necessary refinements and reassess its target market. In assessing the brand, this thesis will also critique the brand-building model so that recommendations can be made for its use in other emerging and post-conflict nations. 5 1.2.1. Problem Statement
This thesis will address the following the research question:
How can Timor-Leste develop a practical and ethical destination brand to help overcome the nation’s negative image and grow international tourism?
1.2.2. Research Questions
The sub-questions that structure this research are as follows:
1. What is the best process for developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste? 2. What is the best process for assessing the effectiveness of a proposed destination brand for Timor-Leste? 3. Can a destination brand positively impact the image of Timor-Leste? 4. Based on the case study of Timor-Leste, what is the most suitable theoretical model for branding emerging nations? 5. How can this research help bridge the gap between academic brand theory and practice?
While the first three questions relate to the more practical nature of this thesis and can provide direct value to the government of Timor-Leste, they also critique the process of brand building and, in doing so, inform academic theory on ‘best practice’ destination brand development. The final two questions look at how knowledge from this case study can be applied to other emerging and post-conflict economies to extend academic theory and provide a contribution to the current discourse.
1.2.3. Overview of research methodology
In order to answer the research question, this thesis will undertake three main stages of research, which will be outlined in the methodology in chapter 3.
Firstly, through a critical literature review, the thesis will elucidate relevant debates and ‘best practice’ processes to develop a theoretical model for building a destination brand.
6 Secondly, in following the proposed model, this thesis will undertake qualitative research with Timor-Leste’s internal tourism stakeholders. Combined with secondary data, the research will shed light on the nation’s tourism product, its unique strengths and weaknesses, its personality and current competitive position. Through extensive stakeholder consultation, a destination brand will be proposed at the end of this stage.
Finally, a third stage of research will measure both the current image of Timor-Leste and a change in image, based on exposure to the proposed destination brand. This applied research will be conducted on a consumer audience, through an online qualitative survey. The purpose of this stage of research is threefold: firstly, it will generate crucial knowledge about the current perception of Timor-Leste in the minds of its target audience. Secondly, it will provide a means to ‘assess’ the effectiveness of the destination brand on this same population and make key changes as required. Finally, it will offer an opportunity to assess the branding building framework and provide recommendations for use in other emerging and post-conflict nations.
1.3. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION
In developing a branding framework, through which to create and then test a destination brand, this work aims to make significant practical and academic contributions. It is hoped such contributions will assist Timor-Leste and its people and, at the same time, contribute to advancements in theory and marketing knowledge.
1.3.1. Practical contribution: impact upon Timor-Leste and its people
This research will demonstrate there is a lack of information about the Timor-Leste tourism product. The country works without an official tourism policy, leaving the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030, written five years ago, as the most detailed document. There is no readily available information that discusses the country’s strengths as a destination, potential markets or tourism development strategies. There are few tourism brochures and the official Tourism Ministry website is still incomplete (Ministry of Tourism, 2015).
Therefore, before developing a destination brand, it is necessary to obtain a stronger understanding of the nation’s tourism product. Although there have been a number of reports on tourism and its potential for Timor-Leste, most are not widely available and are often only anecdotally discussed. Furthermore, the country has many diverse stakeholders whose views are
7 rarely collated in a single place. Through extensive primary and secondary research, this thesis will bring all ideas and information together and provide a single, practical and widely available source of information on the current state of tourism and its promotion in Timor-Leste.
Alongside a stronger understanding of its tourism product, this thesis will also develop the first insight into Timor-Leste’s personality as a destination and its position within the competitive marketplace. In doing so, it will bring together diverse stakeholder opinions to agree on suitable target markets and develop a stronger understanding of the destination’s current competitive landscape.
Additionally, it is claimed that Timor-Leste suffers from a negative international perception, given its past decades of occupation and civil war, and that this perception is responsible for slow tourism growth (Ramos-Horta, 2015). However, this image has never been properly tested and could possibly have changed across time. This thesis therefore provides the first empirical assessment of the current image of Timor-Leste, which will be not only valuable to the branding process but also to the government in understanding where Timor-Leste is positioned in the minds of its target audience.
Based on an assessment of the nation’s tourism product, personality, position and destination image, this thesis will then undertake a practical, step-by-step process for developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste. As outlined above, a destination brand is a crucial marketing strategy and one that could see positive and necessary improvement to Timor-Leste’s image and tourism promotion. For many years now, the government of Timor-Leste has discussed the possibility and the importance of developing a destination brand, however without budget or expertise this idea has never taken shape. Therefore, this thesis has practical value to the Tourism Ministry of Timor-Leste, which has expressed strong interest in implementing the findings outlined in this research and adopting the recommendations for the brand.
1.3.2. Academic contribution: advancements in theory and marketing knowledge
Based on a critical review of literature, this thesis finds that current marketing literature places most emphasis on case studies of successful destination brands and that a theoretical framework for destination branding is lacking (Divandari et al., 2014, Hankinson, 2009). Indeed at present there is no widely accepted model for building destination identity (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012).
8 Therefore this thesis will develop a new ‘destination branding model’ to support the branding of Timor-Leste and provide a framework for branding other post-conflict and emerging nations.
In order to develop a new branding model, this thesis will review all existing brand models to depict relevant strengths and insights and then contrast these against branding strategies specifically relevant to the environment of Timor-Leste: that being a small-island state, post- conflict nation and ‘brand new’ nation. The new branding model, applicable to emerging and post-conflict nations, will make an important contribution to the current academic discourse.
This thesis will develop a mock brand for Timor-Leste, to allow the model to be tested and critiqued. Recommendations will then be outlined for use in other emerging and post-conflict destinations. Destination branding remains a ‘relatively new’ development (Mocanu, 2014) and there is still a need for greater understanding of the benefits (and shortcomings) of developing and managing a destination brand (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014).
This thesis will also assess the current image of Timor-Leste and a change in image following exposure to the destination brand. As the literature review will discuss, there is a call for scholars to develop more innovative methodological approaches to investigate destination image (Michaelidou et al. 2013). To date there has been limited investigation of destination image from the perspective of ‘non-visitors’ (Cherifi et al., 2014) and little research on how a modification to destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional activities (King et al., 2015). Therefore in developing an innovative qualitative approach to assess the image of Timor- Leste in the minds of its target market, both before and after viewing the brand, this thesis will contribute to the scarcity of academic theory in this area.
An important academic contribution of this study therefore lies in its methodological innovations. In building a new model to guide the branding process and utilising innovative techniques to measure the image and then the change in image of Timor-Leste, this thesis contributes to the current dearth of literature on a ‘best practice’ process for building and assessing a destination brand. The methodological findings can then be applied to brand building research for other emerging and post-conflict nations.
Furthermore, the real world of international branding has been described as a “bloody business” and many argue a disconnect exists between theory, research and practice (Anholt, 2004). In developing and testing a practical strategy, this thesis will offer a contribution that combines both theory and practice and contributes to a wider understanding in the literature on developing and assessing a destination brand.
9 1.4. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
This thesis has a number of limitations, which must be acknowledged. This section will therefore discuss the main limitations inherent in this work, which pertain firstly to the research design and secondly to the research methodology.
1.4.1. Limitations of the research design
The aim of this thesis is to examine how destination branding techniques can be applied to the emerging nation of Timor-Leste. Its final output is a mock destination brand, tested on a consumer audience. However, as Morgan and Pritchard (2014) suggest, many governments commission brand strategies without due regard for their implementation. The adoption of a destination strategy must be about more than simply using a logo and slogan; it should ensure the brand has resonance with the community and be owned by stakeholders (Morgan and Pritchard 2014). This thesis goes only as far as the development of a destination brand. The implementation and management of the brand strategy is beyond its scope. Therefore, a limitation of this work is that it is only able to provide the first steps in what is ultimately a much longer process.
Additionally, this thesis focuses solely on the case study of Timor-Leste, using the proposed brand building model as a framework to guide the development of a new destination brand. While the experience of other destinations in relation to brand building is mentioned throughout this thesis, a thorough review of destination brand strategies, challenges and successes in other nations, is also beyond its scope.
Finally, this thesis takes a stakeholder-led approach to the development of a destination brand. In doing so, it places the hopes, concerns and opinions of Timor-Leste’s internal tourism stakeholders at the forefront of the brand development process. A considerable amount of research has been undertaken into the desires, motivations and behaviours of tourists (Brickell, 2012) which may enable a more commercial focus in the branding process. This is an area of research this thesis will not address, which provides a further limitation. However, it has been argued that a commercial focus in the development of a brand can potentially destroy a destination’s identity characteristics (Konecnik and Go, 2008). Therefore given the aim of this thesis, to develop an ethical brand for Timor-Leste, a commercial and consumer-focus has been deliberately omitted to ensure the brand is reflective of the views and aspirations of the nation’s internal stakeholders.
10 1.4.2. Limitations of the research methodology
As Steedman (1991, p. 53) suggests, “knowledge cannot be separated from the knower”. In this way, the collection and interpretation of the research data has been necessarily influenced by the researcher’s previous life experiences.
As will be outlined in chapter 3, the vast majority of the fieldwork was conducted in Timor-Leste. At the commencement of the main round of semi-structured interviews, the researcher had already lived in-country for two years. This meant that access to tourism stakeholders, including senior government officials, was straightforward, since the researcher was well established and respected within the Timor-Leste tourism community. However, it also resulted in a number of limitations. Firstly, the researcher had already become a tourism stakeholder herself, in the sense of her interest and contacts in tourism, and thus could not make observations as an objective outsider. Secondly, the researcher’s position as a former employee of the Office of the President, Timor-Leste, and a current employee of a prominent international NGO, may possibly have influenced respondents’ honesty surrounding these organisations. Thirdly, while respondents spoke openly with the researcher, many divulged personal frustrations and concerns, as one would to a friend, leaving the researcher with the ethical dilemma of what information was it appropriate to include in a public document.
Essentially, in case study research, the researcher will always play an interactive role in the data collection and personal observations and this will ultimately be linked to his or her personality (Verschuren, 2003). In this instance, the researcher began the process with a strong passion for Timor-Leste and desire to see tourism succeed. Therefore, the observations and reflections, while developed as objectively as possible, would likely have been analysed through this lens.
Additionally, the role of the researcher as an Australian, conducting her studies within a developing nation, must be considered. Social forces such as class, ethnicity, race and gender, will undoubtedly influence the interview process (Seidman, 2006). One of the issues of cross- cultural research is that respondents may sometimes feel the need to provide the answers they believe the researchers are looking for (Sekaran 1983). While the researcher was not overtly aware of this potential bias, it is possible that, through an understanding of her background in Timor-Leste, respondents were inclined to share a view they felt might be more compatible with her own. Further, stakeholders such as staff at the Ministry of Tourism may have been unwilling to share a perspective that have might been perceived as contrary to the government’s current policy.
11 This potential limitation was offset by the assurance of anonymity in the presentation of research findings. In the thesis, participants have been referred to by a number, which can be cross-referenced to data pertaining to industry, nationality and geographic location (see Appendix 1). For all research presentations made within Timor-Leste, no data on respondent details has been made available, given that the Timor-Leste tourism industry is small and even minimal details might enable participant identification. All respondents were assured of the confidentiality of the research prior to each interview, in order to encourage trust and honesty.
Another challenge of cross-cultural research is the issue of language and translation. All interviews were conducted in English, the researcher’s first language, to reduce any bias caused by the use of translation. However, for the Timorese respondents, this was a second language. While all respondents had a strong knowledge of English, subtleties and nuances may potentially have been lost. Further, the requirement for proficiency in English also affected the selection of research participants. In this case, the bias was largely avoided due to the fact that English proficiency is high within senior stakeholders in the tourism industry, and therefore no participant was rejected on the grounds of a language barrier.
To develop group consensus and collaboration, focus groups were utilised in this research as an additional qualitative method. However, one limitation of focus groups is that they can suffer from uneven participation, as a result of one or more respondent’s domination of the group (Carson et al., 2001). This is particularly so if there is a difference in power and status among the participants (Esterberg, 2002). This may lead to self-censorship by some participants, who simply defer to the group opinion (Esterberg, 2002).
At present, Timor-Leste’s tourism industry is highly fragmented, with a power imbalance between stakeholders and a lack of coordination. Findings from the semi-structured interviews suggested that a large proportion of stakeholders were dissatisfied with, and at times angered by, the government’s response to tourism. In the first focus group, this opinion dominated the discussion and was at times intimidating to the more junior government officials who were present. Therefore, to alleviate this potential limitation, a second round of focus groups was held, which separated the private sector from the government participants. This allowed the private sector to speak freely of their concerns and the government to speak openly about tourism policy without feeling intimidated by the group mentality.
Overall, this research, like every human endeavor, has its limitations. Ultimately this research aims to develop a practical and ethical destination brand for Timor-Leste and in doing so, to reflect the needs and wants of the Timorese people. Therefore every effort has been made to minimise researcher bias and convey data both accurately and sensitively. 12 1.5. RESEARCH CONTEXT: OVERVIEW OF TIMOR-LESTE
In a recent speech on tourism, Prime Minister Rui Araújo argued that the government of Timor- Leste is “committed to breathing new life into this sector so as to improve the socio-economic standard of our people” (Araújo, 2015). The idea that tourism will play a role in the future development of Timor-Leste is not new (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009). Sustainable and socially responsible tourism has been a priority in Timor-Leste since independence (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009) and is seen as a means to create jobs, build businesses, create income for national and local economics, improve regional economic imbalances (Timor-Leste-Government, 2011) and reduce poverty (Araújo, 2015).
However, since formal independence was attained in 2002, progress has been slow. Data for tourism arrivals is scarce and in many cases contradictory. The country still works without an official ‘Tourism Development Plan’, while poor infrastructure, inflated prices and limited choice of accommodation and restaurants further impede growth. As discussed, due to its tumultuous history, Timor-Leste also struggles from a negative international perception, which continues to harm the country (Ramos-Horta, 2015).
A destination brand could benefit Timor-Leste, both to repair the negative image and differentiate the nation in the minds of tourists. However before a brand can be developed, it is crucial to understand the nation of Timor-Leste and its unique historic and economic conditions.
This section will therefore put the case study of Timor-Leste ‘in context’ by providing an overview of its geography, history, demographics and economy, as well as the history and current status of tourism development and the advantages and challenges of developing a tourism sector. It is from this detailed understanding that the possibilities in developing a destination brand can then be explored.
1.5.1 Geography
The island of Timor, in a mythic representation, is described as a half submerged crocodile, wary and waiting (Fox, 2003). Timor (from the Malay word for ‘east’) is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. The island lies just 640km northwest of Darwin, Australia, and 100km southwest of Java, Indonesia (CIA, 2016).
Described as ‘tectonic chaos’ (Fox, 2003) the island is formed by the thrust of the Australian tectonic plate, which sees elevation extremes from the highest peak of nearly 3,000m to sea level. 13 The tropical climate has a dry and a wet season (Molnar, 2010), with the monsoonal wet season from approximately November to March. The half-island of Timor-Leste measures 14,874 sq km and includes the exclave of Oecussi, reachable direct from Timor-Leste only by sea, and the islands of Atauro and Jaco. It’s capital, Dili, is located on the north coast.
125o 126o INDONESIA 127o Wetar Island TIMOR-LESTE 8o 8o International boundary Lirah Kisar Island Island District boundary National capital Atauro Strait of Wetar District capital Island Biquele Town, village Cape Cape Maumeta Lutra Airport Aimoco Vali Meno Berau Cape Road Usso Lautem Com Cape Issi Tutuala 0 10 20 30 km Cape Bondura Maina 1 Mehara Cape Cutcha Matolana Baucau Run Baucau Laivai Fuiloro Jaco 0 5 10 15 20 mi Island Laga Lospalos Comoro Metinaro Manatuto Bucoli Vemase Atelari Luro DILI Laleia BAUCAU Liquica Dili Laclo Cai Rui Quelicai LAUTEM Cape Bazar Baguia Maubara Tete Railaco Corimbala Venilale Aba Loré LIQUICA Gleno MANATUTO AILEU Iliomar Cape Lissapat Punilala Ossu Uatucarbau De Loré Ermera Aileu Cape Laclubar Lacluta VIQUEQUE Watulari Cape Atabae Hatolia Ima Bauc Dilor Cape Cape Aidabaleten Letefoho Turiscai Barique Viqueque Fotocapo Caissae BOBONARO ERMERA Maubisse Soibada Luli Moleana Hato Builico Beaco Batugade Atsabe Maliana MANUFAHI Fatuberliu Natarbora Cape 9o Balibo Ainaro Deilubun 9o Atapupu Bobonaro Same Alas AINARO o Atambua Mape 127 Lolotoe Hotu-Udo Zumalai Cape Timor Sea 124o 00' 124o 30' Fatolulic Metidot Cape Fatomean 9o 00' 9o 00' Halilulik COVA LIMA Cacetec Fohorem Savu Sea INDONESIA Suai Tilomar Cape Pante Kotafun Suai Macasar Cape Tafara Wini OECUSSE Nitibe Citrana Oe Silo Kefamenanu Passabe 9o 30' INDONESIA 9o 30'
The boundaries and names shown and the designations 124o 00' 124o 30' used on this map do not imply official endorsement or 125o acceptance by the United Nations. 126o
Map No. 4111 Rev. 11 UNITED NATIONS Department of Field Support November 2011 (Colour) Cartographic Section Figure 1: Map of Timor-Leste. Source: United Nations, 2013.
1.5.2. Historic and political background
Timor begins to appear in historical documents from the fourteenth century, when wax, honey, silver, slaves and most notably sandalwood were traded with Maccassans, Malays and Javanese merchants (Molnar, 2005, Kingsbury, 2009). The first Europeans arrived in the early 1500s and although the Portuguese had established Lifau (in what is now the exclave of Oecussi), it was not until the eighteenth century that their first formal claim to Timor was made (Kingsbury, 2009). Rivalry between the Dutch and Portuguese for the control of Timor intensified until 1859, when a treaty divided the traditional kingdoms and ceded the western portion of the island to the Dutch and the eastern half to the Portuguese, to become known as Timor-Leste (Molnar, 2010).
Portugal’s interest in Timor-Leste was largely based on resource extraction, principally sandalwood, and they had little interest in ‘development’ beyond the trading points (Guterres, 2007). Minimal effort was placed on improving the livelihoods of indigenous inhabitants and as a 14 result the nation remained almost entirely at pre-colonial levels of development (Kingsbury, 2009).
During the Second World War, despite Portuguese neutrality, Australia sent a small contingent of 250 soldiers, which drew attention to Timor-Leste and saw Dili violently sacked in 1942. The Australians employed a guerrilla war campaign, relying on Timorese locals to provide food, shelter and aid their survival in the difficult terrain. Many of these locals were executed by the Japanese as retribution for their assistance to Australia (Evans, 2000).
In 1974 when the Carnation Revolution brought an end to Portuguese colonial rule, they left little in the way of infrastructure or community development, leaving Timor-Leste in a precarious position for independence and economic sustainability (Carter et al., 2001). On 28 November 1975, Timor-Leste was declared an independent state with Xavier do Amaral sworn in as its first President. Just nine days later Indonesia launched a full-scale military invasion (Kingsbury, 2009, CAVR, 2005) and, with the approval of Australia and the United States, annexed the new nation (Molnar, 2010).
The repressive Indonesian occupation lasted 24 years and reached every village of Timor-Leste, profoundly influencing the lives of its people. Conflict-related deaths numbered as many as 183,000 across the war (CAVR, 2005), with an estimated 100,000 lives lost in the first year alone (Gomes, 1999). Despite growing international criticism of Indonesian abuses, and continued resistance, little concrete action was taken by the international community (Robinson, 2003). The UN was frustrated in its efforts to enter Timor-Leste to assess the situation, foreign aid was blocked and international diplomats and media were granted permission to make only occasional, tightly-controlled visits to the territory (CAVR, 2005).
In 1991 images of the infamous Santa Cruz Massacre reached the outside world and had an important effect on understanding the internal situation in Timor-Leste (CAVR, 2005). After the downfall of the Suharto regime in 1998 the opportunity arose for an independence referendum under the new government led by President B.J.Habibe. Timor-Leste’s future was determined by referendum on 30 August 1999. 98.6% of registered Timorese voted, with an overwhelming majority of 78.5% rejecting the Special Autonomy offered by Indonesia and choosing independence (BBC World Service, 2015).
Immediately following the referendum, however, the Indonesian military began a punitive ‘scorched-earth’ campaign, which “virtually leveled East Timor’s towns and villages in a last act of revenge” (McKew, 1999). An Australian peace enforcing operation, InterFET, was deployed to Timor-Leste on 20 September 1999 and together with an interim UN government brought 15 violence to an end. On May 20, 2002 Timor-Leste became an independent nation and the youngest country in Southeast Asia (Molnar, 2010).
Since the end of Indonesian occupation Timor-Leste has embarked upon a the rocky path of development (Kingsbury and Leach, 2007). In 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's security when a military strike led to violence and a breakdown of law and order. An Australian- led International Stabilization Force (ISF) was deployed to Timor-Leste at Dili’s request and the UN Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), allowing for presidential and parliamentary elections in 2007 to be held in a largely peaceful atmosphere (CIA, 2016).
In February 2015, popular leader and Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao stepped down from office, appointing Rui Araújo, a member of the opposition party FRETILIN, as his successor (Leach, 2015). Setting aside Xavier do Amaral’s nine-day Presidency in 1975, Gusmao was first President of Timor-Leste – from 2002 to 2007. He then served as Prime Minister for more than seven years (The Guardian, 2015). His decision to stand down, therefore, marks an important step towards ‘generational change’ (Leach, 2015). The new Prime Minister has pledged an increased focus on public spending and accountability, as well as economic diversity, including agriculture, fisheries and tourism (Tempo Semanal, 2015).
1.5.3 Demography
The most recent estimate of Timor-Leste’s population was projected in the preliminary results of the 2015 Timor-Leste census, at 1,167,242 (Ministry of Finance, 2015). The CIA World Factbook suggests this number had likely risen to 1,231,116 by July 2015 (CIA, 2016). The nation is overwhelming Catholic at 96.9%, with a gender breakdown of 49% female to 51% male (CIA, 2016). The population is extremely young as a result of the occupation years, with an estimated 42% currently 14 years and younger, and 62% of the total population aged 24 years or younger (CIA, 2016). Such a skewed age structure means that the need for both education and job creation is high (Lundahl and Sjoholm, 2008).
At present, the 2010 census provides the most recent understanding of the nation’s demography, as the full results of the 2015 census will not be released until late 2016. The 2010 census found that the rate of employment had, in fact, decreased from the 2004 census, dropping from 91.5% to 89.6%. The greatest decrease occurred among women and in rural areas (Ministry of Finance, 2010). At present, the Timorese are agricultural people, with 63% of households engaged in
16 agriculture production and 80% rearing livestock (Ministry of Finance, 2010). The UNDP Human Development Report (2015) found that participation in the labour force in Timor-Leste is low – only 37.9%. This puts the nation well below the median for East Asia and the Pacific, which sits at 67.9%. The study also revealed marked differences in labour force participation by gender in Timor-Leste, with a breakdown of 50.8% of males and only 24.6% of females employed (UNDP, 2015).
The 2010 census also found that rapid urbanisation is taking place, with 18% of the population living in Dili in 2010, as opposed to only 11% in 2004 (Ministry of Finance, 2010). This is not surprising given that basic public services, education and economic opportunities are less accessible in rural areas (Timor-Leste Government, 2011). Tourism could provide an important source of employment, particularly for the young population and for those living outside Dili.
Alarmingly, the census found that only two in three households had access to clean drinking water, and just over half in rural areas. Further, only four in every ten households have access to an improved mode of human waste disposal, and in rural areas only one in four, which presents a further and significant health challenge. It was also revealed that 90% of households use firewood as their main cooking fuel, with only 4.6% using clean energy for their cooking needs. In terms of sustainability, this poses a major threat to the environment and to future generations (Ministry of Finance, 2010).
One of the controversial issues for Timor-Leste is the choice of formal and working languages. Tetun (the widely spoken local language) and Portuguese are Timor-Leste’s official languages, with Indonesian and English recognised as working languages (CIA, 2016). There are also sixteen local languages, from the groupings Austronesian and non-Austronesian, plus numerous dialects (Taylor-Leech, 2007). Some argue that adopting Portuguese as a formal language holds back development (Brady, 2012), while others claim Portuguese was important during the colonial period and may prove beneficial to future international and trade relations with other Portuguese speaking nations (Ramos-Horta, 2012). For tourism, however, a strong understanding of spoken English will be important to communicate with the majority of international arrivals.
1.5.4 The economy
Timor-Leste has seen rapid economic growth in recent years. On the strength of its oil-wealth, the economy has achieved growth between 8-12% per year for the last several years, which puts it amongst the highest rates in the world (CIA, 2016). Despite this, the most recent United Nations
17 Human Development report in 2011 ranked Timor-Leste 133rd out of 188 countries in its Human Development Index (UNDP, 2015).
The country’s economy depends largely on offshore resources – oil and natural gas – as well as agriculture – predominantly coffee and rice. At present, 63% of the population is occupied in agriculture. However, 55% of GDP derives from the services sector and only 27% from agriculture (Ministry of Finance, 2010), as farming in Timor-Leste is primarily used for subsistence. Coffee is currently Timor-Leste’s main non-oil export (Marx, 2014), but there is little opportunity for farmers to add value to the product, as roasting and grinding usually take place in the export country (IPRIS, 2011). There are claims that coffee has been subject to unfair international trade practices and, indeed, World Bank findings show coffee producing districts have traditionally seen higher rates of poverty (The World Bank & National Statistics Directorate, 2008).
Timor-Leste has the second-highest petroleum dependency in the world (La'o Hamutuk, 2013) at 95% of state revenues, just below South Sudan. Since oil was first discovered in the Timor Sea in 1972, the extraction of oil and natural gas has been a politicised and controversial issue. A special agreement between Australia and Timor-Leste saw the seabed boundary moved to allow for Australia to share revenues from oil extraction (La'o Hamutuk, 2015). Without such an agreement, the oil would have sat solely within the territorial waters of Timor-Leste (Molnar, 2005), leading some to argue that Australia pushed Timor-Leste to conform with the special agreement by using financial aid as a tool (ETAN, 2005, Nicolau and Schneiner, 2005).
Foreign aid has played a large role in the development of Timor-Leste, with over US$5 billion donated across the first ten years of independence (Neves, 2011). However, a large proportion of aid money is spent on procurement outside of Timor and salaries for non-Timorese. NGO La’o Hamutuk (2009) argues that only ten per cent of aid reached the local economy between 1999- 2009, amounting to only US$550 million. It could also be argued that the availability of government and international aid support conflicts with the growth of economically viable businesses, as many Timorese choose to be employed on these projects, as opposed to developing their own venture (La'o Hamutuk, 2012).
According to the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal (2015) business regulations are strict and Timor-Leste is ranked 167th out of 186 countries for its economic freedom. The report concludes that the regulatory environment is burdensome and costly, the formal labour market is underdeveloped and the government uses exhaustible oil revenues to fund food, power and fuel (The Heritage Foundation & The Wall Street Journal, 2015).
18 Furthermore, there are increasing concerns about corruption, as larger amounts of money become available from oil extraction. President Taur Matan Rauk reportedly said that corruption exists at all levels (The Heritage Foundation & The Wall Street Journal, 2015) and former President Jose Ramos-Horta blamed the fourth government (2007-2012) for mismanagement and corruption of public funds (Murdoch, 2012). Timor-Leste is ranked 133rd in Transparency International’s 2014 Corruption Perception Index (Transparency International, 2014).
While tourism can provide a much-needed source of economic diversity, allegations of corruption and aid dependency suggest that investment in the current climate will be challenging. It has been suggested that early entrants will need to navigate an unknown territory (US Department of State, 2014), presenting a significant impediment for the growth of tourism enterprise.
1.5.5 Tourism background
Timor-Leste was first cited for potential tourism by the Australian government during the First World War, as a summer holiday destination for northern Australians (Tolkach, 2014). The idea was rejected on the grounds that Australians would prefer to travel south and have “the advantage of the society of their friends and relatives, than go to a place such as Timor” (Fernandes, 2010, p.215). Trans Australia Airlines did, however, provide flights from Darwin to Baucau Airport up until the Indonesian invasion in 1975 (Wheeler, 2004).
During the final years of Portuguese rule, Timor-Leste became part of the ‘hippy trail’ taken by backpackers from Europe to Asia and Australia (Tolkach, 2014) and there were around 5,000 international visitors in 1972 (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009). However, the Indonesian occupation significantly affected tourism development and foreign access was only permitted again after 1989 (Tolkach, 2014). There were only 3,000 international visitors from 1989-1991, many of whom were NGO workers and journalists travelling on tourist visas (CAVR, 2005).
The arrival of the UN mission in 1999 instigated a new era of ‘post-colonial’ tourism to Timor- Leste (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009), with the presence of foreign workers fuelling the construction of hotels and restaurants. When the UN handed over power in 2002, the departure of large numbers of foreign workers saw the occupancy of hotels and restaurants steadily decrease. In 2003 there were 41 hotels and 60 restaurants in Timor-Leste; by 2006 only four hotels and five restaurants were operating, according to the government’s official statistics (Tolkach, 2013b).
19 In 2008, the President Jose Ramos Horta made a plea to Australians wanting to make a difference to his country to travel to Timor-Leste for a holiday. “Darwin residents hardly visit Timor-Leste... Dili is much safer than most cities in the region” (ABC News, 2008). Despite Dili being much closer to Darwin than Tennant Creek, it appeared that Australians did not consider Timor-Leste to be a holiday destination (ABC News, 2008).
The following year, Ramos Horta pioneered the annual ‘Tour de Timor’, an extreme mountain bike race across Timor-Leste. In its early years, the event significantly boosted both international tourism and the overall perception of the nation, bringing international riders, volunteers, medics and media to spread the word that Timor-Leste was beautiful, safe and ready for tourism (Ramos-Horta, 2011b).
The portfolio of tourism has undergone a number of adjustments since the first Constitutional Government of Timor-Leste in 2002. Tourism initially sat under a Secretary of State, Jose Teixeira, and was expanded in 2007 to become part of the Ministry of Tourism, Commerce and Industry (MTCI) in 2007, led by Gil Alves (Government of Timor-Leste, 2015). In 2012, then Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao demonstrated his commitment to tourism by dividing the former MTCI and establishing a separate Ministry of Tourism. Francisco Lay Kabuladi was appointed Minister, and retained his position after the change in Prime Minister last year. The Ministry, now titled the Ministry of Tourism, Art and Culture, had a budget of $8.664m in 2015 (Ministry of Tourism, 2015).
The government of Timor-Leste continues to be committed to tourism development, however as the new Prime Minister, Rui Araújo, stated in his opening speech: “We have tourism potential, which so far has not seen signs of serious prospection and investment” (Tempo Semanal, 2015). Araújo has reiterated the need for a clear vision and an inter-sectorial strategy for tourism (Tempo Semanal, 2015).
1.5.6 Current tourism situation
Official immigration data suggests that Timor-Leste welcomed 48,986 tourists in 2014. This is an increase from 44,146 in 2013 and only 34,902 in 2012 (Immigration Office Timor-Leste, 2015), representing growth of more than 10% from 2013 to 2014. In 2014, it is estimated that nearly 50% of all arrivals came through the airport in Dili and a further 41% from the Indonesian border at Batugade (Immigration Office Timor-Leste, 2015).
20 Unfortunately, however, tourism data is not entirely accurate. Firstly, many foreign aid workers and volunteers do not have long-stay visas and therefore arrive as ‘tourists’ each time they return to the country, thus significantly inflating numbers. Secondly, in 2013, the Ministry abolished the ‘business’ category of entry visa, meaning that those arriving for business meetings and conferences also began to appear as ‘tourists’ on the official statistics. This further inflates the statistics of tourist arrivals and suggests that the reported growth in tourist numbers may be inaccurate.
The Asia Foundation conducted a survey in 2014 to gather more accurate tourism data, interviewing over 700 respondents in the departure hall of the Nicolau Lobato International Airport in Dili. Their results found that over 50% of all respondents were visiting Timor-Leste for work, meetings or business-related activity. A further 16% were visiting friends or relatives and only 17% were leisure tourists (Rajalingam, 2014). This confirms that the number of ‘genuine’ tourists is far lower than government estimates would suggest.
Of the genuine leisure tourists, more than half (52%) are coming from Australia, with 24% visiting from other parts of Asia and 13% from Europe. It is estimated the annual economic value-add by travellers to Timor-Leste is approximately US$14.6 million (Rajalingam, 2014). This is less than double the Tourism Ministry’s annual budget, and tiny when compared to its geographic neighbours. Darwin, for example, although just one territory in Australia, estimated an annual visitor economic value add of AUD$1.849 billion from September 2013 to 2014 (Tourism NT, 2014). Indonesia estimated an economic value add of USD $9.2 billion from tourism in 2013 (Prawira, 2014).
In 2012, the accommodation directory of Timor-Leste listed only 103 accommodation providers across the nation, which was made up of 38 guesthouses, 44 hotels, three apartment rentals, four motels, 10 room rentals at restaurants, two villas and two beach resorts (Tolkach, 2013b). More recent statistics on the number and types of accommodation providers are not available.
At present, it is very difficult to book hotels online and in advance, even in Dili. For example, only 15 hotels are available through sites such as Booking.com (Booking.com, 2016). Outside Dili, there are limited guesthouses, and many require bookings to be made over the phone and sometimes in the local language, Tetun, making it very difficult for tourists who may not know the local dialect or have access to a local phone. Price and type of accommodation varies greatly, from US $10 per night at backpacker hostels to US $160 at luxury resorts (East Timor Government, 2015). Food and accommodation in Dili is quite expensive, due to the large number of international staff and advisors who can afford higher prices, as well as the reliance on imported goods (Tolkach, 2013b). 21 Six local tour companies operate on the ground in Timor-Leste, with packages ranging from one- day to several weeks, and many can be tailored to the traveller’s choosing. At one point an Australian-based company, Intrepid Travel, offered a 15-day tour from Australia, however the trips were discontinued in 2014 (Intrepid Travel, 2016) due to poor traveller numbers.
Timor-Leste can be reached directly by air from only three cities: Darwin, Singapore and Denpasar. AirNorth offers eight flights per week from Darwin, costing anything from USD $160 to $680 for the 1.25 hour journey (Air North, 2016). Air Timor, under a wet-lease from Silk Air, offer three-times weekly return flights to Singapore. Two airlines offer flights to Bali; Sriwjaya provide daily services and Garuda Indonesia recently launched a daily Bali to Dili return in partnership with Air Timor, filling the schedule recently run by Merpati. AirTimor’s new flights are not targeted to an inbound tourist market, but rather to the outbound market of expats and Timorese wishing to travel to Indonesia for holiday and shopping (Natahadibrata, 2015).
1.5.7 The case for tourism
Sustainable and socially responsible tourism has been a priority in Timor-Leste since independence (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009) and is seen as an important means to diversify the economy, decrease regional economic imbalances (Timor-Leste Government, 2011) and provide employment and foreign exchange inflows (Dutra et al., 2011).
Further, outside tourism, Timor-Leste has few opportunities for sustained economic growth. As discussed, agriculture is the largest sector of employment, but struggles to generate income as evidenced by an export-import deficit (CIA, 2016). The UN and aid agency workers have provided demand for retail services, however with international programs scaling down and the UN withdrawal in 2012, these services industries will begin to suffer (Everingham, 2012). Manufacturing and other industries currently cannot provide for large-scale employment due to the lack of resource base and small local economy (Kingsbury, 2012).
Oil extraction, by far the nation’s greatest earner, generates little employment for Timorese citizens, especially in terms of highly paid or skilled jobs (La'o Hamutuk, 2012) and reduces focus on developing other sectors of the economy (Thaler, 2011) resembling what some may term a ‘resource curse’ (La'o Hamutuk, 2013). The government is committed to diversifying and growing non-oil exports to avoid depending upon an exhaustible source of petroleum (The World Bank, 2011, Tempo Semanal, 2015).
22 With rapid urbanisation taking place (Ministry of Finance, 2010), tourism can also provide regional job opportunities for young Timorese and allow them to remain in their home districts. Tourism also has the potential to preserve and celebrate cultural traditions and artifacts (Dutra et al., 2011), and highlight the differences between each district. It could also drive infrastructure development across the country, including roads, electricity and access to drinking water, which although initially for tourists, could in turn benefit local residents.
At the same time, Timor-Leste is a viable destination for tourism, boasting natural, cultural and historic attributes. The Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030, the most detailed government document for tourism development and planning, cites eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, religious tourism and event tourism as major niches that could be suitable for Timor- Leste (Timor-Leste Government, 2011).
The beauty of the landscape and the country’s rich biodiversity has been a major attraction for tourists across the past decade (Palmer and Carvalho, 2008). Timor-Leste lies within the ‘Coral Triangle’, one of the world’s most biodiverse areas of coral and reef fish, and Wallacea, an area rich in unique flora and fauna (Teutsch, 2008).
Ancient history, for example the authentic arts and crafts produced by the country’s diverse and ancient indigenous groups, (Dutra et al., 2011) as well as more recent history, including Portuguese colonisation and Indonesian resistance, provide tourism appeal (Dutta, 2012, Rose, 2012, Tourism Timor-Leste, 2012). For Australian tourists, war history is a major attraction (Australian War Memorial, 2013, Dennis et al., 2008, Gunn, 1999). The Dare memorial an hour outside Dili commemorates Australian involvement in WWII and the support of Timorese counterparts (Cocks, 2011). Similarly, Balibo is an important historic site for Australians, where five journalists were murdered at the start of the Indonesian invasion (Market Development Facility, 2015).
For many travellers, Timor-Leste can provide not only a more authentic cultural experience, but a multitude of opportunities to ‘give back’ to the communities they are visiting. As former President Jose Ramos-Horta explained in the Timor-Leste Lonely Planet guide: “Travellers visiting now will share in a unique and historical moment, experiencing a country that is stepping into a peaceful and democratic reality” (Ramos-Horta, 2011a, p.xi).
23 1.5.8 Image and destination marketing
While there are many challenges to growing tourism in Timor-Leste, one of the major concerns is simply encouraging people to visit (ABC News, 2008). This has to do with both the nation’s current image and a lack of coordinated promotion; both of these issues form the focus of this thesis.
As already discussed, the negative image of Timor-Leste as a ‘dangerous place’, is still purported in much of the press and in travel advisory warnings for many developed nations (Carlos and Carlos, 2011). The current DFAT warning for Australians is to ‘exercise a high degree of caution... because of the uncertain security situation’ (smartraveller.gov.au, 2016).
The media reports of 1999 brought home graphic scenes of the violence in Timor-Leste and were circulated heavily around Australia and internationally (Tapsell and Eidenfalk, 2013). Those who had never heard of Timor-Leste became aware of it in the context of war reporting, which at the time played an important role in instigating action and change. However, the perception of Timor-Leste as a dangerous and war-torn nation has been hard to repair, and it could be argued the impact of war and conflict has ensured the Timor-Leste tourism product has been underexploited (Rohner, 2006).
In 2008 then President Jose Ramos Horta urged Australians to visit Timor-Leste and support the nation, arguing that Dili is one of the safest cities in the region, yet, despite its proximity to Darwin, few Australians consider Timor-Leste as a holiday destination (ABC News, 2008).
At the same time, marketing and promotional attempts to overcome this image have been fragmented. The 2011-2030 Strategic Development Plan identifies tourist marketing as a key step, insisting that: “an international tourist marketing strategy will be developed to promote Timor- Leste as a preferred destination for travel. This will include ‘branding’ Timor-Leste as an unspoilt boutique tourist destination, along with implementing an integrated marketing, advertising and public relations strategy” (Timor-Leste Government, 2011, p.149). However four years later, the government has not begun to implement these objectives.
A 2007 World Tourism Organisation report, as part of their Sustainable Tourism Sector Development and Institutional Strengthening Project in Timor-Leste, identified a number of possible markets, products and marketing strategies available to Timor-Leste as part of their broader tourism strategy (United Nations Development Program, 2007). The strategies were not developed in conjunction with government or stakeholders and it appears few have been implemented. In 2011, the government invested in tourism marketing when a former Miss
24 Australia controversially secured a lucrative tourism contract (Whyte, 2011). However this, too, yielded minimal results.
At present, it is exceedingly difficult to find tourism information from a consistent source, which is arguably a deterrent to many tourists. The country’s tourism website, for example, changes URL frequently, making it extremely confusing to potential visitors. Similarly, there is no widely used destination brand, despite this being outlined as a priority in the Strategic Development Plan 2011. The slogan ‘Land of Discovery’ was successfully launched in 2002, however was replaced by the ‘Turismo Timor-Leste’ logo, developed by a Portuguese agency, in 2005. The logo was infrequently and inconsistency used and although the Tourism Ministry developed a new logo in 2012, it was intended to brand the Ministry as opposed to the country.
It appears that while tourism is vital to the country’s development, and tourism marketing a key element of its development strategy, progress in this area has been fragmented. This thesis therefore hopes to make a necessary and practical contribution in developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste. It is hoped this brand can help overcome the negative international perception of Timor-Leste and allow the nation to build international tourism.
1.6. THESIS STRUCTURE
This chapter has provided an outline of the theoretical framework that underpins this thesis. It has outlined the research objective, anticipated contribution to knowledge and a background to the case study of Timor-Leste.
Chapter 2, the literature review, will undertake a more detailed analysis of destination brand theory including its key definitions, concepts and challenges, followed by the theory specific to the process of building a destination brand and measuring a destination’s image. It will then explore the context of marketing a developing nation and destination brand theory as it relates to the conditions of Timor-Leste: that being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a new nation. It will conclude with a review of the literature as it relates to the branding of Timor-Leste and a summary of the key theoretical gaps this thesis will fill.
Chapter 3, the methodology, will discuss the stages of research that have been undertaken to fulfill the research objective. Firstly, a theoretical framework is developed for the branding of Timor-Leste. This is followed by an outline of the qualitative stakeholder and consumer research necessitated by this framework to undertake a step-by-step process for the branding of Timor- Leste. 25 Chapters 4 to 7 detail the research findings of this thesis. Chapter 4 discusses the importance of a stakeholder-led approach and analyses stakeholder response towards tourism and destination branding. Chapter 5 undertakes a product analysis of Timor-Leste. Chapter 6 looks at the intangible attributes of Timor-Leste as a destination: namely its personality and position, then undertakes the process of destination brand development. Chapter 7 analyses the consumer research to develop an understanding of Timor-Leste’s current image in the marketplace and the potential for a change in image following the development of the destination brand.
Chapter 8 outlines the conclusion of this thesis and addresses the research questions and future implications of the study.
26 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter critically reviews knowledge relevant to the core aim of this thesis: to develop a destination brand for Timor-Leste. As discussed, it is important an academic framework is developed that is both practical and ethical and can guide the brand building process for Timor- Leste and other emerging and post-conflict economies.
The chapter therefore commences by establishing a strong understanding of the concept of destination branding, including its key definitions, core components and current challenges. The discussion is followed by an analysis of the branding literature most relevant to this thesis: creating a destination brand. The purpose of this analysis is not only to elucidate key theories and gaps in the debate but also to guide the branding process and apply ‘best practice’ techniques to the case of Timor-Leste.
While proponents of destination branding suggest it can ‘work economic miracles’ (Volcic et al., 2013), particularly for emerging and post-conflict nations, this thesis acknowledges the ethical and potentially damaging impact of branding places. Therefore the next section of this chapter looks at the context of marketing a developing nation, then analyses the branding literature based on the characteristics of Timor-Leste: that being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a ‘brand new’ nation. This section discusses the relevant issues and again develops ideas for ‘best practice’ to help inform an ethical and responsible approach to branding Timor-Leste.
Finally this chapter analyses the branding, marketing and tourism literature as it relates to the case study: Timor-Leste. The chapter concludes with a summary of the literature and research gaps this thesis will fill.
2.1. UNDERSTANDING DESTINATION BRANDING
Today’s consumer is spoilt for choice of travel destination. All leading destinations offer friendly people, spectacular views, tourist infrastructure and transport as well as accommodation at a range of prices (Ashton, 2015), thus the need for destinations to promote a unique identity is more critical than ever (Morgan et al., 2003). As a result, the concept of ‘branding’ is now widely applied to destinations (Ashton, 2014). A strong, unique brand is seen as essential to differentiate a destination from competitors and to stand out in visitors’ minds amongst the many available recreational choices (Qu et al., 2011). According to Morgan et al. (2004) destinations offer the greatest untapped branding opportunity as they tap into the emotional power of travel (Morgan et al., 2004, Santos and Campo, 2014). 27 Destination branding is hailed by its proponents as a key national asset (Baker and Cameron, 2008, Kotler and Gertner, 2002), the basis for survival within a globally competitive marketplace (Morgan et al., 2003) and the most powerful marketing weapon available to contemporary destination marketers (Santos and Campo, 2014).
However, before being able to practically apply destination branding techniques to the emerging nation of Timor-Leste, it is important to understand the concept of destination branding, as well as elucidate its key terms and core components. This section therefore asks: what actually constitutes a brand? How do destination brands differ from nation brands and product brands? What are the main challenges inherent in destination branding? To further analyse the concept, this section then unpacks the core components of a destination brand: including brand identity, brand image, brand personality and brand position.
It is from this initial understanding of destination branding, that more detailed literature on creating a destination brand (section 2.2.1) and measuring destination image (section 2.2.2) will then be analysed.
2.1.1 What is a brand?
The word ‘brand’, according to Blackett and Russell (1999) derives from the old Norse word meaning, to burn, from when owners marked livestock to identify and distinguish them from their neighbours (Nadeau et al., 2011). Coca-Cola developed one of the first product brands in the 1880s, when it branded the drink to distinguish it from the other fizzy beverages on the market (McLaughlin, 2011).
This initial use of branding developed into a widely accepted definition provided by Aaker (1991) as: “A distinguishing name and/or symbol (such as a logo, trademark, or package design) intended to identify the good or services of either one seller group or a group of sellers and to differentiate those goods from those of competitors” (Aaker, 1991, p.7). This definition is still used by the American Marketing Association (American Marketing Association, 2016).
However, across the last two decades the concept of branding has become understood as more than just ‘brand name’. While Aaker’s earlier definition perceives brands exclusively in relation to their logos and associated visual features, modern definitions view the concept more broadly (Pike, 2009a), suggesting that brands present a story to potential consumers, who then feel an emotional connection (Morgan et al., 2003). This enables the consumer to forge a deep, lasting and intimate connection with the brand (Santos and Campo, 2014) that transcends beyond 28 simply recognising its name or logo. As Pike and Bianchi (2016) argue, destination branding has become more complex than merely the design of product names and symbols. Today Coca-Cola, for example, represents far more than just a drink.
This is an important distinction within the concept of brand; demonstrating that brands can be interpreted in a narrower or wider sense (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). Keller (2002) argues that while a logo and symbol may technically comprise a brand, a brand can be defined on much broader terms as something that creates awareness, reputation and prominence in the marketplace. He contends that a distinction should be made between the narrower definition of a ‘small b’ brand versus the larger definition of a ‘big B’ brand (Keller, 2002).
Building upon this, de Chernatony (2006) contends that brands blend functional attributes with emotional values. The functional element consists of tangible and practical attributes and involves a rational assessment of product benefits or functional performance (de Chernatony et al., 2000, Balakrishnan et al., 2011) while the symbolic dimension satisfies needs ahead of functional requirements and evokes a deeper emotion. For example, buying a Jaguar may not mean a rational assessment of its features but rather the emotional value of prestige that the Jaguar brand offers (de Chernatony, 2006).
It is the emotional component of a brand that is much harder to emulate than merely functional attributes, thereby making branding a very powerful tool (de Chernatony, 2006). As Wager and Peters (2009) explain, while a competitor can copy a product; a brand is unique; and whilst a product can be easily outdated, a successful brand is timeless.
A useful definition is provided by Anholt & Hildreth (2004) who suggest brand is: ‘nothing more, and nothing less than the good name of something that’s on offer to the public’ (Anholt and Hildreth, 2004). Similarly, leading brand practitioner, David Ogilvy, defines brand as: ‘the intangible sum of a product’s attributes’ (McLaughlin, 2011). Both definitions suggest brands have functional elements but also the power to create an emotional connection.
In a recent report on the world’s most valuable brands, leading brand strategists, Brand Finance, once again ranked Apple as the world’s most valuable brand (Brand Finance, 2015). The ranking is conducted by assessing brand strength, forecasted revenues and current royalty rate (i.e. what the company could charge for use of the brand). Leader Apple was followed by Samsung, Google and Microsoft, and had an estimated worth of US$128,303 million (Brand Finance, 2015). It appears that the notion of ‘brand’ has well and truly transcended merely a means of identification and is now a very powerful marketing tool.
29 2.1.2 Nations as brands
Historically there has been some contention as to whether the brand concept could be transferred to the level of country, however the number of nation brand advocates has grown dramatically in the new millennium (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). It appears that to generate an effective position and positive image in the marketplace, countries, like products and services, can, and should be branded (Olins, 2002, Pike, 2005, Morgan and Pritchard, 2002, Dinnie et al., 2010, Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Patrascu, 2014).
In defining the concept of ‘nation branding’, Szondi (2008) contends there are surprisingly few definitions of the construct, but suggests nation branding is ‘the strategic self-presentation of a country’ (Dinnie et al., 2010). Fan (2006) echoes this sentiment, arguing that there is no single definition and that the concept of nation branding can be interpreted in several different ways.
An important distinction is that between nation branding and traditional product branding. Anholt (2007, p.xi) argues that “the reputations of countries are rather like the brand images of companies and products, and equally important”. Similarly nation branding uses the tools, techniques and expertise of commercial branding to help a nation articulate a cohesive national identity (Aronczyc, 2013).
Brand scholar and strategist Wally Olins, however, contends that managing a nation brand is “infinitely more complex, sophisticated, difficult and above all long term than managing a similar activity for a commercial organisation” (Olins, 2005, p.178). This suggests that while nations can of course still be branded, it is essential the key differences between product and nation are understood. Indeed, Patrascu (2014) argues that nation branding goes far beyond the features of traditional product branding.
Morgan and Pritchard (2002) contend that place products are more complex and therefore more challenging for the marketer to brand. While a product brand may be pushed to the people but owned by the company, a nation brand is owned by the people (Coates, 2014). Indeed nations are often fragmented and consist of diverse stakeholders with distinct goals (Haugland et al., 2011). As Kalandides et al. (2013) argue, the role of residents as citizens can ‘make or break’ a place branding strategy. The important role of stakeholders in destination branding will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 3.
Another important distinction between place and product brands, is that while a new product is launched by a branding campaign, a nation is already a developed product and therefore, in effect, requires a ‘re-branding’ strategy (Garcia et al., 2012). Regardless of whether a country
30 consciously brands itself, it will be already perceived in a certain way by people within and outside the country (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011). For example, as Olins (2002) contends in his famous example of France, the nation has been in effect ‘re-branded’ by various historical leaders for centuries, experiencing five republics, two empires and at least four kingdoms. Van Ham (2008) cites another example as the changing of a country’s name, such as from Gold Coast to Ghana in 1957 and Southern Rhodesia to Zimbabwe.
This raises the interesting concept that a nation in fact has a brand, with or without nation branding (Fan, 2006). In other words, each nation has an organic reputation regardless of what marketing has been done (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014). This organic reputation can then be altered through active marketing such as the development of a new nation brand. As Hankinson (2007) suggests, unlike mainstream product marketing, which begins with new product development, place marketing begins with an existing or old product with which the various stakeholders already have an association. In this way, it could be therefore argued that nation or place branding is in effect a re-branding, due to the fact that all places have an intrinsic image (Olins, 2002).
2.1.3 Destinations as brands
Within the larger field of ‘nation branding’ lies the focus of this thesis: destination branding. While a nation could be defined as a large group of people of the same race and language (Fan, 2006), a destination is a place that attracts visitors for a temporary stay, and can include a country, continent, state, city, village or even a purpose-built resort area (Pike, 2004).
In general, the former is viewed as a wider concept, which may include branding for tourism purposes, but also marketing for reasons of attracting investment, residents, increasing exports and even enhancing diplomacy (Dinnie et al., 2010, Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). While nation branding comes from a desire to make people see the country in a different light, it offers no single product or service for sale (Anholt, 2008) unlike destination branding, which markets a defined ‘product’.
Ritchie and Ritchie (1998) introduced one of the most cited definitions for destination branding: ‘A name, symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic that both identifies and differentiates the place; furthermore, it conveys the promise of a memorable travel experience that is uniquely associated with the place; it also serves to consolidate and reinforce pleasurable memories of the place experience’ (Ritchie and Ritchie, 1998, p.17).
31 Qu et al. (2011) argue that destination brands provide two important functions: identification and differentiation. Brand identity is critical for the generalization of desirable characteristics and generates a value proposition for the consumer (Aaker, 1996) while differentiation enables a destination to be perceived as distinctive and unique, making it hard to be replaced by other brands (Qu et al., 2011). Shams (2016) suggests that a destination brand supports the creation of a name, symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic, while at the same time conveying the promise of a memorable travel experience that is uniquely associated with the destination.
Blain et al. (2005) suggest that branding provides value for both the seller and buyer alike arguing that for visitors, effective destination branding provides an assurance of quality experiences and reduces both search costs and perceived risk (Blain et al., 2005, Garcia et al., 2012, Santos and Campo, 2014). For destinations and their marketers, substitutability has become a major problem, especially in the more competitive arenas such as the sun, sea and sand markets (Pike, 2004, Baker and Cameron, 2008). Many destinations still promote similar attributes such as beautiful scenery, golden beaches, blue seas, or friendly places in their advertisements (Usakli and Baloglu, 2011). However, positioning destinations based on only their functional attributes makes them easily substitutable and susceptible to heavy competition (Boo et al., 2009, Pike, 2005).
Further to this, tourists are becoming more discerning and destination choice can be seen as an indication of lifestyle and an expression of identity in an increasingly homogenous world (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002, Baker and Cameron, 2008). Morgan et al. (2003) contend that when consumers make brand choices about a destination, they are in fact making lifestyle statements and buying into an emotional relationship. Therefore for marketers and destination marketing organisations (DMO’s), the ‘seller’ as such, destination branding can be seen as: “a strategic mechanism used to maneuver through the cluttered marketplace and capture the attention of potential customers” (Santos and Campo, 2014, p.94).
In the past decade, there has been an increase in the academic investigation of destination brands (Cai, 2002, Morgan and Pritchard, 2002, Hankinson, 2005, Hankinson, 2007, Pike, 2005, Pike, 2009b, Ruzzier, 2012, Garcia et al., 2012, Ashton, 2014, Jiang et al, 2015). However despite this, it is argued that studies do not offer a universal definition of a destination brand and the field remains in its infancy (Lee et al, 2006, Pike, 2009a, Ruzzier, 2012, Morgan and Pritchard, 2014, Jiang et. al, 2015).
While literature on more general product branding originated in the 1940s, research applying branding principles to nations and destinations only emerged as recently as the 1990s (Pike, 2005). The first destination branding studies were published in 1998 (Pike, 2009b) and in the 32 same year, destination branding gained visibility as the focal topic at the Travel and Tourism Research Association’s annual conference (Blain et al., 2005). In 1999 the first special issue of a journal on destination branding was published in the Journal of Vacation Marketing, followed by a special issue on place branding in the Journal of Brand Management in 2002 (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002), and, more recently, on destination branding in Tourism Analysis in 2007 (Ruzzier, 2012).
However, despite the growing number of comprehensive works, Anholt (2004), describes the real world of international branding as a ‘bloody business’ in comparison to the academic perspective, indicating a disconnect between theory, research and practice. Indeed destination branding remains a ‘relatively new’ development (Mocanu, 2014) and there is still a need for greater understanding of the benefits (and shortcomings) of developing and managing a destination brand (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014). Literature on ‘creating a destination brand’ will be discussed in section 2.2 of this chapter.
This thesis therefore hopes to both contribute to an understanding of destination brand development while at the same time providing a practical approach that bridges the gap between theory and practice. This thesis will take a stakeholder approach to branding, looking at the concepts, challenges and process of destination branding from a DMO and resident perspective as opposed to a consumer-driven approach, the rationale for which is discussed in the methodology. While a considerable amount of research has been undertaken into the desires, motivations and behaviours of tourists (Brickell, 2012) such literature is beyond the scope of this thesis.
2.1.4 Brand identity and brand image
Pike (2009) asserts that understanding the concept of destination brand requires an understanding of the distinction between the concepts of destination brand identity and destination brand image. The former is the brand’s desired image, developed by marketers, the latter is how the brand is perceived by consumers (Pike, 2009b). Figure 2 helps depict the relationship between the two concepts.
33 Brand BrandBrand ! Brand identity personalityposition! image ! ! ! Desired Name! Image held brand image! Symbol! by consumer! Slogan! !
Figure 2: Pike’s Brand Identity Model. Source: Pike, 2004, p.112
Brand identity is the self-image to which the destination aspires (Lehto et al., 2014) and provides a direction, purpose and meaning for the brand that is central to its strategic vision (Aaker, 1996). A brand identity is the desired destination brand image, that encompasses the brand’s vision, values and personality (Pike, 2009a).
Brand image, on the other hand, is held in the minds of consumers (Lehto et al., 2014) and is based on their experiences, impressions and perceptions of the destination (Glińska and Kilon, 2014). A definition for brand image was coined by Baloglu and McCleary (1999, p.870) and is still widely used, as: ‘an individual’s mental representation of knowledge (beliefs), feelings, and global impression about a destination’. In other words, image is how a brand is perceived by the receiver as opposed to identity which is created by the sender (Qu et al., 2011, Garcia et al., 2012, Balakrishnan et al., 2011, Scott et al., 2011, Glińska and Kilon, 2014, Lehto et al., 2014).
Therefore, while marketers may hold control over a destination’s brand identity, they cannot fully control the destination’s brand image. While a destination’s brand is what its people want the world to understand about their nation (Scott et al., 2011) image is subjective as it always corresponds to an internalisation of some perceptions, and not everyone has the same perceptions (Gallarza et al. 2002). Therefore one’s feelings toward a destination brand will be affected by personal prejudice relating to its image.
This point can be illustrated using the case study of Brand Australia, which is considered a ‘pioneering country’ in the field of brand development (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). Tourism Australia describe the destination’s brand identity on their website as: The unique experiences you have and the people you meet will make you feel uplifted and full of life (Tourism Australia,
34 2016). However this brand identity is only the desired brand image that Tourism Australia hope to create for visitors, as the organisation cannot have complete control over the image visitors have or will have of the destination.
Gunn (1972) suggests that image consists of an ‘organic image’ and an ‘induced image’. The former is developed from non-commercial information sources including mass media, popular culture and general knowledge about a destination (Gunn, 1993) and is the accumulation of a person’s perception about a place that cannot be controlled by destination marketers (Tasci and Gartner, 2007, Wang et al., 2014). The induced image, on the other hand, is a consequence of exposure to commercial sources such as travel agents and brochures (Michaelidou et al., 2013) and advertisements from destination promoters (Wang et al., 2014).
Essentially, a destination image evolves from an organic image to an induced image through exposure to travel information (Jeong et al., 2012). Marketers craft promotional materials to influence the induced image and stimulate potential tourists to visit a destination (Noh and Vogt, 2013). Michaelidou et al. (2013) suggests that an organic destination image has higher credibility than an induced image. However, if marketers are able to create induced destination images that are consistent with the organic images tourists and /or potential tourists hold of a destination, they can become more credible (Michaelidou et al., 2013). In other words, using the example of Brand Australia, potential consumers will likely have an existing image of Australia, but this can be altered through targeted brand and marketing campaigns.
Indeed it appears that while a brand identity can help shape a consumer’s image of a destination, a number of variable factors will undoubtedly affect destination image, and many of these are outside a marketer’s control. While destination marketers cannot control a consumer’s organic image of a destination, they can alter consumers’ induced image through commercial brand marketing and information. A more detailed analysis of the value of understanding destination image and the measurement of destination image will be outlined in section 2.2.2.
2.1.5 Brand position
The third element of Pike’s diagram, see Figure 2, is the concept of brand positioning, which can be seen as the ‘interface’ between the brand’s identity and its image (Lehto et al., 2014). According to Pike, the brand’s position can be conveyed by its name, symbol and logo (Pike, 2009b). Aaker (1996) suggests brand position is the part of the brand identity and value proposition that is to be actively communicated to the target audience and that demonstrates an
35 advantage over competing brands. It is felt that position differs from image in that it implies a frame of reference, the reference point usually being the competition (Harrison-Walker, 2011). If a brand is perceived as unique, it is hard to be replaced by another brand (Qu et al., 2011).
Dinnie (2008) contends that it is not sufficient for a nation to just have a strong brand; in order to be successful over the long term, the destination brand must be seen more favorably than its competitors (Harrison-Walker, 2011, Dinnie et al., 2010). In other words, a brand’s position is how it is perceived in the minds of consumers, relative to competitive offerings (Harrison-Walker, 2011). Establishing uniqueness is a crucial element to branding success.
Building upon this, Liyanag and Jayawardena (2013) suggest positioning is a ‘pivotal concept’ as it allows a destination to own a distinctive position in the consumer’s mind. The level of ‘buy in’ from the destination’s target market determines the level of competitive advantage achieved by the destination (Daye, 2010).
In the case of Brand Australia, the organisation has designed a positioning statement, which ‘outlines the strengths and associations that make the brand not only different but also meaningful’ (Tourism Australia, 2016): “The people of Australia are friendly and straight talking and open. Their sense of mateship and their no worries attitude make all visitors feel welcome. They make it easy to enjoy adventures beyond imagination. Whether it’s in Australia’s wide- open landscapes, pristine oceans or vibrant cities a holiday in Australia is an opportunity to experience a vast yet accessible adventure playground” (Tourism Australia, 2016). Brand Australia, it appears, has positioned itself on the people and the landscapes as key points of difference. This is a potentially dangerous brand position as relaxed locals and beautiful scenery are not unique to any one nation.
Ashton (2015) suggests that presenting a showcase of the country’s history, culture and scenery is not enough to market a destination – its originality and uniqueness must also be portrayed. Indeed as Harrison-Walker (2011) argues, destination advertising campaigns are often criticised for making generic claims and failing to establish uniqueness. Campaigns that rely on stereotypical national ‘identities’ may not resonate with international markets (Abodeeb, 2015) and fail to achieve cut-through if their message is too homogenous (Apostolakis et al, 2015).
New Zealand on the other hand, through their highly successful ‘100% pure’ campaign, defines their position more simply as: ‘an adventurous new land and an adventurous new culture on the edge of the Pacific Ocean’ (Tourism New Zealand Trade, 2016). Maurice Saatchi, the founding partner of the firm who developed the original global campaign, described it in the following terms: “As the world becomes increasingly ‘manufactured’, the world’s nations have become 36 more and more homogenous. It’s become almost impossible to find meaningful differentiation. But New Zealand is different. It’s an authentic country. New Zealand doesn’t come pre-packaged or prepared. New Zealand is real” (cited in Morgan and Pritchard, 2003, p.292).
New Zealand’s brand position suggests a point of difference from the competition and emphasises the unique traits of the nation. It is not surprising, therefore, that Tourism NZ has created a powerful travel destination brand, and in doing so, positioned New Zealand as an important niche destination (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002).
The discussion suggests that when developing a destination brand, it is vital the strategy be based on the unique place attributes as opposed to more common or undifferentiated features (Apostolakis et al, 2015). As Pike (2009a) contends, marketers must cut through the noise of competing and substitute products, by establishing a brand position to stimulate an induced destination image that matches the brand identity.
2.1.6 Brand personality
A key element of a brand’s identity is its personality, defined by J. Aaker (1997) as the set of human characteristics associated with a destination. Although brands are not people, they can be personified (Pereira et al., 2015). For example, one may associate ‘cool’ with Coca Cola, ‘masculine’ with Marlboro cigarettes or ‘sophisticated’ with a BMW car (Usakli and Baloglu, 2011). Similarly destinations can also be described by human personality traits, such as Spain as ‘friendly and family oriented’, Paris as ‘romantic’ and London as ‘open-minded, vibrant and creative’ (Ekinci and Hosany, 2006, Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). As Morgan and Pritchard (2014) suggest, a brand’s personality has both a head and a heart – its head refers to the logical brand features, whilst its heart refers to the emotional benefits.
In the case of Brand Australia, the brand personality is described as high spirited, down to earth, irreverent and welcoming (Tourism Australia, 2016). Brand ‘100% Pure’ New Zealand has taken quite a different approach with its brand personality described as: clean, green, smart, innovative, and creative (Hall, 2010).
Such human characteristics enable consumers to associate with the brand, giving them something that is vivid, alive, and more complete than what is conveyed by a generic offering (Guiry and Vequist, 2014). For Brand Australia consumers may feel a sense of friendship with being both welcoming and down to earth. ‘100% Pure’ New Zealand’s personality may engender respect and intrigue. Indeed a brand personality is based on ‘soft’ or intangible associations and 37 presents a more emotional side of the brand image (Glińska and Kilon, 2014).
Hultman et al. (2015) argue that although studies differ on the context and application of a destination’s personality, they all reach similar conclusions about its value. A powerful brand personality is thought to enhance a destination’s perceived utility and desirability (Kotler and Gertner, 2002, Morgan et al., 2003) and create a set of unique associations to develop stronger emotional ties, influence consumer perception and differentiate a brand from its competitors (Usakli and Baloglu, 2011). Given a brand’s personality is felt by the individuals who buy the brand, brand personality is often said to be a hypothetical construct developed by the consumer (Sung et al., 2015).
It is felt that consumers prefer brands with personalities that are congruent with their own personality (Aaker, 1999, Usakli and Baloglu, 2011). The greater the match between the destination personality and the visitor’s self-concept, the more likely the visitor will have a favorable attitude toward that destination (Sirgy and Su, 2000). Matzler et al. (2016) suggest that the effectiveness of a brand-personification strategy depends on whether the brand personality is congruent with the consumer's self-image given individuals strive to maintain cognitive consistency in their beliefs and behaviour.
However Balakrishnan et al. (2011) suggest consumers tend to choose brands whose perceived images are similar not only to their actual image but also their ‘ideal, ideal-social and situational- ideal-social images’. In a destination context, this connection between self-image and destination image demonstrates that lifestyle and value systems are key elements in destination choice processes (Murphy et al., 2007) and that travel is increasingly about experiences, fulfilment, and self-expression (King, 2002, Murphy et al., 2007).
Although brand personality research dates back several decades, its application to tourist destinations is relatively new (Hultman et al. 2015). Further, Pereira et al. (2015) argue that while academic interest in the concept of destination brand personality has grown across the past three decades, most of the work developed focusses on the measurement of destination brand personality and is based on Jennifer Aaker’s (1997) model. However, while these studies measure destination brand personality, there appears to be a dearth of research on the process of developing a destination brand personality. This is a research gap this thesis seeks to fill.
It becomes apparent there is a strong need for destination marketers to develop a brand personality to differentiate the brand from competitors and enhance its perceived value (Hultman et al. 2015). Personality is one of the core elements of a destination brand as it can provide the platform for an emotional connection with tourists and develop a favourable image 38 (Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou 2015). Therefore in developing a brand personality as part of Timor-Leste’s destination brand, this thesis will contribute to the academic discourse on destination brand personality, and more specifically the processes involved in creating a personality as part of a destination brand.
2.1.7 Destination branding challenges
While destination brands are commonly compared to corporate brands, the nature of destination branding is far more complex (Ruzzier, 2012, Morgan et al., 2003). One main factor is the size and diversity of stakeholders that are part of any destination (Konecnik and Go, 2008, Cai, 2009, Ruzzier, 2012). Places are complex entities and it is a challenge to bring together and negotiate the interests of the various interdependent players (Lichrou et al., 2010) thus making destination branding a highly politicized activity (Morgan et al., 2003).
Not only do tourism stakeholders carry different interests (Marzano and Scott, 2009), they can exert varied levels of power, for example, large stakeholders such as airlines can market what they believe to be the most attractive product at the expense of broader brand identity and smaller stakeholders (Baker and Cameron, 2008). Furthermore, some stakeholders, such as the destination’s people, may be oblivious to the country’s brand and not necessarily motivated to live the brand (Vasudevan, 2008).
Destination marketers have the difficult task of reconciling local and regional interests and promoting tourism in a manner that is acceptable to a range of public and private sector constituencies (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010). They often work with limited budgets compared to many global consumer product brands, requiring them to ‘outsmart rather than outspend the competition’ (Morgan and Pritchard, 2003). A further issue is that many DMOs are “self-serving bureaucracies, which are not nimble nor fleet of foot” (Baker and Cameron, 2008, p.83) and thus lack the proficiency and flexibility to manage a destination brand.
Destinations are also subject to shocks in the external environment, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks or the war in Iraq (Baker and Cameron, 2008) and to internal political events which may affect parts of the country’s overall identity (Nadeau et al., 2011). Indeed in both cases, uncontrollable events may affect the visitor experience and contribute to the underdevelopment of destination brands (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). For destination marketers it is difficult to have such limited control over the product they have responsibility to brand (Zouganeli et al., 2012).
39 Across the last decade, the challenge for marketers’ has been further compounded by the rising prevalence of digital marketing and social media (Oliveira and Panyik, 2014). User-created content (such as blogs, twitter, social networks and forums such as TripAdvisor) now provides powerful branding outside traditional advertising channels, which further reduces the control of official place marketers in managing destination image (Bouchon, 2013).
Morgan et al. (2003) suggest that the very notion of destination branding has been greeted by skepticism or even hostility, by those who argue that it undermines a destination’s sense of place and commodifies ‘nationhood’. Hall (2007) debates whether the application of branding to destinations is in fact contributing to the homogenisation of places which is contrary to the fundamental objective of branding: differentiation. Places which attempt to adapt their resources solely for the satisfaction of tourists’ needs, may neglect the needs of the community and thus sacrifice what made them attractive and unique originally (Lichrou et al., 2010).
Vitic and Ringer (2008) caution the use of erroneous or simplistic images in destination branding, claiming once a stereotype has been developed it can be overly difficult to correct. Indeed care must be taken to avoid a commercial orientation which can destroy the destination’s identity characteristics (Konecnik and Go, 2008). In her example of the Kanak people in New Caledonia, D’Hauteserre (2011) takes this one step further and argues that when taken to extreme, tourism representations risk negatively exercising social control and maintaining power relations. These challenges will be addressed in greater depth in section 2.3.
2.2. CREATING A DESTINATION BRAND
While section 2.1 has provided a critical review of destination branding, its concepts and challenges, this next section will explore the process of branding or the application of branding techniques to a destination.
Divandari et al. (2014) argue that the challenge of destination branding is establishing a consistent and powerful brand, that takes into account the different aspects of place and the different types of stakeholders. Similarly North (2015) suggests that brand campaigns often fail when they try to distil the place down to a single tag line and logo. Destinations are complex entities and not only is it a challenge to bring together and negotiate the interests of the various interdependent players (Lichrou et al., 2010), it is also very difficult to distill the essence of place into a few key elements that will resonate with consumers.
40 Additionally, it has been argued that the study of destination branding calls for more scrutiny in the difference between what is perceived by tourists and what is projected by the destination marketing organisation (Cai, 2009). In other words, it is important marketers’ not only create a destination brand but also develop an understanding of whether the brand can impact consumers’ image of the destination. Dolnicar and Grun (2013) suggest that assessing destination image is crucial for marketers for four key reasons: 1) to assess how tourists currently view the destination, 2) to define how the destination would like to be perceived by tourists, 3) to develop and implement marketing action to modify the destination image, 4) to check if the intended change in destination image has occurred.
Therefore, in order to better understand the process of creating a destination brand, this section will firstly look at the various brand-building models available within the literature to help guide the branding process. It will then analyse the process of assessing a brand’s effectiveness on its target audience, by exploring the literature on assessing destination image. The purpose of this section is two-fold: Firstly, it seeks to find strategies to guide the brand development process and assessment to help apply ‘best practice’ branding techniques to the case of Timor-Leste. Secondly, it looks to elucidate key theories and gaps in the debate, to allow this thesis to provide an original contribution to knowledge.
2.2.1 Brand building models
In bringing together the multifaceted requirements of branding, Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony (2013) suggest that the best foundation can be offered through brand identity models. Having said this, the authors suggest that to date no universally agreed model of place brand identity is available (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013) and academic literature on the processes involved in successful destination branding is limited (Balakrishnan, 2009).
Similarly Lee et al. (2006) argue that much of the branding research focuses on packed goods and destination brand development is hampered by the lack of a conceptual framework. They argue there is a significant research gap in destination branding in terms of how its principles are translated into practical marketing activity (Lee et al., 2006).
Although branding is regarded as one of the most powerful tools available to destination marketers (Anholt, 2006a, Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Harrison-Walker, 2011, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Pomering and White, 2011, Morgan and Pritchard, 2014, Santos and Campo, 2014, Baker, 2012) current marketing literature appears to place more emphasis on case studies of successful
41 destination brands and a theoretical framework for destination branding is lacking (Divandari et al., 2014, Hankinson, 2009). As Aaker (1996, p.26) argues: “the brand builder who attempts to develop a strong brand is like a golfer playing on course with heavy roughs, deep sandtraps, sharp doglegs and vast water barriers. It is difficult to score well in such conditions.”
Even in looking to more practitioner research, brand expert Idris Mootee (2013), concurs that even in the corporate world brand management continues to take place without a unified theory and that ‘common sense branding’ is widely used. He argues: “Despite a recent boom in articles and books on the subject, branding remains an art. There are unrealistic expectations that methodologies or approaches are out there that can consistently, repetitively or systematically create great brands” (Mootee, 2013, p.72).
To contribute to this issue, in their recent publication, Divandari et al. (2014) compiled and assessed a number of brand-building models currently available in the literature. Through an analysis of these models, drawing upon their strength and values, they developed a new purpose-built framework for the branding of mega-projects in Iran. Their research contended that these eight models provide the most useful insights into the building of place and tourism brands (Divandari et al., 2014).
Similarly, Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony (2013) undertook a thorough literature review to attain a suitable model to guide the branding of Slovenia. However, the authors concluded that a number of models failed to provide specific detail and that none of the current models were adequate for their research (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013). They too were required to create a new model for the branding of Slovenia.
Due to a lack of literature in this area, this thesis has therefore developed a table of branding models currently available in the literature- see Table 1. The chart provides not only a short description of each model, but also an assessment of its usage in a destination context and an analysis of its relevance to this particular study. This thesis builds upon both Divandari et al. (2014) and Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony's (2013) contribution as well as proposing additional models, based upon a thorough literature review by the author of this thesis.
The chart lists a total of 14 models, as currently available in the literature. An analysis reveals that of the 14 models, only ten look at the development of a destination brand. For example, Kavaratzis' (2004) model looks at the communication processes required in marketing a place, as opposed to the development of that place’s brand.
42 While all ten models place importance on the brand identity development stage, only two, Aaker (1996) and the World Tourism Organisation and the European Travel Commission (2009), actually detail a step-by-step process of how a brand identity can be practically developed. Other models see brand identity development as the accumulation of desirable brand attributes (Morgan and Pritchard, 2007, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Hudson and Ritchie, 2009) or as a process to be undertaken by stakeholders and a ‘steering committee’ (Moilanen and Rainisto, 2009).
Of the only two models that look at the branding process, Aaker’s (1996) model is not specifically developed for the branding to destinations, thus would need modifications if applied to Timor- Leste. His model comprises three stages including a strategic brand analysis, brand identity development and brand identity implementation (Aaker, 1996). To develop a brand identity, Aaker (1996) argues it is useful to consider the brand as product, organization, person and symbol. He suggests using a ‘mental network’ to show the brand identity elements and the links between them (Aaker, 1996).
The World Tourism Organisation’s (2009) contribution proposes a destination audit, segmentation analysis and SWOT analysis, suggesting these are not necessarily sequential but should be undertaken simultaneously. A SWOT analysis is a valuable tool used in the preliminary stages of decision making and as a precursor for strategic planning (Santos and Campo, 2014). The WTO suggests a second round of stakeholder consultation in the branding process to ‘close any gaps’ between perceptions, arguing this should be conducted qualitatively, to elicit the key attributes of the destination (World Tourism Organisation and the European Travel Commission, 2009). The importance of stakeholder consultation is reinforced by Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony’s (2013) model and Baker and Cameron’s (2008) contribution.
The analysis demonstrates there is limited literature on the process of developing a destination brand. Indeed there is a lack of research that provides in-depth analysis of the specific activities involved in branding (Saraniemi, 2011) and no widely accepted model for building destination identity (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). Furthermore, it is evident that at present there is no model available or specific process for the branding of emerging and post-conflict destinations. This supports the contention that there has been little attention given to theorising the rebranding of negatively viewed nations (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012) and elucidating the ‘how to’ of branding in a post conflict environment.
Given this significant research gap, this thesis will therefore develop a new model for branding emerging and post-conflict nations, to be specifically applied to the case of Timor-Leste. In doing 43 so it will provide a contribution both to guide the branding of destinations more generally and to bridge the gap between academic theory and practical branding. Chapter 3 will outline the process involved in developing a new model for the branding of Timor-Leste.
44
Model Description Usage Relevance
Destination celebrity Measures brands on the axes of emotional appeal and A means to assess where The model does not detail matrix (Coshall, celebrity value. Destinations with little emotional pull face an the destination sits in ‘how to brand’; it rather helps 2000; Tapachai and uphill task to attract tourists, as opposed to those with high relation to competitive distill an understanding of Waryszak, 2000) emotional pull but limited celebrity value, which hold huge offerings. A brand current brand position. untapped potential. The celebrity of a place is not just based communications on tourists; marketers have to specify how the image of a strategy can then be place compares with the image of its key competitors. adjusted accordingly.
Five phase model of A five-stage model to build or destination brand or refresh the A useful five-stage Only stages one to two are destination branding image of an existing brand. The first stage involves a market process for the relevant for the process of (Morgan and investigation, including the brand’s relevance to consumers development of a brand. brand building. Brand identity Pritchard, 2007) and position against its competitors. Stage 2 develops the is viewed as an important step, brand identity which should be underpinned by the brand’s but little insight is given into core values. The authors suggest use of a ‘brand benefit the actual process. The pyramid’ to still brand essence for advertising. Stages 3 to 5 of suggested brand pyramid is the model include the brand launch, brand implementation useful for brand advertising and review. rather than brand development.
The relational The place brand is represented by a core brand, comprising A very useful model to Provides useful insight into the network brand personality, positioning and reality. There are then four organise the inter- role and importance of place (Hankinson 2004) dynamic brand relationships which extend the brand relationships of stakeholders and also experience and evolve over time. These include brand stakeholders in the highlights the necessity for infrastructure, consumer, primary service (i.e. hotel, retailer) branding process. To brand personality and position and media relationships. The ultimate success of the note this model is to match reality. Does not branding strategy relies on the effective extension of the core designed for place provide a ‘how to’ of brand brand through effective relationships with these four key branding, as opposed to development and is not stakeholder groups. destination branding. tailored to a destination context.
45 Model Description Usage Relevance
City brand A summary of the three forms of communication that drive Looks at place branding Does not focus on the process communications the image of a city. These include primary communication through the lens of of building destination brands. model (Kavaratzis (comprising landscape, infrastructure, and the behaviours), communication 2004) secondary communication (including advertising and PR) and structures and strategies. tertiary communication (such as word of mouth). The model To note, the model is contends that factors such as urban design and development developed for city and are key factors in city image. place branding strategies.
Critical Success Contends there are 33 different success factors in destination Useful step-by-step Although this check-list is very Factors in branding which can be clustered into four stages: strategic checklist of the elements valuable, it does not detail the Destination orientation, destination identity and image, stakeholder required to develop a requirements of individual marketing (Baker and involvement and implementation, monitoring and review. destination brand. steps (for example, how to Cameron 2008) Model contends that stage three, stakeholder involvement, is develop a brand identity and one of the fundamental requirements of destination position). branding, and that all groups affected by tourism development should play a role in determining its direction.
Building the Four-stage model for brand development that compares Similar to Morgan & Provides only an outline of the destination brand Morgan & Pritchard’s framework with the International Pritchard’s model this steps required for brand experience (Hudson Association of Convention and Visitor Bureau. Model provides useful steps in development, more so than a and Ritchie 2009) involves assessing the destination brand’s current situation, the development of a practical strategy to undertake developing a brand identity and promise, communicating the destination brand. these. brand promise and measuring the effectiveness of the brand building exercise. Essentially this model combines stages three and four of Morgan & Pritchard’s five stages model.
46 Model Description Usage Relevance
Branding Five-stage operational plan that not only lists the main stages, Detailed operational Does not detail the ‘how to’ of Operational Plan but also a preliminary timetable. Stage One, start-up and brand development plan developing the brand identity (Moilanen and organisation, looks at gaining commitment from management with useful timeline and core ideas; looks at the Rainisto 2009) and developing a steering group. Stage Two involves research outline. Strong process more as a discussion to identify factors to include in the brand identity. Stage involvement of and ‘strategic decisions.’ Three develops the brand identity, through a core idea and stakeholders and a promise of values. Stages Four and Five involve executing the ‘steering committee’ plan and following up for evaluation. throughout the process.
Middleton’s model This model argues the key ingredients for a great city brand Offers useful points to Does not provide a (Middleton 2009) involve: a clear and distinctive brand position, that is based on consider when methodological framework for the populations’ values and attitudes. This strategy should developing a brand. This brand development, just then deliver benefits to target groups, be communicated with strategy is designed elements to be considered. key internal influences, be integrated across various specifically for cities, marketing channels and be both consistently delivered over more so than tourist time. destinations.
Model for Systematic model for brand development across a range of Applicable to a variety of Not specifically tailored to a multipurpose mega- industries. Combines the impact of contextual conditions environments including destination brand context, nor projects in such as stakeholder and project location with intervening entertainment, does it articulate the process of entertainment, conditions such as government and financial support to residential, tourism and branding building or residential, tourism, develop the ‘core categories’ of brand development including sport, within a Persian development of elements such and sport in Iran Persian unique identity, place making and culture building. context. as brand identity and (Divandari et al. 2014) Model helps articulate brand consequences and outcomes. personality.
47 Model Description Usage Relevance
Brand Identity A three-stage branding model, each with a number of Step-by-step guide to Does not apply specifically to Planning Model intricate steps. Stage one advocates a strategic brand analysis brand development, destinations, therefore not all (Aaker 1996) including an assessment of the brand’s customers, including the ‘how to’ of elements accurately translate. competitors and the brand itself. Stage two analyses the developing a brand One of the few studies to ‘brand identity system’ looking at brand as product, identity, personality and practically discuss the process organisation, person and symbol. Stage three develops a position. Applicable of developing and brand position which includes segmenting the market to across all brand implementing a brand. develop a target audience and understanding its basis for a industries, including competitive advantage. It also includes strategies for tourism. developing brand options and executing the brand strategy.
The Branding The WTO proposed eleven stages in developing a destination Practical approach to Practical insights including Process (World- brand, beginning with a destination audit, segmentation brand development, continued stakeholder Tourism- analysis, SWOT analysis, followed by consultation with specific for a destination consultation and useful Organisation-and- stakeholders. This is followed by consumer perception context, and developed method of destination audit the-European- research, competitor analysis then a further round of in consultation with including a SWOT analysis. Travel-Commission stakeholder consultation to ‘close the gap’ between industry practitioners. Does not detail the specific 2009) perceptions. The process then includes brand development, process of brand development. incorporating the brand in marketing, monitoring the brand and making revisions as necessary.
Branding strategy for A destination brand process that revolves around five core Specifically designed for Provides a useful overview, a destination components: vision and stakeholder management, target the branding of places however does not discuss the (Balakrishnan, 2009) consumer and product portfolio matching, positioning and and destinations and individual brand components differentiation strategies using branding components, provides a useful required or the process of communication strategies, feedback and response overview with undertaking a brand building management strategies. The model moves away from interrelated components strategy. Top-level only. conventional brand elements of design by looking at of the branding process. branding from the strategy level.
48 Model Description Usage Relevance
Destination brand Building upon de Chernatony’s (1999, 2010) brand identity Designed for place Given the model is practically identity model model incorporating: vision, values, personality and branding, more so than tested by the authors on the (Konecnik Ruzzier distinguishing preferences as key aspects of brand destination branding, case of Slovenia it provides a and de Chernatony, positioning. Incorporates two new elements: mission (to guide but still applicable. practical outline of how the 2013) a country’s future direction) and benefits (to enable the Useful framework to model can be applied to a country differentiate itself from other nations). Brand identity depict core attributes nation. As opposed to a step- elements interact to fulfil the brand promises of functional and contributing by-step branding process, the values, emotional values and to create an experiential relationships. final output is a framework to promise. Relationships with influential stakeholders is a depict elements essential to the separate and important aspect in place identity development. brand.
Model of destination The 2002 model considers destination branding as a process Specifically designed for Given the 2009 model is branding (Cai, 2002); that revolves around a central axis of the brand element mix, destinations and one of practically tested on a Model of brand identity and brand image. More recently Cai (2009) the few models to detail destination (Harrison County, community-based adapted the model to provide deeper insight into the image the diverse aspects of USA) a useful framework is tourism branding component, where the host communities’ desired image is destination image as a provided on the process of (Cai, 2009) reconciled with the perceived image of current and potential crucial component in branding. However, both tourists. This model stresses the importance of different the branding process. models lack detail on the ‘how stakeholders in the branding process. to’ of developing a brand identity.
Table 1: Author’s overview of 14 theoretical brand building models currently available in academic literature.
49
2.2.2 Image measurement techniques
The importance of a destination’s brand image is ‘universally acknowledged’ (Gallarza, et al., 2002) given it plays a key role in tourists’ choice of destination (Ban and Ozdogan, 2010; Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Prebensen, 2007). A favourable image can result not only in choice of destination but also a positive onsite experience, higher tourist satisfaction and higher loyalty including the intention to revisit and recommend to others (Lee et al., 2014). It is therefore considered essential for a destination to understand and manage the positive and negative perceptions that impact upon its image (Quintal et al. 2014).
To measure a destination’s image, Echtner and Richie (2003) suggest there are two basic approaches: structured and unstructured. Structured methodologies are often attribute-based and require respondents to rate the destination in terms of pre-determined attributes (e.g. scenery, attractions, climate) (Sun et al., 2014). Unstructured methodologies allow respondents to freely describe their impression of a destination and include focus groups, open-ended questions and content analysis (Ryan and Cave, 2005, Sun et al., 2014). To date, it appears that a large majority of destination image studies are based on structured methods, using scales as opposed to open-ended qualitative techniques (Prebensen, 2007, Echtner and Richie 2003).
An assessment by Dolnicar and Grun (2013) of 86 journal articles published on destination image between 2003 and 2013 revealed that 89% of the articles that empirically assessed destination image, used a 5-point or 7-point scale to measure response. This supports the notion that current studies have a strong preference for structured methodologies and use semantic differential and Likert- type scales to measure response (Echtner and Richie 2003, Sun et al., 2014).
Of the structured methodologies, Echtner and Ritchie's (1991) contribution remains one of the most popular typologies (Hsu and Song, 2013). They suggest that destination image must be viewed as having attribute-based and holistic components, that these components have functional (tangible) and psychological (abstract) characteristics and that images range from common to unique (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991).
While Echtner and Ritchie’s work is commonly utilised in destination image measurement (see for example Li (2012), Agapito et al. (2013), Cini and Saayman (2013), Ryu et al. (2013), Kim and Park (2014) Stylidis et al. (2014) and Hallmann et al. (2015)), Michaelidou et al. (2013) argue that it is important to develop innovative methodological approaches to investigate destination image, so as to depict different perspectives. Undoubtedly different methods yield different destination images and attributes (Prebensen 2007) and thus no single technique can hope to achieve perfect accuracy in capturing all the dimensions of destination image (Michaelidou et al., 2013).
50
Further, given quantitative studies often rely on measuring destination attributes that are predetermined by researchers, unstructured approaches (i.e. open-ended questions, focus groups and content analysis) can provide richer data and reduce researcher bias (Li and Stepchenkova, 2012). This opinion is echoed by the World Tourism Organisation’s Handbook for Destination Branding (2009) which argues that a qualitative approach is more effective to identify consumer perceptions as it allows people’s psychological needs and travel motivations to be explored in sufficient depth (World Tourism Organisation and the European Travel Commission, 2009). Thus an absence of varied research techniques and a dearth of qualitative research methods to measure destination image suggest a gap in the literature.
Prebensen's (2007) work also highlights that most destination image studies are performed in- country with the test market being those who have already had experience with the destination. As Cherifi et al., (2014) argue, recognising the characteristics of non-visitor images is important to understand destination image more broadly and allows the study to isolate different image sources when direct experience is not available. Previous studies have found significant differences between the image formation of those who visited a destination as opposed to those who had not (Cini and Saayman, 2013). Lack of ‘non-visitor’ perspective indicates a second research gap.
Finally, as King et al. (2015) suggest, there is scope for further research on how a modification to destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional activities. In other words, the measurement of a change in a consumer’s organic image based on induced information, which can highlight the impact of destination marketing activity on destination image.
While a scant number of studies have measured the impact of marketing promotion on destination image (see for example Campo and Alvarez (2014), Jeong et al., (2012) and Tessitore et al., (2014)), the former two studies revealed a limitation as they used test and control groups (as opposed to the same sample) which decreases internal validity and the generalisability of findings (Campo and Alvarez, 2014). As Tasci and Gartner (2007, p.424) suggest, ‘‘Despite the overwhelming amount of research of destination image, there are still many facets of this complex construct yet to be investigated empirically’’.
It becomes apparent through a close analysis of the literature that there is no one ‘right’ way to measure destination image and a need for more research in this area. As Pratt (2013) argues, there is at present little agreement on how to assess and measure destination image. Further, studies on destination image are still criticised for lacking a conceptual framework (Nandonde, 2015).
51
This thesis will therefore draw upon the available insights to develop a suitable framework for testing the image of Timor-Leste. In doing so, this research will contribute to the existing literature in three ways: firstly, by measuring the image of a destination through the eyes of ‘non- visitors’. Secondly, by utilising a qualitative methodology to measure destination image and third, by testing the impact of induced information on consumer’s organic image using the same sample population.
2.3. TOURISM IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD
Tourism is an inclusive industry that can build on the natural and cultural assets of poor rural communities with few other growth options (Scheyvens, 2007, Briedenhann, 2011). With little or no investment, sites of ecological, historical or cultural heritage can become assets to attract visitors, yielding income to residents and helping fund basic facilities, education, and training (Truong, 2014). As a result, the creation of a tourism industry is often regarded as a panacea for developing nations - a social and economic cure all (Chok et al., 2007) and a “passport to development” (Dann, 2002, p.236).
However, there is a lack of empirical evidence to suggest increased tourism does indeed lead to increased benefits for the poor (Chok et al., 2007). Seetanah (2011) asserts that a number of authors have been unable to establish any positive link between tourism and economic growth. From the perspective of the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) the current concern continues to be numerical growth of tourist numbers, which overshadows development in its ‘quality of life’ sense (Handszuh, 2007). This is problematic from an environmental perspective, given any increase in tourism volume will necessarily have a corresponding increase in negative impacts (Chettiparamb and Kokkranikal, 2012).
As Mitchell and Reid (2001) suggest, tourism in the developing world can be a ‘double-edged sword’: while local communities may increase their income or livelihood, the majority of benefits tend to flow out of them with real power and decision making residing outside community control. This often leaves local people as the objects of development but not the subjects of it (Mitchell and Reid, 2001). In this sense, tourism can be considered a form of imperialism, with international investment in developing nations resulting in a power dominance between the core and periphery nations (Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy, 2015).
While the merits and risks of tourism development in Timor-Leste are not the focus of this thesis per se, it is important that in marketing and branding the destination, such ethical implications
52 are considered. This section will therefore analyse the postcolonial context of marketing a developing nation, before reviewing the branding literature based on the unique characteristics of Timor-Leste: that being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a ‘brand new’ nation. This section will discuss the relevant issues and develop ideas for ‘best practice’ through a close analysis of the current research, to help inform an ethical, responsible and thoughtful approach to branding Timor-Leste.
2.3.1 The context of marketing a developing nation
Tourism promotion is essentially the packaging of ‘imagined’ people, places and experiences (Rogal, 2012) drawing on existing social and cultural elements within the destination to develop an identity (Cornelissen, 2005). At the same time, tourism marketers also fashion new narratives to attract tourists (Cornelissen, 2005), both adopting myths and helping perpetuate them (Amoamo, 2007). It follows then that destination marketers hold power not only over tourists, but also over the destinations they promote (Cornelissen, 2005). As Morgan et al. (2004, p.8) explain, “contemporary place branding is not simply a rational marketing activity: it is also a political act”.
The marketing of developing nations is commonly created and distributed by ‘first world’ promoters, such as tour operators, who are economically motivated to sell a product to a western market (Echtner and Prasad, 2003). International tourism, and through that tourism marketing, is often based on the interactions of foreign elites in pursuit of their own interests (Philip and Mercer, 1999). Marketing thus becomes a commercial activity, with little regard for the betterment of the society it is promoting.
A number of authors (see Echtner and Prasad, 2003, Kokkranikal et al., 2011) maintain that the depiction of developing destinations in tourism marketing can be reminiscent of a colonial attitude towards the ‘third world’. Western societies develop stereotypical images of developing destinations (Kokkranikal et al., 2011) which Morgan and Pritchard (1998, p. 169, 242) contend: “reflect a western, white, male colonial perspective” of a “static, timeless and unchanging Third World”. In his seminal work Orientalism, Said (1978) suggests the west attempts to differentiate the east, through colonial descriptions of Oriental lands as backward and stagnant, yet mysterious, exotic and sensuous.
Tourism then becomes a quest for ‘otherness’ and it is for their difference that indigenous peoples become attractive to potential tourists (Olsen, 2008). Tourists seek ‘exoticism’ in former
53 colonies with tourism marketing reinforcing historically embedded colonial myths (Amoamo, 2007).
Echtner and Prasad (2003) suggest that there are three distinct patterns of representation in marketing developing nations. The ‘myth of the unchanged’ portrays destinations as ‘ripe for discovery’ where modern day tourists can relive the journeys and experiences of colonial explorers. Besides stereotypical images of poverty and backwardness (Kokkranikal et al., 2011), the ‘third world’ is seen as ‘past its prime’ (Said, 1978) where: “modern First World tourists are encouraged to feast on the past built glories of these Third World destinations, for apparently these features—and not their present day state—are the most worthy of their gaze” (Echtner and Prasad, 2003, p.671).
The second myth, the ‘myth of the unrestrained’, takes tourists to luxuriant lands where nature is pristine, the indigenous people are friendly and the resorts cater to every sensual desire (Echtner and Prasad, 2003). This myth is more about colonial exploitation than exploration and local inhabitants assume a passive role being both serving and submissive. Finally, in the third myth, the ‘myth of the uncivilised’, tourism is an expedition into a destination ‘beyond the furthest frontiers’ of civilisation where the landscape is savage and inhospitable. Unlike the Orient, which has achieved some degree of civilisation, the myth of the uncivilised is a journey to lands still wild and savage (Echtner and Prasad, 2003).
Echtner and Prasad's (2003) study provides insight into the patterns of representation in marketing developing nations and the power of destination marketing in enforcing colonial stereotypes. A number of destination case studies document this phenomenon. For example, in their study of post-conflict Burma, Philip and Mercer (1999) argue that representation of the ‘Other’ denied the contemporaneity of diverse cultures in current Burma and homogenised the characteristics of individuals. In Kerrigan et al.'s (2012) study of Brand India, they suggest that while the imagery does not explicitly enforce colonial stereotypes, the projection is regressive - elaborate mausoleums, exotic dancing and bright coloured silk - reinforcing an oriental and primitive snapshot of the nation, while failing to incorporate the modern India that has embraced technology and progress.
In his important work The Tourist Gaze first published in 1990, John Urry suggested that tourists’ engagement with a ‘third world’ destination is imbued with cultural values and based on a power discrepancy between host and guest (Urry, 1990). The ‘tourist gaze’ stems not only from the tourists’ own norms, but from place representation developed by tourism promoters (Cornelissen, 2005) which, as discussed, are often oppressive and stereotypical (Noy, 2014). The tourist gaze sees tourism experiences as an escape from the mundane and ordinariness of 54 everyday life (Lo and McKercher, 2015) and thus ‘imagined lands’ propel tourists into illusion, fantasy, and seduction (Urry, 2002).
MacCannell (1973) argues this can reduce hosts to nothing more than objects of ‘wonderment’ (MacCannell, 1973, Cornelissen, 2005). Culture and tradition can be transformed into tourism products (Yang, 2011) and ‘staged’ to reinforce pre-conceived stereotypes (Pomering and White, 2011). In an attempt to create a ‘tourism package’ hosts put their culture on sale such that visitors can find the authenticity they were promised (Yang and Wall, 2009).
This phenomenon can in fact occur in any nation struggling with postcolonial social challenges. In their study of branding Australia, Pomering and White (2011) argue that a lack of reconciliation between conquered and conquerors has been accentuated in the destination brand and the ‘authenticity’ of indigenous Australians has become ‘staged’ for tourism purposes. While tourism representations draw heavily on ‘imagined landscapes’ and ‘colonial myths’, Amoamo (2007) argues this ignores the reality that such destinations are layered with indigenous cultural inscriptions. In any nation of conquered and conqueror, ‘less developed’ people can become fixed in a timeless present as opposed to modernity (Olsen, 2008) to satisfy a western ‘tourist gaze’.
While extensive literature outlines the implications and risks of marketing developing destinations, there is limited research on the strategies to promote authentic tourism representation and discourage cultural stereotypes (Yang, 2011). As Etchner and Prasad (2003) suggest, attention now needs to be turned to the forms of counter-colonial discourse needed to resist such representations.
Kokkranikal et al. (2011) suggests the best approach lies in understanding the political forces of tourism branding, for example managing the ‘chain of influence’ in destination promotion. They argue that destination marketing organisations (DMOs) need to take a larger role in targeting policy initiatives and educating tour operators to ensure the promotion of a destination is in synergy with the country’s national tourism policy (Kokkranikal et al., 2011). Cornelissen (2005) similarly recognises the central position of tour operators and suggests a successful strategy relies on managing the location of power. Taking a macro marketing perspective, Kerrigan et al. (2012) contend DMO’s should look beyond questions of brand campaign success but rather question the role of such campaigns in the nation’s development agenda.
Additional to the role of the DMO, a number of authors also highlight the imperative to involve internal stakeholders in the destination marketing process. Indeed tourism is often seen as a catalyst for change in the ways people perceive themselves and others (Yang, 2011) thus it is vital 55 tourism marketing reflects the unique cultural heritage and historical traits of the destination (Santos and Campo, 2014). Amoamo (2007) suggests taking a more holistic approach to recognise the diversity of indigenous identities and create richer tourism experiences. Similarly Santos and Campo (2014) argue a greater use of local culture and history can promote the destination’s core values, personality and unique characteristics and in doing so, provide a travel experience that cannot be compared with other places.
2.3.2 Branding a small island developing state (SIDS)
Timor-Leste is classified by the United Nations as a small island developing state (SIDS) a category of nations with shared socio-economic and political characteristics and a very low position in the international political economy (Yasarata et al., 2010). SIDS are generally environmentally fragile, low-lying coastal countries that share sustainable development challenges including small population, limited resources, remoteness, land degradation, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks and high dependence on international trade (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013).
Many SIDS are also heavily dependent on tourism, given they possess a rich cultural and natural heritage and oftentimes pristine coral reefs, rivers, sea and landscape. For these countries, tourism development is considered a viable alternative for economic growth particularly given it can help the preservation of local culture and the environment (Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy, 2015), improve basic infrastructure such as roads, airports and utilities and support the local population to gain income and employment (Pratt, 2015).
Yet as already discussed tourism-induced prosperity is never guaranteed (Pratt, 2015). Tourism can bring about negative effects including the exploitation of local resources, loss of control and, in some instances the commodification of culture (Amoamo, 2007).
For SIDS, another particularly concerning issue is impending climate change. Coastal landscapes are experiencing drastic change resulting in beach erosion, with approximately 70% of the world’s sandy beaches now thought to be receding (Buzinde et al., 2010). Not only is tourism activity impacted by climate change, it also a major contributor to the phenomenon (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010).
This presents a challenge in the branding SIDS. Not only does it raise environmental concerns in promoting island destinations purely for leisure purposes, it also presents a challenge for 56 marketers who rely on idyllic and pristine coastal imagery to promote SIDS destinations (Buzinde et al., 2010). In their study of Playacar, Mexico, Buzinde et al. (2010) revealed that tourists can be displeased with incongruity between the promotion of white sandy beaches and the reality of an eroded shoreline.
Another major challenge in the promotion of SIDS is substitutability (Pike, 2004, Baker and Cameron, 2008) as many island destinations boast the same warm weather, beautiful beaches and clear waters. While island tourism campaigns make generic claims of sandy beaches and a laidback lifestyle (Dinnie, 2008) these claims are not unique to a particular nation (Harrison- Walker, 2011) and according to Morgan et al (2003), such ‘wallpaper’ advertising renders all island destinations as indistinguishable from one another.
Marketing island destinations solely on sun, sea and sand (coined the ‘3s’) leaves them very susceptible to competition and a change in market conditions. For example, when events such as natural disaster, political problems or price change occur in one destination, tourists can easily experience a similar type holiday in another island destination (Pratt, 2013). Further, due to their substitutability, these countries risk becoming commodities, driven by competition on price and thus forced to attract more tourists who spend less money individually (Olins, 2005).
Another challenge for island destinations is that marketing can sometimes create and confirm stereotypes (D'Hauteserre, 2011) and generate a collective representation of ‘the Other’ (Pratt, 2013). Palmer (1994, p.792) in her study of the Bahamas, argues that: “by relying on the images of a colonial past, the tourism industry merely perpetuates the ideology of colonialism and prevents the local people from defining a national identity of their own”. In her study of New Caledonia, D'Hauteserre (2011) argues that Indigenous people rarely have an opportunity to resist or to counter how they are portrayed.
This colonial discourse echoes Echtner and Prasad's (2003) ‘myth of the unrestrained’, as discussed in section 2.3.1. These luxuriant lands of pristine nature and friendly locals are relatable to many SIDS. Thompson (2006) uses the term ‘tropicalisation’ to describe this phenomenon, explaining how expectations of tropical islands form their image for prospective tourists (Thompson, 2006, Pratt, 2013).
Therefore, not only can tourism marketing of SIDS create substitutability, it can also have a damaging effect on the portrayal of indigenous residents, creating an undesirable colonial discourse. Image, identity and representation, while merely social constructions, can maintain inequality and socio-economic impoverishment (D'Hauteserre, 2011).
57
To combat such issues, it becomes apparent that SIDS must diverge from the traditional sun, sea and sand (3S) approach to branding (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010). A prolonged emphasis on the 3S product results in less attention on developing the cultural and historical attributes of the country and can fail to establish a long-standing emotional connection with the consumer (Roberts and Lewis-Cameron, 2010).
At the same time, Poon (1993) argues that tourists themselves now often seek more than the 3S’s, and that this ‘new tourist’ is more experienced, sophisticated and discerning than the traditional ‘mass tourist’ and seeks education as opposed to passive sun-lust (Poon, 1993, Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010). For these adventurers, travel is not just being at the destination but experiencing being there for personal fulfillment and identity. This new paradigm presents a further imperative for SIDS to shift their marketing from the 3S product to the 3S ‘plus’ experience, which allows for a better integration of all elements of the destination (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010).
Therefore, in today’s competitive marketplace, SIDS require a powerful destination brand as well as the creation of a lasting emotional connection with the consumer through branding (Gobe, 2001, Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010). In other words, SIDS should not be branded by their purely functional attributes, but by adding texture and meaning to the island’s identity (Daye, 2010). The challenge for marketers is to make the destination brand ‘live’ and allow visitors to feel the authenticity and uniqueness of place (Morgan et al., 2003). To do so, Lewis- Cameron and Roberts (2010) suggest SIDS ask: ‘What is the destination’s appeal?’ and promote tourism products that accurately represent the true essence of the destination. Pratt (2013) suggests the development of niche markets including diving, paddle boarding, kite-surfing as well as cultural and indigenous tourism.
In marketing SIDS it is also essential that the relationship with local communities is well managed, given they are one of the most critical tourism stakeholders (Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy, 2015). Residents should not be convinced to endorse tourism, but rather treated as stakeholders whose attitudes and interests help guide tourism development and promotion (Nunkoo and Gursoy, 2012). Further still, as Pratt (2015) writes, the residents of small island states must be entrepreneurial themselves in combining technical and marketing knowledge.
For the case of Timor-Leste, marketing the nation will require a strong understanding of the country’s tourism attributes, beyond its 3S features, and harnessing the unique elements of the destination to create a lasting emotional connection with the consumer. Importantly, this process must actively involve those who understand the best - its residents and internal stakeholders. In creating a destination brand that diverges from the traditional ‘tropicalisation’
58 marketing, it is expected that this thesis will make a valuable contribution to both practice and theory.
2.3.3 Branding a post-conflict nation
The perception of personal safety is one of the most important prerequisites for an aspiring destination (Novelli et al., 2012) given many tourists are reluctant to visit countries they believe to be prone to political strife and internal problems (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010). In a post-conflict nation, past political unrest will often cloud the destination image much longer than it takes to overcome the actual problems (Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Rittichainuwat, 2011). This has been the case for Timor-Leste; although personal safety is no longer an issue, its post-conflict image as a ‘dangerous place’ (Carlos and Carlos, 2011) still persists.
For many post-conflict destinations, image can be impacted by negative stereotypes and prejudices (Nuttavuthisit, 2007, Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012) created over many years and reinforced in the public mind by sensationalised media coverage (Avraham and Ketter, 2013) significantly reducing the destination's competitiveness in the marketplace (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). In their study of Burundi, central Africa, Novelli et al. (2012) suggest that its image as a politically unstable nation has become an institutionalised barrier to tourism development despite perceptions being worse than reality.
This is a major concern from post-conflict nations, given in many cases tourism is valuable in supporting economic diversification and regeneration, poverty reduction, socio-economic recovery and peace (Novelli et al., 2012, Buultjens et al., 2015). Thus as Volcic et al. (2013, p.729) suggest: “the hope is that the magic of branding a place might… work economic miracles: helping to heal after the war, boosting tourism and attracting a bounty of foreign investment”. Branding is seen as important in aiding post-conflict recovery (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011) as it emphasises the three R’s: recovery, rebuilding, and re-imagining (Volcic et al., 2013).
A major challenge of post-conflict branding, however, is that many tourists are unwilling to just ‘put aside’ long-lasting negative images and stereotypes, because of an ad or promotional tool (Anholt, 2006b, Avraham and Ketter, 2013). In other words, ‘regular’ destination marketing techniques may be less successful for destinations with a long-term negative image (Avraham and Ketter, 2013). Brand management seems to be even more challenging for emerging and post- conflict nations (Vitic and Ringer, 2008) and while a few destinations have overcome their image problems and enhanced their brand, many still struggle (Gertner, 2007, Vitic and Ringer, 2008).
59
Taking a different approach to this issue, Medway and Warnaby (2008) argue that a negative place image is not always undesirable. In what they call ‘perverse place marketing’, negative place dimensions are accentuated in order to create or increase demand. For post-conflict nations, this aligns closely with the concept of ‘dark tourism’, which is essentially tourism involving travel to sites historically associated with death and suffering (Biran et al., 2014) for example Auschwitz in Poland or Ground Zero in New York.
Instead of trying to correct the post-conflict image, marketers draw on a destination’s painful histories and tragic events (Medway and Warnaby, 2008). A number of authors, see Medway and Warnaby (2008), Amujo and Otubanjo (2012) and Gelbman and Maoz (2012), have therefore proposed combining leisure tourism with dark tourism elements as a framework to help rebrand nations following conflict and unrest. However, marketing sites of conflict is not without ethical concerns. Novelli et al. (2012) suggest that conflict sites can continue to evoke painful memories for many communities. If heritage is still contested, tourism may not assist reconciliation but rather become a catalyst for further rivalry.
Additionally, although tourism branding can encourage engagement with traumatic experience, it can also reduce or commodify the understanding of historical and political forces that contribute to violence (Volcic et al., 2013). The branding of a traumatic place does not always allow for a deeper understanding of the conflict, but can sometimes be just a means to profit from tragedy and pain (Volcic et al., 2013). In her study of peacetime Northern Ireland, McDowell (2008) suggests that memory reduced to spectacle can lead to simplification. Post-conflict destination marketers must therefore consider the ‘conflict narrative’ and the ethical and moral connotations this entails (McDowell, 2008).
In looking for strategies to re-brand a nation which has suffered genocide or civil war, Amujo and Otubanjo (2012) suggest that a country must identify the positive symbolic and historical elements of the tragedy, develop empathetic messages and foster communication with stakeholder groups. Novelli et al (2012) support this contention, suggesting that the best means to brand a post-conflict nation is through the identification of shared interests and a sense of place.
Branding is about communicating a sense of community, uniqueness and place distinctiveness and can therefore unite disparate groups of residents to galvanise support for tourism (Gotham, 2007). At the same time, it can also reconnect the locale with a sense of socio-cultural ‘belonging,’ whether to a city, neighbourhood, or nation (Evans, 2003, Gotham, 2007). It follows, therefore, that a tourism brand developed with community congruence is less likely to simplistically promote or commodify sites of trauma and pain.
60
Further to this, in analysing post-conflict tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Causevic and Lynch (2011) argue that if managed well, post-conflict branding can play an important role in the process of social renewal and the transformation of sorrow. The authors advocate what they term a ‘double-burial’ approach, whereby a country moves through three important stages to develop post-conflict tourism: sorrow, resurrection, and heritage. The process is cathartic and can unite residents through tourism and help them move on from the past (Causevic and Lynch, 2011). Seen in this way, tourism can help promote peace, and address issues of reconciliation and justice (Buultjens et al., 2015).
Overall, given it can be difficult for a post-conflict nation to invest in a positive brand when struggling with issues such as poverty and illness (Anholt, 2005, Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014) it is important destination marketers build confidence amongst communities such that tourism can form part of the healing and peace-building process (Novelli et al., 2012). This will not only help overcome the conflict theme and replace it with more positive narratives (Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014) but also ensure that policies reflect community priority (Buultjens et al., 2015). For a post-conflict brand to be developed successfully, it appears stakeholder involvement and support is vital.
Amujo and Otubanjo (2012) assert that to date there has still been little attention given to theorising the rebranding of negatively viewed nations. The majority of literature concentrates on the response to and during a crisis event rather than taking a longer-term perspective (Buultjens et al., 2015) with a shortage of theoretical models that look at destinations suffering from long-term and continuous image problems (Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
This thesis will therefore contribute to both literature and practice on branding post-conflict nations, by assessing the case of Timor-Leste, a nation that has suffered a long-term negative image. In doing so, the brand development will be informed by stakeholder perspectives to ensure painful histories are not commodified and the branding process can aid, rather than hinder, the process of social renewal in Timor-Leste.
2.3.4 Branding a ‘brand new’ nation
It is safe to say Timor-Leste has not been actively branded by either the government or tourism authorities across its fourteen years as an independent nation. While case studies analyse branding strategies following conflict or disaster (as discussed above) as well as case studies critiquing re-branding strategies, see for example, Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, (2013),
61
Crockett and Wood (1999), Morgan et al. (2003), Kerrigan et al. (2012) and Osei and Gbadamosi (2011) with the exception of Harengel and Gbadamosi's (2014) study of South Sudan, there is an absence of research on branding an entirely new nation. As previously discussed, few destinations are in the position of Timor-Leste, beginning only now to market their tourism product, and learn from the successes and mistakes of other nations (Ximenes and Carter, 1999).
However, it has been argued that there is in effect no such thing as branding an entirely new nation, as all nations already have an intrinsic image. Place ‘branding’ is in effect just place ‘re- branding’ (Olins, 2002, Hankinson, 2007) and regardless of whether a country consciously brands itself, it will be already perceived in a certain way by people within and outside the country (Pitt et al., 2007, Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011).
In the same vein, Anholt (2002) argues that today’s marketers do not ‘brand’ or ‘rebrand’ a place, but more accurately manage the existing brand and gradually change existing perceptions (and misconceptions) of places. In their analysis of branding the new South Sudan, Harengel and Gbadamosi (2014) suggest that even before a new nation is actively branded, its image is influenced by impressions that are both positive, such as history, arts and environment, and negative, such as past conflict and political struggles.
Therefore, while Timor-Leste has not been ‘actively’ branded to date, one could argue it already has an intrinsic brand image. As Mihailovich (2006) contends, effective branding not only serves to reinforce positive images but also helps fight negative ones by shaping new images and associations (Mihailovich, 2006, Harish, 2010) hence the need for actively branding and rebranding Timor-Leste is crucial.
In beginning to ‘rebrand’ a nation or destination, Anholt (2007) argues that “...people only change their minds about places if the people and organizations in those places start to change the things they make and do, or the way they behave. And that is the only sense in which a nation can start to exercise some degree of control over its image...” (Anholt, 2007, p.29). In other words, support from key internal stakeholders is critical to creating and managing a new brand.
Many authors claim that satisfaction of the various destination stakeholders is one of the fundamental requirements of successful destination branding (Baker and Cameron, 2008, Wagner and Peters, 2009, Vasudevan, 2008, Garcia et al., 2012, Ryan and Silvanto, 2010, Akotia et al., 2011). Brickell (2012) contends that many brands struggle to succeed when they overlook the perspectives of the host population, in favour of ‘expert’ assessments of tourism development.
62
This notion of ‘internal branding’ sees internal stakeholders as the ‘first customers’ of a brand and stresses the importance of encouraging them to internalise and deliver the corporate brand values (Sartori et al., 2012). As internal stakeholders define the brand and provide the actualisation of the experience, it is important a new brand emerges from what the nation is about (Vasudevan, 2008). As Kapferer (1999, p.71) claims: ‘before knowing how we are perceived, we must know who we are’.
In their analysis of re-branding Africa, Osei and Gbadamosi (2011) suggest that to rebrand an unattractive nation brand a desired image and identity should be established in the minds of consumers and that this identity should be commemorative, symbolic, functional, unique and distinctive (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011). Hence, branding a ‘new’ nation appears as crucial as branding one with a negative image, given that destination marketers and the government currently hold no control over the projected ‘brand’.
In contrast to conventional brand launches, the introduction of a new nation brand provides a unique opportunity to shape the fundamental features of the emerging nation’s brand and ensure it avoids becoming defined by myths and stereotypes (Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014). In doing so, it is crucial to first understand the ‘product’ of the destination and integrate the views, oppositions and desires of the residents (Kalandides et al., 2013) who understand the nation best.
In developing a new nation brand this thesis will therefore contribute to the current dearth of research in this area and develop a new, practical contribution. It will also contribute to the discourse on stakeholder-led branding in undertaking a collaborative and inclusive branding strategy.
2.4. BRANDING AND TIMOR-LESTE
Having developed a strong understanding of destination branding theory and the ethical implications of tourism branding, this literature review will conclude with an analysis of the relevant branding literature as it relates to Timor-Leste.
To date, there have been no academic studies on the marketing or branding of Timor-Leste. As discussed in section 1.5, the most recent planning document for tourism in Timor-Leste is the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030. This mentions the importance of an international tourist marketing strategy to promote Timor-Leste as a preferred destination for travel. It also suggests marketing should include “branding Timor-Leste as an unspoilt boutique tourist destination”
63
(Timor-Leste Government, 2011, p149). However, this is a report as opposed to empirical research and it lacks a theoretical framework.
Similarly, the World Tourism Organisation’s 2007 report promotes the development of a marketing strategy, but it lacks empirical grounding or a theoretical framework. The two-step development for the marketing strategy includes the creation of a tourism marketing database and empowerment of the National Directorate of Tourism (United Nations Development Program, 2007).
To the researcher’s knowledge, there are also no studies that analyse the image of Timor-Leste. Tapsell and Eidenfalk's (2013) research is the closest, which examines Australian reporting on Timor-Leste from 1975 to 1999. It contends that 1999 saw ‘saturation media coverage in Australia’ where journalists recalled that ‘every single rally, no matter how small, would get coverage’ (Tapsell and Eidenfalk, 2013, p.585) in the Australian press. Tapsell and Eidenfalk (2013) estimate a total of 1,251 articles reached the Australian media in September and October 1999 and that many articles described the horrific scenes in graphic detail. While their work doesn’t specifically discuss image, their research indicates there the negative media coverage of 1999 would undoubtedly have impacted the image of Timor-Leste in the minds of Australians.
No academic studies have been conducted into this ensuring image, which is a research gap this thesis will fill. Furthermore, in developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste, this research will make an important contribution to a new area: that being the marketing and branding of Timor- Leste as a destination.
Of the academic research published on tourism in Timor-Leste, the focus is primarily on tourism as a tool for nation building and community development. Cabasset-Semedo, for example, has written extensively on the role of tourism in the development of Timor-Leste. In one of the few English-language pieces, she contends that tourism in Timor-Leste shows two main traits: that it is relatively ‘virginal’ outside the capital of Dili and that it will benefit from the initiatives of small entrepreneurs who will be essential players in the country’s emerging tourism industry (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009).
More recently Tolkach, in publications from 2012 to 2014, has taken a similar stance, by looking at the possibility of developing a community-based tourism network. This network, he argues, offers an opportunity to address socio- economic challenges and stimulate benefits for local communities (Tolkach, 2013a, Tolkach, 2013b).
64
A study by Dutra et al. (2011) looked at the propensity for tourism development in Timor-Leste using the case study of Beloi, a small fishing village located on Atauro Island. The methodological approach used storytelling as a way to focus on tourism planning for the wellbeing of the people it will most affect (Dutra et al., 2011), developing a concept map to reflect how the locals understand relationships between their village and tourism. While the study has no reference to place branding, such a visual framework could in fact be applied to the branding of Timor-Leste as a means to understand stakeholder relationships with tourism and better depict their sense of place.
Other contributions to tourism research include Carter et al.'s (2001) report on tourism policy and planning, with a framework for development that included potential tourism sites, markets and partnerships. The Lonely Planet has been a constant for tourism in Timor-Leste with the first edition published in 2004, later editions published in 2008 and 2011 and a Tetun language travellers’ phrase book in 2008. In 2011, Callahan conducted a study on the relationship between Australia and Timor-Leste as interpreted through the Lonely Planet guide to East Timor (Callahan, 2011).
A number of newspaper articles have been published across the last decade, see for example Noble (2005), Teutsch (2008), Kennett (2009), O'Neil (2011), Pemberton (2016) and McDonald (2016) with travel pieces on Timor-Leste describing it as the next-eco destination, the next adventure destination and in one case, as the next Bali.
Beyond these aforementioned studies, contributions in the literature on tourism in Timor-Leste are scarce, leaving a significant gap in the research. This thesis therefore contributes to the scarcity of tourism research for Timor-Leste and will become the first study on tourism in Timor-Leste from a marketing and branding perspective.
2.5. CHAPTER SUMMARY
The preceding literature review has discussed knowledge relevant to the core aim of this thesis: the development of a destination brand for Timor-Leste.
To do so, this chapter firstly explored the concept of destination branding and its key definitions, components and challenges. The literature noted that at present there is limited research on destination branding and an absence of work that looks at the specific processes involved in the branding of destinations. Furthermore, it revealed that a ‘disconnect’ exists between brand theory and the practice of brand building. Therefore in developing a model that details the 65 specific process of brand building for Timor-Leste, this thesis will contribute to the dearth of literature on creating a destination brand as well as help bridge the gap between theory and practice.
In looking more specifically at the process of brand building and the various models available within the literature, this research found there are limited theoretical frameworks for branding building and no model developed to date for the branding of emerging and post-conflict nations. This presents a third research gap this thesis will fill.
This chapter also explored the theories and techniques within the literature on the measurement of a destination’s image. It revealed firstly there is a dearth of literature that measures image from the perspective of the ‘non visitor’, with most studies assessing the perceived image of current or past tourists. Secondly, few studies test the impact of induced marketing information on a consumer’s organic image of a destination, less still that undertake the study on the same population. Finally, there are limited qualitative approaches to measuring destination image, with most studies preferring a quantitative approach. Therefore, in qualitatively testing a change in image of ‘non-visitors’ this study will contribute to three further gaps in the literature and in doing so, develop a new and innovative approach to measuring a destination’s image and testing the impact of a destination brand.
Given the importance a destination brand be developed ethically, this literature review also analysed the context of marketing a developing nation and branding literature based on the unique conditions of Timor-Leste: that being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a new nation. This section revealed that limited studies to date have looked at brand building in emerging and post-conflict nations and while many commentators raise issues with the ethics of marketing a developing nation, few studies have sought to develop an ethical model for branding.
Finally, this chapter looked at the literature as it relates to the case study of Timor-Leste. It revealed that only a small proportion of studies have looked at the nation in a tourism context and none of these studies have analysed the image, marketing or branding of Timor-Leste. Therefore, this thesis will contribute to the limited literature on tourism and provide the first contribution to destination marketing and branding for Timor-Leste.
66
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research methodology of this thesis. As outlined in chapter 1, the aim of this thesis is to examine how the half-island nation of Timor-Leste can develop a practical and ethical destination brand. Therefore the methodological approach of this thesis forms a large part of its research contribution; given it is the process of destination brand building that is primarily under investigation. This methodology outlines the systematic approach that will be undertaken in this thesis to apply branding theory to the case study of Timor-Leste.
The first section of this chapter outlines the research approach, including the choice of a qualitative methodology within an interpretivist perspective. Section 3.2 of this chapter looks at the theoretical process of developing a branding model and the rationale of its applicability to other emerging and post-conflict nations. As discussed in chapter 2, this thesis contends that since there is no widely accepted theoretical framework in the literature to guide the destination branding process (Divandari et al., 2014, Hankinson, 2009), the creation of a new brand building model is essential for the branding of Timor-Leste.
Following the development of a branding model, this chapter outlines the two primary research stages required to practically apply data to the model. The first primary research stage is conducted with Timor-Leste’s internal tourism stakeholders. The rationale for a qualitative, stakeholder-led approach is discussed in section 3.3 alongside the methods employed and the data sample. The second primary research stage is conducted with the selected target market; a consumer audience based in Australia, through an online, qualitative survey. The rationale, research method and data sample is discussed in section 3.4. This thesis also employs considerable secondary research both to develop the model and inform the case study, which is discussed in section 3.5.
An important academic contribution of this thesis lies in its methodological innovation. In building a new model to guide the branding process for Timor-Leste, this thesis contributes to the current dearth of literature on ‘best practice’ destination branding. The primary research undertaken with the nation’s stakeholders enables the development of a brand, while the consumer research assesses the effectiveness of the brand as well as the destination branding framework.
In testing the effectiveness of the brand and branding model, this thesis develops an innovative methodological approach to measuring destination image, as will be outlined in section 3.4. The development of an empirically researched branding model, enables the methodological approach of this thesis to contribute to both the practice and theory of destination branding. 67
3.1. RESEARCH APPROACH
This thesis is a case study and examines the application of destination branding techniques to the emerging nation of Timor-Leste. One of the distinguishing characteristics of case study research is that allows phenomena to be investigated within a constantly changing ‘real-life’ environment. Case studies provide a useful means of exploring behaviours in one context in order to build process and theory that can then be tested in a new context (Yin, 2003).
The use of a case study methodology is vital to this thesis, given it seeks to practically develop and test a destination brand. In this instance, Timor-Leste provides the necessary ‘real life’ example through which destination branding techniques can be applied and tested, in order to propose a framework for use in other emerging and post-conflict nations. At the same time, the research on the case study is also of direct value to the government and nation of Timor-Leste, thus providing a practical benefit alongside its academic contribution.
In applying theory to the practical case study, this thesis adopts an interpretivist approach to knowledge. An interpretivist paradigm assumes that the way in which individuals perceive the world is inextricably bound to their life experiences (Kerrigan et al., 2012). Thus it suggests there are multiple different realities and knowledge is a socially contracted phenomenon (Bryman and Bell, 2007). When undertaking research, therefore, an interpretivist stance suggests that another researcher, engaging in a similar process, may construct different meanings and a different version of ‘knowledge’ (Wheeler, 2010). Within the context of a case study, an interpretive approach allows a deep understanding of the variety of perspectives.
Interpretivist research commonly undertakes a qualitative approach to data collection, given it sees ‘reality’ as subjective and context-bound (Malhorta et al., 2006). A qualitative analysis enables the researcher to understand the “attitudes, opinions and feelings” of study respondents (Aaker et al., 2005) and is valuable in attaining a holistic and multi-layered perspective when studying complex phenomena (Malhorta et al., 2006).
This approach is particularly pertinent to the case study of Timor-Leste, given the nation has only recently emerged from a difficult history, as outlined in chapter 1, and limited research has to date been conducted on its potential as a tourism destination. A qualitative methodology will allow for greater depth in the data and an understanding of the nuances and complexities in the issues. The rationale for a qualitative approach will be discussed further in sections 3.3 and 3.4 of this chapter.
68
To increase the validity of the research findings, which can be one limitation of qualitative research due to small data samples and lack of statistical analysis, this research follows a ‘grounded theory’ process. Grounded theory entails systematic data collection and analysis and is useful for studies for which there is limited prior research (Carson et al., 2001). Through applying a grounded theory approach, the research can generate new findings that are meaningful to decision makers (Malhorta et al., 2006) and can guide the creation of new theory (Carson et al., 2001). The grounded theory approach has been employed for the stakeholder primary research and will be discussed further in section 3.3.
Finally, it is important to also note that this methodological approach is representative of ‘applied research’. This approach enables new knowledge gained in the study to achieve a specific practical objective (OECD, 2002). For the case study of Timor-Leste, the development and assessment of a branding framework allows for both a theoretical contribution to knowledge and a practical outcome for the case study, that being the development of an empirically researched destination brand.
3.2. A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR BRANDING
Konecnik and Go (2008) argue that it is important the development of a destination brand both adheres to a theoretical framework and is supported by the nation’s stakeholders. However, as outlined in chapter 2, there is no universally agreed framework for building a brand identity (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013) and academic literature on the processes involved in successful destination branding is limited (Balakrishnan, 2009, Divandari et al., 2014). This section therefore looks at the process of developing a branding framework that will guide the brand development for Timor-Leste and can be potentially applied to the branding of other post- conflict and emerging nations.
To develop the new model, the researcher conducted a critique of existing branding models (see chapter 2.2) and then contrasted these against the ethical considerations of marketing a developing nation and the unique conditions of Timor-Leste – that being a small-island state, a post-conflict nation and a ‘new’ nation (see chapter 2.4). From this analysis, it was then possible to develop a theoretical, ethical and practical model to guide the brand development for Timor- Leste.
A critical analysis of relevant literature in chapter 2 suggested the model requires three key components: 1) a stakeholder-led approach, 2) a strong understanding of ‘sense of place’ and 3) a
69 process of brand ‘testing’ to ascertain its effectiveness on the target market. These three aspects will be discussed below.
3.2.1 A stakeholder-led approach
This thesis takes the position that a stakeholder-led approach is crucial for the branding of a destination, but particularly pertinent for branding an emerging and post-conflict nation such as Timor-Leste. This is due to four key factors as outlined below.
Firstly, in the case of an emerging nation, potential consumers or consultants are unable to accurately or intimately understand its tourism environment as well as its local population. Therefore, it is important the destination ‘product’ is developed from the views, oppositions and desires of its residents (Kalandides et al., 2013) to enable the brand “to emerge out of what the internal franchise is all about” (Vasduven, 2008, p.331).
Secondly, stakeholder input is vital in the branding process, to ensure the brand is reflective not only of the destination, but also the type of tourism and tourists the country wishes to attract. Destination branding can not only impact how the rest of the world regards a place but also how a destination views itself (Morgan et al., 2004), therefore it is important stakeholders are comfortable with the final result. If managed without stakeholder input, branding in the developing world can risk developing an oppressive and stereotypical representation of the nation and its people (Noy, 2014), reinforcing a colonial paradigm and destroying a destination’s ‘sense of place’ (Konecnik and Go, 2008).
Third, as Vasudevan (2008, p.335) aptly writes: “It is the people who are the place,” and a shared sense of purpose can help stimulate involvement from the population. If stakeholders are viewed as the ‘first customers’ of a brand they will be more likely to internalise and deliver the corporate brand values (Sartori et al., 2012). On the other hand, if the local population are not motivated to ‘live the brand’ the gap between reality and the projected image can create dissonance for visiting tourists (Zouganeli et al., 2012). This further enforces the need for a ‘participatory’ approach to branding and ongoing dialogue between destination stakeholders (Kalandides et al., 2013).
Finally, although the importance of stakeholder engagement is enforced in a number of the brand building models consulted in chapter 2, see for example Cai (2009), Baker and Cameron (2008) and the World Tourism Organisation (2009), it has been argued that a stakeholder-led approach to branding is lacking. The theory and practice of place branding has shown 70 considerable shortcomings in considering the role of residents in the branding process (Kalandides et al., 2013) and little work has been undertaken to understand the ‘execution’ of a stakeholder-led approach (Mitchell and Reid, 2001). Therefore this approach contributes to the scant academic discourse by providing a case example of a stakeholder-led approach to branding.
In undertaking a stakeholder-led approach, it is vital the destination’s internal stakeholders are integrated into each aspect of the brand building process. Section 3.3 of this chapter will outline the process of stakeholder consultation, which includes four rounds of semi-structured interviews and stakeholder focus groups.
3.2.2 Developing a ‘sense of place’
This thesis supports Campelo et al.'s (2013) contention that destination branding should begin by understanding ‘sense of place’ as experienced by local residents. This allows the destination to define its core values and provide a meaningful representation of what stakeholders perceive as their ‘place’ and ‘home’. Further, many tourists want to experience a sense of place when visiting a destination (Konecnik and Go, 2008) and a strong identity can help differentiate a destination from its competitors. According to Hankinson (2004), the ‘identity of a place’ forms the core of a destination brand.
After a critical review of the literature and branding models, this thesis argues that 'sense of place’ can be developed through three key components: 1) building an understanding of the destination’s functional attributes or its ‘product’, 2) development of a unique ‘personality’ for the destination, and 3) articulation of a brand ‘position’. For the purpose of this thesis, these three key areas – product, personality and position – have been named the ‘3Ps’ of destination brand building. It is from an analysis of the 3P’s that a ‘sense of place’ can emerge.
Understanding the ‘product’ of a destination is an essential first step (Kalandides et al., 2013), which involves the recognition of the destination’s strengths and weaknesses (Huang et al., 2013). This is followed by the development of the second ‘P’, personality, given the symbolic or intangible attributes of a brand are equally as important as functional qualities (Hankinson, 2004). Kapferer (2007) suggests that just like a person, for a brand to be strong, it must have a true self that is driven by a vision, values and personality that are different from others and resistant to change.
71
In order for a destination to stand out in the minds of consumers, it must establish a brand position (Liyanag and Jayawardena, 2013) – the third ‘P’. This is a more tactical component of brand development, which Aaker (1996) suggests requires the brand to be both actively communicated to a target audience and demonstrate an advantage over competing brands. If a brand is perceived as unique, it is hard to be replaced by another brand (Qu et al., 2011). Therefore, an analysis of the destination’s competitors and its target markets should be undertaken, which combined with the functional and symbolic brand attributes, can establish a brand position.
Once the 3Ps have been thoroughly researched, the brand concept can then be developed. This thesis advocates that to finalise the brand concept, the destination’s essence must conveyed through the use of visual cues (Tasci and Gartner, 2007, Campo and Alvarez, 2014) such as imagery and a logo. Further, at this stage it is important a destination creates conversational value through a tagline, which is a word or short phrase that captures the spirit of the destination promise (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014).
The application of these techniques to the case study of Timor-Leste will allow for a practical ‘real-life’ example of brand building, and, through that, a critique of the brand building model itself. A stakeholder-led approach to developing a ‘sense of place’ will also ensure the brand is developed ethically, which will provide further insight for branding other emerging and post- conflict nations and contribute to the theoretical discourse on developing a destination brand.
3.2.3 A process of ‘brand assessment’
The literature review found that destination branding is not an easy process and success is rarely guaranteed. As outlined in chapter 1, leading brand scholar Wally Olins (2005, p.179) asserts that branding is often just ‘trial, error and experience’. This thesis therefore argues that a process of ‘brand assessment’ is vital before the brand can go to market. Cai (2009) suggests that the study of destination branding calls for a deeper understanding of the difference between what is perceived by tourists and what is projected by the destination marketing organisation. In other words, marketers need to understand whether a destination brand can actually impact consumers’ image of that destination. Understanding its effectiveness on the target market gives the brand a greater chance of success.
The literature suggests that it is possible to assess brand effectiveness by analysing consumers’ destination image ‘before’ and ‘after’ exposure to marketing stimuli. This requires an analysis of
72 the target market’s current ‘organic’ image of the destination, which is the image developed from non-commercial information sources including mass media, popular culture and general knowledge about a destination (Cherifi et al., 2014, Michaelidou et al., 2013, Wang et al., 2014) to establish a ‘baseline’ against which subsequent marketing and brand activity can be tested.
A second image analysis can then be undertaken on the same market to assess the ‘induced’ image of the destination, which is the target market’s perception of the destination, based on exposure to commercial sources including destination marketing (Cherifi et al., 2014, Michaelidou et al., 2013, Wang et al., 2014) – in this case, the proposed destination brand. Comparing the organic image with the induced image will enable the researcher to gauge the effectiveness of the developed materials.
A number of branding models including Aaker (1996), Baker and Cameron (2008) and Cai (2009) also stress the importance of understanding a destination’s image as held by consumers early in the branding process. Indeed while it is important to understand how the destination would like to be perceived (through an analysis of ‘sense of place’ and the 3P’s), it is essential to also understand how it is currently perceived. Understanding the difference between consumers’ perceived brand image and the destination’s desired brand identity allows any gap to measured and reduced (Balakrishnan, 2009) and brand development to be tailored accordingly.
For the brand assessment to be successful, it requires the study be conducted on what Cherifi et al. (2014) term ‘non-visitors’ – those who have never been to the destination. This allows the study to isolate the influence of the different image sources, and ensure the consumer’s image is not influenced by direct experience through destination visitation. This process is particularly pertinent for the case of Timor-Leste, given, as chapter 1 outlined, visitation to the nation remains low, so it will not be difficult to source an adequate sample of ‘non-visitors’. The study sample should be comprised of the brand’s target market, as ascertained through the development of its brand position.
As discussed in chapter 2, there have been limited studies to date on image assessment from the perspective of ‘non-visitors’, since previous studies tend to focus more on image as a result of destination visitation (Smith et al., 2015). Given there are significant differences between the image formation of those who have visited a destination as opposed to those who have not (Cini and Saayman, 2013), the assessment of non-visitor image provides an important contribution to the literature.
Further, as the literature review found, there have been limited studies that have assessed a destination’s image before and after exposure to marketing stimuli. The researcher’s own study 73 in chapter 2 identified only three studies undertaken from 2012-2015 that assessed a change in image due to marketing, but two of these studies used a control and test group which decreased the generalisability of the findings. This leaves scope for further research on how a modification to destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional activities (King et al., 2015). Therefore, this aspect of the branding model provides insight into testing the brand developed for Timor-Leste, alongside a significant academic contribution to assessing destination image. This provides insight for an innovative brand testing process in other emerging and post-conflict nations and allows for an analysis of the effectiveness of branding in impacting the image of a destination.
In combining the three core components of the model, the brand model is depicted in Figure 3. It positions the 3P’s at the heart of a branding strategy and a stakeholder approach as pivotal to understanding the ‘essence’ of the destination. The process of assessing the destination’s image is important both before and after the development of the brand identity. Feedback from the post- brand image assessment combined with further stakeholder engagement allows for the development of a final brand.
Figure 3: Destination brand building model; developed by the author.
74
3.3. STAKEHOLDER PRIMARY RESEARCH
To develop a strong understanding of Timor-Leste and its unique character, this study has focussed primarily on the views of those who know the country best, its internal tourism stakeholders. This decision was based on the imperative to undertake a stakeholder-led approach to branding, as discussed in the previous section.
A qualitative approach was seen as the most appropriate to develop a deep understanding of the Timor-Leste tourism environment and the key attributes required in the brand. Qualitative research builds a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of participants (Creswell, 2013). Bryman (2004) suggests that qualitative research is more concerned with letters than numbers and is interpretivist, in that an understanding of the world is generated through an examination of that world by its participants. Qualitative interviews aim to ‘get inside the heads’ of particular groups of people and to tell things from their point of view (Bryman 2004).
Four qualitative methods were employed, namely exploratory interviews, semi-structured interviews, follow up interviews and focus groups. The use of multiple qualitative techniques is important given one may prove more successful than another in drawing complex ideas or in avoiding participant censoring (Chandler and Owen, 2002). However, the main method chosen for this research was semi-structured interviews due to the richness, flexibility and detail that they offer (Koutra and Karyopouli, 2013), allowing for a focus on meaning as opposed to just fact (Buultjens et al., 2015).
The research therefore undertook a ‘mixed methods’ approach, as it allowed for the triangulation of data, thereby reducing the limitations of each specific method. The theory of ‘triangulation’ is based on the assumption that there is a fixed point of reference or a point of intersection that can be ‘triangulated’ (Wheeler, 2010) by at least three different approaches. Triangulation allows a researcher to examine convergence and collaboration to provide credibility to the findings of the study (Buultjens et al., 2015). While this thesis does not support the view of there being a single point of reference, multiple methods were seen as important to help validate the research design and substantiate interpretations.
The stakeholder primary research consisted of six phases, which are represented across the timeline in Figure 4. Such a significant number of primary stakeholder research stages allowed for what Dutra et al (2011) term an ‘immersive’ approach. This provided an insider’s perspective and encouraged a stronger rapport with respondents across the period of the research. It is also
75 representative of a grounded theory approach, which allows data collection and analysis to continue until saturation is reached (Carson et al., 2001).
These six stages were supplemented by field research and secondary data analysis. A second sample population was also consulted – a consumer audience – which will be discussed in section 3.4.
Secondary data analysis Field Observations
Semi-structured Follow-up Focus Groups Interviews Interviews Two & Three (Main round)
Exploratory Focus Group Follow-up Consumer Interviews One Interviews Testing
October Dec- Feb March October March July Oct-Nov 2012 2013/14 2014 2014 2015 2015 2015
Figure 4: Timeline of research methods
3.3.1 Exploratory interviews
Exploratory interviews are usually conducted to explore or open up new areas of social enquiry (Walter, 2010). This was important for the first stage of enquiry as the researcher had only lived in-country for a few months and did not have a detailed understanding of the tourism landscape. These preliminary, informal conversations helped refine the topic to something that was both feasible and necessary for the country’s development, and it was through this that the need for a destination brand emerged.
All discussions were unstructured, meaning they were similar in nature to a conversation (Bryman, 2004) and the respondent could respond freely across a range of topics. Participants were invited to share their views on the current state of the tourism industry in Timor-Leste and their ideas for its development. The conversations were all conducted in-person in Timor-Leste, at a venue of the participant’s choosing. 76
The non-probability sampling technique of snowball sampling was used in this stage. Snowball sampling allows for initial interviewees to nominate suitable colleagues as the next interviewee (May, 2011) and is therefore useful to gain access to certain groups. This process was helpful for a new researcher to approach and interview senior members of the Timor-Leste Tourism Ministry.
A total of 12 informal conversations were conducted at this stage, with a breakdown between government, NGO, private sector (including accommodation and tour operators) and education.
Industry No. respondents Government 5 NGO 1 Education 2 Private Sector 4 TOTAL 12
Table 2: Exploratory interview participants by industry
3.3.2 Main round: Semi-structured interviews
The main round of interviews was conducted across the summer of 2013/14. By this stage the researcher had a strong understanding of the country’s tourism climate, having worked in- country for two years.
The interviews were semi-structured, meaning the researcher had a list of questions on fairly specific topics, but the interviewee had a fair amount of leeway in how to respond (Bryman, 2004). The interview process was flexible and the interviewee was free to raise new ideas at their choosing. There were 24 interview questions in total, derived from the branding literature discussed in chapter 2. All questions were open-ended.
A total of 40 interviews were conducted across this period; 38 in person and two by email where it was not possible to meet or phone the interviewee. All in-person interviews were conducted in Timor-Leste, at a place of the interviewee’s choosing. All interviews were recorded and then transcribed. Interviews lasted anywhere between 40 minutes at the shortest and two and a half hours at the longest. The average interview time was approximately one hour and twenty minutes.
77
Of the 12 interviewees in the exploratory phase, only ten participated in the main interview round. Both of the participants who did not interview a second time expressed a strong interest, however in both cases had moved overseas. Therefore, the total number of stakeholders interviewed across the two stages totalled 42, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Process of interviews across first two stages
Purposive sampling was used to select participants. Such sampling is strategic and entails an attempt to establish a good correspondence between research questions and the sample (Bryman, 2004) and demands a researcher think critically about the population they are studying (Silverman 2010). Given the researcher was currently living and working in Timor-Leste, she had an established network of contacts which aided the participant selection process.
In order to depict a fair and diverse picture of the Timor-Leste tourism environment, it was essential the researcher sought accurate representation across tourism industries, geographic location and nationality. Of the 40 participants interviewed in the second stage, the breakdown of industry is shown in Figure 6.
78
Figure 6: Stage Two interview participants by industry
It was felt this sample broadly reflected the diverse tourism industries in Timor-Leste. For government, the sample included the current Tourism Minister, a former Tourism Minister and key advisors. For the NGO and education sectors only leading organisations were consulted. The private sector was represented by 16 of the 40 participants (40%). Across this group there was representation from a range of hotels and restaurants (from backpackers to guest house to five star), tour operators, both international and domestic, and two airlines; Timor’s own Air Timor servicing Singapore and Air North, the only airline servicing Australia.
It was also important to ensure geographic representation, to fairly depict the tourism climate outside the capital of Dili. This can be shown graphically in Figure 7.
79
Figure 7: Stage Two interview participants by location
In total, 16 of the 40 of participants (40%) worked on tourism projects based outside Dili and a total of eight districts were represented. This is in fact fairly strong representation, given the rapid urbanisation taking place (Ministry of Finance, 2010) and that the majority of industry, hotels and guest houses are based in the capital (Tolkach, 2013). Further, interviews were conducted with six tour operators who, although Dili-based, frequently travel the country for tourism purposes. It was therefore felt that the sample provided a representative geographic sample of the tourism environment.
In terms of nationality, the researcher divided the participants into three groups. These comprised expatriates, Timorese nationals and Timorese nationals who had spent more than five years based overseas. It is not uncommon for Timorese to have spent in excess of five years overseas given the 25-year occupation of their country.
80
Nationality No. respondents
Timorese national 14
Timorese with > 5 years overseas 12
Expatriate 14
TOTAL 40
Table 3: Stage Two interview participants by nationality
Participant nationality provided an important distinction. ‘Expatriates’ were classified as stakeholders living in Timor-Leste who were not Timorese. Although some expatriates had lived in-country for more than 10 years, it was felt that they would still carry a very different perspective to the Timorese who have rarely left their own country. While one group may have a broader understanding of tourism, the other will have a more intricate understanding of Timor- Leste. Timorese nationals on the other hand, who have spent extensive time abroad, had both an intrinsic understanding of their country’s values and beliefs system and the ability to contrast this perspective with an understanding of the west. A mixture of all groups was important to gather multiple perspectives.
While representation across nationality was important, in all cases participants at more senior levels were preferred. For example, when interviewing a prominent tourism NGO, the interview would be conducted with the owner/director/manager as opposed to a more junior employee. Seniority and strong understanding of an organisation was a leading factor in selecting a research participant. The exception was the student category, which was viewed as ‘emerging’ tourism leaders.
3.3.3 Follow-up interviews
Given the tourism climate of Timor-Leste is constantly evolving, the researcher made two subsequent field visits to the country for follow-up interviews. The purpose of these interviews was two-fold: firstly, to stay abreast of any changes in the tourism industry and secondly to meet with new industry players since the main round of interviews.
In the first stage, the researcher conducted 12 follow-up interviews in October 2014 with previous participants, including the Tourism Minister, Director of Marketing and key players in the
81 public and private sectors. The interviews were informal with the aim of understanding any new developments in the industry and gauging stakeholder response.
A further eight interviews were conducted with new interviewees. These included those who had either taken up a new tourism role in Timor-Leste or whose role had changed to encompass tourism, as well as one participant who had not been available during the main interview stage. All interviews were informal and lasted on average between 30 and 40 minutes. A breakdown of participants and industry is shown in Table 4.
No. of respondents No. of respondents Industry (previous (new interviewees) Total interviewees) Government 5 2 7
NGO 1 3 4
Education 1 1 2
Private Sector 5 2 7
TOTAL 12 8 20
Table 4: Stage One follow-up interview participants by industry and previous participation.
A second stage of follow-up interviews was conducted in March 2015. The researcher returned to Timor-Leste for the launch of the new Balibo Fort Hotel, an important development for the tourism industry. During this time the researcher was able to conduct a further 16 follow-up interviews with previous research participants, including the Tourism Minister, Director of Marketing and the former President. She was also able to meet with a further six new industry players to broaden the scope of the research. A breakdown of participants and industry is shown in Table 5.
82
No. of respondents No. of respondents Industry (previous (new interviewees) Total interviewees) Government 8 1 9
NGO 4 2 6
Education 2 1 3
Private Sector 2 2 4
TOTAL 16 6 22
Table 5: Stage One follow-up interview participants by industry and previous participation.
Overall, across the four one-on-one interview stages a total of 94 interviews were conducted with 56 tourism stakeholders. Figure 8 shows the breakdown of interviews and interviewees at each stage.
Figure 8: Process of interviews across four interview stages
83
3.3.4 Focus groups
Focus groups attempt to gain an understanding of an issue through the examination of perceptions, values and beliefs of the group’s participants (Walter, 2010). As this thesis contends, it is important to understand the internal populations’ hopes, concerns and aspirations when developing a brand (Vasudevan, 2008). While an understanding of individual views had been developed through the exploratory, semi-structured and follow-up interviews, it was only through discussing these views as a whole, that the researcher could generate a consensus through debate and discussion.
One of the most compelling reasons for developing a brand identity within a group environment is the notion that brands are essentially cultural in nature. Thus the results of a group debate can be more valuable than any one individual’s perception (Chandler and Owen, 2002). A total of three focus groups were conducted across an 18-month period.
The first focus group was conducted in the boardroom of the Ministry of Tourism, Timor-Leste in early 2014. The researcher presented her findings, then presented three brand options to stimulate a group discussion. The three brand options were presented visually to give respondents a time to ‘feel’ and ‘experience’ each brand before discussing its potential. The presentation lasted about 45 minutes with 45 minutes of debate to follow.
All interview participants who had been previously interviewed were invited to attend. A total of 14 attended, which represented 35% of previous participants and provided a reasonable representative sample from which to draw conclusions. A further five people also attended the focus group as interested parties, but as they had not taken part in either of the initial stages they did not participate in the discussion. A breakdown of industry of the participants is shown in Table 6.
84
Industry No. participants No. participants No. participants Total (in focus group) (viewed focus (received presentation group) later)
Government 2 2 2 6
NGO 3 3 6
Education 3 2 2 7
Private sector 6 2 8
Other 1 1
TOTAL 14 5 9 28
Table 6: Focus Group One participants by industry
The second round of focus groups was conducted in July 2015. These were held after the researcher had further developed the brand concept, based on feedback from the first focus group, and prior to the brand being tested on a consumer audience.
The researcher decided not to speak with all stakeholders as one large group, but rather to hold two separate meetings with stakeholders from disparate industries. The reason for this was two- fold. Firstly, smaller group discussions ensured no one stakeholder could overpower the discussion. Unfortunately, one of the limitations of focus group research is they can suffer from uneven participation brought about by an overly enthusiastic respondent dominating the group (Carson et al., 2001).
Secondly, focus groups can be influenced by an emerging mentality as the group interacts about the topic that may suppress the views of some people (Carson et al., 2001). Findings from the semi-structured interviews demonstrated that a large proportion of stakeholders were disillusioned with the government’s response to tourism planning and marketing. Thus the researcher felt that greater honesty could be attained by allowing respondents to speak more freely in a setting without government representation. A second focus group was then held with the government respondents, which allowed them to speak freely about tourism without feeling intimidated by the group mentality.
All attendees who had been previously interviewed in stages one to three were invited to attend. The researcher presented an update of her findings and unveiled the modified brand concept. The presentation lasted for approximately half an hour with a further 45 minutes for group discussion and debate.
85
Industry Focus group Two (no. Focus group Three Total of participants) (no. of participants)
Government 6 6
NGO 3 3
Education 1 1
Private sector 5 5
Onlookers 3 4 7
TOTAL 12 10 22
Table 7: Focus Groups Two and Three by industry
The findings from the focus groups were then used to further develop the brand such that it could be tested on a consumer audience. Through this extensive primary research, it was felt that the final brand represented the thoughts, opinions and wishes of the country’s leading tourism stakeholders.
3.3.5 Field observations
The stakeholder primary research was also supplemented by field observations. Anthropologists argue that if a researcher is to really understand a group of people, they must engage in an extended period of observation. ‘Anthropological’ fieldwork, as it can be called, involves immersion in a culture over a period of years, which can include participating in social events with the people (Silverman, 2010).
As the researcher lived and worked in Timor-Leste across the course of her research, she undertook extended field observations, which added complexity and depth to both her interactions with the local stakeholders and her understanding of the tourism product. This approach enabled her to observe the tourism environment first-hand, both as a tourist initially then as an active stakeholder.
Across the past four years, the researcher travelled extensively across Timor-Leste to better understand the tourism environment outside Dili. In total she visited 11 of the 13 districts and the majority of tourism sites across the countryside, including all ten of the Lonely Planet’s ‘Top 10 experiences in Timor-Leste’ (Cocks, 2011). A record of this field work is contained in Appendix 2.
86
3.3.6 Stakeholder data analysis
The research data from the stakeholder research was analysed using a thematic approach. This type of analysis essentially identifies themes as they emerge within the data (Walter, 2010) and compares those themes to the study purpose and the existing literature (Penney et al., 2011). This approach allows for new meanings and knowledge to surface (Michaelidou et al., 2013) which in the case of Timor-Leste allowed for an overall picture of the country’s tourism environment to emerge. Key opinions, patterns and themes were noted across a range of tourism issues, including strengths and weakness, image and unique characteristics as well as stakeholder perceptions and concerns with branding. Secondary data and field observations were used to strengthen the thematic analysis.
Following this process, the data for each section was then coded, which helped compile the text into content groups and identify key issues (Ashton, 2014). This process also brings together key themes and concepts (Sun et al., 2014) and is an important step in a systematic, grounded theory approach to research. However the goal of the qualitative research is to present a representation of the relationships between attributes (Stepchenkova and Zhan, 2013) and show the complexity of the issues in question. Thus the next step in grounded theory is finding the links and relationships between key themes.
Grounded researchers commonly use diagrams to represent the relationships between theoretical categories (Malhorta et al., 2006). For this research, the data was mapped using ‘conceptual maps’ or ‘perceptual maps’, to allow the researcher to visualise the links between images and ideas in respondents’ collective mind (Li and Stepchenkova, 2012).
Concept mapping has been successfully utilised in a number of studies to depict the relationships between destination image components, see for example Li and Stepchenkova (2012) Sun et al. (2014) Wang et al. (2014). It is also advocated by Aaker (1996) as part of his ‘brand identity system’ model. Aaker (1996) suggests it is a useful exercise to draw a mental network of identity elements to better understand the links between them. The use of concept maps was employed successfully in Dutra et al.'s (2011) study of the Beloi community in Timor-Leste. The study employed a concept map to provide a reflection of how locals understand relationships between their village and tourism and depict a ‘sense of place’ (Dutra et al., 2011).
Following the analysis, the data was then practically applied to each stage of the branding model. To represent the ‘essence’ of stakeholder views throughout the analysis chapters, quotes were included verbatim, without edits to the structure or expression. Respondents have been referred to in-text by a number, with the exception of the Minister for Tourism and Director for
87
Marketing at the Ministry, whose positions have been named with permission, due the importance of these two opinions in the decision making process. See Appendix 1 for a full list of respondents by industry, nationality, location and participation.
3.4. CONSUMER PRIMARY RESEARCH
To better understand the current tourism environment of Timor-Leste and the impact a destination brand could have on improving its image, it was necessary to undertake research on a second population: the potential target market of Timor-Leste. Although it is vital the brand itself be developed through extensive stakeholder consultation, a brand is ultimately attempting to form a relationship with the consumer (Hankinson, 2004), thus it is vital a process of testing takes place on the target market, before the final brand is implemented.
The analysis in chapter 2 suggested there is no one ‘right’ way to measure a brand image; therefore, after a thorough literature review, a qualitative approach was proposed. Unstructured approaches to measuring destination image (for example open-ended questions, focus groups and content analysis) can provide richer data and reduce researcher bias (Li and Stepchenkova, 2012). A qualitative approach also places more emphasis on gaining in-depth insights and is useful in an early phase of image research to comprehend more aspects of tourist’s images of a place (Prebensen, 2007).
The World Tourism Organisation suggests qualitative methods allow the interviewer an opportunity to probe behind some of the more superficial responses that emerge in quantitative research. They suggest that qualitative methods can lead to a greater and more in-depth understanding of how potential visitors perceive the destination (World Tourism Organisation and the European Travel Commission, 2009). Given Timor-Leste is a new nation, with limited research on its tourism product and virtually no research to date on its marketing and branding, it was felt that limiting the content would not yield suitable depth and complexity for the analysis. A strong understanding of the nuances in the destination image is more important than being able to quantitatively list destination image attributes.
From a theoretical perspective Michaelidou et al. (2013) argue it is important to develop innovative methodological approaches to investigate destination image, so as to depict different perspectives. Therefore, given the lack of qualitative studies on this topic, compared to the extensive use of structured methodologies such as semantic differential and Likert scales (Sun et
88 al., 2014), the researcher felt it important to develop a new approach, that could provide greater complexity to the findings.
3.4.1. Online survey
The qualitative research method used for this study was an online survey, developed with the tool ‘Survey Monkey’. The use of the internet as a tool for conducting research is becoming more common, particularly in disciplines such as tourism and hospitality (Pratt, 2013). The survey comprised eight questions pertaining to the image of Timor-Leste, followed by six demographic questions. A presentation of the proposed destination brand was embedded after the fifth question, which enabled the researcher to measure respondents’ image of Timor-Leste both before and after viewing the brand.
One of the advantages of embedding the brand presentation within the survey was that it allowed for the assessment of a change in image of the same sample population. A number of previous image studies, see for example Jeong et al. (2012) and Tessitore et al. (2014), used a control and test group to measure the difference in image, but acknowledged a limitation in the research design was an inability to know whether experimental and control groups had similar organic images toward the destination (Jeong et al., 2012) and therefore would be equally influenced by the marketing stimuli.
The survey population was drawn from Timor-Leste’s target market – residents of Australia – as identified in the development of a brand position in chapter 6. It was important the population was drawn from those who had not been to Timor-Leste, to ensure their image was not impacted by past experience as a visitor. The study therefore employed a ‘filter check’ (Jeong et al., 2012) with two questions asking respondents if they had visited Timor-Leste and if they were residents of Australia. Those who had previously visited Timor-Leste or who were not a resident of Australia were withdrawn from the study. The survey was open to all adults over the age of 18.
A sample size of 300 respondents was proposed, being both feasible from a collection and analysis perspective, and also allowing for the generalisability of results. One of the shortcomings of qualitative research is that it traditionally results in small sample sizes, due to high monetary and time cost in collecting the data (Li and Stepchenkova, 2012). Often there is a trade-off between accurate and reliable data and the resources required to complete the study (Stepchenkova and Zhan, 2013). Therefore this number was influenced by Cherifi et al.'s (2014)
89 research in the Czech Republic of ‘non-visitors’ image of London, as they suggested a sample of 300 adults respondents was broadly representative of the population, yet not large enough to create issues of data analysis.
To ensure a representative sample, the survey was ‘quota sampled’, meaning that the researcher determined a distribution of a characteristic within the target population (Malhorta et al., 2006). In this case, the researcher deemed ‘age’ as an important characteristic and ensured the survey reached an equal representation across age groups in three pre-determined categories. One of the disadvantages of using an online survey as a research tool, is that an Internet research sample profile generally differs from a destination’s visitor profile (Pratt, 2013), therefore it was important quota sampling was used to overcome this potential limitation. For this study, quota sampling also allowed for a deeper analysis of the target market based on their age.
The survey was distributed through online channels using a ‘snowball’ sampling technique, which allowed for the initial interviewees to nominate suitable participants as the next interviewee (May, 2011). This was successfully employed through the online process, with participants distributing the survey to friends and colleagues via Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter and email. This enabled the researcher to heavily promote the survey within different age groups as required, to ensure the quota sample. The survey was marketed as ‘a short questionnaire on an emerging destination’, deliberately omitting the word Timor-Leste, to ensure potential participants did not research the destination prior to undertaking the questionnaire.
The survey was open for a six-week period. During this time, a total of 383 respondents were received, however 60 were removed because they did not complete the full questionnaire. A further seven respondents were eliminated as they indicated they had previously visited Timor- Leste. Therefore, a total sample of 316 complete responses was used for the study. All responses were screened to ensure the respondents were residents of Australia.
Respondents’ age was quota sampled to ensure an equal representation across three main age groups. Interestingly, the gender skewed towards female respondents which goes against usual internet usage patterns which skews toward males (Pratt, 2013).
90
Under 35s 35-55 Over 55s TOTAL Female 70 70 69 209 Male 36 36 35 107 TOTAL 106 106 104 316
Table 8: Consumer survey participants by age and gender
3.4.2 Survey data analysis
Similarly to the stakeholder analysis, the consumer research was assessed following the general principles of a ‘thematic analysis’. A qualitative content analysis was undertaken, to enable the researcher to compress the text into thematic groups and identify the key issues within the data (Ashton, 2014). Following the analysis, the data was then mapped using ‘conceptual maps’ to depict the links between images and ideas in respondents’ minds (Li and Stepchenkova, 2012).
For the two questions pertaining directly to respondents’ image of Timor-Leste, further analysis of the data was undertaken. These two questions each contained three answer boxes and asked the respondent to: ‘name the first three things that come to mind when you think of the country Timor-Leste or East Timor’. Respondents were asked this question both before and after viewing the brand.
The researcher wished to not only summarise the themes emerging from the data, but also to develop an overall representation of respondents’ organic and induced images of Timor-Leste. A ‘wordcloud’ analysis of the data was undertaken, which was successfully employed in Sun et al.'s (2014) study to identify characteristics at a macro level. A comparison of the organic image and induced image word clouds provided a direct comparison of a change in image, following exposure to the destination brand.
Dolnicar and Grun (2013) suggest that researchers measuring destination image may need to rethink the dominant and generally accepted approached to image measurement. Current image studies have a strong preference for structured methodologies and use semantic differential and Likert- type scales to measure response (Sun et al., 2014). Therefore by undertaking a qualitative approach and using concept maps and a word cloud to depict the data, this study has provided a new method for measuring destination image.
Further, previous studies have more commonly focussed on image as a result of destination visitation (Smith et al., 2015), with most destination image studies performed in-country with 91 those who have already had experience with the destination (Prebensen, 2007). Therefore, by assessing the image held by non-visitors, this study has again provided new insight into image measurement. Finally, as discussed, this study provided an innovative methodological approach for testing destination image both before and after exposure to a brand. Not only was this study one of the few to test a change from organic to induced image, it also undertook the study on the same sample to ensure generalisability of results.
3.5. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
Secondary data analysis was also used to broaden the picture further. Data was obtained through the Ministry of Tourism, the Office of the President, the Ministry of Immigration and NGOs including the Asia Foundation, La Hamutuk, the Harburas Foundation, as well as the World Tourism Organisation. This was complimented by extensive research through academic books and journals on Timor-Leste, as well as an analysis of government policy, news reports and tourism guidebooks and websites.
The researcher was also granted special permission to use the raw data from The Asia Foundation’s 2014 tourism survey. The survey interviewed over 700 respondents in the departure halls of the Nicolau Lobato Airport in Dili to gather insight into visitor numbers, tourists’ motivation for visiting the nation, activities undertaken while on holiday and feedback on the security, infrastructure and value for money. Use of the raw data allowed for a deeper analysis of results than simply accessing the final report.
Although there have been numerous reports published on aspects relating to the Timor-Leste tourism environment, many of these are difficult to source and not widely available. Bringing together existing secondary data is therefore an important contribution of this research.
Literature on destination branding and image was also crucial to this thesis. Given the researcher has developed a new branding model through a critique of existing research, it was essential a thorough literature review was undertaken. This allowed her not only to understand all current work on destination brand building, but also to contrast this against the conditions of Timor- Leste – a small island developing state, a post-conflict nation and a new nation. This in turn strengthened the final model and through that the research design of this thesis.
92
3.6. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the methodological approach applied in this thesis. Firstly, it outlined the importance of an interpretivist approach to knowledge in allowing for a deep understanding of a variety of perspectives. It also articulated the importance of employing a case study methodology. For this thesis, the case of Timor-Leste not only provides a necessary ‘real life’ example through which destination branding techniques can be applied and tested, but also allows the findings of thesis to provide direct benefit to the nation of Timor-Leste.
This chapter then outlined the systemic development of a model for the creation of a destination brand for Timor-Leste. The analysis found that this framework requires three key components: 1) a stakeholder-led approach, 2) a strong understanding of ‘sense of place’ and 3) a process of brand ‘testing’ to ascertain its effectiveness on the target market. While developed for Timor- Leste, the research suggests that this model may be also applied to other emerging and post- conflict nations.
In looking at the practical application of data to the brand building model, this chapter then outlined the primary and secondary research undertaken in this thesis. It was argued that primary research with the nation’s internal tourism stakeholders is an essential first step in developing a strong understanding of Timor-Leste and its unique character. To do so, this chapter outlined the rationale for a qualitative approach to the stakeholder research and the four main qualitative methods employed in this thesis, which included exploratory interviews, semi- structured interviews, follow up interviews and focus groups.
The chapter then outlined the second phase of primary research, which was conducted on a consumer audience in Australia. A qualitative approach was argued to be the most effective as it allows for a more in-depth understanding of how potential visitors perceive the destination. In outlining the consumer survey methodology, this chapter articulated the rationale behind a survey on ‘non-visitors’ and the process of analysing image before and then again after participants were exposed to marketing materials. The chapter concluded with an outline of the secondary data analysis used in this study.
This chapter has demonstrated that an important academic contribution of this study lies in its methodological innovation. In building a new model to guide the branding process for Timor- Leste, this thesis contributes to the current dearth of literature on ‘best practice’ destination branding. The primary research undertaken with the nation’s stakeholders enables the development of a brand, while the consumer research assesses the effectiveness not only of the brand, but also of the destination branding model.
93
Further, the brand building model itself represents a significant methodological innovation. The application of a stakeholder-led approach is an important contribution, given that the practice of place branding has shown considerable shortcomings in considering the role of residents in the branding process (Kalandides et al., 2013). The use of the 3Ps as a method for developing a ‘sense of place’ is a new tool developed specifically for this thesis and informed by a critical review of brand building literature, which found that product, personality and position are three essential elements of a destination’s ‘place’. Finally, the brand building model provides an important platform for brand testing, given that recent statistics have found that over 86% of place brands actually fail (North, 2015).
Furthermore, the third stage of the model, the process of brand testing, also demonstrates an innovative methodology. Ji and Wall (2015) argue that very few researchers have investigated the relationships between a destination’s projected and perceived images. Therefore, this thesis contributes to the literature in measuring a change in image perceptions among the same sample population following exposure to marketing materials. Further, there is little agreement on how to assess and measure perceptions of destination image (Pratt, 2013). This methodology not only outlines an innovative method for testing a destination brand, but also a new methodology for measuring a destination’s image.
This chapter has therefore outlined an innovative methodological approach to destination brand development. In doing so, it demonstrates the contribution of this thesis to both the practice and theory of destination branding.
94
Chapter 4: STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
This chapter provides an overview of Timor-Leste’s tourism stakeholders’ aspirations for and concerns about growing tourism and developing a destination brand. As chapter 3 has argued, brands thrive when they address both internal and external stakeholders (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013). Further, as Anholt (2007, p.37) suggests:
Building a place brand strategy around the skills, aspirations and culture of its population is far more likely to result in credible, sustainable and effective results than something cooked up by a team of ministers or PR [public relations] consultants in closed meeting rooms.
This thesis adopts Kalandides et al.’s (2013) stance and views branding as a ‘participatory’ process that respects the significance of internal audiences and positions the branding process as a dialogue between stakeholders. This allows the research to develop an understanding of stakeholder opinions and to find strategies through which to manage their concerns.
Given destination branding is a ‘relatively new’ development (Mocanu, 2014), particularly for developing nations (Divandari et al. 2014), this chapter also has implications for the branding of other emerging and post-conflict nations. To date, both the theory and practice of place branding have shown considerable shortcomings in considering the role of residents in the branding process (Kalandides et al., 2013). While scholars and practitioners are beginning to understand the need to place greater emphasis on community involvement and empowerment in tourism, little work has been done on the details of execution (Mitchell & Reid, 2001).
Therefore, in analysing stakeholder response to tourism and destination branding, this chapter provides insight into the possible pitfalls of branding emerging and post-conflict nations and elucidates potential strategies to help garner stakeholder support and develop a collaborative approach. In doing so, it contributes to the academic discourse by providing an applied case study of the development and execution of a stakeholder-led approach to branding.
This chapter firstly looks at stakeholders’ responses towards tourism, elucidating the advantages and possible pitfalls of growing the industry. It then looks at stakeholders’ responses to developing a destination brand, through a critical analysis of stakeholders’ understanding of the concept, their perception of the advantages and their concerns around its challenges. The chapter concludes with a summary of stakeholder response and discusses the next steps for a collaborative and consultative approach to destination branding.
95
4.1. STAKEHOLDER RESPONSE TO TOURISM
There are two contrasting perspectives on the impact of tourism on local residents, as outlined in chapter 2. The first perspective is that tourism has multiple benefits, including cultural revival and economic diversification (Ishii, 2012), building on the existing assets of poor rural communities with few other growth options (Scheyvens, 2007, Briedenhann, 2011). For small island states, tourism has been credited with providing independent economic growth and increased standards of living (Pratt, 2015), while for post-conflict nations it offers an opportunity for poverty reduction, socio-economic recovery and peace (Buultjens et al., 2015, Novelli et al., 2012).
The second perspective, however, maintains that tourism often provides little economic return for minority residents and instead forces them to tolerate many of its unwanted effects (Ishii, 2012). Tourism has been criticised for negatively influencing local economies, damaging the natural and physical environment and eroding the traditional values of host communities (Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy, 2015). While it has the potential to bring economic and social benefits, tourism can often adversely impact the culture and sense of identity of ethnic groups (Yang, 2011), particularly in a world where altruism plays ‘second fiddle’ to profit (Chok et al., 2007).
Therefore, before developing a destination brand to grow tourism, it is important to ensure stakeholders actually want tourism in Timor-Leste to increase. While tourism can bring significant benefits to Timor-Leste, it could also have negative consequences. Therefore, this section explores stakeholders’ responses to growing tourism, elucidating not only their views on the benefits of a tourism industry but also its potential challenges. While tourism development for Timor-Leste is not the focus of this thesis, an understanding of stakeholder response to tourism will help guide the branding process to ensure the brand is targeted to the type and number of tourists that will bring maximum benefit to the nation and minimise the adverse effects.
4.1.1 Impact of tourism
There was unanimous agreement from stakeholders that an increase in tourism will be positive for Timor-Leste. In fact, a majority of stakeholders could not over-emphasise the importance of tourism to their nation, many exclaiming: ‘We need tourism’. This supports Chok et al.'s (2007) contention that the idea that tourism can solve a country’s economic woes – and hence its social,
96 political and environmental problems – is pervasive. The response is not surprising, however, given all stakeholders consulted are already part of the Timor-Leste tourism industry.
More valuable to this discussion, therefore, is an analysis of the perceived benefits of tourism to Timor-Leste as balanced by its concerns, which the nation’s leading tourism stakeholders are in the best position to contribute. Stakeholders argued that while tourism could provide a positive outcome for Timor-Leste, if poorly managed it could also result in negative consequences. The three main benefits of tourism, as cited by the nation’s stakeholders - economic, employment and cultural exchange - will be analysed in the context of the potential advantages and risks.
4.1.1.1 Economic
Economic factors were cited as the main advantage of growing a tourism industry. As discussed in chapter 1, the country’s economy depends largely on offshore resources, oil and natural gas, which provide a finite source of income. Given that Timor-Leste’s economy currently has the second-highest petroleum dependency in the world (La'o-Hamutuk, 2013), the nation will be left in a precarious position once the supply is exhausted. Respondent 24 argued: “Now, almost in every corner, and every stage of the political domain, people always think about oil. But oil will dry someday” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
Further, while agriculture is seen as important for national income, only 27% of the nation’s GDP is actually derived from this source (Ministry of Finance, 2010). Farming in Timor-Leste is primarily used for subsistence. Many respondents talked about the sustainability of tourism as an industry; something that could provide long-term and sustainable income. Tourism is believed to offer a viable development option in countries with few competitive exports (Chok et al., 2007), supporting Sinclair-Maragh and Gursoy's (2015, p.145) contention that “many developing island countries cannot avoid the perceived growth potential tourism development presents”.
At the same time, stakeholders agued it is essential to ensure economic benefits do in fact flow to local communities.
There are people in the tourism industry who are big corporations and their sole, number one concern is profit, at all cost. They have zero regard for Timorese, zero regard for the environment, zero regard for culture or heritage or anything. They want to make money. And they will make products that make money for them, at all cost.
97
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
As discussed in chapter 2, a negative consequence of tourism is that it can relegate the host community to providing ancillary, low profit services, while international investors take the majority of profits off-shore (Ximenes and Carter, 1999). Thus its success lies not only in its economic benefit but also on the wellbeing of the local community (Gunn, 1993). This suggests that while tourism has the potential to bring economic benefit to Timor-Leste, government management will be essential to ensure adequate policy is in place to protect tourism revenue and Timorese livelihoods.
When asked directly about the type of tourism Timor-Leste is hoping to build, the government interviewees were divided. The Director of Marketing at the Ministry of Tourism explained his main focus was attracting ‘low impact’ tourists, indicating that revenue should not come at the expense of environmental or cultural degradation.
If a lot of people come to Timor-Leste they have no space for moving around, we’re using a lot of water, then it’s quite difficult for us. Therefore we are not targeting quantity of the people, but more spending, quality of the tourist.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Balibo, October 2013)
On the other hand, the Tourism Minister was far more concerned with tourist numbers.
Let’s say 28 million tourists to Thailand. If I can get 5%-10% of Thailand tourism that’s a big number for us. Let’s say seven million tourists to Indonesia; if I can get 10% that’s also a big number.
(Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
This finding demonstrates a lack of strategy within the Ministry, given two of its highest officers hold opposing views on the vision for growing tourism in Timor-Leste. Further, since power in the Ministry is largely centralised with the Minister, it suggests that tourism development in Timor-Leste may seek to grow numbers, as opposed to improving the livelihoods of local Timorese. The Minister’s position is not uncommon, given, as Handszuh (2007) argues, that the overall concern for many nations growing tourism continues to be numerical growth, which overshadows ‘development’ in its quality-of-life sense. However a ‘rapid expansion model’ goes against a tourism development strategy that will generate net benefits for the poor (Chok et al., 2007).
98
While the government largely has control of the direction of the Timor-Leste tourism industry, a number of NGO partners work closely with the Minister to help ensure the sustainability of the industry and economic benefits for local Timorese.
Sometimes its not easy, at the political level we face Ministers, the people in the government they have different policy and approach. Because they speak mostly on the interest of who has more money. We try to speak on the side of ‘who has nothing’.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
This suggests that a collaborative and consultative approach to tourism development in Timor- Leste will be vital, if it can be managed. As Ishii (2012) argues, if local communities participate in the tourism industry, particularly the decision making process, a ‘trickle-down’ effect can then benefit local residents. From a marketing perspective, a collaborative process, involving not just the Ministry but also NGO and private sector stakeholders, will be essential to enable the people of Timor-Leste to determine the ‘model’ of tourism they wish to promote. This can then guide an understanding of the type and number of tourists that will bring most benefit to the nation.
4.1.1.2 Employment
Stakeholders also argued that employment is an important advantage of developing a tourism industry in Timor-Leste. As discussed in chapter 1, the rate of unemployment in Timor-Leste is just over 10% but of those employed, 63% are involved in subsistence activities such as farming (Ministry of Finance, 2010). This suggests that job creation could be a valuable consequence of increased tourism. As stakeholder 19 argued: “Tourism would definitely be the biggest employer of any industry in this country. In full swing it could employ 10% of the population” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
Timor-Leste also has a very young population as a result of the occupation years. Since independence in 1999, the population has boomed, with 42.4% of Timorese aged 14 years and younger and 62.2% aged 24 years or younger (CIA, 2016). With such an influx of locals to the job market, it is imperative there is ample employment, which at present there is not. As stakeholder 14 argued: “We have many young generations, but after school they have no jobs. This is a way to create the job for them, by doing the activities for the tourists” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Stakeholder 3 added: “It’s nice work. What would you rather do – throw stones at cars or teach foreign chicks how to windsurf?” (Interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
99
Further, a high rate of youth unemployment can make countries more susceptible to national insecurity (Azeng and Thierry, 2013). A recent report by the African Development Bank Group, which analysed 24 developing countries across the period 1980-2010, found youth unemployment to be significantly associated with an increased risk of political instability (Azeng and Thierry, 2013). Therefore, for a nation such as Timor-Leste, already suffering from an unstable history, tourism can play a vital role in reducing youth unemployment.
The idea of employment was also important to stakeholders for cultural reasons. Respondent 49, an owner of a new hotel currently employing local staff explained: “People are happy here, the reason they are happy is that they know they have a job” (interview with author, Liquica, October 2014).
Further, it was also felt that tourism could provide something previously unavailable to many Timorese: a career path. This in turn could allow for a more skilled workforce and a greater ‘culture of tourism’, which is a current weakness of the nation’s tourism product (see chapter 5). For employers, this would mean easy access to experienced staff, as opposed to constantly training new employees, as is often currently the case.
You’re starving and you need money so you’ll do any job. And you’re not going to sit back and think about the bigger picture and think ‘well where do I want to be in 10 years’, you think ‘well I need money now, I need food now for today’. But that’s one of the ways if they could develop the tourism industry, then people can start to see working as more of a career path and less of a job.
(Respondent 33, interview with author, Liquica, November 2013)
Another advantage of employment through tourism is its portability to the districts of Timor- Leste, which as respondent 3 explained “stops the rural drift from the villages to the big city” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). If business could be taken back to the districts, young people could stay with family and their community, among positive influences such as traditional leaders and the church. As respondent 3 also explained: “Because once they’re cut lose from that, then they’re rudderless and prone to getting into bad company in Dili” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Respondent 26 termed the rural drift as the ‘sugar bowl’ or ‘honey pot’ effect and explained that if the younger people can return to the districts for a job in tourism, Dili may potentially experience less conflict and unrest (interview with author, Baucau, December 2013). As respondent 3 argued: “We don’t need warriors, we need tour guides” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
100
Many stakeholders argued that, alongside increasing employment, the local community could derive broader benefits from tourism — from development of local enterprises to improvements in infrastructure. A tour operator, respondent 35, commented that his company always uses a local guide and shares business with the communities as much as possible: “Tourism can be touched by everyone, easily touched by everyone; it is really tangible” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Tourism is often referred to as the world’s largest employer and touted as a good ‘pro-poor strategy’ for its employment generating abilities (Chok et al., 2007). Thus it could prove very valuable to a nation such as Timor-Leste. However, it is essential that new jobs go to local Timorese, as opposed to being brought in from off-shore or managed by multinationals. Tourism resources controlled by Westerners will generally aim to increase their own profits, as opposed to contributing to the wellbeing of the communities in which they operate (Buzinde et al., 2010).
Therefore, government management of the tourism industry will again be crucial to ensure jobs stay onshore and the work contributes to the quality of life of Timorese, as opposed to just their income. As Scheyvens and Russell (2012) note, in many developing countries, small-scale tourism and hospitality businesses reserve the right for local residents to own and manage businesses. While this may be possible in Timor-Leste, government support and funding of local tourism entrepreneurs will be essential to encourage businesses and initiatives (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009). From a marketing perspective, this suggests that branding must, in the first instance, target tourists who can appreciate the simple and unique hospitality and are not looking for five star service or accommodation. It also suggests government planning and policy for tourism must accompany the branding process.
4.1.1.3 Cultural exchange
Respondents also argued that ‘cultural exchange’ is an important benefit of tourism, as it could help preserve and celebrate the nation’s cultural traditions. These stakeholders spoke with excitement about presenting their country and culture to international tourists. Local respondents explained: “We want tourists to see the real condition of Timor-Leste” (respondent 44, interview with author, Dili, October 2014). Similarly respondent 28 spoke excitedly about tourists “coming to learn what Timor is all about” (interview with author, Baucau, December 21013).
101
An expatriate, a Portuguese national, suggested the power of tourism to grow tolerance and cultural understanding was also important.
I always say that tourism is the industry of peace, because it not only brings people together, foreigners and locals so we get acquainted and know each other, but because we share, we share our culture and share the richness.
(Respondent 40, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
While tourism can lead to greater awareness of, and pride in, the nation’s history and tradition (Engelhardt, 2005), stakeholders cautioned that such advantages occur only if it is well-planned and managed. Respondent 51 suggested: “Tourism preserves culture and the environment — but only if it’s the right kind of tourism” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
As will be discussed in chapter 5, culture and tradition are important to the people of Timor- Leste. The lulik acts as a philosophy to ensure peace and tranquility in Timorese society (Trindade, 2012) and underpins everyday life. While experiencing the depth of Timorese cultural tradition could prove fascinating for many tourists, there is the risk that promoting cultural attractions for tourism can result in cultural commodification (Yang and Wall, 2009). A tourism industry that ‘packages’ Timorese cultural traditions could, in fact, have a damaging impact on the nation’s culture.
Land is not just space that you can measure with metres or can quantify in dollars, but it’s about my ancestors graves, it’s about my traditional house, my ritual places there. Every year I will be there to pray to say grace to my ancestors. This is the meaning. We need other people to know that. We welcome visitors, as many as possible, to see that is our identity, but we don’t want one day to visit their place, to have to ask permission of other people. We don’t want to be a visitor to our own place.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
Cahyanto et al. (2013) emphasise the importance of exploring the local landscape and its unique meaning as a first step in rural tourism development. The challenge, they assert, is that local communities often lack the authority to determine which of their landscape features should be displayed for tourism (Cahyanto et al., 2013) which means tourists’ preference, as opposed to that of the host community, dictate how environmental resources are used. In many instances, multinationals have overdeveloped resources in developing countries and taken little responsibility for their abuses once business is withdrawn (Zhao and Li, 2006).
102
Further, given the history of Timor-Leste is characterised by a continued struggle to achieve autonomy from foreign control — from the Portuguese, the Japanese and, more recently, from Indonesia (Carter et al., 2001) — encouraging yet another influx of ‘foreigners’ could also damage cultural tradition. As respondent 20 argued: “People coming from around the world, they have their own culture, and often they want to influence ours” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). In their study of the village of Beloi on Atauro Island, Timor-Leste, Dutra et al. (2011) warned that if not managed properly, tourism in Timor-Leste could result in changing local traditions and lifestyle.
While stakeholder 35 suggested “Tourists take nothing away — just memories and photos. It’s one of the cleanest forms of income for any country” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013), stakeholder 20 argued that “You can’t just open your doors to everyone and expect nothing to change” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). This does not necessarily suggest stakeholder opinions were divided, but rather the type of tourism promoted in Timor-Leste could significantly affect a positive or negative impact on Timorese culture and tradition. The analysis suggests that if managed well, tourism can lead to cultural exchange. If executed poorly, tourism may lead to cultural dominance, and become a form of imperialism (Sinclair-Maragh & Gursoy, 2015).
Because of recent history, Timor-Leste is in the unusual position of developing a tourism industry that learns from the experience of its neighbouring destinations, avoiding many of the negative consequences of tourism and maximising the benefits (Ximenes and Carter, 1999). For many stakeholders, this meant avoiding the ‘Bali model’ of tourism development.
Bali before Kuta and Sanur were internationally occupied, most Balinese they were ‘rich’. They had land, they had space, but now they have no space, even no house to live. They don’t get anything; only the big companies like the travel agencies, the diving companies, tour operators, they get the money. Not the community. We don’t want Jaco to be a Kuta in Bali. We are afraid that the complaints of the Balinese will repeat here in the future. The real owner of the resources will become the everlasting observer, watching other people come and take their resources and leaving them with nothing...
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
Government support and planning will be essential to ensure tourism maximises the benefits of cultural exchange and minimises the negative impacts. As Chok et al., (2007) argue, given altruistic motives cannot be relied upon to guide tourism to the benefit of the poor, the onus lies on the political commitment to enable tourism development to meet this aim. It also means local 103 stakeholders must become shareholders in the tourism industry. Further, a number of stakeholders argued that starting small and simple may also be the best policy for the nation’s emerging tourism industry.
If you open the door without any security guards in front everyone comes in and does what they want to do. We really don’t want to be Bali or Singapore or Phuket – but just enough to get people going. Enough food on the table and clothes on their back and send the kids to school. That’s a positive thing for us.
(Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
From a marketing perspective, this suggests it will be essential to develop a brand through stakeholder consultation and target the number and type of tourist Timor-Leste wishes to attract. To be successful, branding must not simply grow tourism to Timor-Leste; it must grow the type of tourism that Timor-Leste wishes to attract, that which will bring the most benefit to its people. After all, destination branding succeeds not only when it meets the expectations of visitors, but when stakeholders are also happy with the welfare of their communities (Stylidis et al., 2014).
4.2. STAKEHOLDER RESPONSE TO BRANDING
Before developing a destination brand, it is crucial to understand not only stakeholder views towards tourism, but also their views on tourism branding. While destination branding is promoted as one of the most powerful tools available to contemporary marketers (Santos and Campo, 2014) and hailed as the basis for survival within a globally competitive marketplace (Morgan et al., 2003), it also has ethical implications for the residents who will be impacted not only by tourism, but also by the manner in which their nation is promoted. As discussed in chapter 2, destination marketers hold power not only over tourists, but also over the destinations they market (Cornelissen, 2005).
Therefore, Konecnik and Go (2008) argue, it is necessary to consider the potential effects of a destination branding strategy, and reactions to it, by leading stakeholders and therefore, by extension, the host population itself. Understanding of, and gathering support from, a destination’s stakeholders is not only crucial for successful branding, it is also an indicator of a sustainable approach to tourism development (Zouganeli et al., 2012).
This section therefore looks at stakeholders’ responses to branding Timor-Leste, elucidating their views on its advantages and potential challenges. It looks firstly at the understanding of
104 destination branding within the stakeholder group. Next, it analyses the perceived advantages of branding as outlined by the destination’s stakeholders, cross-referencing these with the branding literature to ensure stakeholder wishes are achievable through the creation of a destination brand. Finally, this section critically analyses stakeholder concerns and perceived challenges with destination branding, to develop an understanding of how these will impact the branding process in Timor-Leste.
4.2.1 Understanding of destination branding
There was mixed understanding of destination branding among Timor-Leste’s tourism stakeholders. Just over half those interviewed professed a strong understanding of the concept, while another quarter expressed only some understanding. The remaining 22.5% admitted to having no idea. Respondent 14 laughed: “This is a totally new concept to me!” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
This reported understanding of destination branding was in fact higher than anticipated, given, as Divandari et al. (2014) argue, branding is a new issue in developing countries and many experts do not have a comprehensive understanding of the concept. Of the respondents with a strong understanding of destination branding, the most commonly named destination brands were ‘Malaysia Truly Asia’, ‘Incredible India’ and ‘More fun in the Philippines’. Many also named Australia’s dated and largely unsuccessful campaign ‘Where the bloody hell are you?’
Of the respondents who had some understanding, most were aware of the term ‘branding’ but had not seen it applied to a destination, with many able to name commercial brands, such as Apple and McDonalds. Others meanwhile were confident with the term ‘destination’ but were unsure of the definition of a brand. A number of respondents commented on the ‘Tour de Timor’ brand, which was developed for the extreme mountain bike event pioneered in 2009 by then president Ramos-Horta. This was by far the most well-known brand in Timor-Leste and only in describing it did many realise it was, in fact, a brand. However for these respondents, brand equated to ‘slogan and logo’ and many were not confident describing other brand elements. Other respondents had a general idea about the effects of branding, with stakeholder 8 explaining: “It’s something that when people see, they click with the country” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
105
There appeared little correlation between an understanding of destination branding and stakeholder demographics. There was a mixture of expats and Timorese across each tourism industry who thoroughly understood the concept, had limited understanding and had no idea.
Before analysing support for a destination brand, all participants were given a detailed explanation of destination branding and its benefits, particularly those who had expressed little or no understanding of the concept. Brand was defined as ‘the good name of something that’s on offer to the public’ (Anholt & Hildreth, 2004) that differentiates a product or destination from its competition (Aaker, 1996). Importantly, brand was also defined as more than just a logo and slogan, as something that can create awareness, reputation and prominence in the marketplace (Keller, 2002) and generate an emotional connection with its consumers (Morgan et al., 2003). By the end of the discussion, all participants demonstrated an increased understanding of the concept.
4.2.2 Support for branding Timor-Leste
Support for developing a destination brand was very strong. 100% of respondents agreed a destination brand would benefit Timor-Leste.
I think it’s really important. Because I know that every country they have their branding. If you look at this branding, it means you connect with our country, our people, our culture and our natural. So this type of branding, we really need it.
(Respondent 2, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
A number of expatriate respondents spoke about the merits of destination branding from a tactical perspective.
It’s imperative for tourism. A brand is how westerners take vast amounts of things and distil it into something that they can understand.
(Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
I think it’s critical to have a distinctive and effective destination brand. Because it’s very difficult to get cut through on the international stage, because everyone’s out there competing to get tourists.
(Respondent 19, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
106
For local respondents, the importance of branding was more personal. Branding was seen as an opportunity to provide an honest and more realistic image of their nation, which in turn could engender pride. Stakeholder 27 suggested: “When we give information, they know Timor is good, good people, they know good stories” (interview with author, Atauro, November 2013). Respondent 23 said: “A brand can say: please come see us, here we have something else you never have in the world” (interview with author, Dili, January 2014).
Two key themes emerged in the value stakeholders perceived from branding. The first related to overcoming and counter-balancing the nation’s ‘external image’, which stakeholder 3 described as “the image problem from the turbulent history” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013), while the second pertained to the internal message that a strong and cohesive destination brand could provide.
Importantly these two key themes revealed not only that stakeholders are supportive of a destination brand for Timor-Leste, but that their reasons for wanting a brand closely align with the value of branding outlined in the literature. This is vital to note, given a brand will not be supported by stakeholders if it cannot fulfil their aims. On the other hand, if locals do support and internalise the brand, they are more likely to demonstrate its brand values (Sartori et al., 2012). As Vasudevan (2008) aptly writes, it is the people who are the place and a shared sense of purpose can help stimulate involvement and participation from the population. The main two themes arising from the discussion — external image and internal message — are detailed below.
4.2.2.1 External image
Stakeholders saw a destination brand as a crucial tool in helping change the country’s external image. As discussed in chapter 1, the negative image of Timor-Leste as a ‘dangerous place’ is still purported in much of the press and in travel advisory warnings for developed nations. This is not uncommon, given past unrest can cloud the destination image well after the nation has overcome the actual problems (Vitic & Ringer, 2008).
Branding was seen as able to play a crucial role in helping prospective tourists understand the positive aspects of Timor-Leste, instead of just remembering the civil war and crisis.
When people think of Timor, they think of the brand, as opposed to the crisis and the civil unrest and things like that. A positive image, as opposed to a negative one.
107
(Respondent 37, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
This is one of the core values of a post-conflict brand as outlined in chapter 2. Effective branding can not only serve to reinforce positive images but also help fight negative ones, by shaping new images and associations (Harish, 2010, Mihailovich, 2006).
Stakeholders felt that improving the image of Timor-Leste as a destination, could in turn improve its image as a nation. As respondent 47 explained: “If the general message that comes from tourism is positive then that’s good for the country, not just for tourism” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). Further, while Timor-Leste is well known for the wrong reasons in some circles, it is little known in others. Therefore alongside counterbalancing negatives, stakeholders argued that it is equally important to promote the positives aspects of Timor-Leste, which are often overlooked or poorly understood by potential tourists.
We need to re-image ourselves, in a positive way, so people will know us and come across. And then they would actually be able to find us on the map!
(Respondent 2, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
A brand was also seen as a means to differentiate the nation from competitors, particularly its near-neighbours: “If we have our own brand, our own characteristics, then we can be free from Bali” (Respondent 18, interview with author, Dili, November 2013). As chapter 2 has already discussed, destination brands provide two core functions: identification and differentiation (Qu et. al, 2011). Therefore the idea that a brand could help tourists ‘find Timor-Leste on the map’ and that the nation can differentiate itself from its competitors can likely be achieved through a successful destination brand.
4.2.2.2 Internal message
Stakeholders suggested that a Timor-Leste brand that encapsulated the beauty, cultural heritage and value of the nation, could positively impact the locals’ pride in their country. This in turn could provide benefits far beyond tourism promotion. Morgan et al. (2004) suggest that destination branding can not only impact how a destination is viewed internationally, but also how a destination views itself.
As respondent 22 aptly argued: “A brand should not only reflect the price, but the pride” (interview with author, Aileu, December 2013). Respondent 35 similarly discussed the difficulty in promoting tourism in the districts, particularly among those who have had little exposure to 108 international visitors. He argued that branding could work well ‘inside the house’ helping to improve service and quality as well as pride in Timor-Leste and what it has to offer (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). An important value of a post conflict-brand is its ability to help with the country’s ‘internal image’, through galvanising community support for tourism and uniting people behind a common aim (Gotham, 2007). In doing so, branding can provide important ‘domestic propaganda’ (Jansen, 2008).
Adding to this, it was argued that a brand that arose thoughtfully, carefully and from the people could also help dictate the types and styles of tourism the Timor-Leste community wished to attract. As discussed in section 4.1 of this chapter, attracting the ‘right’ type of tourism is an essential issue for many stakeholders.
Sometimes positive branding has negative motivation. Positive means for the interest of the Timorese people. Not just come and stay in the five star hotels, to pay the Chinese manager then the money goes back to China.
(Respondent 53, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
Given tourists are often intrusive to local communities and cultures, it is important stakeholders play a role in determining the number and type of tourists they wish to attract (Cahyanto et al., 2013). It was felt branding could enable the nation to ‘take control’ in promoting the type of tourism and tourists that could bring the most benefit, which will help abate stakeholder concerns about the potential negative impacts of tourism.
Alongside promoting the desired image, many also saw value in achieving consistency of the country’s image. Respondent 51 argued: “Because now everybody is doing things but we don’t have a common idea. Every time it just changes” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). It was felt that stakeholders’ in the private sector frequently undertake marketing in isolation of one another and this is compounded by a change in marketing strategy with each successive Minister.
It is true that destination branding can be undermined by the ‘short-termism’ of chief political stakeholders, given a destination brand’s lifespan is a longer-term proposition than most politicians’ careers (Morgan et al. 2003). Therefore, a cohesive and widely accepted brand could make it easier for stakeholders and the government to achieve consistency across destination marketing. This reinforces Ooi's (2004) contention that destination branding can be a cohering force and present a common message to unite stakeholders.
109
4.2.3 Challenges in branding Timor-Leste
As it been argued throughout this thesis, the satisfaction of the various destination stakeholders is one of the fundamental requirements of successful destination branding (Akotia et al., 2011, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Garcia et al., 2012, Ryan and Silvanto, 2010, Vasudevan, 2008, Wagner and Peters, 2009). Therefore when developing brand attributes it is crucial to understand not only the wishes, but also the main concerns, of the destination’s stakeholders.
While no stakeholder had serious concerns with branding Timor-Leste, many raised a number of potential challenges and cautioned the development and the nature of a final Timor-Leste brand. The leading concern related to the coordination process itself, given one of the main challenges of branding is the number and diversity of stakeholders who are part of any destination (Cai, 2009, Konecnik and Go, 2008, Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012). It is difficult to bring together and negotiate the interests of the various interdependent players (Lichrou et al., 2010), particularly given stakeholders carry different interests (Marzano and Scott, 2009) and exert varied levels of power (Baker and Cameron, 2008). For Timor-Leste, a new nation, with limited tourism experience, this may prove particularly challenging.
The debate focused on three key areas of stakeholder engagement: 1) government, 2) coordination between tourism industries and 3) the community. In each case, stakeholder views were divided based on their industry, more so than nationality. Government criticised the private sector, while the private and NGO sectors argued government progress has been poor. Finally, the fourth challenge identified by stakeholders, relates to the process of branding. These four key challenges are discussed below.
4.2.3.1 Government leadership and management
There was a consensus from stakeholders across the private sector, NGO and education sector, that the government of Timor-Leste is not sufficiently managing and promoting the tourism industry. As stakeholder 20 put it: “The real challenge will come from the political will; the government. They need to realise we need to promote this country quick. Our revenue should not depend on oil; it runs out very soon” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
As discussed in chapter 1, Timor-Leste’s destination marketing has to date been fragmented. The ‘Turismo Timor-Leste’ logo was developed in 2005 without consultation and has been used inconsistently and infrequently. As stakeholder 8 argued: “The other Minister tried to have a brand for ‘turismo of Timor-Leste’. The problem is they don’t have one for a long period. They
110 start it; they stop it. So it has no impact” (interview with author, Dili, November). Similarly, without a consistent brand strategy, the Ministry of Tourism has failed to set up a suitable website for potential tourists.
If you have a look at the country’s web presence, it’s extremely fragmented. They build a website for tourism and say ‘oh well that didn’t work, so let’s get a new domain and start another one’ and the domain will lapse and some porn site will set up.
(Respondent 9, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
The main marketing currently undertaken by the Ministry is through attendance at overseas trade shows and expos. However, many stakeholders lamented that this is being done at the expense of more traditional marketing activities such as a website, advertising and a brand, and that results from these events have been very limited. As stakeholder 15 suggested: “I think the Minister of Tourism and his Directors are just visiting countries, without a special target” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). Stakeholder 18 added: “They use the money for civil servants to go travelling, on what is meant to be for marketing budget” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
There was widespread concern that attendance at trade shows is very expensive and a poor use of the marketing budget, especially if results are poor.
We don’t spend our money in this country, we just take all the money to have the event. And it’s for only one day, and we put out a lot of money for one event. No benefit to come from it in our country. This is a big problem; big wrong planning from the Minister of Tourism.
(Respondent 29, interview with author, Dili, December 2103)
Another major initiative of the Ministry has been the ‘Miss Timor’ beauty pageant. The competition was only promoted internally and had no international media coverage, leaving many stakeholders to argue that it showed a lack of strategy.
You see some things about Miss Timor. We are not against that, what we are against is the argument behind this: to promote our culture. To promote our identity. What? Even the word is not Timorese – miss! It’s an English word.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
111
This supports Daye’s (2010) contention that branding decisions can be often made by those with the most power and influence, as opposed to being based on informed research.
The Ministry of Tourism, Art and Culture had a budget of US $8.664m in 2015 (Ministry of Tourism, 2015), however the Asia Foundation survey found the annual economic value-add by travellers to Timor-Leste to be only approximately US$14.6 million (Rajalingam, 2014). This value-add for tourism is less than double the Ministry’s budget, and tiny when compared to near neighbours Bali and Darwin (Rajalingam, 2014).
Destination marketers often work with limited budgets compared to many global consumer product brands (Baker and Cameron, 2008, Morgan and Pritchard, 2002). However in the case of Timor-Leste it is perhaps not a lack of funding, but a focus on other sources of revenue, that is causing the issue. As discussed in chapter 2, the profitable oil and gas industry reduces focus on developing other sectors of the economy (Thaler, 2011) resembling what some may term a ‘resource curse’ (La'o Hamutuk, 2013).
When you think about countries like the Pacific Islands, where the range of income- earners for the nation was so limited, they developed some pretty good tourism destinations. We have too much money floating around here, from oil and gas, this is the curse we’ve got. This curse is effectively going to kill any tourism.
(Respondent 40, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
A former government advisor, stakeholder 15, lamented that tourism marketing was actually more successful during the immediate post-independence period and is now less effective that it was a decade ago. Increased funding has contributed to a decreased result.
In 2007 when the government came in, people just didn’t care. They got too busy spending the money on self-interested things. There’s been a real lack of attention in developing Timor-Leste as a product and a market, which tourism is. So things like destination branding, they wouldn’t have any clue of what it is.
(Respondent 15, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
Stakeholders also argued that a lack of vision and consistent strategy are largely to blame for the disjointed and ineffective destination marketing.
When they change the structure of the government of tourism, the vision must be still going. At the moment, one vision is changing, to another; then changing again with each government. 112
(Respondent 38, interview with author, Dili, January 2014)
From the Minister’s perspective, he admitted that little has been done in terms of marketing: “Actually, I have to tell you honestly that I don’t have any current marketing yet. The current marketing, what we do, is just whatever you see” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). This not only suggests a lack of marketing activity, but also a lack of long-term vision and strategy for tourism.
Other stakeholders argued there is a lack of skills at senior levels: “The country hasn’t got enough internal training or internal vision” (Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013). Similarly, stakeholder 2 argued: “If you have money but you don’t know how to use it, you just throw it away” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). As Divandari et al. (2014) argue, many governmental institutions that are responsible for tourism promotion, particularly in developing nations, know little about tourism and even less about branding.
The Director of Marketing at the Ministry of Tourism openly admitted his lack of expertise and need for external support.
Myself, I am not coming from marketing, I’m coming from tour operator and management. Based on my experience, I want to give them the idea. Who is expert in this issue – of course from other people that can do. Of course we have to get more input.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Many private sector and NGO stakeholders felt that if government money is not being wisely spent on tourism marketing and development, it could be better spent elsewhere, such as “buying chairs for kids” (respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013). Said respondent 16: “Do it and do it properly or don’t do it at all” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013).
Frustration is building within the private sector that as a result of the waste and lack of results from the government’s marketing budget, private operators are being forced to spend their own limited profits on promoting the nation. Stakeholder 10 argued: “Advertising costs a lot of money, local businessman how can we get funds to do this thing- we cannot. How can we promote internationally? It needs government support” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014).
Furthermore, a lack of coordinated marketing means not only that tourism will struggle to grow, but also that some tourism support industries will be unable to prosper, and in some cases will
113 not survive. This is particularly concerning for the home-stays in the districts, which possess the tourism infrastructure but struggle from lack of actual tourists.
In Com there’s all these guest-houses, waiting for the throng of traffic. All these little people sit there waiting for the tourists to come in. They don’t know anything about advertising, no money, no knowledge. Whose responsibility is it to promote these people?
(Respondent 40, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Anholt (2007, p.26) argues that: “When governments have a good, clear, believable and positive idea of what their country really is, what it stands for and where it’s going, then they stand a good chance of building and maintaining a competitive national identity both internally and externally”. It appears this is not the case in Timor-Leste. The government’s lack of long-term strategy and vision will likely provide a significant impediment to the promotion of the country and development of a destination brand.
What the government is looking at? We are not getting any clear picture. What is the policy of this government? What are they targeting? There are no guidelines. So how can we move ahead – which direction are we going?
(Respondent 38, interview with author, Dili, January 2014)
The debate suggests that if destination branding is to be successful in Timor-Leste, the government requires support and expertise to guide the branding process. While the Ministry has sufficient budget to develop a destination brand, government officials lack expertise to develop a long-term and consistent destination marketing strategy. The waste of public resources has become an issue of frustration for the NGO and private sector stakeholders and as a result, fragmentation is increasing.
4.2.3.2 Stakeholder coordination
Alongside concerns with government management, it appears the coordination of tourism stakeholders in Timor-Leste is low. The Minister argued that in branding the nation: “Tourism is my dream, but I can’t do it alone. I have to work together with the community, with everybody, including civil association” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). However, stakeholders across private sector, NGO and education complained their advice and expertise is rarely welcomed.
114
Stakeholder 10, who runs a local tour company explained: “I can’t even get an appointment with the Minister and I’ve been trying for 12 months” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Similarly, Intrepid Travel, the only major Australian tour company to once operate in Timor- Leste, were concerned that: “The Timor-Leste government never once sought our experience or recognised the value we brought in taking people to their country” (interview with author, Melbourne, February 2014), while the nation’s flagship airline, AirTimor, remarked that the government does not communicate when important events are happening and more flights are required. An NGO stakeholder suggested that self-interest guides both government and private sector decisions.
Having different opinions is very rich, but you cannot focus only on your own. You have to listen to the others. People don’t want to listen to the others, this is the problem, and it’s difficult.
(Respondent 45, interview with author, Dili, September 2014)
While the private sector spoke with concern about the government, there also appeared to be internal dissent within the private sector itself. AirNorth, the only airline servicing Australia, remarked that when trying to develop package holidays with wholesalers, they struggled to secure contracts with Timor-Leste accommodation providers: “In the end they gave up and focused their attention on promoting other destinations to Australian holiday-makers” (respondent 39, interview with author, Darwin, October 2013). At the same time, three students complained they felt completely uninvolved and uninformed about their nation’s tourism industry, and that both government and private sector are unwilling to share information.
Although a number of ‘tourism associations’ have been developed over the past decade in Timor-Leste, stakeholders felt that these have been largely unsuccessful. Respondent 43 explained: “They’ve been for the benefit of just their members, and in doing so, have failed to promote Timor as a destination” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). Tourism stakeholders often carry different interests (Marzano and Scott, 2009) and larger stakeholders may promote what they believe to be the most attractive product at the expense of broader brand identity and smaller stakeholders (Baker & Cameron, 2008). As stakeholder 31 added: “We always think of ourselves” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Government respondents argued that they need industry support, while industry respondents criticised the government’s methods. The debate demonstrated that co-ordination in developing a destination brand may prove difficult, supporting Pride’s (2001) contention that the main challenges inherent in destination branding involve ‘paucity and politics’. Paucity occurs when 115 there is a lack of clear identity and vision on which to build the brand, while politics is the complication inherent in developing stakeholder consensus around the brand (Pride, 2001).
The main problem we face here is always different ideas. Because people like to talk, they like to have ideas; but it gets too hard. You get stuck on that; you cannot move.
(Respondent 7, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
There’s too many private issues, so much rivalry, everyone wants a piece of the action. Instead of just getting on with the job. You’ve got to have something to build on. If you have a core, you can change it, alter it, change the legislation, do what you like. But you’ve got to have a base.
(Respondent 16, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
While consistency in image and marketing were highlighted as a potential advantage of destination branding in section 4.2.2.2, it appears this will be a significant challenge for Timor- Leste. As stakeholder 9 remarked: “It’s good to have a brand, but there’s no point unless it’s used” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). For branding to be successful, the brand must be implemented consistently by the government, private sector, education and NGOs, which appears challenging at this time, given stakeholder coordination and rapport is so poor. While the private sector and NGO sector spoke with exasperation, the student stakeholders tended to show hope.
I think if we work together we will be united; and from that we will develop this country for the future. We must work together, and be united. I hope we find a common idea for the brand and then that good idea will help develop this country.
(Respondent 28, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
The debate suggests that although the diverse interests of stakeholders will often complicate branding activities (Pike, 2005), ongoing coordination from both the public and private sectors is essential to the integrity and successful implementation of a destination brand (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010). In their study of post-conflict Burundi, Novelli et al., (2012) suggested the nation’s tourism industry was affected by a lack of public and private stakeholder involvement. Several participants commented that the feedback workshops for the research project were the first time they had been able to discuss tourism-related matters in an open forum with a variety of stakeholders (Novelli et al., 2012).
116
The development of a destination brand may therefore be possible if stakeholders are encouraged to meet and speak in an open forum where ideas can be heard and debated. The challenge will be negotiating with various stakeholders’ needs and concerns and ‘reconciling’ the interests of the private sector with the government and vice versa. In collating diverse stakeholder opinions, an important role of this thesis is therefore to develop a collaborative branding strategy, which involves continued consultation with a diverse range of stakeholders as well as stakeholder workshops, to debate and discuss branding ideas in an open forum.
4.2.3.3 Involving the community
An important tourism stakeholder that must be considered in the branding of Timor-Leste is the community stakeholder: the Timorese people in both Dili and the districts who will seek to profit from, or who may lose by, an increase in tourism. Wilder (2007, p.149) argues that: “... If nation branding is meant to be a strategy on a national level ... then there is no way around citizens’ participation in the branding process”. The involvement of the destination’s people is vital according to Vasudevan (2008), as they will be required to ‘live the brand’ in order for it to be successful.
82% of Timor-Leste’s population live outside Dili (Ministry of Finance, 2010). Of those in the rural areas, only half have access to clean drinking water, just over a quarter have access to proper human waste disposal, and the majority rely on livestock and agriculture for their daily meals (Ministry of Finance, 2010). Life outside Dili is primitive and in some cases impoverished, and for many the concept of ‘tourism’ is completely unknown. It will be difficult, therefore, to develop a destination brand that involves community stakeholders, and promotes tourism, when a large proportion of the local community don’t actually know what tourism is.
They don’t know that tourism is global. They don’t know that tourism is about places, or about culture; they only know that tourism is some people traveling from one country to another.
(Respondent 24, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
When we first went to Baucau the community didn’t understand about tourism. I tried to talk to the community to make some meeting to talk about the fisheries, explain about the sea, the coral, the fish. Then they understand why tourists would come.
(Respondent 30, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
117
For a brand to be successful, education will be important in helping Timorese understand the value of tourism, and how it can contribute to their livelihoods. As stakeholder 24 explained: “Sometimes the most valuable thing they have, they think is not valuable, such as way of life, cooking food and making handicrafts” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). If locals do not understand the value of tourism, it will be difficult to encourage them to protect the natural assets and cultural traditions that will attract tourists in the first place.
If the people are not told, they will take everything, inside the sea. They need to understand it is better for them in the long-term, for tourism, not to take all the fish.
(Respondent 27, interview with author, Atauro, November 2013)
Similarly, other respondents explained that support for tourism and branding in the districts may be low, given not only a lack of understanding but also a focus on more immediate concerns. “Their main focus is their income; agriculture, they need food” explained respondent 23 (interview with author, Dili, January 2014). It can be very difficult for a country to justify a brand when struggling with issues such as poverty and illness (Anholt, 2005, Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014).
However respondents were optimistic that educating the locals about the benefits of tourism may generate their support. “At the moment, they all focus on something that gives benefit to them”, (respondent 43, interview with author, Dili, October 2014). Respondent 18 suggested: “If something positive, people will agree and support it” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). If tourism was seen to also give direct benefit, and there could be sufficient education in the districts, then it was felt that locals would be happy to be involved and to reap the financial reward.
They would love to promote themselves. They love to show what they have. That’s Timorese nature. They like their photograph to be taken, to be filmed; they like to show their dance, their food, their clothes.
(Respondent 24, interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Further, Mitchell and Reid (2001) argue that when a destination’s residents are thoroughly integrated in tourism planning and management, they are more inclined to protect the natural and cultural resources that sustain their livelihood. As stakeholder 21 suggested: “If the local people are stakeholders and they are shareholders in that industry, then that gives a financial incentive to protect those assets” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013), suggesting that if well promoted, tourism could in fact lead to the preservation of cultural and natural attractions. 118
From a marketing perspective, another challenge that comes from low tourism exposure is an understanding of how best to promote the nation to tourists. In consulting the community on previous destination marketing for Timor-Leste, respondent 3 explained that: “In our old brochure, the underwater image they chose was a dull lump of marine sponge without a single fish” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). This is definitely not the vibrant marine life to which Westerners are attracted. Many respondents cautioned that while community consultation is crucial, the Timorese community is not the end-user of a Timor-Leste destination brand.
Destination marketers have the difficult task of reconciling local and regional interests and promoting tourism in a manner that is acceptable to a range of public and private sector constituencies (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010) while still appealing to western tourists. There is a fine balance between involving locals, who will ultimately be required to ‘live’ the brand, and at the same time not over-involving a population that is still only learning about tourism and marketing. While it is vital the brand is attractive to tourists, if locals do not find the branding strategy credible, there is a strong possibility of resistance (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011).
You’ve got to be careful about consulting natives of any country about how their country is branded for tourism. If you invite their create input, you’re in a difficult position when you need to reject it. It can cause resentment.
(Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Further, as in any country, the ‘community’ of Timor-Leste is not a single entity, and ascertaining feedback from ‘the population’ will not be an easy task. As stakeholder 24 argued: “It would be too hard to ask the community about everything. Even in one community you will not get a single idea. If there are 100 people, they will give you 100 opinions!” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Stakeholder 49 similarly argued: “There’s not a single idea of what should be done here; developing a brand is one thing, but considering what the brand should be is a very different conversation” (interview with author, Liquica, October 2014).
Overall, it will be crucial to ensure the brand is reflective of the Timorese community. Place branding that integrates the views, oppositions, and desires of the residents is necessary (Kalandides et al., 2013) to maintain support for and adoption of the brand values. If locals do not ‘live’ the brand, tourists will be disillusioned once they discover the marketed image of the destination does not correspond to its reality (Zouganeli et al., 2012).
119
When we use the brand for the future, as a final, we need to make sure that every Timorese say this is my brand. We have to promote that brand to become ‘myself’; this is me, this is Timorese.
(Respondent 54, interview with author, Atauro, November 2013)
The community must feel that the brand is something to belong to, something to cherish, something to fight for. This is our country, our logo, our brand: this is who we are.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
Ultimately, while tourists may perceive the destination to be a integrated unit, destinations are often fragmented and consist of diverse stakeholders with distinct goals (Haugland et al., 2011). Therefore, the branding process must be a ‘balancing act’, necessitating the involvement and support of community stakeholders, while being cautious not to ‘over-involve’ those with limited understanding of tourism and Western taste. Government involvement will be essential to ensure a collaborative and carefully planned consultation with the local community of Timor- Leste.
4.2.3.4 Developing the brand
Stakeholders cautioned that a Timor-Leste brand should be an accurate reflection of the nation and avoid ‘over-promising’ or ‘over-promoting’. As discussed in chapter 1, while Timor-Leste has significant potential for tourism, including natural, cultural and historical attributes (Timor- Leste Government, 2011), it also suffers from poor infrastructure (ABC News, 2008), a lack of trained human resources (Tolkach, 2014) and an inflated UN economy (O'Neil, 2011). Promising a quality and an experience that the country cannot deliver will not attract sustained or long-term tourism growth. As respondent 2 argued: “People like the truth. If you don’t sell the truth, they will be disappointed and they won’t come back (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Stakeholder 27 added: “If they come and its different, they don’t come back again. They just say goodbye to Timor-Leste” (interview with author, Atauro, November 2013).
If the marketing campaign isn't honest, it may in fact be detrimental to the country’s image. Indeed, Timor-Leste has attempted a variety of marketing campaigns since independence, none perhaps more controversial than the use of ‘Miss World Australia’ in 2011 as a tourism ambassador (Whyte, 2011). One could argue that this campaign was not detrimental because it attracted limited international distribution (it was in fact more controversial internally), however
120 the promotion of white sandy beaches was seen by many as untrue, and detracted from the country’s ‘essence’ as developing and ‘real’.
If people are expecting beautiful Australian babes, or white sand everywhere, then they’ll be terribly disappointed. It may be successful in getting some people interested in Timor, but their expectations will be completely unmet. And I think that will do more harm than good.
(Respondent 33, interview with author, Liquica, November 2013)
Overall, respondents wanted a Timor-Leste brand to embrace the country as it is. Many argued that marketing should not hide from the country’s lack of development or suggest it is anything more than its current reality. Stakeholder 33 argued: “Let’s embrace it and promote it. I think we’ll still get a lot of tourists who’ll be interested in that kind of tourism” (interview with author, Liquica, November 2013). Similarly stakeholder 21 explained: “There are people in the world looking for unspoilt ecosystems; the fact that nothing’s developed is exactly what they’re looking for” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013).
The only difference in opinion came from the Minister himself, who was less willing to begin marketing immediately. Given the nation’s marketing budget is centralised within the Tourism Ministry, this presents a potential issue for developing a destination brand.
I concentrate first for my internal problem. So what we need now is to build a good airport, port, road, infrastructure, hotel facilities, the other infrastructure that we need. We need to have good things to sell before we do the marketing.
(Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Interestingly, The Asia Foundation survey found that only 33% of travellers to Timor-Leste are actually happy with the quality of infrastructure, which is a concerning result, and sits well below the satisfaction for safety at 84% (Rajalingam, 2014). While a destination brand cannot control the infrastructure of the country, this suggests that honesty in promotion will be crucial in managing expectations and avoiding disappointment. As stakeholder 43 suggested: “The branding needs to be careful to not 'over promise' and then have the country under-deliver” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). This analysis therefore suggests that the issue is not one of quality, but rather expectation.
The most important thing in terms of marketing is the expectations of the traveller. You can have the most expensive hotel on the planet, if customers’ expectations are not met,
121
they will be horribly disappointed. Or they could just come and stay in a cement block- house here somewhere and it could be one of the most amazing experiences of their life. It’s all about expectations.
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
In developing an ‘honest’ brand for Timor-Leste, respondents cautioned that summarising an entire country into a single brand will be no easy feat. Respondent 33 explained: “You don’t want to generalise something too much or group everything into a very small basket when there’s so much that you can use” (interview with author, Liquica, October 2014). As discussed in chapter 2, one of the many challenges of destination branding is to avoid the homogenisation of places, which can be contrary to the fundamental purpose of branding: differentiation (Hall, 2007).
Respondent 25 cautioned: “The other thing where it could be go badly wrong is if it looks too much like another country and fails to distil the uniqueness of the country, fails to represent” (interview with author, Atauro, November 2013). It is incredibly difficult to summarise an entire nation in a few key images, words and symbols. A brand campaign that inadvertently uses simplistic images can create lasting stereotypes that become difficult to correct (Vitic and Ringer, 2008).
Additionally, stakeholders argued it is important that the brand be not only representative, but also unique and powerful. Stakeholder 23 suggested: “When the brand is ready, when the tourists see it, I want them to say: ‘Oh wow!’” (interview with author, Dili, January 2014). Given Timor-Leste is not an easy nation to reach, nor as cheap as its Asian neighbours, it is important the brand promotes its unique and alluring characteristics: “So they have to think it’s something different, something special” (respondent number 56, interview with author, Dili, March 2015). This is yet another very difficult challenge for destination marketers: to make the destination brand ‘live’ and allow visitors to feel the authenticity of a unique place (Morgan et al., 2003).
Finally, respondents also cautioned about the type of brand to be developed, arguing that it must be sensitive to the type of tourism Timor-Leste hopes to attract. As stakeholder 22 argued: “Branding Timor-Leste is a good thing if the brand is Timor-Leste. Not Club Med.” (interview with author, Aileu, December 2013). Indeed, care must be taken in branding to avoid a commercial orientation which can destroy the destination’s identity characteristics (Konecnik and Go, 2008). A number of stakeholders spoke passionately about developing a model of tourism that benefits the people, not the large corporations.
122
If the marketing is more in favour of the state itself, globalisation can be a beautiful tool. However when people come in they can be very aggressive. We learn from all these other places, and we need rules and legislation in place to do that.
(Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
If a commercial orientation to branding were to be adopted, then promoting Timor-Leste to all tourists could, also, potentially result in too many tourists too soon. “Can the Ministry of Tourism handle the flow of travellers that are needed here to get this country up and running, and can the people handle it?” asked stakeholder 40 (interview with author, Dili, December 2013). Indeed the current capacity of Timor-Leste to support a mass influx of tourism, in terms of accommodation, infrastructure and hospitality training for the people, suggests that destination branding should target not only the ideal type of tourist but should, in the first instance, start with small numbers and build gradually as the country grows.
While stakeholders spoke positively about the development of a destination brand, this analysis suggests that the process will not be an easy one. The challenge will be summarising an entire country into a single image, and for that image to be both powerful and unique, while at the same time honest and realistic. Ultimately, Timor-Leste’s destination brand must manage expectations to enhance visitor satisfaction, while ensuring promotion is targeted to a manageable number and optimal type of tourist that will bring most benefit to community of Timor-Leste.
4.3. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has developed a stakeholder-led approach to destination brand development, which was identified in chapter 3 as crucial to the branding of emerging nations. As discussed, scholars now recognise that brand management cannot focus solely on one group of stakeholders, consumers, (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013) but must also highlight the importance of internal audiences (Kalandides et al., 2013). Additional to involvement of the destination’s stakeholders in the process of brand development for Timor-Leste, this chapter has also analysed their opinions, hopes and concerns, to allow a deeper understanding to underpin the brand. In doing so, this chapter contributes to the current dearth of literature on the ‘execution’ of a stakeholder-led approach (Mitchell and Reid, 2001).
An analysis of stakeholder views on tourism suggests that while 100% of stakeholders interviewed support the growth of a tourism industry, they are also mindful of its potentially 123 negative impact. While tourism can bring much-needed economic growth and diversification, a ‘rapid expansion model’ could fail to generate net benefits for the poor (Chok et al., 2007). Further, while tourism can increase employment and provide a ‘career-path’ for Timor-Leste’s young population, development must be managed to ensure jobs stay onshore and conditions for local Timorese are favourable. Finally, the analysis found that while tourism has the benefit of cultural exchange it must be managed carefully to avoid the erosion and commodification of traditional culture. Overall, while stakeholders are positive and optimistic about the growth of a tourism industry in Timor-Leste, the findings suggest that development must be managed with care to ensure the negative consequences of tourism are avoided or remain minimal.
An understanding of stakeholder views towards tourism also has implications for brand development in other emerging nations. The analysis suggests that attracting the right type and number of tourists may be more successful than simply growing overall figures, supporting Stylidis et al.’s (2014) contention that destination branding truly succeeds when stakeholders are also happy with the welfare of their communities.
This chapter has also analysed stakeholders’ understanding of the concept of branding alongside their hopes and concerns. The findings indicate that over 75% of those interviewed already had some understanding of the concept of ‘destination branding’, which is surprisingly high given branding is a new issue in developing countries (Divandari et al., 2014).
Stakeholders saw the advantages of destination branding as twofold: firstly, as a means to overcome their nation’s negative image and, secondly, to generate a strong and cohesive ‘internal message’. Importantly, these wishes closely align with the value of branding outlined in the literature in chapter 2, suggesting that stakeholder aspirations may be met by the development of a successful destination brand. This is an important requirement of the branding process, given stakeholder support is a ‘key ingredient’ to the successful marketing of a tourist destination (Stylidis, 2014) and locals may become disenfranchised if their aspirations are not met.
The final section of this chapter analysed the challenges that may arise in the development of a destination brand. Stakeholder concerns focused largely on the coordination process – including management from the government, coordination of stakeholders and the involvement of the community. The findings revealed significant concerns around government strategy and marketing spend, alongside divisions between the government and the private sector and within the private sector itself. The findings support Pike’s (2005) contention that stakeholders’ diverse interests will often complicate branding activities.
124
At the same time, the analysis confirms the importance of a coordinated and inclusive approach to branding and therefore the value of this thesis in bringing together diverse stakeholder opinions. Following Novelli et al.’s (2012) approach, this work has taken the opportunity to facilitate tourism-related discussions in an open forum and instigate public and private stakeholder involvement. Thus, in supporting the government and facilitating stakeholder coordination, this work provides an important practical contribution.
Furthermore, the theory of place branding has to date shown considerable shortcomings in considering the role of residents in the branding process (Kalandides et al., 2013). Therefore, in taking a ‘participatory’ approach and positioning the branding process as an ongoing dialogue between tourism stakeholders (Kalandides et al., 2013), this work makes an important academic contribution to theory of stakeholder-led branding. This approach will help ensure the final destination brand is demonstrative of the nation’s tourism stakeholders and emerges from what the destination is truly about.
125
Chapter 5: DESTINATION PRODUCT
This chapter undertakes an analysis of Timor-Leste’s functional attributes or its tourism ‘product’, which is the first of the ‘3Ps’. As outlined in chapter 3, understanding the ‘product’ of a destination is an essential first step in developing a ‘sense of place’ (Kalandides et al., 2013). This is supported by the critical review of brand building models in chapter 2, which found that an understanding of a destination’s functional attributes, including an assessment of its strengths and weaknesses, is imperative for brand development.
Given that there is currently a limited understanding of Timor-Leste’s tourism product, the analysis undertaken in this thesis can be used for more than the task of marketing the nation. It will also make rich, new data available to the wider tourism environment of Timor-Leste.
In analysing the tourism product of Timor-Leste, this chapter also has wider implications for branding post-conflict and emerging nations. Tourism promotion is essentially the packaging of ‘imagined’ people, places and experiences (Rogal, 2012) that propels tourists into illusion, fantasy, and seduction (Urry, 2002), and tourism marketing, if not sensitively developed, risks reinforcing historically embedded colonial myths (Amoamo, 2007). Therefore this chapter also undertakes an analysis of how environmental, cultural and historic attributes can be marketed for tourist consumption in a manner that best avoids commodifying the tourist product and stereotypically representing the nation of Timor- Leste. These findings provide insights for the branding of other emerging and post- conflict nations and contribute a practical case study to the literary discourse in this field.
The chapter provides a detailed analysis of Timor-Leste’s core strengths and weaknesses, as derived from extensive primary and secondary research. It concludes with a summary of the key findings and the implications for brand development in post-conflict and emerging nations.
5.1. PRODUCT STRENGTHS
This section analyses Timor-Leste’s strengths as a destination, looking at the unique features and opportunities for promotion of each. As outlined chapter 3, qualitative stakeholder interviews were thematically analysed to develop a framework and understanding of the individual destination strengths. Given branding can undermine a
126 destination’s sense of place and commodify ‘nationhood’ (Morgan et al., 2003), this analysis is accompanied by a discussion of the risks and implications of promoting these assets to tourists, and of how such issues can best be managed.
The Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030, the most recent planning document for tourism in Timor-Leste, states that “an international tourist marketing strategy will be developed to promote Timor-Leste as a preferred destination for travel” (Timor-Leste- Government, 2011, p.149). However it fails to detail the specifics of the Timor-Leste product and the implications for marketing these attributes internationally.
Given branding is about promoting the ‘authenticity of a unique place’ (Morgan et al., 2003, 287), a cursory understanding of a destination’s strengths as ‘tropical waters rich in marine life, white sand beaches, spectacular mountain ranges’ (Timor-Leste Government, 2011, p.141) will not suffice for brand development. While these attributes are undoubtedly part of the Timor-Leste tourism product, they are not sufficiently nuanced to differentiate the destination from its competitors. Furthermore, the Strategic Development Plan 2011- 2030 does not look past the nation’s product attributes to develop an understanding of the nation’s personality or position in the marketplace.
While each strength will be discussed in detail, Figure 9 presents a pictorial overview to demonstrate the interrelationships. The idea of a ‘concept map’ is derived from Dutra et al.’s (2011) methodological approach to their case study of Beloi, Timor-Leste. This approach allows policy makers and locals to understand the issues discussed, and is useful for analysing dynamic systems in an inductive way (Dutra et al., 2011). The circles represent the more commonly discussed assets, which are outlined in further detail below. The main four product strengths are: 1) natural assets, including marine, beaches, mountains and diversity, 2) culture, 3) history and 4) Timor-Leste’s appeal as an undiscovered and unknown destination. Complimentary destination strengths are discussed in section 5.1.5.
127
Food Loca=on Diversity Beaches Climate Colonial Marine
Timor-Leste’s Nature WW2 History Strengths
Mountains Resistance Culture Unspoiled & People Undiscovered
Daily life Sacred tradi=ons
Figure 9: Concept map of Timor-Leste’s strengths as a destination, developed by the author.
5.1.1 Natural assets
Given Timor-Leste is a tropical island boasting beaches, marine life, rainforests and rugged mountain ranges, the majority of stakeholders argued that ‘nature’ is the core strength of the Timor-Leste tourism product. This is supported by evidence from the Asia Foundation’s survey which found that over 90% of tourists to Timor-Leste participate in activities related to the country’s biodiversity and natural environment (Rajalingam, 2014).
However in promoting the natural assets of Timor-Leste, environment factors must be considered. While nature-based tourism has been a big selling point for emerging destinations (Zhao and Li, 2006), questions have been raised about its sustainability. As Jansen (2008) argues, a significant increase in tourist numbers can eventually destroy the natural environments that were the tourist attraction in the first place.
From a marketing perspective, this is not to suggest that nature-based tourism should not be promoted in Timor-Leste, but rather that care should be taken in the type and number of tourists the nation wishes to attract. This section looks at the four main attributes of Timor-Leste’s natural environment — marine, coastal, mountains and diversity — to elucidate their advantages and considerations for branding.
128
5.1.1.1 Marine environment
The marine environment presents an important marketing opportunity for Timor-Leste, given the nation lies within the ‘Coral Triangle’, one of the world’s most bio-diverse areas of coral and reef fish (Teutsch, 2008).
The sea here is unique, the channel here is unique, and there’s a current that’s keeping reefs at constant temperatures, so we’re not seeing sea-warming impact as much… and they’re finding biodiversity here is very special; it’s one of the richest places in the coral triangle.
(Respondent 26, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
A 2009 report into the marine ecotourism potential in Timor-Leste, found there to be ‘globally significant marine wildlife’ and coral reefs that are ‘highly accessible, intact and characterised by high marine diversity’ (Edyvane et al., 2009). Timor-Leste’s north coast sits on the edge of the Wetar Strait, a marine trench approximately 3km deep that provides a corridor for migrating whales, dolphins, turtles, tuna, sailfish and stingrays. As well, grazing dugongs, mantas and eagle rays can be found in waters just east of Dili (Edyvane et al., 2009).
It’s the only place in the world that the species of the northern hemisphere are cohabitating with the species of the southern hemisphere.
(Respondent 10, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
Not only are the reefs bio-diverse, they are largely unspoilt, since for decades the Timor-Leste tourism product has been underexploited (Rohner, 2006).
However the extent and status of Timor-Leste’s coastal and marine resources is still poorly understood (Edyvane et al., 2009). And while the report provides valuable insight into key coastal-marine ecotourism possibilities, it appears few of these suggestions have been put into practice. Evidence-based data that quantifies the unique composition of Timor-Leste’s marine environment could provide an important attribute for marketing the destination. Such research will, of course, rely on government attention and investment, which to date has been lacking.
Unfortunately, the marine environment is also extremely fragile. Alongside limited understanding of the composition of the reefs, there is limited education with locals around their value. As respondent 10 explained: “The thing we’ve got to be careful of here, is with the boats, that at present some fishermen find mooring points in the coral and drag their anchor”
129
(interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Pristine marine reefs will be a tourism asset only if preserved.
Furthermore, damage to the reefs will be compounded if tourism numbers, and therefore fishing and diving boats, begin to increase. As Zhao and Li (2006) argue, developing nations risk loose policy around nature-based activities, such as scuba diving, poaching and touring ecologically sensitive zones, which can allow multinationals to take advantage and over-promote these forms of tourism, despite their long-term environmental impact (Zhao and Li, 2006). Once the tourism product has been exploited, the destination's residents are left with little alternative but to suffer the consequences of bad environmental practices (Chok et al., 2007).
At the same time, if marine tourism activities are sustainably grown and well-managed, this could in fact lead to greater environmental preservation. Poverty can be destructive to the environment, but as stakeholder 21 suggested, this problem could be diminished if local stakeholders are also shareholders in the tourism industry.
If a community of fishermen is making a good living from dive tourism, then they’ll protect that asset. If they want to make money from a fish they have to go out and kill it. That’s they’re only way to make a living as a fisherman. If we can help them develop their own dive tourism products, then they can sell the same fish every day. If we allow that fish to reproduce and create more fish, then it’s more valuable to the divers. So there’s a strong financial incentive for them to protect that asset that’s providing for their families. The better they protect it, the more valuable it becomes. (Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
This analysis suggests that while poorly managed tourism may be destructive to the marine environment, well-managed tourism could, in fact, benefit and protect Timor-Leste’s precious marine resources. Preservation of natural assets, to be discussed in section 5.2.4, will be essential in ensuring sustainable tourism and the livelihood of the coastal communities in Timor-Leste.
The challenge here will rest with government, to ensure stringent policy is in place to protect the marine environment and to determine the amount and extent of tourism that is permitted, as well as ensuring community involvement in the ownership and running of tourism businesses. While Timor-Leste’s marine environment is a valuable asset to its marketing strategy, its fragility suggests it should not be promoted as the leading attribute of its brand. This also has implications for target market selection as will be discussed in chapter 6.
130
5.1.1.2 Coastal environment
Beaches are undoubtedly a key asset for Timor-Leste, given the nation is a small island state. The Asia Foundation survey revealed that ‘beach leisure’ is the most common activity undertaken by tourists while in-country (Rajalingam, 2014).
However, although the government currently markets ‘white sand beaches’ in tourism brochures and the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 (Timor-Leste Government, 2011), and many stakeholders spoke enthusiastically about Timor-Leste’s ‘beautiful’ beaches, the reality is that these few beaches are the exception and hard to reach. In driving to the most stunning white sand beaches, located on Jaco Island at the very Eastern tip of the country, the Lonely Planet Guide suggests “You may well feel like you’re going to the end of the Earth” (Cocks, 2011, p.72).
While the beaches closer to Dili, along the north coast, are often clean and inviting, they lack the white sands and clear waters to compete with the nearby Pacific Islands or Australia.
If you are looking for nice beaches, this is not perhaps the best country. Because most are not white sand beaches; they’re not really black but brown. And especially Europeans they don’t like this – even with clear waters.
(Respondent 35, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
As several stakeholders cautioned in chapter 4, if the marketing campaign isn't honest, it may in fact be detrimental to the country’s image.
When they [the government] promote pictures, it is only the beautiful images they take at Tutuala, the beach, the diving. And that is perfect. But then people come here thinking everything is beautiful, then they disappointed when they find the roads and accommodation are not spot on.
(Respondent 32, interview with author, Tibar, January 2014)
From a branding perspective, promoting islands solely based on picturesque beaches is risky. Beaches are not unique to any particular nation (Harrison-Walker, 2011) and can render island nations as indistinguishable from one another (Morgan et al., 2003). This can lead to easy substitution if natural disasters or political problems occur (Pratt, 2013). Given that stakeholders regard distilling the essence and uniqueness of Timor-Leste as a priority when branding their nation, promoting generic beaches will not be an ideal marketing strategy, particularly as Timor- Leste’s beaches are not its most competitive asset.
131
Furthermore, developing a brand based solely on its 3S (sun, sea and sand) features risks creating a ‘colonial stereotype’ of Timor-Leste as an island destination. As discussed, Echtner and Prasad (2003) use the term the ‘myth of the unrestrained’, to describe a marketing paradigm that depicts ‘third world’ islands as a place for western tourists to enjoy passive sun-lust and where local inhabitants are both serving and submissive. In marketing a destination solely on its ‘tropical’ features, island destinations risk creating this undesirable colonial discourse.
Stakeholders argued that Timor-Leste has a unique opportunity to diverge from developing a stereotypical representation of a ‘tropical paradise’ (D'Hauteserre, 2011) and in doing so to distinguish itself from other island destinations. Many tourists now seek more than ‘passive sun- lust’, preferring education and experiencing the cultural and historical attributes of a destination (Poon, 1993, Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010). Since many of Timor-Leste’s natural attractions are also rich in heritage, a depiction of the depth and story behind each asset can provide a more compelling basis for a destination brand as opposed to just images of white sand beaches.
The development of the Nino Konis Santana National Park, for example, was an important milestone for preservation and tourism in Timor-Leste. Established in August 2007 and spanning a total of 304,000 acres, the Park includes both land and sea (Conservation-International, 2016) and is home to ancient cave paintings and ancestral tombs (Edyvane et al., 2009) alongside significant bird life. This is the first National Park in Timor-Leste and has provided a benchmark for the new Kablaki National Park, named after former Prime Minister and resistance leader Xanana Gusmao.
Traditionally, as Timorese, there has been some pattern, traditional framework, how to manage the natural resources. There is local knowledge on how to protect beach, the marine biodiversity, special spaces. There’s always specific story behind any mountain, any lake, any beach in Timor-Leste. We tried to explore that if a lake has special meaning to society, we try to grow the tourism value around that.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
In building a destination brand, the imperative will be to develop a campaign that minimises an impression of ‘passive sun-lust’ and instead honestly depicts the Timor-Leste coastal environment as part of a culturally and historically significant landscape. This, in turn, will help attract tourists looking for a more meaningful travel experience as opposed to just a beach holiday.
132
5.1.1.3 Hinterland and mountains
While the coastal and marine environments are often viewed as the core attributes of small island developing states (SIDS), Timor-Leste also boasts a beautiful hinterland with tall mountain peaks. Its tallest mountain, Mt. Ramelau, stands at 2,963m (CIA, 2015), making it taller than Mt. Kosciusko in Australia and, at the time of Portuguese occupation, the highest peak in any Portuguese colony (Ramos-Horta, 1987).
Not only are the mountains of Timor-Leste tall, stakeholders argued, they are also beautiful. The pousada (Portuguese guest-house) in Maubisse, three hours from Dili, is famous for its view.
When you go into the mountains [at the pousada] and the cloud comes down, its just that feeling of being in the clouds, sometimes even above the clouds.
(Respondent 2, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
The lesser-known coffee mountains of Timor-Leste are also an important natural asset. As respondent 40 said: “When the coffee flowers start growing, the whole mountains smell beautiful” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013).
The Asia Foundation survey revealed that mountain hiking and mountain biking are popular activities for tourists to Timor-Leste, with over 50% of travellers suggesting this was a key reason for their visit (Rajalingam, 2014). In explaining the extent and diversity of Timor-Leste’s mountain ranges, stakeholder 9, a tour operator, argued: “In effect, you could spend six months here and never trek the same part of the country twice” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014).
Timor-Leste’s mountains also have important historical significance. During the Second World War, a small contingent of Australian soldiers employed a guerrilla warfare campaign, hiding in Timor-Leste’s mountain ranges. Although their trek is not currently marked, developing a ‘war- time’ hike presents a very important opportunity for tourism promotion. In Papua New Guinea, for example, war-time history has ‘captured the Australian imagination’ and every year five thousand Australians walk the mentally and physically challenging Kokoda Track (Department of Veterans' Affairs, 2016). Although not so different from Timor-Leste, Kokoda has been promoted as ‘significant and symbolic’ (Department of Veterans' Affairs, 2016) and thus has become an important aspect of PNG’s tourism promotion.
Timor-Leste’s mountain ranges also became home the Timorese resistance movement, including former Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao, during the Indonesian occupation. Stakeholders argued
133 that, in the same vein as a war-time trek, a ‘resistance’ hike presents an opportunity to appeal to a market interested in mountaineering and hiking, but wanting to experience history and culture at the same time.
24 years of struggling; the guerrilla movement everywhere. The forests and the mountains are not just beautiful, but also a good shelter for our guerrilla persons in the resistance. The caves, sometimes the bunkers, our leaders of the resistance were hiding.
(Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Timor-Leste's inland environment also features ancient Portuguese ‘hot springs’, the most well- known of which are in Morobo, just outside Maliana in the country’s west. Portuguese baths can be also found in the South, and lesser-known hot springs sites are dotted across the country. Timor-Leste also boasts waterfalls, caves, a site near Baucau of ‘seeping gas and fire’ as well as coffee plantations where cinnamon, cloves and vanilla beans are also grown.
While these natural attractions provide an important attribute in the Timor-Leste product, unfortunately many of the natural sites are little known, hard to reach and inadequately developed for tourists. The famous Morobo Hot Springs, for example, could be ideally promoted for tourism, given their beauty and historic significance, however although the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2013 suggests tourists access the springs “by travelling along a spectacular mountain road” (Timor-Leste-Government, 2011, p.149), in reality the terrain is treacherous and there is limited signage outside Dili.
Similarly the wartime and resistance historic sites could appeal to many visitors if properly promoted, however at present it is impossible to find adequate information in order to access the sites and the journey inland can be expensive and dangerous, given the poor condition of many roads.
At the same time, from a branding perspective, the ruggedness of the Timor-Leste landscape is also part of its attraction, as it will appeal to adventurous and intrepid tourists. Target market selection will be important to ensure the right demographic is targeted and tourists are not disappointed on arrival if certain sights are difficult to reach.
5.1.1.4 Diversity
Many stakeholders argued that, as a nation of only 14,874 km2 (CIA, 2016), Timor-Leste’s strength lies in having diversity within a small area. The country offers everything from beaches and 134 marine life, to rugged mountains and lush rainforests. This is ideal for tourists, as they can experience diverse natural landscapes without having to travel long distances.
In Melbourne, you can find four seasons in a day. When you come to Timor, you can also find four seasons. In Dili you find the hot weather and the water, in Maubisse it’s cooler, on top of the mountains its cold. If you travel around you can see things are completely different.
(Respondent 23, interview with author, Dili, January 2014)
Interestingly, a significant 50% of the stakeholders who cited this strength were tour operators. This figure suggests that those in the best position to judge the country’s diversity view it as a key attribute.
The selling point is that it’s like a mosaic of experiences this country. It’s not just one thing. It’s not a monolithic product.
(Respondent 25, interview with author, Atauro, November 2013).
For local stakeholders there was a sense of pride in the nation’s diversity when compared to the competition.
It’s the variety of the ecology, the landscape and mountains. Very seldom can you see this. Timor has more variety than Bali. All within easy drive. You go to the mountains, put on a cardigan, you can see coffee growing, then you go and see crocodiles on the other side of the island.
(Respondent 17, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
Diversity could potentially provide a key attribute for the destination brand, given it will allow the final output to promote the ‘best of’ Timor-Leste’s natural environment, which will in turn demonstrate its variety. It will also allow the brand to appeal to a wider target market, as opposed to being too restrictively focused on a single strength such as marine. However, as the ‘weaknesses’ section of this chapter will attest, it is at present not easy to travel around Timor- Leste. Therefore, once again, promotion of this product will need to appeal to more intrepid tourists at this stage in the nation’s development. The proposed target market will be discussed in chapter 6.
135
5.1.2. Culture
Culture is one of Timor-Leste’s most valuable attributes and presents an important opportunity for marketing the nation. The Asia Foundation survey revealed that one in three visitors cited culture as a motivating factor in their choice to visit Timor-Leste (Rajalingam, 2014). On departure, more than half the tourists surveyed had experienced cultural activities whilst in- country, and 97% rated the experience as either ‘enjoyable’ or ‘very enjoyable’ (Rajalingam, 2014).
Timor-Leste is a predominantly Catholic nation; however, long before Portuguese settlement, Timorese people followed ‘animism’, an ancestor-focused religious system that governed norms, values, morals and ideologies (Molnar, 2010). These traditional rituals are today still practiced across Timor-Leste, either alongside or in combination with Catholicism (Molnar, 2010), making the cultural heritage of Timor-Leste diverse and different from all others. This is without doubt an attribute of Timor-Leste that sets it apart from its competition.
From its strong ancestral beliefs, Timorese culture is underpinned by a very special relationship with the lulik, a Tetun word which is translated as ‘forbidden’, ‘holy’ or ‘sacred’. Lulik refers to the spirit of the ancestors, and acts as a philosophy that ensures peace and tranquility for Timorese society through the balance of differing and opposing elements (Trindade, 2012).
It’s that relationship with their earth, the lulik, and with the spirit and the balance of society that I think is really interesting. Everything has to be in balance with that lulik. There’s a mystery here, a depth, a spirituality in this country, that not many tourists get to experience.
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
For local Timorese, the lulik is an important part of everyday life. East Timorese culture places great value on sacred houses or uma-lulik, which often store ancient ancestral heirlooms and are used for ceremonies and cultural traditions (Molnar, 2010).
The symbol of the sacred house is very different from each district – Los Palos to Baucau - it’s very different. They have the symbol, the meanings and the different traditions.
(Respondent 30, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
Many local tourism stakeholders discussed the important traditions that are associated with the uma-luliks:
136
Because every district, everyone has a sacred house from their family. Once a year, all my family come to the south, they have a ceremony, they kill the animal.
(Respondent 8, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
As a result of traditions and western interactions, Timor-Leste’s modern day culture is also unique.
It’s just the way people live – it might be you come across someone and they play music, making a tais in the village, or you’re down in the market joking with the sellers or the taxi drivers.
(Respondent 19, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
Timorese ‘way of life’ is very different from the west and therefore interesting to visitors. For example, traditional weaving or the making of tais is still an important and widely practiced custom in Timor-Leste. Traditionally, women weave tais on simple backstrap looms. The tais are used in important ceremonies and burials (Cocks, 2011).
For such a geographically small nation, Timor-Leste offers significant cultural diversity between districts. This is also demonstrated by today's highly multilingual society (Taylor-Leech, 2007), which has at least 16 first languages (Quinn, 2007).
Experiencing a depth of such cultural tradition is an important attraction to promote to tourists. It is not about merely ‘seeing’ the cultural traditions, for example in a museum, but ‘experiencing’ them first hand. Timor-Leste is an ideal place for travellers wanting to really connect with a culture and local communities and to enjoy a more native experience. This opportunity is becoming increasingly rare among today’s destinations, as so many are suffering from overdevelopment or ‘tourism overkill’ (Tourtellot, 2007).
This is an ideal place for people to have a grass roots experience; stay in the community, experience something local, go fishing, try local food, see something of local culture, the natural landscapes.
(Respondent 26, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
Timorese are also very proud of their culture, making it ideal for tourism. The locals are often keen to demonstrate their local customs and traditions, which are rich, fascinating and also unique to Timor-Leste. As one local tourism stakeholder explained: “People are interested to see
137 this because some other places they don’t have these things. We are very special” (Respondent 24, interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Further to this, developing cultural tourism could help preserve Timor-Leste’s culture, celebrate cultural traditions and artifacts (Dutra et al., 2011) and lead to greater awareness of, and pride in, a nation’s history and tradition (Engelhardt, 2005). Indeed in some destinations, development of a cultural tourism industry has revived cultural traditions and helped empower the local community (Amoamo, 2007).
At the same time, there are risks involved in promoting indigenous culture. MacCannell (1973) argues that the search for cultural ‘authenticity’ is a key motivation for many tourists to visit developing nations. However, this often creates a sense of ‘staged authenticity’ for tourism, where cultural products are made to look authentic by focusing on pre-conceived stereotypes (MacCannell, 1973).
We don’t want cultural shows where they put on a fake ceremony or dance in traditional dress on a stage in front of a group of tourists.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Balibo, October 2013)
While the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 (p.142) argues that “With our traditional culture, the living history of our rural communities, … Timor-Leste is able to provide visitors with a memorable experience”, there is no planning document currently available that details how Timorese culture and its traditions will be made accessible tourists. The risk is that, by directing cultural traditions solely towards tourism, complex cultural heritage can be simplified, homogenised, packaged and in some cases, trivialised (Engelhardt, 2005). Local communities can be forced to maintain a ‘timeless’ appeal in their cultural performances for authenticity-seeking international tourists (Buzinde et al., 2010), resulting in cultural commodification (Yang and Wall, 2009) and a loss of ‘authentic meaning’ (Rogal, 2012).
This suggests that while culture can provide an important selling point to attract tourists, cultural tourism can have significant and damaging impacts on local communities and the indigenous culture itself. From a branding perspective, ‘culture’ must therefore be promoted through a detailed understanding of its raw and unique attributes, as opposed to being simply ‘manufactured’ for tourist consumption. Indeed it is argued tourism promotion must avoid manipulating the memories, myths and traditions of local people to meet tourist perceptions of ‘authenticity’ (Palmer, 1994), particularly given ‘authenticity’ is a contradiction in terms and can never be fully achieved (Pomering and White, 2011).
138
It appears, therefore, that stakeholder consultation will be essential. Not only does this allow Timor-Leste’s people a more active role in their own portrayal, it also ensures the nuances and indigenous meanings are created from within. Place branding commonly fails when developed by creative agencies who merely ‘sneak’ cultural content in the campaigns with limited understanding of its depth and meaning (Jansen, 2008).
To show the true Timor-Leste, we go back to our culture, and the traditions of our life. This is the important thing to promote; to show internationally around the world.
(Respondent 6, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
If a genuine portrayal of indigenous culture can be achieved, it will allow the Timor-Leste brand to stand out amongst other brands, many of which still market a commodified cultural product. After all, branding is about presenting the uniqueness of place, and a brand that stands out amongst its competition has a greater chance of differentiation and success.
5.1.3 History
Interlinked with the country’s cultural traditions, is the long and varied history of Timor-Leste. Timorese history comprises a large number of ‘stories’, which are important and unique attributes of the nation that could be promoted to potential tourists.
We tell our guests stories as we go around the country – the big stories are the traditional stories of the kingdoms, the colonial story, the WW2 story, the Indonesian invasion and occupation story, the UN story, and now what people always contemplate is the present and future story.
(Respondent 9, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
The colonial history began in the early 1500s when Dominican Friars established a settlement in Lifau, in what is now the exclave of Oecussi (Kingsbury, 2009). Although Portugal contributed little in the way of development (Guterres, 2007), Portuguese food, language, arts and architecture are very much infused throughout the cultural landscape of Timor-Leste. As respondent 3 explained: “Timor-Leste is a little bit of Europe in Asia” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Timor-Leste’s pousadas, or Portuguese guesthouses, were built in the colonial era for Portuguese holidaymakers. Today they provide iconic tourist accommodation. The most famous pousada, in
139
Baucau, is described in the Lonely Planet as being “the most interesting and certainly the most charming place to stay in the country” (Cocks, 2011, p.61). Further, it is not just the Portuguese influence per se, but the Portuguese influence in Asia, that makes Timor-Leste’s history so interesting.
Timor has a different face to the rest of Asia right now – it’s got that Catholic background, it’s got that European colonial flavour, that differs from everything that’s around here. When people travel they like to see sights that are different. In Timor, we don’t have to try too hard to be different; we are different.
(Respondent 15, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
The war story began during the Second World War, when Portugal accepted a small contingent of Australian soldiers who employed a guerrilla war campaign from the mountains. Today tourists can visit the memorial at Dare, just outside Dili, which has an open-air museum that houses information and photographs (Cocks, 2011) and acts as a tribute from Australian soldiers to the Timorese for their support in the war. As discussed in section 5.1.1.3, there is also potential for hiking the wartime trail in Timor-Leste’s mountain ranges, however this asset requires further development.
Just nine days after Timor-Leste declared its independence from Portugal in 1975, Indonesia launched a full-scale military invasion (Kingsbury, 2009, CAVR, 2005). The story of the 24-year occupation marks the next chapter in Timor-Leste’s history. Today, there are two main museums in Dili: the recently renovated Resistance Museum, and the Chega! exhibition, which records of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation (CAVR) and is housed in a former Indonesian jail. In the far west of the country, close to the Indonesian border, the town of Balibo is another important historic site, especially for Australians. It was in this small town that five journalists were murdered at the start of the Indonesian invasion (Market Development Facility, 2015). A new hotel has recently been built inside the historic fort there, to encourage tourism in the region.
For many Australians, a historical ‘connection’ to Timor-Leste could, without doubt, be a driver of tourism. Many have seen the graphic scenes of violence in Timor-Leste, particularly in 1999, which were circulated heavily in the media (Tapsell and Eidenfalk, 2013). Others know of the wartime connection Australia shared with Timor-Leste, or remember the events in Balibo in 1975. Now they have an opportunity to see this historic nation that was once too dangerous to visit. As Callahan (2011) argues, the Australian traveller’s role can be seen to connect with Timor- Leste’s nation-building project, due to their countries’ inextricably linked histories. Using 140 historic events to capture the Australian tourism market presents another important opportunity for Timor-Leste.
Further, it is not just the history of the occupation that is important, but the way the Timorese fought and survived the invasion. It is the history of resistance and resilience that, many stakeholders argued, is so special and therefore alluring to potential visitors.
How can such a beautiful place become shelter for a group of guerrillas? How can such a small island resist 24 years with a big country like Indonesia?
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
Not only did the Timorese fight Indonesia inside their country for 24 years, they also rallied support from across the world, particularly in Australia. It was not only freedom fighters in the jungle, or families in prisons and villages that resisted; it was also those lucky enough to escape to Australia, Portugal or other nations, who promoted the struggle internationally and finally achieved independence after 24 years of occupation.
The way we fought this war was very strong. We used the media to actually get this place going. It was not just the guys here, but we were working outside; everything that we did outside was about the news. We wanted people to see it. We only had to close our eyes and close our ears, and just forget about it, but then we would’ve had a few more years to go. We always aimed for the maximum, we didn’t aim for small, always the maximum.
(Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Despite this, during the early years of independence, recent historical attributes were seen as a negative in terms of tourism promotion. Respondent 3, a former government advisor, explained that, when developing early marketing materials, “We never mentioned the struggle” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). This was to avoid exacerbating Timor-Leste’s already- negative image, given that it was, and arguably still is, seen as a dangerous and war-torn nation. However with time this situation has begun to change. The Ministry’s latest brochure features the Santa Cruz cemetery, as well as the Chega! exhibition and the Resistance Museum.
We felt it could be now considered history, rather than what happened last year. Not ancient history, living history, but history nevertheless and a tourism asset.
(Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
141
While it appears that Timor-Leste is indeed ready to promote its historical attributes to tourists, there is still a fine balance to be achieved in branding a post-conflict nation. On the one hand, tourism can play an important role in the process of social renewal (Causevic and Lynch, 2011), as citizens come to terms with the past and look to the future. However, if managed poorly, branding a post-conflict nation to encourage tourism can reduce or commodify the understanding of history so that, at worst, it becomes a means to profit from tragedy and pain (Volcic et al., 2013). Furthermore, while historic sites may be appealing and interesting to tourists, it may be difficult for locals to ‘re-live’ the violence through promotion or to see traumatic events simplified into attractions for tourists. For others, historical tourism can instigate ‘animosity stemming from old wounds’ (Novelli et al., 2012).
Thus for Timor-Leste, having only so recently emerged from a painful past, stakeholder support and input will be vital, so that the people of Timor-Leste can determine how they wish to present ‘the struggle’ and the extent to which they are comfortable with painful histories being retold for tourists. The onus here will rest with government and destination marketers to build confidence amongst communities, so that tourism can form part of the healing and peace-building process (Novelli et al., 2012) and ensure policies reflect community priority (Buultjens et al., 2015). In doing so, this can help the people of Timor-Leste move on from the past and ensure that painful places and histories are not commodified for the sake of tourist consumption.
Further, it is not only the history of events and ‘facts of the past’ that could be promoted to tourists, but the strength and resilience of the people that survived this history. Indeed the spirited people of Timor-Leste, while not a tourism ‘asset’ themselves, are an important part of the Timor-Leste brand. As respondent 3 explained: “What is unique is the spirit: the cosmology, the history, the struggle” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Promoting and ‘bringing to life’ the Timorese resilience will be possible through the creation of a brand personality, as is discussed in chapter 6. Depicting history as a story of strength may also help overcome the ‘conflict theme’ and replace it with more a positive narrative (Harengel and Gbadamosi, 2014).
5.1.4 Unspoilt and undiscovered
Timor-Leste has the advantage of being a new destination, largely undiscovered by most tourists.
It’s difference that attracts people. Some of the people have travelled the world, and it’s like they’ve run out of everywhere else and this is where they want to visit.
(Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, November 2013) 142
Interestingly, of the stakeholders who named ‘unspoilt’ as a key asset, 66% were expatriates and 33% were Timorese who have spent longer than five years outside the country. Not a single Timorese national who has spent less than five years outside the country, named ‘unspoilt’ as a strength. This demonstrates that it may be difficult for local stakeholders to understand a western tourism market, given that, as Tolkach (2014) explains, many Timorese have never experienced tourism.
For intrepid travellers, destinations such as Bali and Thailand may be becoming over-crowded and commercialized; thus Timor-Leste provides an ideal alternative. In today’s saturated tourism market, there is an increasing shortage of island destinations that are naturally beautiful, historically interesting, yet not suffering from overdevelopment or ‘tourism overkill’ (Tourtellot, 2007). Timor-Leste boasts all necessary attributes to fill this niche.
The people, the culture, the environment are all perfect and fully developed as a traveller experience destination.
(Respondent 36, interview with author, Melbourne, February 2014)
Timor-Leste is still relatively uncommercial and Dili does not suffer from the overpopulation of other Asian capital cities. As respondent 15 explained: “You can travel around Timor in relative safety, free from crime” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014). This will appeal to many tourists. Furthermore, the nation also has very little pollution.
This is very unique for Japanese, Chinese to see, they are full of pollution every day. The come here, we have clean, and fresh air that they can have.
(Respondent 29, interview with author, Dili, December 2103)
Promoting this angle of ‘unspoilt’ and selling the country as is, also has the advantage of attracting tourism right now, and avoids spending money on potentially unnecessary development. Furthermore, it avoids the negative consequences of infrastructure development for the purpose of tourism, such as the displacement of rural communities (Chok et al., 2007).
However, the Strategic Plan 2011-2030 talks of the necessity to build tourism infrastructure (Timor-Leste-Government, 2011), with new roads, hotels and restaurants seen as priority if tourism is to grow. If development is not managed wisely, Timor-Leste could lose this important attribute.
143
The Minister himself agreed that Timor-Leste is a ‘virginal’ country and explained that: “We will keep this virginity forever” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). However, with the Ministry’s plans firmly set on development, this may be somewhat problematic. As discussed in Chapter 4, the Minister’s views differ from the majority of stakeholders in that he feels: “We need to have good things to sell before we do the marketing” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013). This is in opposition to the majority of stakeholders, who see the destination as potentially more valuable without any development.
Thinking you have to create infrastructure or develop it first, is presuming a pathway in tourism development. There is another potential pathway, which is more about the traveller experience than tourism. If you go that path, then, Timor already has everything it needs to be an incredible destination.
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
From a marketing perspective, promoting ‘unspoilt’ as an attribute will require the preservation of natural and cultural assets. As respondent 21 argued: “You must preserve what you have. The better you protect it, the more valuable it will become” (interview with author, Dili, December 2013). As section 5.2.4 details, to date this has been problematic in Timor-Leste. Furthermore, it must also be remembered that if a brand campaign is successful, and tourism grows, the idea of Timor-Leste being ‘unspoilt’ and ‘undiscovered’ cannot be promoted forever.
Additionally, the challenge will be portraying the ‘undiscovered’ nature of the Timor-Leste tourism product in a way that does commodify the destination and ‘package’ the tourist product, and thereby reinforce a colonial discourse. The ‘myth of the uncivilised’ sees tourism as an expedition to a destination ‘beyond the furthest frontiers’ of civilisation (Echtner and Prasad, 2003) where, similar to the myth of the unchanged, indigenous communities remain fixed as primitive and undeveloped, and undiscovered lands lie waiting to be ‘explored’ by western tourists.
There are some who deplore the already very visible development and deplore the idea that Dili will get more developed. But at a certain point they had to build the Opera House in Sydney. You can’t just keep it the way it was when the Poms first arrived. This is not a theme park; it’s a country and Timorese people have a right to modernity. (Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
During the Portuguese colonial era, little effort was placed on improving the livelihoods of indigenous Timorese, and the nation remained almost entirely at pre-colonial levels of
144 development (Kingsbury, 2009). Since Portugal withdrew in 1975, the Timorese have fought hard for their independence and modernity. In this sense, promoting the nation as an ‘undiscovered’ and ‘unspoilt’ land risks portraying Timor-Leste as still stuck in a ‘timeless present’ (Olsen, 2008). Although this may be an alluring enticement for tourists, it could damage Timor-Leste’s image to attract foreign investment and trade and move into a new era of development. Furthermore, as discussed above, local stakeholders did not view ‘unspoilt’ as a key attribute of their destination, therefore they could become resentful of a brand that portrays their country as ‘uncivilised’ or lacking modernity.
Therefore, while unspoilt and undiscovered are valuable attributes for branding the nation, they must be promoted in the context of Timor-Leste’s other unique features. This will add complexity to its tourism product, as opposed to depicting it as simply a distant, ‘uncivilised’ land. Thus it will be vital to present Timor-Leste’s natural, cultural and historic features alongside its unspoilt beauty, in order to bring the nation to life and differentiate it as unique.
5.1.5 Other factors
The Timorese people themselves contribute to the tourism potential of Timor-Leste and should be part of its brand. One respondent suggested there is a ‘real-ness’ and openness of Timorese people to welcome visitors. This doesn't necessarily equate to five star service at restaurants, but an honest and hospitable nature that is welcoming to tourists. It goes without saying that friendly people and a welcoming culture are positive traits for tourism promotion.
You can walk into any village or neighbourhood in Timor-Leste and the first thing people do is offer you a seat, and probably give you a coffee. You can’t teach that. It’s just an instinct.
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
Local food is another tourism asset. Timorese fruit and vegetables are by nature organic, something that is very sought after in the west. Alongside this, Timor-Leste has a large variety of fruits: red bananas, tomatoes, long-green bananas, pomegranates and jackfruit. For tourists, there is also diversity in food choice, thanks in part to the prolonged UN mission, with good availability of both Australian and Indonesian cuisines. While this may not be a marketing angle in itself, organic, fresh and diverse foods can without doubt compliment the Timor-Leste brand.
145
People don’t realise, and need to realise, not only do we have delicious local food, but we also have Australian meat, you can get a pie, lamb shanks on the menu, fantastic seafood.
(Respondent 43, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Another tourism asset is Timor-Leste's warm, tropical climate. Temperatures hover around 30 degrees Celsius year-round, making Timor-Leste an appealing destination for Europeans, Americans and Australians wanting to avoid winter. Further, as it does not suffer the humidity ‘build-up’ of Darwin, Timor-Leste offers a viable ‘relief’ for its near-neighbours. Being only 640km’s from Darwin (CIA, 2016), Timor-Leste could become a viable holiday option for Australians, once its image is repaired.
Stakeholder 56, a tour guide, explained: “The thing Australians say when they come here is: I didn't realise it was just so close” (interview with author, Atauro, March 2015). Proximity is an important angle in promoting Timor-Leste, given its convenient location to Australia and Asia, which could encourage interested tourists to visit without travelling long distances.
5.2. PRODUCT WEAKNESSES
Huang et al. (2013) suggest one of the most important challenges in the promotion of a destination is the recognition of its strengths and weaknesses, given that marketers must develop strategies to promote a destination’s strengths and improve upon its weaknesses. Similarly, Morgan and Pritchard (2007) argue, when it comes to destination branding, marketers must ‘accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative’. Therefore while the preceding analysis has detailed the strengths of Timor-Leste, it is important to also consider the destination’s weaknesses so that they can be managed in the development of a destination brand.
Once again a concept map has been drawn to provide an overview of Timor-Leste’s tourism product weaknesses, see Figure 10. The larger circles are representative of the more commonly discussed weaknesses, which are outlined in further detail below. Since the issue of stakeholder coordination, including government leadership and current stakeholder contestations, was discussed in detail in chapter 4 it will not be elaborated upon further in this chapter. The image of Timor-Leste will be discussed in chapter 7. The main four remaining product weaknesses: 1) a lack of a ‘culture of tourism’, 2) infrastructure, 3) cost and accessibility and 4) preservation of assets, are outlined in this section. Additional destination weaknesses are discussed in section 5.2.5.
146
Government leadership
Culture of Stakeholder Tourism contesta;ons Coordina;on Accommoda;on
Roads Image Timor-Leste’s Infrastructure Natural Weaknesses
Cultural Transport Preserva;on
Cost Accessibility Historic
Figure 10: Concept map of Timor-Leste’s weaknesses as a destination, developed by the author.
5.2.1 Hospitality and ‘culture of tourism’
Being a newly independent nation, emerging from occupation and civil war, Timor-Leste has to date had very little experience with ‘tourism’.
This is not like some countries where there may’ve been an earthquake or a short civil war, it’s been a long occupation. It’s not like you had a tourism industry then you lost it for three years and now it’s coming back.
(Respondent 19, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
As discussed in chapter 1, although Timor-Leste became part of the ‘hippy-trail’ during the final years of Portuguese rule (Tolkach, 2014) there were only around 5,000 international visitors in 1972 (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009), before the Indonesian occupation significantly impacted development (Tolkach, 2014). As a result, it has been argued that post-colonial tourism to Timor- Leste really only began with the UN Mission of 1999 (Cabasset-Semedo, 2009). However, an expatriate community travelling domestically is still very different to pure tourism. Further, it is even more difficult for Timorese to understand tourism, given many have not had the privilege of overseas travel (Tolkach, 2014).
A limited understanding of tourism means Timorese people are very inexperienced in providing the level of service and hospitality that western tourists expect. 147
You go to a restaurant, many guest including myself are not happy with the service. All these small things you need training and training. It’s not there yet.
(Respondent 24, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
At present for many Timorese, work is a means of income, not a ‘career’, and therefore building up the necessary skills required for the tourism industry has, to date, been very rare.
Balinese they live, they were born as hospitality industry people. It’s created by nature. Timorese, they were born, they live as a warrior. It’s created by nature. Is it their fault, no, the situation is like that. But how do we change it?
(Respondent 34, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
While it is understandable that Timorese have a limited understanding of tourism and western hospitality, it is important that in branding the nation tourist expectations are managed, so that visitors do not expect a level of service the nation is unable to deliver.
However an overriding concern is that, while tourism skills and knowledge can be taught, and will likely be taught over time, there is a mentality of customer service that is lacking in Timor- Leste. In a recent travel article, Rose (2012) argues that a culture of professional hospitality is still largely absent. While no stakeholder disputed that Timorese people are friendly and by nature extremely polite, many argued that decades of occupation and civil war has been etched in the Timorese psyche, making it hard for many to provide the professional service that tourists expect.
They don’t welcome you in the face, but they do welcome you in their heart. They are just afraid to show their reaction, no experience, their mind is not open yet.
(Respondent 17, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
It is understandable that Timorese have a wariness towards foreigners, given that their nation was brutally occupied for 24 years.
It’s difficult to even smile with them, because they are suspicious and afraid to make mistake. It’s not that they’re not polite. Back in Indonesian time, they smile with the wrong person, they get beat up.
(Respondent 18, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
148
Timorese people have strong reasons for the way they are, and people have to come here and really understand what these people have been through. It gets into your blood. Things that you witness, that happen to your family.
(Respondent 32, interview with author, Tibar, January 2014)
This suggests that developing a hospitality industry will not be as easy as simply ‘teaching’ tourism skills. However the majority of stakeholders were optimistic that hospitality will naturally improve over time and with the development of a tourism industry. As discussed, The Asia Foundation survey found that 75% of visitors are happy with the level of hospitality they receive in Timor-Leste (Rajalingam, 2014), indicating that this may not be as significant an impediment to tourism as some suppose.
Furthermore, as the literature has revealed, tourism can play a very important role in the process of social renewal (Causevic and Lynch, 2011), as a country moves through the three important stages to develop post-conflict tourism: sorrow, resurrection, heritage. The process is cathartic and can unite residents through tourism and help them move on from the past (Causevic and Lynch, 2011). Thus growing a tourism industry and developing a ‘culture of hospitality’ may help Timor-Leste move on from its painful past.
In the meantime, a destination brand will need to reflect the ‘raw’ and ‘natural’ culture of Timor- Leste, in order to manage tourist expectations so that they embrace the culture of Timor-Leste as it is. In the first instance, this also suggests the brand be targeted towards a specific market, which will be understanding and empathetic. It also suggests that Timor-Leste will not be well suited to a mass market of tourists looking for passive sun lust on a beach holiday and expecting five star service. However, as is discussed in chapter 6, this is not the type of tourism that Timor- Leste hopes to attract.
5.2.2 Infrastructure
The country’s stakeholders are divided in their opinions on Timor-Leste’s infrastructure. While many see the lack of infrastructure and amenity as a potential selling point, making the country ‘unspoilt’ as opposed to just ‘undeveloped’, others see it as a significant problem and a major barrier for tourism. Infrastructure has been cited as a major challenge to tourism in Timor-Leste (ABC News, 2008), meaning the nation is not in a position to compete with near neighbours such as Bali: “it’s always going to be for adventure tourists who come with a different motivation,” said Kirsty Sword- Gusmao (Kennett, 2009). 149
At present, the roads inhibit travel to the districts, their poor quality meaning that 100km can take at least four hours, sometimes longer, making it hard for tourists to traverse the country with ease. This also presents a significant impediment for marketing some of the nation’s attributes, given the access can be so difficult. Even the Lonely Planet guide to Timor-Leste admits that travel outside the coastal areas is not for the faint hearted, and that the roads are often made even worse by heavy rainfall (Cocks, 2011).
Going around more than six hours is already too much. People ask me the distance between place and I never tell them in kilometres, just hours.
(Respondent 35, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
At the same time, roads could be seen as responsible for protecting the ‘rawness’ and untouched culture of the outer districts and also reducing mortality rates by keeping speeds low. As stakeholder 11, a tour guide, explained: “We have five star adventure tourism” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013), meaning that for the adventurous, as opposed to the comfort tourist, the roads often add to the experience and excitement of the travel.
Interestingly, of the stakeholders who cited poor roads as a weakness, there was a significant skew towards the private sector, with over 60% of respondents from this industry. Although the Minster argued: “So what we need now is to build a good airport, port, road, infrastructure, hotel and facilities” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014), private sector stakeholders argued the government has made limited progress and poor roads are affecting their businesses both in Dili and the districts. This finding supports the lack of stakeholder coordination and dissatisfaction with the government, as discussed in chapter 4.
It appears that transport, as opposed to just roads, is perhaps a greater issue. With limited public transport to the districts and limited information, it can be difficult for tourists to explore outside Dili. Car rental is very expensive and perhaps somewhat daunting for first-time tourists on difficult and unsigned roads. For backpackers on a budget, local transport is the only option, however district buses only travel to limited destinations and with poor safety, making it hard for travellers to fully experience the diversity of the country.
For the UN they have car they can go there, but for tourists it’s hard. Also they say they like Jaco Island, but with Tutuala the road is still have too many problems for them.
(Respondent 12, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
150
Poor infrastructure potentially affects the outer districts, far more so than Dili.
People look at Dili and there’s restaurants and hotels, as a lot of people come here for business, events, conferences and so on. But this picture is very different in the districts.
(Respondent 19, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Not only is it hard for tourists to access many outer towns, the accommodation is also limited and of varying quality. Further, information is often limited on how to access tourism places and to find and book accommodation. As stakeholder 14 explained: “You can’t rely on communication; when you make a booking people say yes, then when you get there, there’s nobody (interview with author, Dili, November 2013). Another concern is that English is not widely spoken outside Dili (Rose, 2012), which further impacts communication.
Many small accommodation providers and restaurants became somewhat dependent on the presence of the United Nations, which was essentially a captive audience of wealthy domestic tourists looking for eateries and weekend vacations. Many spoke the local language, Tetun, and they were able to find information through word of mouth, having lived in the country for some time. However, with the UN all but gone, it could be seen as imperative that these small providers seek to improve quality, communication and accessibility. As stakeholder 24 suggested: “they need to link to the outside world” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
The issue for Timor-Leste may not necessarily be infrastructure, or lack thereof, but rather communication and support in helping local communities reach out to tourists. Given infrastructure is poor and limited information is available outside Dili, many tourists are simply deterred from exploring and do not experience some of the best parts of Timor-Leste.
People are concerned about getting food poisoning or getting taken by a crocodile, there needs to be a lot more support to develop destinations.
(Respondent 9, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
However communicating how to reach the districts, where to stay and where to eat could help tourists visit the districts in safety and comfort, and might be more beneficial at this stage than building new roads and big hotels.
A number of stakeholders argued that poor infrastructure will not necessarily impact tourism.
There are people in the world looking for unspoilt ecosystems; the fact that nothing’s developed is exactly what they’re looking for.
151
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
However that said, there are other tourists who may be looking for higher quality roads and accommodation and, as The Asia Foundation survey discovered, only 33% of travellers to Timor- Leste are happy with the quality of infrastructure (Rajalingam, 2014).
As has already been discussed, when it comes to marketing Timor-Leste the issue becomes one of expectation. While a marketing campaign cannot control the infrastructure of the nation, it can control the honesty with which it promotes the nation in its current state, thereby limiting tourist expectation and ensuring expectation meets reality.
For me marketing and the situation they go together. Because the tourists come to Timor, when we make the promotion, ‘Timor is beautiful’, but when they come to Timor the roads are bad, and they can’t get information, so they don’t know where to go.
(Respondent 28, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
This suggests three things for branding Timor-Leste. Firstly, the brand should be targeted to a market looking for a more adventurous or eco experience, a market that will not be disappointed with the current infrastructure. Secondly, a brand will only be successful if it is honest, and promotes the nation as is and does not over-promise a level of infrastructure or a quality of accommodation that it simply cannot deliver. Thirdly, internal marketing and communication will be important once a destination brand is developed, so that tourists who do wish to visit the outer districts can find appropriate information to do so. To develop and maintain ‘internal marketing’, government management will be essential.
5.2.3 Cost and accessibility
Timor-Leste is not as ‘budget-friendly’ as many of its South-East Asian neighbours (O'Neil, 2011), given the prolonged UN mission and USD currency. Food and accommodation in Dili are expensive, due to the large number of international staff and advisors who can afford higher prices, as well as the reliance on imported goods (Tolkach, 2013). This is a significant destination weakness, given as Ritchie and Crouch (2003) argue, cost is a critical element of destination competitiveness.
We import everything: food, material. That’s what makes the cost so high. In the future, the fisheries, agriculture all of this, they can produce more and we can have fresh fish. 152
(Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Further, access is both difficult and expensive. Timor-Leste can be reached directly by air from only three cities: Darwin, Singapore and Denpasar. AirNorth offers nine flights per week from Darwin, costing anywhere from USD $160 to $680 for the 1.25 hour journey (Air North, 2016). As stakeholder 9 argued: “With that lack of competition on the route, it’s just not competitive pricing” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Further, few flights to Dili connect easily with Australian domestic flights from the major capital cities to Darwin. This forces many travellers to stay overnight in Darwin, and significantly lengthens their travel time and expense. Unfortunately, as Craigwell (2007, p.20) notes: “the cost of airline travel is found to be negatively related to market share, which indicates that the further the destination from the source market, the less competitive that destination is likely to be.”
At present, due to government regulation, it is also very difficult for travellers to enter Timor- Leste overland from West Timor. The visa needs to be ordered prior to arrival, rather than at the border on the day. This further decreases the accessibility for tourists and means Timor-Leste misses out on the lower end market who cannot afford the flights.
Let them pay at the border. Get that traffic going through. That would improve the traffic flow from backpackers, who are always the first industry to start in a developing nation.
(Respondent 40, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Yet there were conflicting views from other stakeholders, who argued that regardless of entry restrictions the cost of travelling within Timor-Leste, it is still prohibitive for backpackers. Given the poor amenities, including roads, electricity and local transport, and the far lower cost of travelling to near neighbours such as Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam, the price of travel to and within Timor-Leste is high.
Many people they visit Indonesia, they say Indonesia is very cheap. They say they love Timor so much, but in Timor everything is so expensive. The cost is a problem for them.
(Respondent 12, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
However it was widely argued the issue is about ‘value’ more so than cost. If tourists visit at a destination and roads are dangerous, accommodation is poor and the hospitality is unfriendly, the country will appear overpriced. However, if experiences are unique, the locals genuine and welcoming and the natural attractions incredible, tourists may still feel that they have received 153 good value, and leave with a positive impression. In other words, promoting the nation’s enchanting assets and thus providing ‘value’ for tourists, will be important for Timor-Leste in overcoming the cost barrier.
As discussed in chapter 2, one of the key benefits of branding is the ability to blend functional elements with emotional values (de Chernatony, 2006). If the uniqueness of Timor-Leste is communicated well, potential tourists may feel an emotional connection to the destination and choose to visit, despite a rational analysis of it being costly and hard to reach. It is the emotional component of a brand that makes branding a very powerful tool (de Chernatony, 2006). As Chen et al. (2013) suggest, individuals can overcome a travel constraint such as cost, if the desire to visit the destination is strong enough. For promoting Timor-Leste, this means the brand must focus on the unique natural, cultural and historic attributes, as discussed in section 5.1, and develop a unique brand personality, in order to overcome the barrier of cost and accessibility and to ensure that potential tourists are motivated to visit regardless.
5.2.4 Preservation
One of Timor-Leste’s key tourism assets, as identified in section 5.1.4, is being ‘undiscovered’ and ‘unspoilt’ and thus not inundated with western tourists. As respondent 21 argued: “Timor-Leste is not a tourism product, it’s just a place, and a people” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). This is very valuable when branding the nation. However there are concerns that if Timor- Leste’s natural environment, traditional culture and historic sites are not adequately protected, important attributes will be eroded. This is damaging not only from a marketing perspective, but more importantly for the people of Timor-Leste.
Of the stakeholders who raised this concern, all but one were Timorese nationals who have spent more than five years living outside Timor-Leste. This lends significant weight to the issue, given that those who combine a strong understanding of Timor-Leste’s unique heritage with knowledge of the west and tourism, see the issue of poor preservation as concerning.
As section 5.1.1.1 found: “the marine area is an amazing resource, but it is extremely vulnerable” (respondent 10, interview with author, Dili, November 2013). At present, limited education on the value of the reefs means that fishing boats often drag their anchors across the coral, thereby damaging the coral, the biodiversity and the tourism potential. A number of stakeholders argued that the Nino Konis Santana National Park, home to ancient cave paintings and ancestral tombs, (Edyvane et al., 2009) is still not sufficiently protected.
154
Look at the caves, the rock painting caves, they are going. If the government doesn’t put an eye on it, maybe they lose everything.
(Respondent 35, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Respondent 22 also suggested that poverty itself can lead to a lack of preservation. This may not be the result of disregard for the natural environment, but rather brought about by the need to survive.
We know that poverty is very destructive to the environment, especially in developing countries. Fisherman who are using dynamite to fish, blowing up the reef and so on; fisherman don’t blow up the reef because they hate the reef, they’re not wiping out fish stocks because they hate them. They’re just trying to survive.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
Stakeholders also argued that the colonial history and architecture are also at risk, with many prominent building being sacrificed for development. The famous ‘Hotel Turismo’, for example, was ‘renovated’ between 2011-2014, and today bears little resembles to its former heritage.
In Dili you have historic buildings that could show a face of Timor, that wonderful colonial architecture, but it gets destroyed, because no one cares about it. They think that everything should be new. By that I mean architects who take an exact copy print of an Indonesian hotel, bring it here, and the historic buildings get leveled. Now you have a façade of a building you can see anywhere else.
(Respondent 15, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
It appears Timorese culture and the special traditions, discussed in section 5.1.2, are also under threat.
Timorese culture is a little bit dead. If you go back to history, the culture was beautiful, so strong and beautiful. Maybe all the occupations have impacted it.
(Respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
The people of Timor-Leste have a complex history (Molnar, 2010) and across the centuries the nation’s culture has evolved through the Portuguese colonisation, world war two, the Indonesian invasion, and up until today’s transitional era of independence. From a tourism perspective, some stakeholders argued that this has affected Timorese culture and that traditions are slowing
155 eroding. The issue appears not to be that of incorporating other cultural traditions, but of beginning to forget which traditions actually belong to Timor-Leste and therefore what Timorese culture actually is.
Of course, culture is always influenced by other cultures; by Portugal, Indonesians, UN, modernity and so on. But the idea in here is to differentiate what has originated in here, and what is from outside.
(Respondent 24, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
If culture is not promoted and preserved, traditional Timorese culture will be lost: “One of these days if we don’t take care of it, it’ll disappear without us knowing” (respondent 20, interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
This issue could be compounded if the government of Timor-Leste allows the next wave of ‘foreign culture’, tourism, to continue to erode tradition. This is particularly concerning for the uma-luliks or sacred houses, which are integral to Timorese life.
Everywhere, when there is a sacred place visited by many people frequently, it will erode the sacred place. If everyone is allowed to see and visit, when you open, without any control, it can be desacralized.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
It goes without saying that if tourists visiting these sites are not managed carefully, the sights can very quickly deteriorate (Engelhardt, 2005).
It was widely argued that the role of preserving natural and cultural assets lies with the government, which is at present failing to adequately protect these rituals and places. As discussed, the Ministry of Tourism has prioritised development: “So what we need now is to build a good airport, port, road, infrastructure, hotel and facilities” (Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, October 2014). Infrastructure development does not present an issue in itself, but will be problematic if it comes at the cost of the nation’s natural and cultural heritage.
From a branding perspective, Konecnik and Go (2008, p.181) suggest it is essential a destination strengthen its identity, rather than erase it. They argue that branding requires “the preservation and presentation of the surviving monuments, relics and memories and place associations, to maintain ‘places’ of social meaning as opposed the emergence of the idea of ‘nonplace’ that result when a community surrenders to being driven solely by commercial interests”. After all,
156 branding is about promoting the destination’s unique characteristics to provide a travel experience that cannot be compared with other places (Santos and Campo, 2014).
Thus tourism presents a strong incentive to preserve culture so that it may become an even more valuable asset. Indeed, if managed well, tourism can help celebrate cultural traditions and artefacts (Dutra et al., 2011) and lead to greater awareness of, and pride in, a nation’s history and tradition (Engelhardt, 2005). However, this will rely on government management to ensure important sites are protected and tourism is planned and managed. From a branding perspective, as discussed in section 5.1.2, it will also mean ensuring cultural sites are not adapted solely for tourists, as this may sacrifice what made them attractive and unique originally (Lichrou et al., 2010).
As part of the government recommendations, it is therefore important that protection of tourism assets is enforced as essential for both tourism development and the creation of a powerful destination brand. If Timor-Leste’s important attributes are slowly eroded, a destination brand may lose its uniqueness and appeal, and Timor-Leste may lose its chance at developing a sustainable tourism industry. Thus it is essential the promotion of a tourism industry is accompanied by the protection of its most valuable assets.
5.2.5 Other factors
While a number of factors cannot necessarily be overcome through branding, it is still important to note the remaining few impediments to marketing the destination, as discussed by stakeholders.
Medical backup and support is of concern, the lack of which may deter some travellers, particularly the elderly or unwell. With the UN departure, the chance of being airlifted in an emergency is unlikely. As respondent 9 explained: “There’s no second chances here” (interview with author, Dili, October 2014).
Crocodiles in the waterways are also a problem for tourism, particularly as the exact number of crocodiles and their patterns of movement are little known. Mosquitos, which carry viruses such a dengue fever and malaria, could also be of concern to some visitors, as could the poverty, pollution and rubbish.
157
I think the rubbish impacts the development of tourism. Tourists come here they want to see the beautiful country, they want to see the clean of this country, so I think the people must give interest to the places.
(Respondent 29, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Investor confidence is currently very low due to difficult land ownership laws and property contracts. At this stage, there’s not an official land certificate, meaning large corporations are unwilling to risk big investment, and stemming the flow of investment and growth.
It just seems there are so many hurdles or chances for it to go wrong, that I feel like that will scare off a lot of investors.
(Respondent 33, interview with author, Liquica, November 2013)
Furthermore, at present legislation is still difficult. All official documents are required to be submitted in Portuguese, which is very difficult for English-speaking investors. The regulatory environment of Timor-Leste is burdensome and costly (The Heritage Foundation & The Wall Street Journal, 2015) and investment and development in the current climate will be challenging for early entrants (US Department of State, 2014).
Four expatriate stakeholders also remarked that there is no single, overriding factor that is the ‘leading weakness’ for the tourism industry, but rather it is a combination of many of the factors discussed.
When you look at the criteria of preferred tourist destinations, Timor doesn’t tick too many boxes. Can’t get there all year round. Not easy to get around. Amenity, quality and cost of places to stay, quality and variety of food.
(Respondent 9, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
This reinforces the need for a targeted brand to overcome the many impediments to tourism in Timor-Leste and to allow consumers to ‘feel an emotional connection’ towards the destination.
5.3. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has analysed the tangible attributes of Timor-Leste, elucidating its core product strengths and weaknesses. An understanding of the destination’s strengths will form the basis of a destination brand, while assessing its weaknesses can ensure they are managed in the tourism 158 promotion. While this analysis is a necessary stage in developing a brand for Timor-Leste, these findings also contribute to the literature on brand building in other emerging and post-conflict nations.
The analysis of Timor-Leste’s strengths as a destination demonstrated that nature is its most valuable asset and should be promoted as part of the brand. However the findings also demonstrate that tourism can be damaging to the environment if it is not properly managed. This supports Cahyanto (2013)'s contention that since tourists can be intrusive to communities and cultures, residents should ideally help determine the number and type of tourists to be targeted. In this case, branding a destination on its natural attributes may not adopt a ‘more is better’ approach but rather seek to specifically target, and at times even limit, the number of tourists the destination attracts.
Cultural assets are extremely valuable to building a brand for Timor-Leste, given the nation’s culture is both rich and unique. However, cultural tourism comes with its challenges as well. The findings suggest that tourism promotion must avoid commodifying cultural products and promoting stereotypical imagery. Stakeholder input and support will be essential to ensure the portrayal of the nation is actually representative of the cultural traditions of the nation, as opposed to merely the intuitive ideas of a small number of marketers (Jansen, 2008). This, in turn, can help the nation develop a differentiated and more powerful brand.
The history of Timor-Leste emerged as another essential attribute for the destination brand. For branding post-conflict nations, portrayal of history will not be without ethical considerations. The findings support Amujo and Otubanjo (2012) and Novelli et al. (2012)’s contention that to avoid presenting a ‘simplified interpretation' of the past, stakeholder consultation and the identification of a shared sense of place will be essential. Also, instead of merely depicting the facts of the past, the findings suggest that Timor-Leste could add a depth to the portrayal of its history by showing the resilience and strength of its people. This will be possible through ‘personifying’ the story and developing a brand personality — a technique which could be also prove valuable in branding other post-conflict nations.
Timor-Leste’s appeal as an ‘undiscovered’ and ‘unspoilt’ tourism destination also provides an important attribute for the destination brand. To ensure the nation is not unfairly represented as stuck in a ‘timeless present’ the research findings suggest that this attribute should be promoted alongside the other important aspects of a nation’s tourism product, such as its people, culture, history and natural beauty. This can help a nation avoid perpetuating the ‘myth of the uncivilised’.
159
In terms of the weaknesses inherent in Timor-Leste’s tourism product, ‘hospitality’ rated the highest among stakeholders. Infrastructure was also a significant concern, with 66% of tourists reporting that it failed to meet their expectations. Issues of infrastructure quality and a culture of hospitality are not uncommon in emerging and post-conflict nations, and findings suggest that target market selection will be imperative to appeal to those who are not looking for ‘five star’ experiences, but rather an intrepid, indigenous experience.
The cost and accessibility of Timor-Leste as a destination emerged as a concern, given Timor- Leste is competing with many Asian destinations that are easier to reach and cheaper to travel to. The solution, at least in the short-term, will be developing a brand that is powerful enough to tap into the ‘emotional power’ of travel (Morgan et al., 2004, Santos and Campo, 2014). It is only through emphasising their unique traits that nations such as Timor-Leste can hope to differentiate themselves and overcome the cost barrier.
Perhaps the most concerning of the destination’s weaknesses relates to the preservation of its natural and cultural assets, which could provide the greatest risk to promoting Timor-Leste for tourism and developing a destination brand. For branding to be successful, it is essential that a destination strengthens its identity, rather than erode or erase it (Konecnik and Go, 2008). These findings suggest that the government must be actively involved in the branding process, and that the brand strategy must be underpinned by a wider policy that enforces the protection of the nation’s natural and historic assets.
An analysis of the nuances of the Timor-Leste tourism product has contributed to the scarcity of literature in this area and will form the basis of the destination’s brand. This analysis has also reinforced the importance of understanding a destination’s strengths and weaknesses for brand development, supporting Kapferer’s (1999, p.71) contention that “before knowing how we are perceived, we must know who we are”. These findings contribute to the existing body of literature on branding natural, cultural and historic assets in emerging and post-conflict nations.
160
Chapter 6: CREATING THE BRAND
This chapter analyses the personality and brand position of Timor-Leste to create a ‘sense of place’ and complete the development of the ‘3Ps’. As outlined in chapter 3, destination branding should begin by understanding ‘sense of place’ as experienced by local residents (Campelo et al., 2013), supporting Hankinson’s (2004) contention that the ‘identity of a place’ forms the core of a destination brand.
This thesis takes the position that successful brands must communicate more than noteworthy physical attributes (Daye, 2010). The establishment of a strong brand personality is therefore invaluable for building brand preference (Matzler et al., 2016) as it can help differentiate a destination from its competition, enhance perceived value and develop emotional ties between the tourist and destination (Hultman et al., 2015). This chapter also argues that alongside an understanding of a destination’s product and personality, a destination must also market its uniqueness and originality (Ashton, 2015) through the establishment of a unique brand position.
Following the analysis of Timor-Leste’s personality and position, this chapter then practically develops a destination brand. As Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony (2013) assert, branding can easily become an overwhelming task given the multitude of components in the development of a brand identity, yet there is still no universally agreed model of place brand identity available within the academic literature. Therefore, a major contribution of this thesis is the development of a framework to guide the destination branding process for Timor-Leste, which provides an important and timely contribution to the literature on the process of destination branding.
Furthermore, this chapter has significant implications for a practical and stakeholder-led approach to destination branding. At present, there is a dearth of research on how branding principles can be translated into practical marketing activity (Lee et al., 2006). This thesis therefore contributes not only an academic model to guide the branding process, but also application of this model to the practical case study of Timor-Leste.
For the nation of Timor-Leste, these findings have practical implications. The chapter provides new data into the nation’s tourism climate, through the creation of a brand personality and position, and then creates an empirically researched and stakeholder-led destination brand strategy. Despite having been a government priority for years, a destination brand is yet to be developed for Timor-Leste, thus the findings of this thesis can provide important insights for the government of Timor-Leste.
161
This chapter commences with the creation of a brand personality for Timor-Leste, through an analysis of the intangible or symbolic elements of the destination. It then creates a brand position for Timor-Leste, which requires an understanding of its target markets, competition and unique attributes. To develop the destination brand, this chapter then analyses the potential brand strategies available to Timor-Leste and ‘brings the brand to life’ through stakeholder workshops to elucidate suitable brand imagery and a slogan. The chapter concludes with the presentation of a mock brand concept, as developed by the author, and a discussion on the implications of brand development in emerging and post-conflict nations.
6.1. PERSONALITY
This section develops a distinctive and unique destination brand personality for Timor-Leste. As outlined in chapter 2, a brand personality encompasses a destination’s ‘human’ traits (Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou, 2015) and is a more intangible or symbolic aspect of a destination’s product. Given tourists want to experience a ‘sense of place’ when visiting a destination, symbolic and emotional benefits play as important a role as functional benefits in developing a destination brand’s identity (Konecnik and Go, 2008).
As discussed in chapter 2, while academic interest in the concept of destination brand personality has grown across the past three decades, most of the work focuses on the measurement of destination brand personality and is based on Jennifer Aaker’s (1997) model (Pereira et al., 2015). Therefore, this thesis diverges from the traditional literature on measuring destination brand personality and helps address the research gap on the process of developing a destination brand personality.
6.1.1 ‘Brand story’ of Timor-Leste
To undertake process of brand personification, Zouganeli et al. (2012) suggest that if residents are asked to describe the destination as if it were a person, marketers can gain a deeper insight into the attributes and meanings associated with the place. This in turn can generate an understanding not only of the destination’s functional elements, but also the symbolism and emotional meaning residents attach to the destination (Zouganeli et al., 2012).
162
Following Zouganeli et al.’s (2012) approach, this thesis invited stakeholders, through the qualitative interview process, to describe the personality they associate with Timor-Leste in as many or as few words as they chose. These reflections were interspersed with the author’s own words to help interlink ideas and create a ‘brand story’.
—————————————————————————————
The country is young, beginning to grow and develop in a new era.
It’s a person that’s learning to live again
The nation is stimulated to learn, youthful and vibrant, particularly as the younger generations begin to distance themselves from the history of trauma.
There are new hopes, new dreams; people are wanting to go outside to the world, and to bring the world in.
There is excitement in finally freeing ourselves from the shackles of colonisation and occupation.
As the nation grows it is becoming a teenager, gradually maturing and somewhat cheeky and rebellious.
We’re pushing boundaries, living the day.
Despite the positive outlook and youthfulness, the country is still very wild and ‘rough’.
We have had hundreds of years and we are still wild. But we are moving too fast; we are losing the steps, and we may fall down.
The people are still learning to trust and believe, as the pain of the past takes time to heal. Many Timorese are still easily angered because they are accustomed to war and fighting, and the anger can be hard to lose.
All these years we have fought, we’ve had hunger, we don’t know if we have tomorrow.
Yet underlying the ruggedness and pain there is a soft heartedness and good intention.
We are tough in action, but soft in heart.
Behind the wariness there is the desire for positive change and development.
163
We were a warrior, and we are still a warrior, because that’s what we know. But please be patient; we want to change.
There is a strong sense of forgiveness in the country’s personality and its people.
Through 25 years with Indonesia, what Indonesia has done, yet today we live together peacefully, hand by hand. There is peace in our heart.
Today, the country stands dignified, proud, sometimes a little hesitant, but humble and welcoming.
We are a tall person, with a humble personality and our doors open to everyone. But we have a sign that says: If you come as a friend, come in, if you come to do something else, please don’t bother!
From the rich history, to the strong attachment to cultural traditions and the idea that myths are reality, a different belief system gives ways to a different way life;
There’s meaning in stopping and looking and observing, and there’s meaning in prioritising the celebration of a festival. There’s a different perception of time.
—————————————————————————————
The development of a brand story creates an intangible and emotive picture of Timor- Leste as a destination. The story also represents the thoughts and opinions of the internal stakeholder population, which, as discussed in chapter 4, is essential in ensuring a ‘participatory’ approach to branding and ongoing dialogue between destination stakeholders (Kalandides et al., 2013). This approach differs significantly from traditional destination personality measurement studies which ask tourists which personality traits they associate with a destination (Seljeseth and Korneliussen, 2015). Given Timor-Leste is yet to be branded as a destination it is vital, as discussed throughout this thesis, that an understanding of ‘sense of place’ comes from within.
6.1.2 Personality traits
In the case of Brand Australia, considered a ‘pioneering country’ in the field of brand development (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012), the country names just four key traits for its personality: high spirited, down to earth, irreverent and welcoming (Tourism Australia,
164
2016). Brand ‘100% Pure’ New Zealand has chosen five traits for its brand personality, which are: clean, green, smart, innovative, and creative (Hall, 2010). During a series of stakeholder workshops (see chapter 3 for a detailed methodology) the brand story was discussed and debated by the group to elucidate the destination personality traits for Timor-Leste.
Stakeholders insisted the nation must be perceived as friendly and welcoming, given the negative media coverage that has been circulated internationally for decades. At the same time, it was argued Timor-Leste be portrayed as ‘real’ and ‘raw’ to honestly depict the current situation. As outlined in chapter 4, stakeholders are wary of over-promising a tourism experience that the country is not yet able to deliver.
Timor-Leste is a girl or guy standing up and saying ‘this is how I feel’. Humble about things. I don’t have a big place in here, just sit on the floor with me and we sip some coconut juice or something and one day I might buy a proper seat so we can sit together, but for now sit with me on the floor under the coconut tree. Let’s have a simple coconut juice.
(Respondent 20, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
A number of expatriate stakeholders remarked that there is a complexity to Timor-Leste’s personality that makes it mystical, exotic, yet always elusive.
It’s like when you get petrol in a puddle, and it changes colour with that shimmering, mystical, different colours, you feel there’s another dimension there, you can feel it; but never quite touch it.
(Respondent 9, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
Similarly, local stakeholders concurred that Timor-Leste is modest yet enchanting; traits they would like to see communicated as part of the brand.
So as a small island, we want our islands to become a beautiful girl, but a simple, modest girl, that can attract people from a certain distance, by looking at them, by shaking their hands; they should feel different. An everlasting vision.
(Respondent 22, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
Overall, stakeholders argued Timor-Leste is a nation that is still growing, learning and developing into a new era, yet at present, is still very raw. Stakeholders see Timor-Leste as
165 undeveloped, pioneering, intrepid, wild and untouched; words true of its landscape and the unspoilt nature of its environment. Yet the nation also has a fun and serendipitous side; unpredictable, interesting, engaging and colourful. This can be seen largely in the personality of its people; laughs, smiles and a great sense of humour. Despite the years of occupation and civil war, the people remain light hearted and optimistic. There is pride and a strong resilience; Timor-Leste has survived its painful past and is hopeful for the future.
Based on the stakeholders’ brand story, twelve personality traits were proposed by the researcher, which were: spirited, proud, humble, welcoming, intrepid, raw, rugged, enchanting, alluring, intriguing, mystical and hopeful. In the stakeholder workshops, these traits were refined to five. These are: proud, welcoming, raw, enchanting and intriguing.
Guiry and Vequist (2014) suggest that giving a brand human characteristics will enable consumers to form a deeper association and give them something that is vivid, alive and more complete than what can conveyed by a functional product offering. Furthermore, personification of a destination from a resident’s perspective helps avoid the stereotypes so often used in tourism promotion (Zouganeli et al., 2012). Therefore the above five personality traits, when combined with the functional elements of the destination product, developed in chapter 5, enable the brand to encompass a more symbolic dimension and help develop the ‘emotional component’ of Timor-Leste as a destination.
6.2. POSITION
Following the development of a brand personality, this section develops the third P – position. As Fan (2006, p.10) argues, a destination that “tries to be all things to all people will inevitably fail as it will isolate a significant proportion of its target audience through its vagueness”. Positioning is therefore a pivotal concept in marketing as it allows a destination to ‘stand out’ in the minds of consumers. According to Morgan et al. (2004) when it comes to branding, perhaps the most difficult aspect is true differentiation. Although promoting a country’s history, culture and beautiful scenery is important, for a brand to be truly differentiated a destination must also market its uniqueness and originality (Ashton, 2015).
Tasci and Holecek (2007) argue that the first step in effective positioning is assessing the strengths, weaknesses and distinctive competencies in the minds of a destination’s target market and then comparing these to its competitor destinations. This suggests that before a destination
166 can be positioned, it is necessary to ascertain an understanding of its target markets and close competitors. Further, as outlined in chapter 2, the literature suggests marketers must analyse a destination’s own unique attributes to create an advantage over rival destinations (Apostolakis et al., 2015) and establish a position that is relevant to the target audience (Rinaldi and Beeton, 2015).
Therefore to establish a brand position for Timor-Leste, this section firstly analyses the destination’s potential target markets followed by its current competition. Through a series of stakeholder workshops, and drawing heavily from the product analysis of chapter 5, this section then analyses the unique elements of the Timor-Leste tourism offering in order to develop an overarching brand position for the destination.
6.2.1 Target markets
This section analyses Timor-Leste’s potential target markets, looking at the potential advantages and pitfalls of specific targeting strategies. The definition of the destination’s target groups is essential in order achieve a strong positioning and ensure a brand is relevant to its audience (Rinaldi and Beeton, 2015).
The Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 for Timor-Leste contends that: “While our South East Asian region provides mature tourist offerings, Timor-Leste can attract visitors seeking boutique, adventure and eco-tourism experiences” (Timor-Leste-Government 2011, p.142). It adds that: “At first instance, closer tourist operator relationships will be forged with Australia, Portugal, Indonesia, China, Malaysia and Singapore before extending globally” (p.149). However, it fails to provide further research or reasoning for the selection of these potential markets.
Given destination brands are successful when they are developed with a clear statement of the target groups in mind (Santos and Campo, 2014), it has been necessary for this thesis to develop a new, nuanced understanding of the target markets for Timor-Leste. Drawing on the stakeholder qualitative interviews and extensive secondary research, this section looks at potential markets in terms of 1) country origin, 2) age and 3) motivation for travel.
6.2.1.1 Country of origin
Stakeholders suggested that Timor-Leste’s near neighbours present a strong target market, given their close proximity. As outlined in chapter 1, Timor-Leste can be reached directly from only three cities: Darwin, Singapore and Denpasar in Bali. Flights are expensive, with AirNorth, for 167 example, charging anything from USD $160 and $680 for the 1.25 hour journey (Air North, 2016). For residents of Australia, Singapore or Indonesia, the travel time and cost of reaching Timor- Leste is lower than that of potential tourists from Europe or the United States.
Especially now, Portuguese people can’t even afford the bus, let alone fly here. It’s not our market, not right now. With the economic crisis, it’s the short haul-flights, which are delivering.
(Respondent 35, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Another important market for Timor-Leste may come from those countries with an interlinked history. As outlined in chapter 5, Portugal shares a colonial history with Timor-Leste, which dates back to the early 1500s when Dominican Friars established a settlement in Oecussi (Kingsbury, 2009). Both Japan and Australia share a war history after they fought on Timorese soil during the second world war (Olsson, 2009), while Indonesia shares a more recent history after its invasion of 1975 and 24-year occupation of Timor-Leste. For the residents of these nations, a holiday to Timor-Leste may also be combined with historical significance, thus increasing their desire to visit.
Many stakeholders argued that, for Australians, the bloodshed surrounding Indonesia’s withdrawal was for years still too recent a memory for them to consider Timor-Leste as a holiday destination. As outlined in chapter 1, 1999 saw “saturation media coverage in Australia” where journalists recalled that “every single rally, no matter how small, would get coverage” (Tapsell and Eidenfalk, 2013, p.585) in the Australian press. However, given Timor-Leste has been safe and peaceful for over a decade, stakeholders argued Australians’ image of Timor-Leste might be changing.
I remember thinking back at the time, we’ll come to them later, start with other markets. But I think Australia now has ‘got over it’.
(Respondent 15, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
Australians’ history is linked not only through the war, but also during the invasion of 1975 when five journalists were murdered in Balibo. Today a hotel has been built inside the historic fort to encourage tourism to the region, receiving 70% of its visitors from Australia (Hudson, 2016). Australia also played an integral role in peacekeeping in Timor-Leste, with InterFet deployed in 1999 and the International Stabilisation Forces (ISF) in 2006 and it continues to support Timor- Leste in foreign aid and development projects. Callahan (2011) argues that given Australians’
168 inextricable histories with Timor-Leste, the travellers’ role can extend beyond merely tourism and be seen to connect with Timor-Leste nation-building process.
For Australians, when you take them up the west and they say it looks familiar – there are gum trees. In a way, it’s like people are making a connection with a place that they’ve never been to, but they already know.
(Respondent 35, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
The Director of Marketing also suggested that Australians enjoy the type of tourism Timor-Leste can offer.
Australia is a good market for us, because they really like natural. Natural and this is the country they are looking for. And everyone want to find more new destinations, for them it’s really interesting to visit Timor-Leste.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Balibo, October 2013)
His assertion is supported by an analysis of data from The Asia Foundation’s Survey of Travellers to Timor-Leste, which found that 91% of all Australian visitors to Timor-Leste found that their experience in-country met expectations and 85% would recommend the destination to other travellers (Rajalingam, 2014). As Table 8 demonstrates, this is the highest satisfaction of travellers from any of the other main visiting nations.
Nationality of Traveller Travel in Timor-Leste met Would recommend to expectations other travellers
Overall 83% 79%
Australians 91% 85%
Indonesians 72% 76%
Europeans 81% 79%
Americans 90% 70%
Chinese 50% 39%
Table 9: Travel expectation and recommendation by country
The idea of Australia as the ideal first target market for Timor-Leste is, however, contradicted by the Minister who expressed a focus on attracting tourists from China, explaining: “Of course the
169 biggest target now, we know that Chinese are the most tourists now to visit the Asian countries,” (Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
According to the China Tourism Research Institute (2015), China had 120 million outbound tourists in 2015, which represents a very large market when compared to Australia. However, as The Asia Foundation survey data reveals, only 50% of Chinese tourists that visited Timor-Leste felt the destination met expectations and only 39% would recommend the destination to others (Rajalingam 2014). This suggests that despite it being a large and potentially lucrative market, China may not provide a good target for Timor-Leste given the product is not well suited to Chinese tourists’ desires.
Furthermore, selecting targets markets based solely on their size and potential profit may also mean marketing to tourists Timor-Leste may not necessarily wish to attract.
One thing I’m noticing about the Asian markets is they’re not as keen on experiencing something locally, there’s not as much value on natural resources and natural assets. There’s an opportunity for Chinese to help tourism here, yet at the same time, it’s not just the money they spend here but also the interaction with the locals and the feeling they are contributing to their enjoyment and creating some pride. It’s nice for the locals to hear that this is a beautiful place with beautiful food, and if they don’t get that, it makes it hard for the community to continue sustaining itself that way.
(Respondent 26, interview with author, Baucau, December 2013)
It is important to Timor-Leste’s tourism development to focus not only the tourists that may enjoy its many assets, but also on those who are suitable for the tourism future the country hopes to build. As Zhao and Li (2006) argue, while many developing destinations may seek to benefit from mass tourism numbers and packaged tours, it is often the foreigner-owner economy, as opposed to the destination, that truly benefits. This suggests that the type and motivation of potential tourists will be more important to Timor-Leste than simply the number. This will be expanded further in section 6.2.1.3.
Furthermore, while the Minister mentioned China as a possible target market, he also admitted that little work has been done to date on developing target markets for Timor-Leste. He suggested: “Actually, we can’t identify yet, what type of tourism we hope for. As long as the tourists come, that’s fine” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015).
Therefore while a number of nations offer viable markets, it appears Australia may present an ideal first target market. It is close to Timor-Leste geographically, interlinked historically and as 170 research demonstrates, Australian travellers are the most positive about the type of tourism Timor-Leste offers at this stage. Targeting Australians will also mean Timor-Leste can continue to offer a more raw, nature-based or cultural tourism experience, as opposed to targeting a mass market that may bring less benefit to its people.
6.2.1.2 Age
There were diverse opinions on the ideal age of travellers to Timor-Leste, however stakeholders tended to favour two key groups: the older, 55+ traveller and the younger travellers, in their 20s or early 30s.
Stakeholders suggested that older travellers are often interested in the history and culture of Timor-Leste, in many cases having followed the nation’s development for decades. Such travellers are often retired, relatively wealthy and looking for a naturally beautiful and culturally rich destination.
There are those who are elderly, adventurous, plenty of money; they just say if we fall off the boat, we fall off the boat. But if we don’t get on the boat, we’ll never see it. This is the last time we’ll do it.
(Respondent 41, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
These opinions are supported by research from the Australian Bureau of Statistics, which finds the over 55s to be one of the most powerful age groups in Australia in terms of financial capability, holding almost 32% of the nation's gross disposable income (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). In June 2013, there were six million Australians aged over 55s, constituting 26% of the population. By 2038, it is estimated that there will be in excess of 10 million Australians aged over 55 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014), suggesting the market is not only lucrative but large.
A further study by Roy Morgan Research found that in 2013 Australian ‘empty nesters’ were 36% less likely than the average Australian to enjoy holidays where everything is organised for them and 59% less likely to prefer bright lights and big cities when they travel (Roy Morgan Research, 2013). This suggests that older Australians may enjoy the type of tourism Timor-Lest can currently offer.
As Table 9 demonstrates, The Asia Foundation’s Survey of Travellers to Timor-Leste supports this assertion, finding that the over 55s market actually have the most positive experience when 171 visiting Timor-Leste. A total of 87% claimed their trip met expectations and 83% were willing to recommend the destination to other travellers (Rajalingam, 2014).
Age of Traveller Travel in Timor-Leste met Would recommend to expectations other travellers
Overall 83% 79%
Under 35s 83% 78%
35-55 81% 77%
Over 55s 87% 83%
Table 10: Travel expectation and recommendation by age
It was also felt that Timor-Leste was well suited to the over 55s market, not only through its natural and cultural attributes, but also through the hospitality and mentality of its people.
This place is actually very user friendly for the senior traveller; you may think the idea of hang-gliders and adventure tourism is at odds with little old ladies, but it works. Timorese people culturally are very friendly, respectful and helpful to older people. You see young Timorese men jumping up to help them walk down the road.
(Respondent 3, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
At the same time, stakeholders suggested that Timor-Leste suits a much younger market, being an intrepid and adventurous destination. Within this age group sits the backpacker market, which is usually less afraid of poor amenity and infrastructure.
Our market should be the people who like adventure, they are not afraid of the war. They’re not afraid of the mosquitos. These tourists they just have one backpack, and they go. They just love the natural things and they go.
(Respondent 34, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
Backpackers have often been seen as the ‘trailblazers’ of tourism, spreading the word about new and distant destinations (Jeffries 2001). Similarly, Brenner and Fricke (2007) argue that backpackers can be crucial players in opening up what was originally a non-tourist space. The backpacker market could therefore provide a lucrative target for Timor-Leste, not only financially but also in developing the destination and spreading positive word of mouth.
172
I see the backpackers as the missionaries of tourists, often underestimated. Not so much the money they leave behind but the messages put out.
(Respondent 13, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
Further, a 2013 study by the World Youth Student and Educational Travel Confederation which interviewed 34,000 young travellers from 137 countries, found that, in 2012, young travellers accounted for $217 billion of the $1.088 trillion tourism spend worldwide, an increase well above other international travellers. It further found that young travellers today want, more than ever, to enrich themselves with cultural experiences, meet local people and to improve their employability when they return home (Tourism Research and Marketing, 2013). The survey found that young travellers are spending less time in major gateway cities and exploring more remote destinations. Many are now shunning the traditional ‘sun, sea and sand’ holidays (Tourism Research and Marketing, 2013).
This research bodes well for Timor-Leste, given it can offer rich cultural experiences beyond the traditional ‘3S’ attributes and thereby enhance its destination appeal to this market. As Lewis- Cameron and Roberts (2010) argue, the prolonged emphasis on the 3S product in many SIDS has resulted in limited attention on packaging their cultural and historic attributes. As such, there is an opportunity in the marketplace for island destinations to develop tourism products that represent the true ‘essence’ of a destination which can be then captured and communicated through destination branding (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010).
The Director of Marketing also supported the idea of backpackers being an ideal target market for Timor-Leste at this stage in its development.
Backpackers they don’t think about the luxury, they think about how they can experience themselves, living with local people, eating local food, travel around maybe just walking, or rent a car, motorbike or bicycle. Because we have a lot of things we can offer, they can see the natural things.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
However, a concern with the backpacker market is that many of the weaknesses raised in chapter 5 may have a significant impact on their willingness to visit. Firstly, cost will be an impediment for many, given Timor-Leste is not as ‘budget-friendly’ as many of its South-East Asian neighbours (O'Neil, 2011). Secondly transport to the districts may be difficult for those on a budget unwilling to hire a 4WD or take a tour. Finally, with visas unavailable at the Indonesian border, many backpackers may see entry to Timor-Leste as either too hard or too expensive. 173
A number of stakeholders therefore argued Timor-Leste may appeal more to the ‘flashpacker’ segment of the backpacker market – being those who travel with laptops and smart phones and who tend to have larger budgets than traditional backpackers (Mohn, 2013). However, it was agreed by a majority of stakeholders that Timor-Leste could cater to all age markets. Some stakeholders suggested that even families could be a possible target market, thanks to the UN presence which saw many accompanied postings and an influx of expat children.
I think Timor is friendly for all ages. I think Timorese culturally, they’re very accepting of children. You can bring children to restaurants, its not frowned upon. Not everyone in the restaurant hates you. The waiters will play with the child, its very child friendly.
(Respondent 33, interview with author, Liquica, October 2014)
Furthermore, targeting a specific age group could be too limiting for an emerging destination only beginning to understand its market. It was felt that all travellers are potentially suitable and that their ‘motivation for travel’ will be more important in their suitability than their age.
6.2.1.3 Travel motivation
Stakeholders argued that ‘motivation for travel’ is the most important determinant of an ideal target market for Timor-Leste. While older travellers looking for five star luxury may not be well-suited to Timor-Leste, the more adventurous over 55s looking for an environmental or cultural experience are an ideal market. Similarly, for younger travellers, Timor-Leste may not be a place for a party, but may be well suited to those who are looking for raw adventure and who are content with basic comforts.
This is a market segment Tourism Australia call ‘experience seekers’, defined as travellers who enjoy a contrasting experience from their daily lives, enjoy engaging with locals and hope to return from their holiday having learnt something new (Tourism Australia, 2016). These tourists are characterised as being of any age, adventurous, open-minded, interested in culture and history and with a desire to explore a diverse natural environment.
Timor-Leste is well suited to the ‘experience seeker’ market, given as discussed in chapter 5, it offers a raw cultural experience, unspoilt natural environment and the potential to enjoy an experience not commodified by package tours or other tourists.
174
We should market to any country, any age, educated, interested in nature, history, and people. Not the type of tourist that is only interested in superficial pursuits such as partying and shopping.
(Respondent 50, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Mocanu (2014) contends that ‘getting beyond the usual tourism experience’ and ‘experiencing a genuine cultural encounter’ is a common desire for many tourists. An increasing number of tourists worldwide now seek attractions that are environmentally sensitive and supportive of indigenous communities (Vitic and Ringer, 2008). As more tourists come to value such experiences, there is a steady increase in the varieties of alternative tourism including cultural and heritage tourism, ecotourism, adventure tourism and sustainable or community-based tourism (Mocanu, 2014).
People coming here are contributing to development, more than they understand. People come on holiday who want to connect with communities and have a genuine local experience.
(Respondent 49, interview with author, Liquica, October 2014)
From a stakeholder perspective, as outlined in chapter 4, the consensus is that tourism must be sustainably developed and managed for it to truly benefit the people of Timor-Leste. As stakeholder 21 explained: “I think if we go for travellers, versus tourists, that’ll benefit more with our culture and ecosystem” (interview with author, Dili, March 2015). The idea that ‘responsible’ tourists, for example ecotourists or community-based tourists, will have a lesser impact on the natural and cultural resources of a nation is not uncommon. Such types of tourism can be often locally operated, leaving less scope for multinationals to overdevelop the environmental resources (Zhao and Li, 2006).
However, Chok et al. (2007) suggest that while nature-based and community-based tourism theoretically focus on preserving the destination’s environmental and cultural assets, operators frequently fail to consider the full range of impacts on the livelihoods of the locals. Further, tourists themselves infrequently consider that the idea that a ‘genuine’ cultural encounter may in fact appear rude or intrusive to local hosts (Mocanu, 2014).
Although ‘ecotourists’ are commonly touted as a ‘pro-poor’ alternative to traditional mass tourists, these visitors do not necessarily behave in a more responsible or sustainable manner (Chok et al., 2007). A study conducted by Duffy (2002) found that ‘ecotourists’ in Belize displayed
175 the same hedonistic tendencies as mass tourists, including excessive drinking, drug-taking and disrespecting environmental sites and ancient ruins.
‘Voluntarists’ are likewise seen as ‘responsible’ given their purpose of aiding the material poverty of some groups in society or assisting in the restoration of certain specific environments (Wearing, 2007). Volunteer tourism can be promoted as a means for tourists to experience authenticity while providing benefit to the destination (Smith and Font, 2014). However, Smith and Font (2014) argue that altruistic marketing messages often mask solely commercial operations and that like other forms of ‘sustainable tourism’ the commodification of volunteer tourism usually sees customer needs prioritised at the expense of community welfare.
This does not mean ‘experience seekers’ are not an ideal target market for Timor-Leste, but that the realistic outcomes of marketing to this group should be understood. It is debatable as to whether ‘experience seekers’, or any type of tourist, can be truly sustainable (Smith and Font, 2014). Further, as Chok et al. (2007) argue, hijacking the ‘altruistic’ tag as a marketing tool can mislead stakeholders into a false sense of optimism about what can be reasonably achieved through tourism.
One could argue that any increase in tourism volume will have a corresponding increase in negative impacts (Chettiparamb and Kokkranikal, 2012). Ultimately, truly ‘responsible tourism’ requires reducing the scale and volume of tourists (Chettiparamb and Kokkranikal, 2012) and will challenge our current ‘rapid expansion development model’ (Chok et al., 2007). In other words, if local ownership and control is a priority for the stakeholders, then slow and sustainable development may also prove an important target for Timor-Leste, alongside its chosen markets. It will also be important for stakeholders to play a role in determining the number and type of tourists which are acceptable to ensure a balance of social, cultural and economic priorities (Cahyanto et al., 2013).
We want a tourism that facilitates the communities to run, to manage so they can feel that they are the owner of the place and they are the real benefices of that. So as struggling people, at the end they can feel that this is their independence; I can manage, I can run and I get the benefit. What we don’t want is a tourism that local people, they are a stranger in their own places. Or they are there but they are working as a cleaning service for a foreign five star hotel; but with a manager from Indonesia or Singapore or Malaysia.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
176
Therefore, it appears the ideal target market for Timor-Leste at this stage is Australian ‘experience seeking’ travellers of any age. In marketing to this group, it becomes apparent that continued stakeholder consultation will be vital and that the government must ensure traveller numbers are grown sustainability to ensure minimal environment and cultural impact and maximum benefit for the people of Timor-Leste.
6.2.2 Competition
This section analyses Timor-Leste’s competitor destinations to ascertain how the nation can best position itself to attract its target market. A brand which portrays strong functional and emotional benefits may be still overlooked if its position is confused in relation to competing destinations (Liyanag and Jayawardena, 2013), Similarly, as outlined in chapter 2, it is not sufficient for a nation to just have a strong brand; in order to be successful over the long term, the destination brand must be seen more favourably than its competitors (Harrison-Walker, 2011, Dinnie et al., 2010). This therefore suggests when developing a brand position, an analysis of competitive markets is essential.
There is at present a limited understanding of potential competition for tourism in Timor-Leste. The Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 lists Timor-Leste’s competitive assets, such as product strengths, but to date there has been no analysis of which nations provide the most significant competition (Timor-Leste Government, 2011). The now outdated report by the World Tourism Organisation (2007) suggests that “Timor-Leste is not competitive with similar tourism products in South East Asia” and that a process of “comparing the competitiveness of Timor-Leste’s tourism products with those of similarly destinations in South East Asia and the Pacific Islands region” should be conducted (United Nations Development Program, 2007, p.13, 14). However, the project did not proceed, leaving Timor-Leste without any understanding of its competitor markets.
Based on the stakeholder qualitative interviews and through further secondary research, this thesis has therefore created an analysis of the major competitors for Timor-Leste to understand the type of tourism and potential threat each competitive destination offers.
177
6.2.2.1 Competitive analysis
Stakeholders argued that Bali and neighbouring Indonesian islands provide the most significant competition to tourism in Timor-Leste. Bali is proximate to Australia and also offers beach-based activities, natural beauty and culture including Hindu heritage of temples, dance, and handicrafts (Chin et al., 2015). Tourism to the island is well developed with over four million visitors in 2015 and a growth of 15% from the previous year (Bali Government Tourism Office, 2016). Stakeholders suggested that Bali presents a significant threat to Timor-Leste given it is easier to reach, cheaper to visit and offers high quality hotels, restaurants and customer service. It also appeals to the Australian market, with 26% of its annual tourists - over one million - coming from Australia (Bali Government Tourism Office, 2016).
However, due to the continuous inflow of mass tourism, Bali is now exceeding its carrying capacity and suffering from increasing urbanization, growing amounts of traffic, issues with waste disposal and scarce water supply (Chin et al., 2015). Bali therefore offers a very different type of tourism to Timor-Leste and lacks appeal as an ‘unspoilt’ and ‘undiscovered’ nation, a strength of the Timor-Leste product as discussed in chapter 5.
While a potential competitive threat, Bali could also be seen as a potential source market for travellers to Timor-Leste. Data from Tourism Research Australia (2015) suggests that Bali is the most popular Asian destination for Australian travellers, representing over a quarter of all visits - nearly one million in total- from mid-2014 to mid-2015 (Tourism Research Australia, 2015). Given Bali is only one and a half hours by plane from Timor-Leste, the least expensive of all flights currently operating into Timor-Leste, and offers a distinct tourism product to Timor-Leste, Bali’s strong tourism numbers could be seen as an opportunity for Timor-Leste, as opposed to a threat. There is potential to market to Australians already in Bali to combine their holiday with a visit to Timor-Leste, or alternatively, to promote Timor-Leste as ‘a less developed Bali’, to those Australians looking for somewhere new and different.
It was argued that competition might potentially come from Pacific Island nations, such as Fiji, which also boast beaches, natural beauty and culture. Fiji hosted just over 750,000 tourists in 2015, of which 67% were from Australia and New Zealand (Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2016). On its website, Tourism Fiji, suggests its: “white sand beaches and pristine, crystal-clear ocean waters offer an ideal vacation destination for divers, honeymooners and families, or simply those looking to relax and get away from it all” (Tourism Fiji, 2016).
Fortunately for Timor-Leste, Fiji appears to be branded on its 3S attributes of sun, sea and sand and targeting a different market to ‘experience seekers’. Given Timor-Leste is proximate to Fiji
178 and the Pacific Islands, this further enforces the needs for its marketing strategy to diverge from traditional 3S and target those for whom tourism is no longer seen as an ‘escape’ as such, but rather a source of fulfillment (Lewis-Cameron and Roberts, 2010).
Stakeholders suggested that South East Asian nations, particularly those rich in history, such as post-conflict Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Myanmar could be seen as the most significant competition for Timor-Leste. Myanmar, for example, with its new slogan ‘Let the Journey Begin...’ (Myanmar Tourism, 2016) only opened its doors to tourists in 2010 after the 1996 boycott was lifted (Saurine, 2013). Growth in visitation has been rapid, with 4.2 million visitors in 2015, representing a 20% increase from the previous year (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism Myanmar, 2016). As respondent 36 explained: “Their government has responded by quickly developing a very sound sustainable tourism policy” (interview with author, Melbourne, February 2014).
Myanmar is similar to Timor-Leste in that it is both a ‘new’ and largely ‘undiscovered’ destination and a long period without tourism has ensured its beautiful beaches and unique cultural attractions have remained in ‘pristine condition’ (Murphy, 2015). Interestingly, a number of commentators argue that Myanmar is in a lucky position to learn from the experience of its near neighbours - for example Thailand - for which challenges with high tourists volumes has provided Myanmar the opportunity to deal with such issues in advance (Murphy, 2015).
While Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Myanmar all may pose significant competitive threat to Timor-Leste, they also provide possible learning opportunities for post-conflict recovery and the growth of tourism. As outlined in chapter 1, in 1999, Ximenes and Carter argued that Timor- Leste is also in a fortunate position, only now beginning to grow its tourism product and therefore able to learn from the successes and mistakes of other nations.
In post-conflict Cambodia, for example, the development of ‘cultural heritage’ tourism promised the restoration of identity, history, cultural sovereignty and national pride (Winter, 2008). However as the number of conservation projects and annual visitor numbers continue to grow, Winter (2008) argues that social consequences have been far-reaching and tourism has threatened inter-generational traditions and contributed to wealth inequality.
Similarly in the case of post-conflict Sri Lanka, Buultjens et al. (2015) contend that a number of the post-conflict tourism initiatives appear to be discriminatory and that large-scale tourism developments in Sri Lanka are often at the expense of livelihoods in other sectors of the economy, resulting in increasing inequality and less economic diversity. As outlined throughout this thesis, it is hoped a burgeoning Timor-Leste tourism industry will create jobs, build businesses, create income for national and local economics, improve regional economic 179 imbalances (Timor-Leste Government, 2011) and reduce poverty (Araújo, 2015); however lessons from its near-neighbours suggest such success through tourism is not guaranteed.
While growing a sustainable tourism industry is not the focus of this thesis, this discussion suggests that further research could be undertaken into Timor-Leste’s competitor markets to better understand the learnings and mistakes of its neighbouring Asian nations. This could in turn help guide sustainable tourism development in Timor-Leste.
Overall, stakeholders were not concerned about the competitive threat posed by other post- conflict Asian nations. Many were optimistic that given Timor-Leste’s unique features, such as fascinating culture, unique history and Catholic heritage, it could offer a distinct tourism product from its neighbouring destinations.
We don’t need to worry about competing with Bali or Fiji, or anywhere, the only thing we need to worry about is being the best Timor we can be. Because we already have something unique to the world.
(Respondent 44, interview with author, Dili, October 2014)
Of concern to the majority of stakeholders was in fact retaining the uniqueness of Timor- Leste’s culture and destination attributes after an influx of western tourists. As outlined in chapter 5, from a branding perspective, it is essential for a destination to strengthen its identity, rather than erase it (Konecnik and Go, 2008). While well managed tourism can help celebrate cultural traditions and artefacts (Dutra et al., 2011) if poorly managed, tourism can see cultural sites adapted solely for visitors, leading to the sacrifice of what made them unique originally (Lichrou et al., 2010).
It’s very important we maintain the uniqueness of Timor. If it’s just another Bali, they can forget it.
(Respondent 21, interview with author, Dili, December 2013)
We will not compete with the others. There’s no competition. We will not become a country like Singapore or like Bali. We want to become Timorese so people know us as Timorese. This is unique. If its like Singapore, they just go to Singapore. If Timor is like Bali, we just got to Kuta.
(Respondent 22, interview with author, Aileu, December 2013)
180
Therefore stakeholders urged that it was essential Timor-Leste’s unique attributes were marketed as part of the destination strategy. This was seen as important not only to establish a unique position, but also to ensure the cultural uniqueness of Timor-Leste is retained.
6.2.3 Positioning statement
As outlined throughout this chapter, to create an advantageous position over its rivals, a destination must articulate its unique local assets and develop messages supported by its stakeholders (Apostolakis et al., 2015). Therefore, following the selection of a suitable target market and an assessment of Timor-Leste’s closest competition, a stakeholder workshop was held to better understand the unique attributes of Timor-Leste and collaboratively develop its brand position.
Stakeholders argued that the history of Timor-Leste is like no other nation. As outlined in chapter 5, it is not only the nation’s history, but also the history of resilience that makes Timor-Leste special.
Any destination of similar geography has the sea, the mountains, but what is unique is the spirit. The cosmology, the history, the struggle. Even the things that don’t go well in life. And it covers the faith. And the feistiness and the resilience. They’re all spirits.
(Respondent 16, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
It was also suggested that Timor-Leste is unique through its undeveloped tourism product, which has yet to be ‘packaged’ or ‘commodified’ for tourist consumption. Indeed there is an increasing shortage of island destinations that are naturally beautiful, historically interesting, yet not suffering from overdevelopment or ‘tourism overkill’ (Tourtellot, 2007).
What’s great about Timor is it’s not a tourist destination; it’s a travellers’ experience.
(Respondent 26, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
That’s part of Timor’s uniqueness and it’s brand. The realness. It’s not a tourism product, its just a place and a people.
(Respondent 21, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
181
Stakeholders contended that positioning Timor-Leste as an ‘unspoilt’, ’undiscovered’ and ‘resilient’ nation will have a number of advantages. Firstly, such a position will fit well with the Australian target market. As outlined in Section 6.2.1.1, Australians already enjoy the type of tourism Timor-Leste offers (Rajalingam, 2014), which is at present still rugged and raw. Secondly, positioning Timor-Leste on such attributes also allows the nation to promote its tourism product honestly and fairly, which was outlined in chapter 4 as an important consideration for branding.
I mean it is a developing nation and I think we shouldn’t try and hide that. We shouldn’t say ‘we’re developed, everything is good’. We should say ‘this is what we are, we are developing, and come and see us for what we are’.
(Respondent 40, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
Third, marketing Timor-Leste on its unspoilt, undiscovered and having unique historic attributes also sets the nation apart from its potential competitors. Timor-Leste welcomed 48,986 visitors in 2014, however the Asia Foundation survey estimated that of those travelling on a tourist visa in Timor-Leste in 2014, only 17% were genuine leisure tourists. This figure is dwarfed by Vietnam at 7,943,651 (Vietnam National Administration of Tourism, 2016) and Cambodia at 4,775,231 (Tourism Cambodia, 2016) and confirms that Timor-Leste is still an undiscovered destination.
Further, while neighbouring Asian nations all boast a fascinating heritage, none share the same historical story as Timor-Leste. This is particularly pertinent when marketing to an Australian audience, which, as outlined in section 6.2.1.1, shares a history through the Second World War, occupation and current era of development. As Callahan (2011) argues, the two nation’s histories are ‘inextricably linked’.
Brand New Zealand, through their highly successful ‘100% pure’ campaign, defines their position simply as: ‘an adventurous new land and an adventurous new culture on the edge of the Pacific Ocean’ (Tourism New Zealand Trade, 2015). Therefore, using this as a guide and based on the stakeholder workshops, a position statement was developed as: Timor-Leste is not a tourism product; it’s just a place and a people. Stakeholders argued this statement succinctly captures the unique appeal of Timor-Leste as a destination and is well-targeted to the Australian, experience- seeking market.
Tasci and Holecek (2007) suggest that alongside development of a destination’s functional and symbolic characteristics, a brand position is essential to maintain a distinctive place in the market. Through the development of Timor-Leste’s brand position, the brand can convey the
182 relevant information to its target audience (Shams, 2016), stand out from its competition (Lee et al., 2006) and showcase its originality and uniqueness (Ashton, 2015) as a destination. Combing the brand position with Timor-Leste’s tangible and intangible attributes allows for an understanding of the 3Ps and enables the establishment of a ‘sense of place’ for Timor-Leste.
6.3. CREATING THE BRAND IDENTITY
This section analyses the process of creating a brand identity for the nation of Timor- Leste. As argued throughout this thesis, it is essential the development of a destination brand adhere to a coherent theoretical framework (Konecnik and Go, 2008). However as numerous authors assert, see for example Divandari et al. (2014), Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony (2013) and Morgan and Pritchard (2014), such a framework for brand building is lacking. Further, there is a dearth of studies that articulate a theoretical framework for rebranding an unattractive nation brand (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012). In developing a framework for branding Timor-Leste, which is outlined in chapter 3, this thesis therefore provides a significant contribution to the academic literature on branding emerging and post-conflict nations.
In undertaking a stakeholder-led approach to destination brand building, this thesis also has implications for an inclusive and participatory approach to the branding of emerging and post-conflict nations. In order to avert potential risks prevalent in a destination branding strategy, Dinnie et al. (2010) suggest that coordination needs to occur both within government organisations and between the government, the private sector and NGO stakeholders. Ultimately, brands succeed when internal stakeholders develop ownership and are motivated to ‘live’ the brand’s culture as part of their daily lives (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012).
Further, if destination marketing is not developed internally, tour operators in the ‘first world’ may develop their own image of the nation to promote. As discussed in chapter 2, the depiction of ‘third world’ destinations in tourism marketing, if developed by Western societies, can become stereotypical and reminiscent of a colonial attitude towards the developing world (Kokkranikal et al., 2011). It is imperative, therefore, that marketing does come from within Timor-Leste to take control of the nation’s image and the type of tourism and tourists it hopes to attract.
This section outlines the process of stakeholder-led approach to brand development for Timor- Leste, looking firstly at the development of a brand strategy, followed by an analysis of how the
183
3Ps, established both in this chapter and chapter 5, can be visually depicted. This section concludes with the development of a final ‘mock’ brand for Timor-Leste and a critique of how destination branding techniques have been successfully applied to the destination.
6.3.1 Brand strategy
In creating a destination brand, Liyanag and Jayawardena (2013) suggest marketers should firstly ascertain whether it is a ‘product’ or ‘perception’ related problem that needs to be resolved. While a ‘product’ problem requires extensive work ‘on the ground’, a perception-related problem can in fact be resolved through marketing and communication (Liyanag and Jayawardena, 2013). In a similar vein, Avraham and Ketter (2013) contend that when changing a negative country perception, there is a difference between a ‘cosmetic’ and a ‘strategic’ approach. The cosmetic approach looks to change perceptions without altering the destination’s reality, whereas the strategic approach deals with both image and reality (Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
In deciding which strategy best suits a particular destination, Avraham and Ketter (2013) suggest that if a destination’s ‘product’ is basically sound and the negative image is based on stereotypes or historical factors, then the cosmetic approach will be most appropriate.
In the case of Timor-Leste, Former President Ramos-Horta suggests it is the nation’s negative international perception that continues to harm the country and impede tourism growth (Ramos-Horta, 2015). Similarly, stakeholders contended that Timor- Leste’s negative image is based on past unrest and the idea it is a ‘dangerous place’, is due to press and travel advisory warnings (Carlos and Carlos, 2011) as opposed to the current reality.
I think people see the country in the way its been portrayed by the media, that its dangerous, there’s conflict and civil unrest. It was at one point but it’s not that way anymore.
(Respondent 53, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
The first thing people say to you is ‘Is it safe’. The UN has been here. Because they don’t see anything on TV anymore about East Timor- the images they did see are impregnated into their brain about blood and guts and military and police from all over the world. So they need to do re-education of the public and some branding.
184
(Respondent 8, interview with author, Dili, November 2013)
Therefore, it appears Timor-Leste requires a cosmetic solution due to what Liyanag and Jayawardena (2013) term a ‘perception’ as opposed to a ‘product’ problem.
Within a cosmetic approach Avraham and Ketter (2013) suggest marketers can attempt to change the negative image through a number of varied strategies, including anything from simply ignoring the negative stereotype, to acknowledging it, to even ridiculing it. For example Israel’s ‘It’s still safe to come’ campaign was distributed to American students on condom wrappers in an attempt to illustrate how ridiculous the stereotype of it being ‘a dangerous place’ had become (Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
In adopting Avraham and Ketter’s (2013) approach, this thesis chose three potential cosmetic branding strategies to present at the stakeholder workshops to elicit debate and discussion. The three strategies included: 1) Acknowledging a negative destination image, 2) Delivering a counter-message to the negative destination stereotype, and 3) Spinning negative characteristics to positive.
The first potential strategy, acknowledging a negative destination image, is the most honest in its approach which admits that a destination may have had problems, for example that it may have been unsafe, but is now ready for tourism (Avraham and Ketter, 2013). In the case of post-conflict Colombia, for example, where the impact of violence and poor security had long harmed its tourism potential (Fletcher, 2011), the nation launched a new advertising campaign in 2008 with the slogan: ‘Colombia, the only risk is wanting to stay’. The campaign acknowledged the risk perception yet assured visitors that it was now a safe destination, allow potential tourists to feel ‘a valued sense of exhilaration without debilitating fear’ (Fletcher, 2011).
For Timor-Leste, adopting this strategy could involve acknowledging the perception of conflict and unrest as part of the brand concept, but ensuring the message clearly articulates that the danger has now abated.
Delivering a counter-message, by contrast, aims to balance a destination’s negative image by delivering a campaign that presents quite the opposite (Avraham and Ketter, 2013). For example, the success of the Incredible India campaign, launched in 2002, is often attributed to how it helped change the perception of India a developing nation with significant ‘poverty problems’ to an emerging tourism destination with contemporary values (Hannam and Diekmann, 2011). Instead of alluding to poverty, or any lack of safety
185 to hygiene, the campaign presented the positive elements of the nation - exotic images of architecture, people and landscapes (Kerrigan et al., 2012).
If this strategy is employed for Timor-Leste, this could mean avoiding the perception of safety or poverty altogether and instead adopting a brand that focuses on the nation’s positive traits such as its natural beauty, culture and history, as discussed in chapter 5.
The third potential strategy is what Avraham and Ketter (2013) term ‘spinning negative characteristics to positive’. South Korea, for example, which had little tourism and a weak image, particularly compared to more popular destinations including neighbouring Japan or Thailand, adopted the slogan: ‘South Korea- Asia’s best kept secret’ (Avraham and Ketter, 2007). Belize, by contrast, which is often overlooked for Mexico or Costa Rica, chose: ‘mother nature’s best kept secret’ (Belize Tourism Board, 2012). Post-conflict Montenegro adopted the slogan: ‘Wild Beauty’, which embraced its wild terrain and suggested a sense of ‘discovery’ in a nation where residents still outnumbered foreign tourists (Vitic and Ringer, 2008). Finally, Yemen launched the slogan: ‘Land of Mystery and Adventure’ to spin the insecurity and fear of the country into an asset of adventure (Avraham, 2015).
For Timor-Leste, this type of brand strategy could feed into the nation’s strengths, as being unexplored and undiscovered, alongside its personality traits of ‘raw’ and ‘intriguing’. In doing so, it could also capitalise on its potential weakness including its basic infrastructure, difficult access and few tourists.
Overall, it was argued that this third strategy, spinning the negative into a positive, could prove the most successful for Timor-Leste. Given Timor-Leste has not been conflict- ridden for well over a decade, stakeholders were eager to disassociate the country from a post-conflict message. The Director of Marketing stipulated:
Our marketing vision is that we will be different to the image of peacekeeping. It is important Timor-Leste is represented as safe, peaceful and welcoming.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Dili, March 2015)
At the same time, stakeholders were also wary to simply ignore Timor-Leste’s potential weaknesses and just promote the positives.
186
We should be realistic. It’s hard in marketing, you don’t want to be negative. Not negative, but honest. Experienced people can see through campaigns. You do get a lot of campaigns that aren’t honest, and people see through it.
(Respondent 26, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
It was suggested that by spinning the potential negatives into a positive, Timor-Leste could not only be honest about its current situation but at the same time hope to attract a market looking for a destination that is raw, real and intrepid.
6.3.2 Depicting a sense of place
Once a brand strategy is developed it is important the destination’s essence, essentially the embodiment of its tangible and intangible attributes, be conveyed through the use of visual cues (Tasci and Gartner, 2007, Campo and Alvarez, 2014). Indeed, the designing of a slogan, logo and visual language is one of the key components of successful branding (Santos and Campo, 2014).
A common mistake in destination branding is assigning a logo and slogan to a destination without taking a holistic marketing approach (Santos and Campo, 2014). As already discussed, it is the presence of emotional and functional value that differentiates a brand from just a logo or slogan (de Chernatony, 2006). Therefore, for a brand’s visual communication to truly appeal to consumers and the competitive marketplace, it should reflect the local community and be based on the differentiated attributes and distinct characteristics of the destination (Santos and Campo, 2014). A brand which is based on the symbolic and emotional benefits of a destination will be better able to capture tourists’ attention (Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou, 2015).
With the functional and emotional benefits of Timor-Leste as a destination already established through articulation of the 3Ps, the final stage in the branding process is therefore the creation of a slogan and associated brand imagery to essentially bring the concept into being.
Zouganeli et al. (2012) suggest that local stakeholders can contribute to creating destination characteristics by giving the exact words, colours and images that express the identity or essence of a destination. Therefore this section looks at the stakeholder response to developing a logo and slogan for brand Timor-Leste in order to visually depict the essence of the destination and ‘sense of place’.
187
6.3.2.1 Images and logo
Stakeholders contended that Timor-Leste’s cultural and historic traits are important in the brand’s visual communication. These include the uma-lulik otherwise known as the sacred house, which for many Timorese is a vital component of their identity (Fox, 2011). Others named the lere crown, a traditional headpiece known as the kaibuak, alongside the traditional Manu Fulun headpiece characterised by rooster feathers and worn on important occasions (East Timor Now, 2016). It was also suggested that tais, Timor-Leste’s traditional weaving, could be included in the brand imagery.
However, some respondents questioned the use of traditional symbols claiming they may not be relevant or enticing to potential tourists who know little about Timor-Leste. Ultimately, a destination brand is attempting to capture the attention and form a deep and lasting relationships with potential consumers (Santos and Campo, 2014). Therefore, while stakeholder consultation is essential, stakeholders cautioned that the Timorese community is not the end- user of a Timor-Leste destination brand.
Similarly, a number of local stakeholders argued that crocodiles are an important part of Timor- Leste’s creation myth and could be included in the logo. However, with numerous crocodile fatalities on Timor-Leste’s beaches each year (CrocBite, 2016), such a symbol may provide a deterrent as opposed to a promotional tool for Timor-Leste.
Timor is identified with crocodiles, but a bad thing with crocodiles, it makes people scared to come to Timor! They think about the bad stories. Like the croc dive centre – no way!
(Respondent 2, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
This discussion supports Ryan & Silvanto's (2010) contention that destination marketers have the difficult task of reconciling stakeholders interests to promote tourism in a manner that is acceptable to a wide range of public and private sector constituencies. At the same time, as Ashton (2015) argues, during the collaboration process of brand development stakeholders can gain knowledge and understanding of a destination’s issues through active collaboration and communication. Destinations need to develop a message to be supported by, and relevant to, all stakeholders (Apostolakis et al., 2015), thus the process while time intensive, was also necessary and valuable.
The consensus among stakeholders was that the imagery should depict the beauty of the Timor- Leste ‘product’ and capture the emotion of its ‘personality’. Throughout the stakeholder
188 workshops, ideas around the depiction of Timor-Leste’s tangible and intangible tourism assets emerged.
For me it’s a mix of smiling faces and cultural places. I’d like to see people in landscapes - to show that it’s both beautiful and welcoming. It’s the idea of just an encounter, with the lovely building behind.
(Respondent 32, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
Diving or snorkelling off the reef, and the vibrant colours; watching the sunset come up over Ramelau; joking with some people down at the market, over really bright coloured tropical fruits; sitting on an old Portuguese building with some cool, local Timorese.
(Respondent 40, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
6.3.2.2 Slogan
Alongside the imagery and visual language, Keller (2003) claims that one of the most powerful elements of a brand is its slogan. Slogans play a crucial role in branding as they provide an easy ‘hook’ or ‘handle’ to help consumers grasp the essence of the campaign (Lee et al., 2006). Lee et al. (2006) further argue that slogans are among the easiest brand elements to manage with flexibility and are important in raising awareness and building the image of a destination. Based on the brand strategy, as outlined in section 6.3.1, stakeholders suggested the slogan must be underpinned by the strategy of ‘spinning a negative into a positive’.
During the stakeholder workshops, many spoke about the term ‘discover’ as being important for the marketing campaign.
We can say: ‘Discover me’ or something similar. Because, we want to become an everlasting vision. The message we want is: if you come, catch me if you can.
(Respondent 22, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
However, as outlined in chapter 1, a previous slogan developed soon after independence had read: ‘Timor-Leste: Land of Discovery’ and thus it was deemed that ‘discovery’ was now an old term. As stakeholder 35 argued: “We’re not ‘Land of Discovery’ anymore. Explore Timor-Leste is now more the thing; I think we’ve found it on the map now!” (focus group 1, Dili, March 2014).
189
A potential slogan was developed as: ‘Explore the Undiscovered’. Stakeholders argued this slogan captured the brand strategy of spinning a positive into a negative and depicted the strengths of the nation in comparison to its competitions. Another popular suggestion was: ‘Timor-Leste: More than a Holiday’, which builds upon Timor-Leste’s lack of development and current nation building project. Given the nation experiences limited tourism, the slogan suggests that a holiday to Timor-Leste may benefit to the nation and as well as offer a more genuine, local experience.
A third popular suggestion was: ‘Come see us as we are’. This slogan rests on both the cultural and undeveloped nature of Timor-Leste, admitting the destination is still raw, intrepid and does not offer first-class infrastructure or hospitality. At the same time, it suggests a travel experience that is not packaged or commodified, which is well targeted to the ‘experience seeking’ market.
A popular vote rendered: ‘Come see us as we are…’ as the chosen slogan for the mock brand campaign. While the majority of stakeholders embraced the slogan as their own, two local stakeholders raised concerns.
Come see us as we are… Who is ‘us’? We are different to what we were. How do we capture what has changed already? How do we capture where we are going?
(Respondent 11, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014)
Although the slogan is well targeted to Timor-Leste’s market, brand position and captures its tourism product and intangible ‘personality’, it could also be seen as reminiscent of a colonial attitude towards tourism. As outlined in chapter 2, the promotion of developing destinations can often present stereotypical images of a “static, timeless and unchanging Third World” (Morgan and Pritchard, 1998, p. 169, 242). Tourism then becomes a quest for ‘otherness’ and it is for their difference that local people are seen as attractive to potential tourists (Olsen, 2008). The slogan ‘Come see us as we are…’ could be seen to dichotomise the local inhabitants of Timor-Leste from potential western tourists and imply they are a spectacle ‘to be seen’.
Further, Olsen (2008) argues in any nation of conquered and conqueror, marketing promotion for tourism can see ‘less developed’ peoples become fixed in a timeless present as opposed to modernity. This is a similar concept to Echtner and Prasad’s (2003) ‘myth of the unchanged’, where developing destinations are seen as ‘ripe for discovery’ and modern day tourists can relive the journeys and experiences of colonial explorers. This colonial paradigm was articulated by a local stakeholder when he asked: “How do we capture where we are going?” (focus group 1, Dili, March 2014).
190
While Timorese are still largely agricultural people, with 63% of households engaged in agriculture production and 80% rearing livestock (Ministry of Finance, 2010) the nation is moving towards modernity and does not necessarily want to base its future on its ‘timeless present’. As respondent 3 had suggested in an earlier interview: “This is not a theme park, it’s a country, and Timorese people have a right to modernity” (interview with author, Dili, November 2013).
Therefore, the researcher proposed to stakeholders that the slogan was potentially reinforcing a colonial paradigm, which the nation may wish to avoid. Alternate suggestions therefore included: ‘Come meet us as we are…’ of ‘Come visit us as we are…’ to indicate a more mutually beneficial relationship and remove the idea of the Timorese people being ‘on display’ to western tourists.
However, despite the objections, it was agreed by the stakeholder contingent, that the slogan should remain for the mock brand concept. The Director of Marketing argued:
It is so hard to sum up the whole of Timor-Leste in a ‘buzz’ slogan; in one sentence… but if I had to, I would say: ‘Come and see us as we are’.
(Respondent 5, interview with author, Dili, March 2014)
Konecnik and Go (2008) argue that while ‘the arena’ for destination brand identity building is usually driven by political interests, the brand content should still satisfy a broad range of stakeholders. For Timor-Leste, it became apparent that 100% consensus on a single slogan would be unlikely. Daye (2010) suggests that effective destination branding may be elusive if efforts to gain consensus are futile. Therefore, while it was therefore necessary to allow the Director of Marketing to make the final decision, as informed by the popular choice of the stakeholder contingent, it was agreed the slogan would be reassessed as the brand strategy developed.
6.3.3. Final brand
A final brand was developed by the researcher and presented to the stakeholder contingent in July 2015. The brand concept encompassed the ‘sense of place’ and represented the functional and emotional benefits of Timor-Leste as a destination. It was targeted to ‘experience seeking’ Australians, of any age, and represented the image suggestions and slogan of Timor-Leste’s tourism stakeholders. Given it had been community led from its inception, the brand was well received by all stakeholders.
191
It’s a powerful brand – you could put music to it; make it like poetry. It’ s got everything in it. It really captures the essence of this country.
(Respondent 45, focus group 2, Dili, July 2015)
The establishment of a mock brand concept allowed for the brand to be tested on a consumer audience, as will be discussed in the following chapter. The brand presentation, developed by the author, can be found in Appendix 3.
6.4. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has articulated a ‘sense of place’, through the development of a brand personality and position for Timor-Leste. In following the brand building framework developed by the author in chapter 3, this chapter has developed an empirically-researched and stakeholder-led destination brand for Timor-Leste.
An understanding of the nation’s intangible attributes, through its personality, has enabled the Timor-Leste brand to depict more than just tangible attributes. These emotional values have been interspersed with the product analysis of chapter 5, such that the character of Timor-Leste and the resilience of its past can become part of its brand.
In creating a destination brand personality, as opposed to measuring an existing destination personality, this thesis has also provided insight to other post-conflict and emerging nations looks to develop or refine a brand personality. This work diverges from the majority of studies, based on J.Aaker’s (1997) model (Pereira et al. 2015) and creates its own methodology for developing a brand personality. In doing so, it supports the work of Zouganeli et al. (2012) and argues that asking residents to describe the destination as if it were a person is a useful tool for destination marketers to gain a deeper insight into the attributes and meanings associated with a place.
In creating a brand position for Timor-Leste, this chapter followed Tasci and Holecek's (2007) approach. It found the first step in effective positioning is assessing the strengths, weaknesses and distinctive competencies in the minds of a destination’s target market and then comparing these to its competitor destinations.
An analysis of Timor-Leste’s potential target markets found that Australian ‘experience seeking’ travellers, of any age, are at present the best market for Timor-Leste. While Timor-Leste has a competitive threat from Bali, Fiji and other post-conflict Asian nations, stakeholders argued that 192 their destination is unique. They contended that Timor-Leste must portray these unique attributes, to both attract tourists and preserve their cultural and historic identity, supporting Morgan et al.’s (2003) contention that the need for destinations to portray a unique identity is more critical than ever.
Following an analysis of the target markets and competitors, an inclusive stakeholder workshop sought to develop a brand positioning statement for Timor-Leste. The chosen statement depicted Timor-Leste as an ‘undiscovered’, ‘unspoilt’ and ‘resilient’ destination; traits which stand Timor-Leste apart from its competition and appeal to its target market.
In the final part of this chapter, the 3Ps were ‘brought into being’ through the creation of a brand strategy, imagery and a slogan. Following Avraham and Ketter's (2013) approach, the idea of a ‘spinning the negatives into a positive’ was selected by stakeholders as the most valuable strategy to underpin the brand. The slogan ‘come see us as we are…’ was chosen by the stakeholder contingent.
The focus groups found that while the chosen slogan successfully turned Timor-Leste’s potential weaknesses, of being undeveloped and lacking infrastructure, into a positive traits for ‘experience seeking’ tourists wanting ‘raw’ and ‘real’ travel experience, it also reinforced a colonial paradigm. The debate supports the idea that destination branding is a far more complex process than product branding (Ruzzier, 2012, Morgan et al., 2003) given the size and diversity of stakeholders that are part of any destination (Konecnik and Go, 2008, Cai, 2009, Ruzzier, 2012). Destination branding is also complicated by the risk of undermining a destination’s sense of place and commodifying ‘nationhood’ (Morgan et al., 2003).
This chapter concluded with the development of a final mock brand concept, developed by the author, which was presented to the stakeholder contingent and was exceptionally well received. In taking a ‘participatory’ approach and positioning the branding process as an ongoing also between tourism stakeholders (Kalandides et al. 2013), this thesis therefore makes an important academic contribution to a stakeholder-led process for branding.
Further, this chapter contributes to the academic discourse on the process of brand development. As outlined in chapter 2, it is argued that the field of destination branding remains in its infancy (Lee et al, 2006, Pike, 2009a, Ruzzier, 2012, Morgan and Pritchard, 2014, Jiang et. al, 2015) and there are limited studies that articulate a theoretical framework for rebranding an unattractive nation brand. (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012). An important academic contribution of this study therefore lies in its methodological innovation. For other emerging and post-conflict nations wishing to develop a destination brand personality, position or brand concept, this 193 chapter provides an academic application of branding methodologies on the real-life case of Timor-Leste. In doing so, it has contributed to academic discourse of the process of ‘best practice’ branding.
This chapter also has practical implications for the government of Timor-Leste. As discussed in chapter 1, ‘branding’ Timor-Leste as an unspoilt boutique tourist destination, along with “implementing an integrated marketing, advertising and public relations strategy” (Timor-Leste Government, 2011, p.149) is outlined as a priority in the country’s Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030. Therefore, in developing the nation’s first brand personality, position and brand, this thesis provides important and useful insights for the government of Timor-Leste in their quest to overcome the nation’s negative international perception and grow tourism.
194
Chapter 7: DESTINATION IMAGE ANALYSIS
This chapter analyses the image of Timor-Leste, looking at respondent’s perception of the country both before and after viewing the mock destination brand. This chapter takes the position that assessing a destination’s image is vital in helping a nation design effective positioning strategies to create, correct, or enhance target travellers’ image of place (Noh and Vogt, 2013). Image is a key component of travellers’ choice of destination, given foreign visitors have limited knowledge of destinations they have not previously visited (Jeong et al., 2012). A positive destination image can make the difference between success and failure of destinations (Tavitiyaman and Qu, 2013). Thus it is considered essential for destinations to understand and manage the perceptions that impact upon their image (Quintal et al., 2014).
The primary data that informs this chapter is derived from the qualitative consumer research, as outlined chapter 3. A survey population of 316 respondents, drawn from Timor-Leste’s target market – Australians who had never visited the destination – was interviewed through a qualitative, online survey. The survey ascertained respondent’s ‘organic’ or current image of Timor-Leste and then their induced image following exposure to the destination brand (see Appendix 3).
Significant practical and theoretical contributions are developed in this chapter. From a theoretical perspective, as this thesis has outlined, destination image is one of the most frequently researched constructs within the tourism literature (Tkaczynski et al., 2015), however to date no single approach has been accepted for studying the concept (Gudlaugsson and Magnússon, 2012). Studies on destination image are criticised for lacking a conceptual framework (Nandonde, 2015), and at present there is little agreement on how to assess and measure perceptions of destination image (Pratt, 2013).
This thesis adopts a qualitative approach, which is to date under-utilised in image measurement studies, given most are based on structured methods (Prebensen, 2007, Echtner and Richie 2003). Further, most destination image studies have been performed in-country with the test market having already had experience with the destination (Prebensen, 2007). This study therefore contributes to research on measuring the image of ‘non-visitors’.
Furthermore, this thesis diverges from the traditional literature on measuring destination image in that it measures a change in image perceptions among the same sample population following exposure to marketing materials. Ji and Wall (2015) argue that very few researchers have investigated the relationships between a destination’s projected and perceived images. Similarly,
195
Cai (2009) argues that the study of destination branding could benefit from greater analysis of the image perceived by tourists compared to the image projected by a country.
To date there is also limited research on destination image in developing nations (Nandonde, 2015). For those nations suffering from a negative international perception, it is argued the current literature makes very little use of models and theoretical knowledge from the field of crises communication and image restoration (Avraham, 2015). Therefore, in studying the image of a developing nation, currently struggling with a post-conflict image, this work helps fill this research gap.
For the government of Timor-Leste, this chapter provides the first practical insight into its current image in the marketplace. As Prebensen (2007) argues, for a nation to become successful as a tourist destination, it is important to first recognise tourists’ perceived image of that nation. This chapter also provides an understanding of Timor-Leste’s potential induced image, following exposure to the proposed brand, and the possible change in image if the nation were to develop a coordinated marketing strategy. In analysing the components of Timor-Leste’s induced image, this chapter also provides insight into the relevance of its mock destination brand. The extent to which the induced image reflects the 3Ps is suggestive of the success of the brand in articulating the ‘sense of place’, as developed by the nation’s stakeholders.
This chapter commences with an analysis of Timor-Leste’s ‘pre-brand’ image, which includes an understanding of the destination awareness within its target audience, its organic image and the intent of its target market to visit. This discussion is followed by an analysis of Timor-Leste’s image ‘post-brand’, which assesses its induced image and any change in the intent of its target market to visit the nation. The chapter concludes with an articulation of the main research findings and suggestions for application of this thesis to other emerging and post-conflict nations.
7.1. PRE-BRAND IMAGE
It is widely felt that Timor-Leste suffers from a negative image (Ramos-Horta, 2015) which is reflected in the current DFAT travel warning, which urges Australians to ‘exercise a high degree of caution... because of the uncertain security situation’ (smartraveller.gov.au, 2015). This is not uncommon for post-conflict nations, given destination image can be affected by negative stereotypes that are reinforced by sensationalised media coverage (Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
196
However, while the ‘negative image’ of Timor-Leste is frequently discussed, it has never been empirically tested. Therefore, before developing a destination brand, it is important a thorough understanding of a destination’s image is obtained and any negative reputation is fully researched and understood (Anholt, 2009).
Understanding the nation's current image can serve as a benchmark by which to measure a change in image, following exposure to the proposed destination brand. Assessing destination image is crucial for marketers, not only to assess how tourists currently view the destination but to then develop and implement marketing action to modify the image if required (Dolnicar and Grun, 2013). Therefore, understanding Timor-Leste’s organic image allows for a better assessment of the change reflected in an induced image, and through that, the effectiveness of the proposed destination brand in altering the image of potential tourists towards Timor-Leste.
In order to assess the impact of Timor-Leste’s image on tourism, it is also important to understand the current intent of Timor-Leste’s target market to visit the destination. ‘Intent to visit’ is directly related to image, given visitors holding a positive image of a particular destination are more likely to visit (Noh and Vogt, 2013). As Rodríguez-Molina et al. (2015) suggest, given holidays are intangible products that cannot be fully evaluated beforehand, image plays a major role in choice of travel destination. An assessment of the current intent to visit Timor-Leste therefore provides insight into the impact of its image.
This section looks firstly at the awareness of Timor-Leste as a nation, followed by an assessment of its organic image. It then undertakes an assessment of Timor-Leste’s target market’s intent to visit the destination, analysing the reasoning behind the statistics to better understand the implications of its current image in the marketplace. This section concludes with a discussion of the key findings and the implications for image management and measurement in other emerging and post-conflict nations.
7.1.1 Awareness
Of the survey population of 316, a total of nine respondents, representing 3% of the sample, indicated they had never heard of the country Timor-Leste or East Timor. This was a surprising result for a country located only 640km northwest of Darwin (CIA, 2016). Of these respondents, eight were aged under 35 and one over 35.
One possible explanation for this statistic is that some respondents in the under 35s category may have been too young during 1999 to witness the continued coverage of Timor-Leste in the 197
Australian media. It has been argued that the media often act as intermediaries and generate a destination's image to outside audiences (Wise and Mulec, 2012). Given there has been limited coverage or promotion of Timor-Leste since 1999, this may at least in part explain why a few of the younger respondents have no knowledge of the country.
These findings however indicate that as a nation, Timor-Leste is not well known. It further suggests, as outlined in chapter 1, that with limited destination marketing and promotion, Timor- Leste has not been able to build a strong image in Australians’ minds.
7.1.2. Organic image
A nation or destination’s ‘organic image’ is an image based on non-commercial, social, and advisory sources (Michaelidou et al., 2013) such as the media, books and schooling (Jeong et al., 2012). As outlined in chapter 3, the organic image of Timor-Leste was measured by asking respondents the first three things that came to mind when they thought of the country. A total of 897 responses were received for this question, which were analysed by two key methods; firstly, through the use of a wordcloud, developed in the online tool ‘wordle’, and secondly, through a thematic content analysis of key terms.
The word-cloud, see Figure 11, found that ‘war’, ‘Indonesia’ and ‘poverty’ were the three terms most commonly mentioned by respondents, followed closely by ‘Australian’ ‘unrest’, ‘independence’ and ‘conflict’. Similarly, the content analysis found that ‘conflict-related’ terms amounted to 37% of all responses, suggesting that a negative perception of unrest is still prominent in Australians’ image of Timor-Leste. As outlined throughout this thesis, events such as terror attacks, civil war and political instability can significantly damage a destination’s image (Avraham, 2015). It can be then very difficult for post-war countries to overcome the continued presence of negative images such as conflict and uncertainty (Wise and Mulec, 2012), which, given the prevalence of terms relating to war, conflict and unrest, appears to be the case for Timor-Leste.
198
Figure 11: Word cloud representation of the organic image of Timor-Leste, developed by the author.
The content analysis allowed the data to be assessed by demographics, to better understand if the image of Timor-Leste is affected by age, gender or frequency of travel and to provide useful insight into the potential target markets for Timor-Leste – see Table 10. A demographic analysis was deemed important, given, as Deng and Li (2013) suggest, a potential tourist’s image of a place is influenced by his or her own characteristics including sociodemographic background and travel motivation. The analysis, see Table 10, found the conflict theme to be most prevalent for those aged 35-55, at 44% of all responses, and less prevalent for those over 55, at only 30%.
199
Under 35s 35-55 Over 55s Overall
War, conflict, unsafe 38% 44% 30% 37%
Poverty, third world, 17% 19% 24% 20% developing
Facts: Portugal, Asia, 16% 18% 30% 21% Gusmao, Ramos-Horta
Tourism: beaches, island, 19% 16% 16% 17% friendly
Incorrect facts 3% 2% 0% 2%
Never heard 7% 1% 0% 3%
Table 11: Organic image of Timor-Leste by theme and respondent age (% of respondents in each age group, n = 316)
The content analysis found the image of Timor-Leste to be also heavily dominated by a theme of poverty, with the term itself mentioned frequently alongside similar terms such as poor, developing and third world totalling 20% of all responses. This is not surprising, given, as outlined throughout this work, Timor-Leste is still a developing country and ranked 133rd out of 188 countries in the most recent UNDP Human Development Index (UNDP, 2015).
Political figures, namely Jose Ramos-Horta and Xanana Gusmao, also rated highly in Australians’ image of Timor-Leste. Gusmao has been hailed as “a global symbol of the country’s fight for freedom” after his 17 years as a resistance fighter (Allard, 2015), while Ramos-Horta is credited with leading the country's campaign for independence and bringing Timor-Leste’s concerns to the attention of the United Nations (BBC News, 2008). While these names have been classified merely as ‘facts’, the frequency of their mention also further enforces the importance of the independence struggle in Australians’ image of Timor-Leste.
Australia, which has been classified under ‘facts’, was a common term mentioned by respondents, both for its role in the independence struggle and also the ongoing dispute over oil and gas reserves. A current dispute between Australia and Timor-Leste sees Australia claiming its maritime boundary treaties in the Timor Sea are ‘consistent with international law’ (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2016) while the government of Timor-Leste argues their nation is missing out on billions of dollars in revenue from offshore oil and gas fields (Doran and Lloyd, 2016). Respondents who named oil and gas generally held a less favourable image of their own nation, describing their image of Timor-Leste as: ‘Australia's unfair split of
200 oil/gas resources and royalties’ (over 55s, male) and ‘sold out by Australia over oil’ (over 55s, male).
A further 2% of respondents mentioned terms that were classified as factually incorrect. These included ‘terrorism’, ‘Islam’, ‘tuk tuks’, ‘monks’ and ‘temples’. This suggests this smaller percentage of respondents, although claiming to have heard of Timor-Leste, had the country confused with somewhere else. Combining these responses with those who had not heard of Timor-Leste, produces a total of 5% of respondents who do not know the country. The under 35s age group showed the lowest understanding of Timor-Leste as a nation, with 10% either mentioning factual incorrect information or having not heard of the nation. The over 55s hold the strongest understanding of the nation, with the highest mention of factual terms such as ‘Asia’ and ‘Portugal’ and no factually incorrect terms.
Terms that were classified as ‘tourism-related’ such as ‘friendly’, ‘beautiful’, ‘tropical’ and ‘beaches’ were not predominant, totalling only 17% of all responses. This finding suggests that at present, Timor-Leste is little known as a potential destination for tourism and that the perceived image of Timor-Leste is very different from its desired projected image.
7.1.3 Intent to visit
The image of a destination is a critical factor in tourists’ choice of where to travel, since it gives him or her a ‘pre-taste’ of the destination (Assaker, 2014). Since potential foreign visitors have limited knowledge of destinations they have not previously visited, they largely depend on their perceived image of a destination in making choices (Jeong et al., 2012).
Respondents were asked, based on their image of Timor-Leste, to suggest whether they had any interest in visiting the destination and to explain their reasoning. Overall, the intent to visit Timor-Leste was found to be low, with only 21% of respondents claiming to have considered Timor-Leste as a potential place for a holiday. Given the negative image depicted in the previous section, this suggests the country’s destination image has indeed had a negative effect on tourism. This is not surprising. The image of a destination is a critical factor in tourists’ choice of where to travel (Assaker, 2014) and many tourists are reluctant to visit countries they believe to be prone to political strife and internal problems (Ryan and Silvanto, 2010).
201
U35s 35-55 Over 55s Overall
Interested in 22% 16% 26% 21% visiting
Not interested 78% 84% 74% 79%
Table 12: Intent to visit Timor-Leste by respondent age (% of respondents in each age group, n = 316)
As Table 11 demonstrates, intent to visit was highest for the over 55s at 26% and markedly lower for those aged 35-55 at only 16%. Analysis of the data found that females had a slighter higher intent to visit than their male counterparts at 23% as opposed to 18%. For respondents who indicated travel of two or more times per year, intent to visit Timor-Leste was unsurprisingly higher, at 27%. The data was thematically analysed to find trends within participant response.
For the 21% of respondents who had considered Timor-Leste as a possible tourism destination, word of mouth recommendation was an overriding factor. Many respondents suggested they had a prior connection to Timor-Leste and the destination had therefore piqued their interest. As one respondent put it: “My university offer study tours which made me curious” (under 35, male), while another explained: “My parents have been there for AusAid work and said it was lovely (under 35, female). In the over 55s age bracket there were numerous mentions of friendship groups and volunteerism programs: “We are members of the Canberra Friends of Dili organisation and would like to go as volunteers to the country” (over 55, male).
Additional to word of mouth, respondents in the under 35s age bracket spoke with a sense of adventure about visiting a ‘new’ destination. One respondent suggested: “I love travel, especially in South East Asia, and want to go everywhere!” (under 35, female). The sense of enthusiasm in this age group fits well with the potential backpacker market identified as a target market in chapter 6. As outlined, young travellers are often eager for unique cultural experiences (Tourism Research and Marketing, 2013) and can be valuable in ‘opening up’ what was originally a non- tourist space (Brenner and Fricke, 2007), therefore making them an important market for a destination like Timor-Leste.
While there was more cautiousness in the 35-55 market, a number of respondents showed an understanding of the nation and its potential for tourism. “I am eager to hear that the nation is stable politically and it is safe to visit and admire its unspoilt beauty” (age 35-55, female).
202
However their desire to visit was markedly lower than the other two age groups, sitting at only 16%.
The over 55s age group, alongside a reliance on word of mouth, also spoke more broadly about contributing to Timor-Leste’s nation building project. As one respondent argued: “Because it's close to Australia and I've visited places further afield that need support from tourists to encourage the economy!” (over 55s, female). Another suggested: “Timor-Leste supported Australia in WW2 and we should do more to help” (over 55s, male), while another said: “I am very interested in the culture and the rebuilding of the country after such a traumatic recent history” (over 55s, female).
This again supports the target market selection in chapter 6, which found that older travellers are 59% less likely to prefer bright lights and big cities when they travel (Roy Morgan Research, 2013). Further, a recent survey by Amadeus (2013) suggests that older travellers are increasingly enjoying ‘reflective’ journeys and less are choosing holidays where they ‘just wish to flop on a beach chair’ (Fallick, 2013), which confirms this age bracket could be a viable market for Timor- Leste.
Respondents who had not considered Timor-Leste for tourism represented the vast majority at 79%. Their reasons for not considering Timor-Leste as a potential holiday destination fell largely into two key groups: those who were concerned about its past and safety and those who knew little about it as a tourist destination.
For many respondents, Timor-Leste’s perceived conflict and unrest weighed heavily on their reasoning. As one respondent argued: “I would never visit a perceived conflict zone!” (35-55, female), while another suggested: “I am of the opinion it is a troubled area” (35-55, male). These findings support Chen et al.’s (2013) contention that safety and security are one of the most powerful deterrents of potential tourists traveling to a destination. As Karamustafa et al. (2013) assert, research suggests that the higher the destination’s perceived risk, the higher the likelihood of the consumer’s decision to avoid visiting the foreign destination. This therefore, at least in part, explains why the intent to visit Timor-Leste is still low.
However, while conflict and a lack of safety was an issue for many respondents, the majority of answers discussed a lack of information as the major barrier. As one respondent explained: “It’s not a very obvious country; I’ve just never thought about it” (under 35, female), while another remarked: “I wasn't aware there was tourism there?” (over 55, male). These findings suggest that while safety is a barrier for many respondents, their concerns were based upon past problems as
203 opposed to current media coverage. Explained one respondent: “ I still have images in mind of what happened when Indonesia invaded” (over 55s, male).
While a large number of respondents cited conflict and safety concerns as an inhibitor to their desire to visit, none named current media coverage or more recent issues. Further, as outlined above, the majority of respondents who were interested in visiting the nation, found information through friends, family, colleagues and friendship groups, as opposed to tourism marketing. As section 7.1.2 detailed, a further 5% had either not even heard of the destination or related factually incorrect information.
This suggests that while tourism to Timor-Leste is impacted by the nation’s negative image, the issue is perhaps more specifically a lack of positive information to counterbalance the past images of war and conflict. Of the 79% of respondents who had not considered visiting, a simple lack of ‘good stories’ was one of the major factors. As one respondent argued: “It is not promoted as a holiday destination” (age 35-55, male), whereas another contended: “I know nothing about what might be interesting to visit or experience in Timor-Leste” (35-55, female). As Pratt (2013) contends, visitation tends to follow the ‘awareness pattern’. In other words, it is unlikely for tourists to want to visit a destination they know little about.
7.1.4 Discussion
The findings suggests that Australian’s image of Timor-Leste is dominated by the conflict and unrest of its past, confirming the idea that Australians still see the country as a ‘dangerous place’ (Carlos and Carlos, 2011). As already discussed, the media coverage of Timor-Leste in 1999 depicted graphic scenes of violence that were circulated heavily around Australia and internationally (Tapsell and Eidenfalk, 2013). Yet although Timor-Leste is now safe and peaceful, it appears a negative international perception still persists as a result of this history.
As Rittichainuwat (2011) argues, ‘non-visitors’ rely on media coverage as their information source to keep them aware of occurrences in distance places and to evaluate perceived risks associated with that destination. For Timor-Leste, this suggests that given marketing attempts have been limited, the media has been an important source of information for Australians.
The findings also support Ramos-Horta’s (2015) contention that the current DFAT warning for Australians in Timor-Leste, to ‘exercise a high degree of caution... because of the uncertain security situation’ (smartraveller.gov.au, 2015) may also be having a damaging impact on the country’s image (Ramos-Horta, 2015). Nandonde (2015) argues it is not uncommon for home 204 countries to warn their citizens against visiting certain places on security grounds. However, simplistic advice can form the basis of inappropriate visitor attitudes and remain difficult to correct (Vitic and Ringer, 2008), particularly as Rittichainuwat (2011) argues, such warnings can frighten potential tourists who may not thoroughly evaluate the validity of the message. In post- conflict Burundi, Novelli et al. (2012) cite negative travel advice as a major contributor of the nation’s negative image.
However, given Timor-Leste is now safe and peaceful, the data suggests the image of the nation is based on past, as opposed to current, unrest. As Chen et al. (2013) contend, the image of a nation tends to be stable over time and may continue long after the factors that shaped it have changed. Further, destination images of non-visitors can be highly persistent (Cherifi et al., 2014). As outlined in chapter 1, Timor-Leste has yet to develop a strategy to overcome its negative international perception, therefore without any new information, it appears the nation’s image has not evolved.
It also becomes apparent that the ‘sense of place’ of Timor-Leste as understood by its stakeholders is markedly different to the image held by its consumers. As Abodeeb et al. (2015) suggest, a gap between a destination's image and identity can lead to an undesirable market position. While the nation is beautiful and peaceful, the findings demonstrate that Timor-Leste’s target market still see the nation as an impoverished country, characterised by war, conflict and unrest. This suggests that considerable attention is required to modify the current image of Timor-Leste and close the gap between its current image and current reality.
These findings therefore confirm the importance of developing a destination brand for Timor- Leste to overcome an image that is based on past, as opposed to current, unrest. In doing so, this will allow Timor-Leste to develop positive messaging for an audience who know little about the country as a destination for tourism. Branding is important in aiding post-conflict recovery, given it can provide new information about a destination to both correct inaccurate messages and create positive images in the minds of prospective tourists (Noh and Vogt, 2013).
7.2. POST BRAND IMAGE
As outlined throughout this thesis, destination branding is seen as imperative for destinations to distinguish themselves as more favourable than their competitors in order to establish consumer preference (Anholt, 2006a, Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Harrison-Walker, 2011, Baker and Cameron, 2008, Pomering and White, 2011, Morgan and Pritchard, 2014). However, success through
205 branding is not guaranteed and Ji and Wall (2015) argue that a destination’s marketing attempts can often fail to make a positive impression on consumers and influence their travel behaviour. Therefore, as outlined in chapter 3, before launching a destination brand, it is essential it be first tested on its target audience.
Assessing the effectiveness of Timor-Leste’s mock destination brand allows for an understanding of whether the brand has successfully demonstrated the ‘sense of place’ developed in chapters 5 and 6. This in turn allows for modification and refinements to the brand concept. Further, given the brand was developed based upon the theoretical framework developed by the author in chapter 3, an analysis of the brand also allows for an analysis of the brand building model. If the brand is perceived as successful, then it is likely a ‘sense of place’ is a useful strategy on which to brand other nations, suggesting the model could be applied to other emerging and post-conflict destinations.
Further, assessing Timor-Leste’s organic then induced image, enables an analysis of a change in image. The previous section found Timor-Leste’s image to be impacted by a lack of positive promotion and suggested that marketing could potentially help change this image. However, Avraham (2015) argues that promoting a destination in normal circumstances can be difficult, but promoting a destination that suffers from negative press can be an altogether more arduous task. Similarly, the literature on branding post-conflict nations, outlined in chapter 2, found that brand management seems to be even more challenging for emerging and post-conflict nations (Vitic and Ringer, 2008). Therefore, from a practical perspective, this section assesses the extent to which a change in image may be possible for Timor-Leste.
From a theoretical perspective, testing a change from an organic to an induced image in Timor- Leste has implications for other emerging and post-conflict nations. As King et al. (2015) argue, there is a requirement for a deeper understanding of the extent to which destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional activities. For post-conflict nations, this is particularly pertinent, given it has been suggested that ‘regular’ destination marketing techniques may be less successful for destinations with a long-term negative image (Avraham and Ketter, 2013). This section therefore also contributes to the wider marketing literature on the effectiveness of branding in changing a destination’s image. This can help inform other nations suffering from a negative image of the possible likelihood of a change in image through branding.
To measure the induced image of Timor-Leste, this section analyses consumer’s image of Timor- Leste and their intent to visit the destination, after seeing the brand. As outlined in chapter 3, the brand presentation (see Appendix 3), was embedded within the survey tool and respondents 206 were asked the same questions about Timor-Leste’s image after viewing the presentation, to ascertain their new image of the destination and measure any change in image. The study was conducted in the same survey, on the same population, allowing for the generalisability of results. This has been a significant limitation of other studies wishing to measure a change in image following exposure to marketing stimuli (Jeong et al., 2012). An analysis of the induced image and revised intent to visit is followed by a discussion of the key themes and findings.
7.2.1. Induced image
An induced image of a destination develops from exposure to commercial sources such as travel agents, brochures and advertisements from destination promoters (Wang et al., 2014, Michaelidou et al., 2013). In showing respondents the proposed destination brand for Timor- Leste, it was possible to assess their induced image of the destination. Similar to the pre-brand image, consumers were asked to name the first three things that came to mind when they thought of Timor-Leste, following exposure to the brand. A total of 881 responses were received for this question, which were developed into a wordcloud representation and then thematically analysed.
Figure 12: Word cloud representation of the induced image of Timor-Leste, developed by the author. 207
The word cloud, see Figure 12, demonstrates a considerable shift in respondent’s image of Timor-Leste. After conducting a content analysis of the key themes, the study found that after viewing the brand, the leading associations for Timor-Leste changed to ‘beautiful’ and ‘people’, representing 25% of the overall response. These terms were closely followed by ‘beaches’, ‘unspoilt’ and ‘friendly’, representing a further 20% of respondent’s image associations. In explaining her answer, one respondent said: “The presentation has shown a completely different side to the country - the people and smiles make a huge difference” (35-55, female). Interestingly, the study did not find key differences between age groups or gender.
The content analysis found that image attributes relating to the destination’s natural environment, including terms such as ‘beautiful landscapes’, ‘blue seas’ and ‘beaches’, rated the highest at 32% of all responses. A focus on the country’s natural attractions correlates with Timor-Leste’s destination product, given, as outlined in chapter 5, stakeholders named natural assets as the destination’s key feature. Similarly, research from The Asia Foundation found that over 90% of tourists to Timor-Leste participate in activities relating to the country’s biodiversity and natural environment (Rajalingam, 2014).
Within the theme of nature, beaches rated very highly, at 25% of all responses, despite the imagery of beaches being minimised in the brand presentation. This was due to both the fact that Timor-Leste’s beaches are not its best asset and that branding a destination based on its beaches and ‘3S’ features can fail to differentiate it appropriately and lead to easy substitution (Pratt, 2013). At the same time, Ramseook-Munhurrun et al. (2015) assert that beaches are considered one of the major attractions of the tourism industry and are one of the most important motivators for tourists to visit island destinations. The Asia Foundation survey also found that ‘beach leisure’ is the most common activity undertaken by tourists whilst visiting Timor-Leste (Rajalingam, 2014). Therefore, while beaches were a significant focus of respondent’s induced image of Timor-Leste, it was not surprising given the importance of beaches to island tourism.
The nation’s appeal as an untouched and unspoilt destination rated highly in respondents induced image of Timor-Leste, representing 21% of all responses. This suggests that the brand presentation successfully demonstrated the nation’s desired brand position: Timor-Leste is not a tourism product; just a place and a people. As outlined in chapter 6, branding Timor-Leste as an unspoilt destination allows it to stand out from its competition (Lee et al., 2006) and showcase the originality and uniqueness of the destination (Ashton, 2015).
History and culture accounted for 10% of all responses. Alongside merely descriptive terms such as ‘culturally diverse’ this theme also included responses such as ‘vibrant culture’, ‘resilient 208 history’ and ‘proud people’. Importantly, these responses suggest that the brand personality of Timor-Leste has become part of its brand. As also outlined in chapter 6, the development of a brand personality is vital, given it enables consumers to form a deeper association with the destination, giving them something that is more vivid and alive than just its function characteristics (Guiry and Vequist 2014). It was important therefore to note that consumers also named emotive personality traits alongside merely functional descriptors of the Timor-Leste tourism product.
Another important association was the friendliness and welcoming nature of the Timorese people, accounting for 22% of all responses. While the Timorese people were not viewed by stakeholders as one of the most important attributes of the destination’s brand, it was argued during stakeholder workshops that Timor-Leste needed to be perceived as friendly and welcoming in order to overcome its negative perception. The Director of Marketing had explained: “Our marketing vision is that we will be different to the image of peacekeeping. It is important Timor-Leste is represented as safe, peaceful and welcoming” (respondent 5, interview with author, Dili, March 2015). Therefore, terms such as ‘happy’, ‘friendly’, ‘welcoming’ and ‘smiling faces’ were important attributes in respondent’s induced image of Timor-Leste.
A total of 10% of attributes listed were classified as ‘negative’ image attributes, the majority of which included terms such as ‘poor’, ‘impoverished’ and ‘under-developed’. While it was important to promote Timor-Leste as unspoilt and undiscovered, there is a difference between ‘undeveloped’ and ‘under-developed’. For some respondents, it appeared the brand presentation simply reinforced their image of Timor-Leste as a poor and developing nation.
At the same time, the reality of Timor-Leste’s situation must be acknowledged. Timor-Leste is a poor nation ranked only 133rd out of 188 countries in the most recent UNDP Human Development Index (UNDP, 2015). Therefore, it is not a perception the nation can really avoid. Further, as outlined throughout this thesis, stakeholders argued it is important the nation be represented honestly in the brand.
In focus group 1, it was suggested: “We should be realistic. It’s hard in marketing, you don’t want to be negative. Not negative, but honest. Experienced people can see through campaigns” (respondent 26, focus group 1, Dili, March 2014). Another stakeholder argued: “If they come and it’s different, they don’t come back again. They just say goodbye to Timor-Leste” (respondent 27, interview with author, Atauro, November 2013). Therefore, the depiction of poverty is in many ways necessary in portraying the real and raw nature of the Timor-Leste product. It will also help ensure travellers will not be disillusioned by the current situation of the country or visit with expectations that cannot be met. 209
Another negative attribute of respondent’s image involved the likening of Timor-Leste to other nations. One respondent commented: “Reminds of me of Bali” (35-55, male) while another said: “Not particularly unique from any other tropical destination” (under 35s, male). As argued throughout this thesis, the purpose of branding is not only identification but also differentiation, to enable a destination to be perceived as distinctive and unique and therefore hard to be replaced by other brands (Qu et al., 2011). However it should be noted that such responses represented less than 1% of the total, suggesting that for the majority of respondents, Timor- Leste had likely presented a unique proposition.
7.2.2. Intent to visit
While the measurement of Timor-Leste’s induced image provided a useful understanding of respondent’s new associations, it was also important to measure whether a change in image had effected a positive change in intent to visit Timor-Leste. Respondents were again asked to comment on their intent to visit Timor-Leste, based on the new information they had received.
The findings demonstrate a shift in respondents’ desire to visit Timor-Leste. After viewing the brand, a total of 54% of respondents indicated they were now interested in visiting, which represents an increase from the previous 21%. Further, an additional 26% of respondents indicated they were still not sure and would like further information, with only 20% of respondents claiming no interest in the destination. This suggests that through destination marketing, Timor-Leste piqued the interest of 80% of all survey respondents.
Differences in response were notable across age groups, as shown in Figure 5. The strongest interest in visiting Timor-Leste came from the under 35s age group, while the over 55s showed the least propensity. A need for more information increased with age. Differences were less notable across gender, however a larger percentage of female respondents suggested they were interested, while a larger percentage of the male respondents indicated they would require more information. Travel behaviour was again a factor; of the respondents who indicated travel of two or more times per year, 73% were interested in visiting Timor-Leste, with a further 12% willing to consider the destination if provided more information.
210
U35s 35-55 Over 55s Overall Interested in 65% 53% 45% 54% visiting Not sure/ would like more 21% 26% 30% 26% information Not interested 14% 21% 25% 20%
Table 13: Intent to visit Timor-Leste post-brand by respondent age (n=316)
Female Male Overall
Interested in visiting 56% 48% 54%
Not sure/ would like 24% 30% 26% more information
Not interested 20% 22% 20%
Table 14: Intent to visit Timor-Leste post-brand by respondent gender (n=316)
In analysing respondents’ responses, it was important to assess the feedback from the 20% of respondents who indicated no interest in visiting the nation. This allowed the researcher to better understand if a negative perception still existed or if indeed, Timor-Leste is just not a destination some consumers would choose.
The majority of respondents with no interest in visiting cited personal travel preference. One respondent suggested: ‘I don't like hot weather’ (under 35, male), while another contended: ‘I enjoy visiting cities. Landscape, beaches and countryside don't interest me much’ (35-55, female). These responses were not unexpected, given, as outlined in the previous section, it is essential to define a destination’s target audience to ensure the brand is relevant to them (Rinaldi and Beeton, 2015), therefore acknowledging that a brand will not appeal to all consumers.
In the under 35s age group, a number of respondents also cited their desire to visit other destinations, with one respondent suggesting: ‘There are just so many other places I’m keen to visit first, before Timor-Leste’ (under 35, female). While backpackers may be the ‘trailblazers’ of the tourism industry, one of the issues in marketing to this group is that there are increasingly more ‘youth-oriented’ travel destinations (Mayring, 2015) and competing for the attention of this market can be difficult.
211
For the 35-55 age group, a lack of infrastructure and comfort seemed the most pressing issue. ‘I would prefer a Pacific island with good infrastructure’ (age 35-55, female) said one respondent, while another explained: ‘I prefer relaxation over adventure for my holidays; Timor-Leste does not look relaxing or comfortable’ (aged 35-55, female). The response was similar in the over 55s age category with another respondent suggesting: “I’m 68 now, so I think I need more comfort at my age!” (over 55’s, female).
It was not surprising that the brand failed to entice these consumers, given it sought to avoid a 3S approach to marketing and instead depict Timor-Leste as a ‘real’ and ‘raw’ nation. Further, as Timor-Leste’s stakeholders had explained: “If people are expecting beautiful Australian babes, or white sand everywhere, then they’ll be terribly disappointed” (respondent 33, interview with author, Liquica, November 2013). Therefore, it was not only expected but also important that a lack of ‘white sand’ beaches and relaxing hotels deterred some potential travellers, given it was not targeted to those seeking a comfort holiday.
For the 26% of respondents who suggested they were still unsure about Timor-Leste as a potential holiday destination, their response tended to fall into two categories: a need for more information about the destination and a need for more information about its safety. An under 35 respondent explained: “I would need to research how to go about getting around in Timor Leste, as well as safety and prices if I was going to visit. The natural environment to me looks beautiful, but similar to countries like Laos, which I believe are more stable and safe” (under 35, female).
This viewpoint was even more prevalent in the 35-55 and over 55s age group. As one respondent explained: “Nothing has convinced me that it’s safe to visit” (35-55, male) while another explained: “It’s a bit of a wait see. Don't know anyone who's been there. I would need to investigate the stability of the country” (over 55, female). This supports the idea that potential tourists can be unwilling to just ‘put aside’ long-lasting negative images and stereotypes, because of an ad or promotional tool (Anholt, 2006b, Avraham and Ketter, 2013).
A smaller percentage of respondents, 3%, showed a wariness towards marketing and advertising. One respondent explained: “Advertising a tropical paradise and cute children is just that – advertising” (35-55, male). Another respondent suggested: “The brand has changed my opinion ever so slightly on the fact that "perhaps" it isn't as troubled as I thought” (35-55, female). This opinion was prevalent in the 35-55 and over 55s age group, with no respondent under 35 showing a wariness towards marketing, supporting Chen et al.'s (2013) contention that age is a significant variable in interpretation of travel advertisements.
212
As Campo and Alvarez (2014) contend, if a person already possesses a negative attitude or negative data about the country, prior negative memories may emerge, making the effect of new promotional information much lower. Interestingly, of the minority respondents who claimed that the advertising had had limited effect, all named terms in their organic image related to Timor-Leste’s conflict, unrest and poverty. This further enforces the idea that in an image related crisis, it can be difficult to achieve a positive image and the process may take countries several years to tackle (Avraham, 2015).
These views were however a minority given 54% of respondents indicated a desire to visit Timor- Leste, demonstrating a marked increase from the previous 21%. The majority of these respondents cited Timor-Leste’s appeal as an unspoilt and untouched destination. One respondent explained: “Three words; exotic, undiscovered, welcoming” (under 35, female), while another suggested: “I’d love to ride around there and just see it all before it is over run by tourists” (over 55, female).
In explaining their desire to visit Timor-Leste, many respondents noted their tourism dislikes: “I hate tourist crowds and shopping; I prefer nature and meeting local people”. The respondent went on to explain: “Timor-Leste looks like the place to be before it is ' discovered’” (35-55, male). This once again reinforces the importance of the ‘positioning’ strategy and demonstrates that ‘unspoilt’ and ‘undiscovered’ became not only part of consumer’s induced image of Timor-Leste, but also a motivator for them to visit the destination.
For a number of respondents the key point was that the nation is different to how it has been portrayed by the media. Said one respondent: “It’s not the war torn country that I thought it was” (under 35s, male), whereas another explained: “It seems much less dangerous that I thought” (35- 55, male). Even respondents in the over 55s age group, who had the highest understanding of Timor-Leste as a destination, commented that their perceptions had changed. “I had no clue about Timor-Leste, just prejudices about its name” (over 55s, female).
For other respondents, the brand was important not in overcoming a negative image, but in providing information about a country they knew little about. One respondent suggested: “It shows peace and happiness, a readiness to grow and prosper.” (under 35s, male). “I hadn't viewed it as a tourist destination, thinking of it more as a somewhere dangerous or to stay away from. Another explained: “I wasn't particularly aware of the country, it gave me an idea of it as a beautiful destination”. This supports Pratt’s (2013) contention as outlined in the previous section that visitation tends to follow the ‘awareness pattern’. Developing a greater understanding of Timor-Leste as a destination appears to have created a greater desire to visit.
213
7.2.3 Discussion
The analysis presents a very different image of Timor-Leste to the organic image depicted in the previous section, thus supporting Jeong et al.'s (2012) contention that exposure to travel information positively influences the formation of destination image. This also supports Campo and Alvarez' (2014) position that tourism promotion, such as tourism brochures, can improve the image of the country and the destination, even when the initial perception is negative. Through exposure to the brand, it appears the image of Timor-Leste improved considerably.
Cherifi et al. (2014) argue that fatigue with traditional advertising has meant that many consumers are influenced by what they find most interesting. This point is echoed by Anholt (2009) who suggests that when attempting to correct a negative reputation, what matters most is not whether the story is more true than what people believe, but rather whether it is more interesting and more relevant than what they already believe. This suggests that Timor-Leste’s image was positively enhanced due to the messaging being interesting, appealing and relevant to the target audience.
This analysis found that the brand had a significant and positive influence on its target audience. It also found that similarities between the 3Ps and the listed brand attributes were significant, suggesting that the brand has managed to depict the ‘sense of place’ that Timor-Leste’s stakeholders wished to portray.
This is an important finding, given, as outlined in chapter 3, if stakeholders agree with a brand, they will be more likely to internalise and deliver the corporate brand values (Sartori et al., 2012). Furthermore, a brand developed without stakeholder support can risk developing an oppressive and stereotypical representation of the nation and its people (Noy, 2014). This finding also helps fills a research gap within this area, given, as Cai (2009) argues, there has to date been limited research on whether a projected image reflects the desire of a host community.
These findings support Daye’s (2010) contention that destination image management is important in promoting favourable images to make up for any negative perceptions that may be formed at the organic level. While this thesis acknowledges that this study is only a first investigation into Timor-Leste’s organic and induced image, it argues that it has indeed been possible to largely overcome Timor-Leste’s negative image through a coordinated marketing and branding strategy.
This analysis therefore refutes the idea that it can take a long time to change long-standing perceptions, given induced images must compete with any lingering images (Nelson, 2013). The
214 findings suggests that for many respondents, marketing efforts were indeed influential in the creation of a holistic image and as Abodeeb et al. (2015) argue, ameliorating ‘false’ perceptions they might have about a particular destination. These findings also indicate that since Timor- Leste’s image has been based on past, as opposed to current unrest, it may have been easier for the brand to overcome the false impressions and create new, positive associations.
The data demonstrates a considerable shift in the intent of Timor-Leste’s target market to visit the destination. A positive change in Timor-Leste’s induced image has incited a higher intent to visit the destination, given as Noh and Vogt (2013) suggest, visitors holding a positive image of a particular destination are more likely to visit that destination or hold the place as a possible future trip. This work supports Campo and Alvarez's (2014) position that it is vital to continuously enhance a destination’s image through the promotion of its positive attributes, as both a defence mechanism and as a way to improve unfavourable perceptions.
Findings also support Smith et al.'s (2015) contention that it is often the image of a place rather than its actual characteristics that affects tourist decision-making. In the case of Timor-Leste, the destination has not changed in terms of its characteristics, but a change in image has seen a change in intent to visit, confirming the idea that image is a powerful determinant of travel behaviour. Findings prove that destination promotion and marketing can have a direct positive effect on in- bound tourism (Avraham, 2015), suggesting that for the government of Timor-Leste, investment in a brand strategy is essential.
7.3. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has analysed both the organic and induced image of Timor-Leste following exposure to the destination brand. In doing so, it has also looked at the potential for a change in image and through that, the impact of branding in changing consumer’s image of a destination.
An analysis of Timor-Leste’s organic image found that the nation’s perception continues to be impacted by a theme of conflict and unrest, confirming the idea that events such as terror attacks, civil war and political instability can significantly damage a destination’s image (Avraham, 2015). At the same time, the findings confirm that Timor-Leste’s image is significantly hampered by a lack of positive promotion to overcome the negative stereotypes. This not only confirms that idea that past political unrest will often cloud the destination image much longer than it takes to overcome the actual problems (Vitic and Ringer, 2008, Rittichainuwat, 2011), but
215 also demonstrates the importance of proactive branding for a nation wishing to overcome a negative international perception.
It was found that Timor-Leste’s target market currently exhibit a low intent to visit the destination, at only 21%. This can be attributed not only to the nation’s image, but also a lack of positive promotion to help potential visitors understand Timor-Leste as a holiday destination. This ultimately confirms the perspective that engendering a genuine and positive image for a destination provides an increased opportunity for it to be selected by a tourist as a place to visit (Abodeeb et al., 2015). Without a positive image in the marketplace, these findings confirm stakeholder concerns that Timor-Leste’s image is significantly impacting its competitiveness in the marketplace and ability to grow tourism.
Analysis of consumer’s induced image of Timor-Leste following exposure to the mock destination brand showed a significant change in perception, with terms such as ‘beautiful’, ‘people’, ‘unspoilt’ and ‘friendly’ receiving the highest frequency of mention. This finding confirms that exposure to travel information can indeed positively influence the formation of destination image (Jeong et al., 2012) and that consumers may be willing to change their image of a destination if presented something more relevant and more interesting (Anholt, 2009, Cherifi et al., 2014). As one respondent suggested: “The images fill me with hope for a people and enthusiasm to promote the country as a holiday destination” (35-55, female).
An assessment of Timor-Leste’s induced image also found a strong correlation between the brand attributes mentioned by respondents and the destination attributes listed by Timor- Leste’s internal stakeholders. These findings are useful in confirming that the projected image of the destination reflects the desire of its host community, an area of research, which Cai (2009) argues, has been under-explored to date. In finding a close correlation between the induced image and the desired image of Timor-Leste, this thesis therefore supports the idea of ‘a sense of place’ as a useful basis on which to brand a destination and confirms the value of the proposed branding model in developing a destination brand.
The impact of Timor-Leste’s induced image was measured by re-testing the intent to visit with the destination’s target audience. Results supported a positive change in image, with 54% of respondents suggesting they would now consider Timor-Leste for a holiday and a further 26% willing to consider the destination if provided more information. A large proportion of respondents argued that the marketing helped overcome their negative image of Timor-Leste, while for others, it was important in providing images and information on a destination they knew little about. This finding confirms the idea that image plays a major role in travel decisions
216 and choice of destinations (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2015) and therefore the importance of inducing the image of a tourism destination.
From a theoretical perspective, this chapter undertook an innovative methodological approach to the measurement of destination image, which authors such as Michaelidou et al. (2013) and Prebensen (2007) argue is important to yield different images and attributes. It was found that a qualitative method can be successfully employed to capture the image of a destination and allows for travel motivations of consumers to be explored in sufficient depth (World Tourism Organisation and the European Travel Commission, 2009). This chapter also explored the image of ‘non-visitors’, which is argued yields different image attributes when compared to those who have visited a destination (Cini and Saayman, 2013). Using non-visitors as the sample study allowed the research to isolate the organic image of Timor-Leste and then induced its destination image following exposure to the brand.
Importantly, this chapter outlined the methodological process of measuring a change in destination image. This contributed to knowledge in four key ways. Firstly, from a methodological perspective, it contributed to the scant research on how a modification to destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional activities (King et al., 2015). Secondly, it allowed for a process by which to test the proposed destination brand. As outlined in chapter 1, while branding is hailed as vital in successfully marketing a destination, statistics have found that over 86% of place brands actually fail (North, 2015) suggesting that the creation of a successful destination brand is not straightforward. Therefore, this chapter looked at a means of brand testing to help ensure its success once it goes to market.
Third, testing a change in image through branding has also allowed for a critique of the brand building model, developed by the author in chapter 3. This chapter suggests that the core elements of the model, being: a stakeholder-led approach, articulation of the 3Ps and a method of brand assessment have proved useful in developing a brand that is both accepted by stakeholders and well received by its target market. The findings therefore support the brand building model and suggest that it could be successfully to other post-conflict or emerging nations with similar conditions to Timor-Leste.
In doing so, this thesis contributes to the limited academic literature on the processes involved in successful destination branding (Balakrishnan, 2009, Divandari et al., 2014) and contributes to the need for more literature to develop a deeper understanding of creating a destination brand (Morgan and Pritchard, 2014).
217
Finally, this chapter provides support for the concept of destination branding. These findings confirm that it is indeed possible to change a negative perception of a tourism destination through marketing. Avraham and Ketter (2013) suggest that ‘regular’ destination marketing techniques may be less successful for destinations with a long-term negative image and Vitic and Ringer (2008) argue that brand management seems to be even more challenging for emerging and post-conflict nations. However, this thesis has proven that in the case of Timor-Leste, it is possible to positively impact a negative image through exposure to a destination brand. By measuring a change from organic to induced image, this thesis therefore supports the idea a brand is a powerful instrument in creating a successful destination (Ashton, 2014).
At the same time, while this thesis has provided important insights into the image and change in image of potential tourists to Timor-Leste, it acknowledges that there is significant scope for further studies to assess demographic differences and utilise alternate image measurement techniques. Sun et al. (2014) argue that destination image may differ between tourists from varying countries according to nationality and culture. Similarly, other factors such as travel preferences, age and understanding of a destination may significantly influence consumer image and intent to visit. Therefore, this thesis acknowledges that this chapter has provided a preliminary study in this field and that further research in this area will be important.
218
Chapter 8: CONCLUSION
The government of Timor-Leste regards tourism as critical to the nation’s future economic development (Asian Development Bank, 2015). However, since the restoration of independence in 2002, progress has been slow and tourism numbers remain small (US Aid, 2015). While the Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030 suggests the nation will attract a large number of visitors by 2030 to support economic growth and employment, significant challenges still exist. This thesis has already alluded to problems of access, infrastructure, accommodation and hospitality, alongside concerns around government management of tourism development and spending.
Specifically, however, this thesis has focused on one core impediment to tourism in Timor-Leste: the nation’s poor international image. Today, the current DFAT warning for Australians in Timor-Leste remains to ‘exercise a high degree of caution... because of the uncertain security situation’ (smartraveller.gov.au, 2016). This leaves commentators free to argue that Timor-Leste is still seen as ‘dangerous place’ (Carlos & Carlos, 2011). This thesis has provided the first empirical study to support the claim that Timor-Leste still suffers from a negative international perception and has found that this image is having a significant and damaging impact on tourism.
Importantly, this thesis has provided not only an analysis of the impediments to tourism growth in Timor-Leste, but has also looked at one key means of providing a solution to the nation’s negative image: the development of a destination brand. It has argued that branding is valuable in aiding nation recovery (Osei and Gbadamosi, 2011) as it can help overcome negative stereotypes created by sensationalised media coverage (Avraham and Ketter, 2013), aid the process of social renewal (Causevic and Lynch, 2011) and encourage tourism to assist both reconciliation and peace (Buultjens et al., 2015).
In order to create a destination brand, this thesis has created a theoretical model for destination brand building and applied this model to the case of Timor-Leste. The result has been the development of a new destination brand for the nation, developed through extensive stakeholder consultation and tested on a consumer audience to ensure its viability in the market.
This conclusion briefly revisits the research objectives, the contribution to knowledge and looks at potential areas for future research. It concludes with the author’s final remarks about the value of this thesis and future research directions.
219
8.1. KEY FINDINGS
At the heart of this thesis lies the central research question of “How can Timor-Leste develop a practical and ethical destination brand to help overcome the nation’s negative image and grow international tourism?” In order to answer this overarching objective, the research was structured into five sub questions, namely:
1. What is the best process for developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste?
2. What is the best process for assessing the effectiveness of a proposed destination brand for Timor-Leste?
3. Can a destination brand positively impact the image of Timor-Leste?
4. Based on the case study of Timor-Leste, could this theoretical model be suitably applied to the branding of other emerging nations?
5. How can this research help bridge the gap between academic brand theory and practice?
The first three questions pertain to the practical nature of this thesis and, in doing so, look at the process of destination brand building. The final two questions ask how knowledge from this case study can be used to inform brand building in other emerging nations and help bridge the important gap between theory and practice.
8.1.1 Findings into the process of brand building
In looking to best practice processes for developing a destination brand for Timor-Leste, this thesis found that while brand identity models provide the best means for guiding the branding process (Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony, 2013), destination brand development is hampered by the lack of a conceptual framework (Lee et al., 2006, Divandari et al., 2014). Therefore, based on a critique of brand building models, a new model has been developed, suitable for use in Timor-Leste and applicable to other post-conflict and emerging nations. The model has been strengthened by an understanding of the ethical considerations of marketing a developing nation and the unique conditions of Timor-Leste – that of being a small island state, a post-conflict nation and a ‘new’ nation.
This thesis found the brand building model required three key components: 1) a stakeholder-led approach, 2) a strong understanding of ‘sense of place’ and 3) a process of brand ‘testing’ to
220 ascertain its effectiveness on the target market. In undertaking the third stage and testing the brand on its target market, the study has answered the first three research questions.
First, the study found the brand to be well received by the consumer audience in Australia, showing a significant change in image and a more favourable impression of Timor-Leste as a destination. This thesis also found a close correlation between consumer’s induced image and the internal stakeholders’ desired image of Timor-Leste (as outlined in chapters 5 and 6), therefore supporting the idea of ‘a sense of place’ as a useful basis on which to brand a destination. This not only confirms the success of the brand itself but also the model by which it was created. This thesis therefore advocates the suggested brand model as a ‘best practice’ process for developing a destination brand.
Second, the study found the process of assessing the brand to be successful. A qualitative method was employed to capture the image of the destination and the study provided strong results from the perspective of Australian ‘non-visitors’. More importantly, the innovative methodology of testing a country image and then re-testing after exposure to marketing materials allows for a new method of assessing the effectiveness of a destination brand. This thesis therefore advocates this methodology as a ‘best practice’ platform for brand testing in other emerging and post- conflict nations.
Third, this thesis confirms that the development and promotion of a destination brand can positively impact the image of Timor-Leste. While Vitic and Ringer (2008) argue that brand management seems to be even more challenging for emerging and post-conflict nations, this thesis has identified that in the case of Timor-Leste, it is possible to positively impact a negative image through exposure to a destination brand.
8.1.2. Broader findings of this thesis
Success of this study suggests that the theoretical brand-building model can be suitably applied to other emerging and post-conflict nations. The model was developed such that it was informed both by brand building theory and the ethical implications of marketing the developing world; insights that could be suitably applied in other contexts.
Specifically, the idea of a stakeholder-led approach is essential for all emerging nations. Ultimately, brands created by promoters in the developed world tend to draw heavily on ‘imagined landscapes’ and ‘colonial myths’, ignoring the reality that such destinations are layered with indigenous cultural inscriptions (Amoamo 2007). Therefore, by adopting a 221 stakeholder-led approach, the brand can reflect a nation’s own, innate values, as opposed to being developed simply to satisfy a western audience.
Use of the 3Ps to create a ‘sense of place’ then allows each emerging destination to create its own product, personality and position, which, if stakeholder-led, can hope to truly capture the ‘essence’ of the destination. Finally, testing the brand allows for a process of assessing its effectiveness on the target market and making alterations as required. These three key components are easily adaptable to various destinations, suggesting that the model could be suitably applied to the branding of other emerging nations wishing to grow tourism and/or overcome a negative international perception.
While the model developed in this thesis was largely theoretical, its application was also practical. The destination brand developed throughout this thesis has been presented to the government of Timor-Leste as an example that demonstrates local engagement, captures the essence of place and had been suitably tested on a consumer audience. Alongside the brand itself, the research into the destination’s product, personality and position also provides a foundation for a better understanding of the Timor-Leste tourism industry and the rationale behind the brand.
This thesis therefore finds that while in academia, branding remains a ‘relatively new’ development (Mocanu, 2014), there is significant scope for studies such as this one to contribute practical insights to academic theory. At the same time, this study has also shown that the practical process of branding can be strengthened when underpinned by a theoretical and thoroughly researched brand building framework. This thesis therefore contributes to bridging the gap between academic branding theory and practice.
8.2. WIDER IMPLICATIONS
In answering the above research questions, this thesis has made significant contributions, both practical and academic.
8.2.1 Practical contribution: impact upon Timor-Leste and its people
As outlined in chapter 1, although there have been a number of reports into tourism and its potential for Timor-Leste, most are not widely available and are often only anecdotally
222 discussed. This thesis has combined secondary research alongside extensive primary research to develop a practical and widely available source of information. Specifically, this research has developed a strong understanding of Timor-Leste’s tourism product, personality and position, the latter two of which have never been previously developed.
Further, although the destination image of Timor-Leste is widely discussed, it has never been empirically tested. Therefore, alongside an understanding of its internal tourism product, this study has developed an empirical analysis of the nation’s external image. This is not only vital in the branding process but also to the government of Timor-Leste in understanding where the destination is positioned in the minds of its target market.
By applying this research to the theoretical destination brand building model, this thesis has allowed for the development of a new destination brand for Timor-Leste. At time of writing, the author of this thesis is currently working as a consultant with The Asia Foundation in Dili, to support the Ministry of Tourism to develop the destination brand into a fully-fledged concept and oversee a strategy for its implementation.
8.2.2 Academic contribution: advancements in theory and marketing knowledge
To address the research problem that there is no widely accepted model for building destination identity (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2012), this thesis has developed a new brand building model. Through practically developing a destination brand, this thesis has also allowed for the brand model to be tested and critiqued. The results suggest that the model was not only successfully employed as a framework for branding Timor-Leste but can also be suitably applied to branding other emerging and post-conflict nations. This provides an important contribution to the literature, given to date there has been little attention given to theorising the rebranding of negatively viewed nations (Amujo and Otubanjo, 2012).
In testing both the brand and the brand building model, this thesis has also contributed to the limited theory on measuring destination image. As the literature review found, there is a call for scholars to develop more innovative methodological approaches to investigate destination image (Michaelidou et al. 2013). This study contributed to the limited investigation of destination image from the perspective of ‘non-visitors’ (Cherifi et al., 2014) and is one of the few qualitative studies to measure destination image. Importantly, this thesis also contributed to the limited research on how a modification to destination image can be induced through advertising and promotional
223 activities (King et al., 2015). In developing a method for assessing a change in image, this thesis also contributed a best practice process to measure the effectiveness of a destination brand.
Another important academic contribution of this thesis therefore lies in its methodological innovations. In building a new model to guide the branding process and utilising innovative techniques to measure the image and then change in image of Timor-Leste, this thesis contributes to the current dearth of literature on a ‘best practice’ process for building and assessing a destination brand.
8.3. FURTHER RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Three main areas for further research arise from the core areas of enquiry in this thesis. Specifically they pertain to: 1) the case of Timor-Leste, 2) the branding of destinations and 3) the ethical implications of marketing the developing world.
As outlined in chapter 2, as a young nation, there is still significant scope for future studies on Timor-Leste, given the current lack of research into the tourism industry. In his PhD thesis, Tolkach (2013) argued that further studies on Timor-Leste should seek to understand how to brand a new post-conflict nation in order to attract higher visitor numbers. In providing the first academic study into the marketing and branding of Timor-Leste as a destination, this thesis has helped to fill this research gap.
Building upon this thesis, further studies could re-test Timor-Leste’s destination image and track any changes brought about by new marketing campaigns. Such studies could be particularly valuable, given Tasci and Holecek (2007) suggest that, although destination image is prone to change, there has been limited work on measuring image change over time. Future studies could also assess the impact of a growth in tourism to Timor-Leste and required modifications to the destination brand as the nation’s tourism product develops.
From a tourism supply-side perspective, further investigation could include greater analysis into the opportunities for community-based tourism, private sector investment, skills training and entrepreneurship. At present there are no studies that analyse the role of government management in the tourism sector and the possibilities and pitfalls of foreign investment and ownership.
In terms of branding theory, this thesis has made a significant contribution to the academic literature on developing and testing a destination brand. Further studies could apply this
224 methodology in other emerging and post-conflict nations to help validate and strengthen the proposed brand model. While the model has been proposed for use in emerging and post- conflict nations, the author would be interested to see its application in a developed world context and the necessary refinements required for branding another nation.
This thesis has also developed a new, innovative methodology for testing the effectiveness of a destination brand. Sun et al. (2014) argue that destination image may differ between tourists from varying countries according to nationality and culture. Similarly, other factors such as travel preference, age and understanding of a destination may significantly influence consumer image and intent to visit. Therefore, further studies could seek to utilise the methodology in new contexts, which could further strengthen research into both image measurement techniques and brand testing.
From an ethical perspective, this thesis has sought to avoid a branding strategy that could potentially “reflect a western, white, male colonial perspective” of a “static, timeless and unchanging Third World” (Morgan and Pritchard, 1998, p. 169, 242). In doing so, this work took Santos and Campo’s (2014) approach in applying a greater use of local culture and history to promote the destination’s core values, personality and unique characteristics. While this study provides an important contribution in this area, further studies could investigate alternate methods for developing an ethical destination brand and further investigate the implications of branding an emerging nation.
8.4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
While the future of Timor-Leste’s tourism industry is still unclear, there is hope that its negative image can be overcome. At time of writing, the author of this thesis, as a consultant for The Asia Foundation, is working closely with the Ministry of Tourism to develop the nation’s first official destination brand, destination website and Strategic Marketing Plan. This will, at least in part, stem the angst from stakeholders about the lack of a concise policy and associated strategy for developing the sector. It will also ensure the country generates a powerful and unique destination brand that will replace the negative imagery with new, positive associations.
It is anticipated the brand will be launched in Dili in October 2016, led by the Ministry of Tourism and supported by The Asia Foundation. Considerable background research has been provided from this PhD thesis to ensure the brand is not only powerful and unique, but also representative of the nation’s unique attributes and the wishes of its internal stakeholders. At
225 time of writing, there is optimism about the success of this project and strong support from the stakeholder community within Timor-Leste.
The challenge will lie not in the delivery of the brand but in ensuring a successful implementation. The Ministry’s budget is limited for an international brand launch and while donor partners have shown interest in further supporting the program, there has been no official commitment. Furthermore, while the Ministry is positive about promoting the brand on the destination website, brochures and other marketing collateral, it will be essential to provide education around its use. As already outlined in this thesis, a brand will be successful only if it is used consistently and continuously in all marketing.
Therefore, the coming years will be crucial in ensuring its success. Change in the destination’s image may take years and a growth in tourism is likely to be realised slowly, as the brand promotion grows and numbers build. However, despite the many challenges there is great hope that the development of Timor-Leste’s first destination brand will help overcome the nation’s negative image and see a much-wanted growth in international tourism.
226
Epilogue
On my final day in Timor-Leste I’m sitting in the local expatriate bar: Castaways. It is a fitting venue, since it was here I spent my first night in Timor-Leste, back in July 2011. It’s a place of early morning breakfasts, late night parties, and everything in between. The view is now a familiar one – the sparkling ocean to the north of the mainland with the island of Atauro discernible between the clouds. In early December the humidity could be almost unbearable were it not for the cooling ocean breeze.
I’m no longer the bright-eyed optimistic traveller who first arrived only looking to stay for a short stint and ‘make a difference’ to the tourism industry. Now, five and a half years later, with an almost completed PhD, numerous marketing positions and consultancies, many great friends and countless adventures, I can reflect on how dramatically things have changed and how much knowledge I have gained. It’s such a privilege we have, as researchers, to commandeer the time of experts in our field. After 94 interviews with 56 tourism stakeholders here in Timor-Leste, I have been truly blessed to be given such insights and wisdom from those who know the tourism industry best.
In my final weeks here I have been asked the usual tourism questions, their nature dependent on the experience of the asker. Those who have spent only weeks or months in the country usually ask: “So what is the tourism potential here?” Those with more involvement tend to probe more deeply and might say: “I can see there’s tourism potential here. What do you feel are the main issues that are preventing tourism from growing?” And finally there are those who, like myself, have spent years working here and for whom the answers to the first two questions are abundantly obvious. It is this group who ask the more difficult question: “We know the potential, we know the barriers – what do you think will happen?”
In responding to this sort of question I find myself caught between the need for honesty and the desire for optimism. There is so much potential for tourism in this country. As chapter 5 of the thesis has detailed, the country is blessed with incredible natural assets, including one of the most diverse marine ecosystems in the world, alongside culture, history, friendly people and a tropical climate. At the same time, the weaknesses in the tourism product are also significant – cost, accessibility, poor infrastructure and a hospitality industry that is still in its infancy. Access to medical facilities, mosquito-borne disease and crocodiles add further problems, while the nation’s poor destination image continues to have a negative impact. But these issues are all surmountable. And as this thesis has outlined, a powerful destination brand could help
227 overcome many of these challenges, and in particular the image problem. But this doesn’t make the third question any easier to answer.
Why is tourism to Timor-Leste not growing? Why is it that after five and half years here I am seeing tourist numbers decrease, businesses close and a poor international perceptions persist? When I first arrived in 2011, Timor-Leste was enjoying what many called a ‘false tourism economy’, thanks to a sustained UN presence. The UN provided not only great tourism through their own presence, but also the steady flow of their friends and family visiting from abroad. This was a captive audience of ‘ideal’ tourists. UN workers usually spoke the language, had their own vehicle and a local phone, and were accustomed to Timor-Leste’s level of service. Exorbitant prices were not prohibitive, given their international salaries. Since the withdrawal of the UN in 2012, however, tourism numbers have steadily declined. Many bars and restaurants that opened during the UN boom have now gone under, due simply to insufficient patronage.
While the government talked passionately about how ‘real’ tourism would fill the UN void, very little has been done to encourage this. The decline in numbers has been essentially hidden in official immigration statistics by combining the tourist visa category with the business visa category, which leads to the false impression that tourism numbers have, in fact, risen. This is not the case and falsifying tourism numbers will only hide the issue for so long.
I spent my final weekend at ‘Caimeo Beach Resort’ in Liquica, which is just one hour outside Dili. The ‘glamping’ style accommodation has been built by Tyson and Anna Yeo, an Australian/Timorese couple with a gorgeous daughter named Terra. To me, the resort has always been a Timor-Leste tourism success story. I first visited when it opened in late 2012. They had pitched tiny two-man tents by the waterside and built a restaurant employing a few local staff. By 2013, the number of tents had grown, the restaurant had expanded and Tyson had hand- built a stone holding wall around the property. I took my Mum and cousin when they visited, and they loved it. By 2014, solid roofs were built above the tents, the Australian-style bathrooms were further improved and local employment had risen to 30 staff. On this last visit, we were in an actual villa – beautifully decorated with handcrafted beds, Timorese cushions and a panoramic view of the ocean. What a thrill it has been to watch this well-built, family-run business grow and what a great asset for tourism in Timor-Leste.
But when we met Tyson for a cocktail in the restaurant, he told us a different story. The business has been struggling. Given that the vast majority of his visitors are expats travelling on weekends, his resort is virtually deserted mid-week. Relying on Saturday night stays is not proving profitable. Furthermore, the Timorese government has recently passed a bill to introduce a new benefits scheme, which will mean that local wages are to rise by 10%; however 228 these funds will not go to Timorese employees, but rather to the government. His guess is that this is to supplement the decreasing oil fund, with which I tend to agree. This will force private sector businesses to further cut their profit margins, employ fewer local staff and/or put up their already expensive prices. Whatever they do, this is a significant impost on tourism.
Tyson’s story is not the only one. Barry, an Australian who has run a successful eco-resort on Atauro with his Timorese family for over a decade, is also struggling to remain afloat. Although his wife’s family legally owns the land on which the property is built, a new government law has been passed that declares all land within 50m from of shoreline to be government property. The plan is to repossess this land and build not one, not two but ten five-star resorts along the coastline of Atauro. Where the water supply, sanitation facilities and infrastructure will come from to develop such hotels is anyone’s guess. The same applies to the tourists who will supposedly fill them.
The reality is that government promises are very different to government planning, and while tourism is continually promoted as an important – even vital – source of income and employment, very little is being done. In fact, many government policies erode the progress that is being made by NGOs and the private sector, and as a result tourism is in decline.
This year I worked in collaboration with the Asia Foundation, and, based on my own PhD research, developed a destination brand for Timor-Leste. It is now sitting with the government. The brand concept has been finalised, a strategy written and the logo and slogan socialised internally. The entire process has been greeted with strong enthusiasm and support from the stakeholder contingent. But while the brand has now been finalised, it will be ineffective if not launched internationally. And this will require funding and a long-term commitment – which must be led by the Ministry of Tourism.
The truth is that this is not the first brand to be developed for Timor-Leste. Previous attempts at branding the nation have failed due to lack of government support. There has been a failure to put money into the implementation and to ensure internal adoption and ownership. When people ask me, “Will this brand succeed?” my answer is this: this is the most collaboratively developed brand, it is underpinned by five years of research and extensive consultation, and it is now backed by The Asia Foundation, one of the most prominent NGOs in Timor-Leste. We have given it the best chance possible – but its ultimate success is now out of our hands.
229
I return to the question I’m often asked: “Can tourism in Timor-Leste succeed?” and again grapple with the need to balance honesty with optimism, or hope, in answering it.
If the government can turn words into action, then most definitely it can. But this requires those at the top, who currently hold all the power, to truly invest and support tourism. To stop talking about the nation’s tourism potential and start taking concrete, well-planned action towards developing it. Timor-Leste does have incredible potential as a destination for tourism. But realising that potential requires strong leadership, sound policy and, most importantly, coordination between government and the many diverse stakeholders who can contribute so much to the destination’s future.
Across my years in country, I have met so many passionate and well-educated Timorese and expatriates that some days it seems impossible to believe a sustainable tourism industry will not grow. Many say it’s just a matter of time, and like many developing destinations it will always be a case of two steps forward and one step back. For every disadvantageous policy there are great things happening here – new businesses, new ideas and an incredible sense of goodwill. However, the risk is that if government leadership remains corrupt and policy self-interested, there is still a strong chance Timor-Leste’s potential will be lost.
Looking over the wooden balcony at Castaways to the sparkling ocean, I realise how lucky I have been to be part of this country at such a fascinating time in its development. I’ve been fortunate to have had the opportunity to contribute to development here and to feel, as one rarely does in the corporate world, that I have indeed made a difference. So the real question, the one that I need to ask myself, is not “will tourism succeed?” but rather “how can I help tourism succeed?” I have made my very small contribution through developing the brand strategy – but this is only the beginning.
230
Reference List
AAKER, D. 1991. Managing Brand Equity: Capitalising on the Value of Brand Name, New York, The Free Press.
AAKER, D. 1996. Building strong brands, New York, The Free Press.
AAKER, D. A., KUMAR, V., DAY, G. S., LAWLEY, M. & STEWART, D. 2005. Marketing Research, Milton, QLD, John Wiley & Sons.
AAKER, J. L. 1997. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34, 347-356.
AAKER, J. L. 1999. The malleable self: the role of self-expression in persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36, 45-57.
Ramos-Horta urges Aussie back to E Timor, 2008. Directed by ABC-NEWS. ABC Premium News (Sydney).
ABODEEB, J., WILSON, E. & MOYLE, B. 2015. Shaping destination image and identity: insights for Arab tourism at the Gold Coast, Australia. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9, 6-21.
AGAPITO, D., OOM DO VALLE, P. & DA COSTA MENDES, J. 2013. The Cognitive-Affective- Conative Model of Destination Image: A Confirmatory Analysis. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30, 471-481.
AIR-NORTH. 2016. Timetable [Online]. Available: http://www.airnorth.com.au/plan-your- trip/timetable [Accessed 25 March 2015.
AKOTIA, M., SPIO, A. E., FRIMPONG, K. & AUSTIN, N. K. 2011. Country Branding: A Developing Economy Perspective. International Journal of Business Strategy, 11, 123-131.
AKYEAMPONG, O. A. 2011. Pro-poor tourism: residents' expectations, experiences and perceptions in the Kakum National Park Area of Ghana. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19, 197-213.
ALLARD, T. 2015. As Xanana Gusmao departs, Timor must prepare for when the oil runs dry. Sydney Morning Herald, 13 February 2015.
AMERICAN-MARKETING-ASSOCIATION. 2016. Dictiionary [Online]. Available: https://www.ama.org/resources/Pages/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=B&dLetter=B [Accessed 27 March 2016.
AMOAMO, M. 2007. Māori tourism: Image and identity — a postcolonial perspective. Annals of Leisure Research, 10, 454-474.
AMUJO, O. C. & OTUBANJO, O. 2012. Leveraging Rebranding of 'Unattractive' Nation Brands to Stimulate Post-Disaster Tourism. Tourist Studies, 12, 87-105.
231
ANHOLT, S. 2002. Forward. Brand Management, 9, 229-239.
ANHOLT, S. 2004. Editor's foreward to the first issue. Place Branding, 1, 4-11.
ANHOLT, S. 2005. Brand New Justice: How Branding Places and Products Can Help the Developing World, Oxford, UK, Butterworth-Heinemann.
ANHOLT, S. 2006a. Nation branding: Introduction. Journal of Brand Management, March, 1.
ANHOLT, S. 2006b. Public diplomacy and place branding: Where’s the link? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 2, 271-276.
ANHOLT, S. 2007. Competitive Identity The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
ANHOLT, S. 2008. ‘Nation Branding’ in Asia. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 4, 265-269.
ANHOLT, S. 2009. Why National Image Matters. In: WORLD-TOURISM-ORGANISATION- AND-THE-EUROPEAN-TRAVEL-COMMISSION (ed.) Handbook on Tourism Destinations Branding. Madrid, Spain: World-Tourism-Organisation.
ANHOLT, S. & HILDRETH, J. 2004. Brand America: the mother of all brands, Great Britain, Cyan Books.
APOSTOLAKIS, A., JAFFRY, S., SIZELAND, F. & COX, A. 2015. The role of uniqueness in destination branding: the case of historical Portsmouth harbor. EuroMed Journal of Business, 10, 198-213.
APOSTOLOPOULOU, A. & PAPADIMITRIOU, D. 2015. The role of destination personality in predicting tourist behaviour: implications for branding mid-sized urban destinations. Current Issues in Tourism, 18, 1132-1151.
ARAUJO, D. R. D. Tourism and Globalization. Eighth Meeting of the CPLP Ministers of Tourism, 2015 Dili Convention Centre.
ARONCZYC, M. 2013. Branding the Nation: The Global Business of National Identity, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
ASHTON, A. S. 2014. Tourist destination brand image development--an analysis based on stakeholders' perception: A case study from Southland, New Zealand. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 20, 279-292.
ASHTON, A. S. 2015. Developing a Tourist Destination Brand Value: The Stakeholders' Perspective. Tourism Planning & Development, 12, 398-411.
ASIAN-DEVELOPMENT-BANK 2015. Growing the non-oil economy: A private sector assessment for Timor-Leste. Manila: Asian-Development-Bank.
ASSAKER, G. 2014. Examining a hierarchical model of Australia's destination image. Journal of 232
Vacation Marketing, 20, 195-210.
AUSTRALIAN-BUREAU-OF-STATISTICS. 2014. Population by Age and Sex, Regions of Australia [Online]. Canberra. Available: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3235.0 [Accessed 7 March 2016.
AUSTRALIAN-BUREAU-OF-STATISTICS. 2015. Australian National Accounts, Distribution of Household Income, Consumption and Wealth 2009-2010 [Online]. Canberra. Available: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/5204.0.55.011 [Accessed 7 March 2016.
AUSTRALIAN-WAR-MEMORIAL. 2013. Fighting in Timor,1942 [Online]. Available: www.awm.gov.au/atwar/timor.asp [Accessed 1 March 2013.
AVRAHAM, E. 2015. Destination image repair during crisis: Attracting tourism during the Arab Spring uprisings. Tourism Management, 47, 224-232.
AVRAHAM, E. & KETTER, E. 2013. Marketing Destinations with Prolonged Negative Images: Towards a Theoretical Model. Tourism Geographies, 15, 145-164.
AZENG, T. F. & THIERRY, Y. U. 2013. Youth unemployment and political instability in selected developing countries. In: AFRICAN-DEVELOPMENT-BANK-GROUP (ed.) Working Paper Series. Tunisia: African Development Bank.
BAKER, B. 2012. Destination Branding for Small Cities, Oregan, USA, Creative Leap Books.
BAKER, M. J. & CAMERON, E. 2008. Critical success factors in destination marketing. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 8, 79-97.
BALAKRISHNAN, M. S. 2009. Strategic branding of destinations: a framework. European Journal of Marketing, 43, 611-629.
BALAKRISHNAN, M. S., NEKHILI, R. & LEWIS, C. 2011. Destination brand components. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5, 4-25.
BALI-GOVERNMENT-TOURISM-OFFICE. 2016. Statistics [Online]. Available: http://www.disparda.baliprov.go.id/en/Statistics2 [Accessed 12 April 2016.
BALOGLU, S. & MCCLEARY, K. W. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 868-897.
BBC-NEWS. 2008. Profile: Jose Ramos-Horta. BBC-News [Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/378959.stm.
BBC-WORLD-SERVICE. 2015. Democracy in East Timor [Online]. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/ihavearightto/four_b/casestudy_art21.shtml [Accessed 26 March 2015 2015].
BELIZE-TOURISM-BOARD. 2012. Available: www.travelbelize.org [Accessed 10 March 2014.
233
BIRAN, A., LIU, W., LI, G. & EICHHORN, V. 2014. Consuming post-disaster destinations: The case of Sichuan, China. Annals of Tourism Research, 47, 1-17.
BLACKETT, T. & RUSSELL, N. 1999. What is co-branding? In: BLACKETT, T. & BOAD, B. (eds.) Co-branding: The Science of Alliance. Ebbw Vale: Creative Print & Design.
BLAIN, C., LEVY, S. E. & RITCHIE, J. R. B. 2005. Destination Branding: Insights and Practices from Destination Management Organizations. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 328-338.
BOO, S., BUSSER, J. & BALOGLU, S. 2009. A model of customer-based brand equity and its application to multiple destinations. Tourism Management, 30, 219-231.
BOOKING.COM. 2016. Destinations in East Timor [Online]. Available: http://www.booking.com/country/tl.en- gb.html?sid=506766fe9c8793f9f2952a1bdbd0c092;dcid=4;hide_ss=1&;origin=disamb;srhash=413276 4033;srpos=1 [Accessed 25 March 2016.
BOUCHON, F. A. L. 2013. Truly Asia and global city? Branding strategies and contested identities in Kuala Lumpur. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 10, 6-18.
BRADY, B. 2012. East Timor: A Former Colony mulls the politics of teaching Portuguese [Online]. Available: www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2103483,00.html [Accessed 1 March 2013.
BRANDFINANCE 2015. Global 500 2015. BrandFinance.
BRENNER, L. & FRICKE, J. 2007. The Evolution of Backpacker Destinations: the Case of Zipolite, Mexico. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9, 217-230.
BRICKELL, K. 2012. Visual Critiques of Tourist Development: Host-Employed Photography in Vietnam. Tourism Geographies, 14, 98-116.
BRIEDENHANN, J. 2011. The Potential of Small Tourism Operators in the Promotion of Pro- Poor Tourism. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 20, 484-500.
BRYMAN, A. 2004. Social Research Methods, New York, Oxford University Press.
BRYMAN, A. & BELL, E. 2007. Business Research Methods, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
BUULTJENS, J. W., RATNAYAKE, I. & GNANAPALA, W. K. A. C. 2015. Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-18.
BUZINDE, C. N., MANUEL-NAVARRETE, D., YOO, E. E. & MORAIS, D. 2010. Tourists’ Perceptions in a Climate of Change. Annals of Tourism Research, 37, 333-354.
CABASSET-SEMEDO, C. 2009. Thinking about tourism in Timor-Leste in the era of sustainable development. A tourism policy emerging from grass-roots levels. In: CABASSET-SEMEDO, C. & DURAND, F. (eds.) East Timor: How to build a new nation in Southeast Asia in the 21st Century. Thailand: IRASEC.
234
CAHYANTO, I., PENNINGTON-GRAY, L. & THAPA, B. 2013. Tourist–resident interfaces: using reflexive photography to develop responsible rural tourism in Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21, 732-749.
CAI, L. A. 2002. Cooperative Branding for Rural Destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 29, 720- 742.
CAI, L. A. 2009. Tourism branding in a social exchange system. In: CAI, L. A., GARTNER, W. C. & MUNAR, A. M. (eds.) Tourism Branding: Communities in Action. Bradford: Emerald.
CALLAHAN, D. 2011. Consuming and erasing Portual in the Lonely Planet guide to East Timor. Postcolonial Studies, 14, 95-109.
CAMPELO, A., AITKEN, R., THYNE, M. & GNOTH, J. 2013. Sense of Place: The Importance for Destination Branding. Journal of Travel Research, 53, 154-166.
CAMPO, S. & ALVAREZ, M. D. 2014. Can tourism promotions influence a country's negative image? An experimental study on Israel's image. Current Issues in Tourism, 17, 201-219.
CARLOS, D. & CARLOS, S. 2011. DFAT Travel Advice, East Timor and tourism - you decide [Online]. Available: www.timoradventures.com.au/810/dfat-travel-advice-east-timor-and-tourism- %E2%80%93-you-decide [Accessed 1 March 2013.
CARSON, D., GILMORE, A., PERRY, C. & GRONHAUG, K. 2001. Qualitative Marketing Research, London, Sage.
CARTER, R. W., PRIDEAUX, B., XIMENES, V. & CHATENAY, A. 2001. Development of Tourism Policy and Strategic Planning in East Timor. Occasional Paper 8(1). Australia: The University of Queensland, School of Natural and Rural Systems Management.
CAUSEVIC, S. & LYNCH, P. 2011. Phoenix Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 780-800.
CAVR 2005. Chega! The Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth, Reconciliation (CAVR) Timor-Leste, Timor-Leste.
CHANDLER, J. & OWEN, M. 2002. Developing Brands with Qualitative Market Research, London, Sage.
CHEN, H.-J., CHEN, P.-J. & OKUMUS, F. 2013. The relationship between travel constraints and destination image: A case study of Brunei. Tourism Management, 35, 198-208.
CHENG, T.-M. & LU, C.-C. 2013. Destination Image, Novelty, Hedonics, Perceived Value, and Revisiting Behavioral Intention for Island Tourism. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 18, 766-783.
CHERIFI, B., SMITH, A., MAITLAND, R. & STEVENSON, N. 2014. Destination images of non- visitors. Annals of Tourism Research, 49, 190-202.
CHETTIPARAMB, A. & KOKKRANIKAL, J. 2012. Responsible tourism and sustainability: the 235 case of Kumarakom in Kerala, India. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 4, 302-326.
CHIN, W. L., HADDOCK-FRASER, J. & HAMPTON, M. P. 2015. Destination competitiveness: evidence from Bali. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-25.
CHINA-TOURISM-RESEARCH-INSTITUTE. 2015. China Outbound Tourism in 2015 [Online]. Available: http://www.travelchinaguide.com/tourism/2015statistics/outbound.htm [Accessed 7 March 2016.
CHOK, S., MACBETH, J. & WARREN, C. 2007. Tourism as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation: A Critical Analysis of 'Pro-Poor Tourism' and Implications for Sustainability. Current Issues in Tourism, 10, 144-165.
CIA. 2016. Timor-Leste [Online]. The World Factbook. Available: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tt.html [Accessed 4 May 2016.
CINI, F. & SAAYMAN, M. 2013. Understanding visitors' image of the oldest marine park in Africa. Current Issues in Tourism, 16, 664-681.
COATES, D. 2014. Don't mess with the people's brand, man! Applied Arts Magazine.
COCKS, R. 2011. Timor-Leste, Singapore, Lonely Planet Publications.
CONSERVATION-INTERNATIONAL. 2016. Timor-Leste’s Nino Konis Santana National Park [Online]. Available: http://www.conservation.org/projects/Pages/Timor-Leste-Nino-Konis- Santana-National-Park.aspx [Accessed 29 March 2016.
CORNELISSEN, S. 2005. Producing and imaging ‘place’ and ‘people’: the political economy of South African international tourist representation. Review of International Political Economy, 12, 674-699.
CRAIGWELL, R. 2007. Tourism competitiveness in small island developing states. In: UNIVERSITY, U. N. (ed.) World Institute for Development Economics Research.
CRESWELL, J. W. 2013. Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods approaches, London, Sage Publications.
CROCBITE. 2016. Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database [Online]. Available: http://www.crocodile-attack.info.
CROCKETT, S. R. & WOOD, L. J. 1999. Brand Western Australia: A totally integrated approach to destination branding. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 5, 276-289.
D'HAUTESERRE, A.-M. 2011. Politics of Imaging New Caledonia. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 380-402.
DANN, G. 2002. Tourism and development. In: DESAI, V. & POTTER, R. (eds.) The companion to development studies. London, England: Arnold. 236
DAYE, M. 2010. Challenges and Prospects of Differentiating Destination Brands: The Case of the Dutch Caribbean Islands. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 27, 1-13.
DE CHERNATONY, L. 2006. From brand vision to brand evaluation, Burlington, MA, Butterworth-Heinemann.
DE CHERNATONY, L., HARRIS, F. & RILEY, F. D. 2000. Added value: its nature, roles and sustainability. European Journal of Marketing, 34, 39-56.
DENG, Q. & LI, M. 2013. A Model of Event-Destination Image Transfer. Journal of Travel Research, 53, 69-82.
DENNIS, P., GREY, J., MORRIS, E., PRIOR, R. & CONNOR, J. 2008. The Oxford companion to Australian military history, South Melbourne, Australia, Oxford University Press.
DEPARTMENT-OF-FOREIGN-AFFAIRS-AND-TRADE 2016. Australia's maritime arrangements with Timor-Leste. Canberra: Department-of-Foreign-Affairs-and-Trade.
DEPARTMENT-OF-VETERANS'-AFFAIRS. 2016. Why is the Kokoda track significant? [Online]. Available: http://kokoda.commemoration.gov.au/about-the-kokoda-track/kokoda-track- significance.php [Accessed 3 June 2016 2016].
DINNIE, K. 2008. National Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice, Oxford, Elsevier.
DINNIE, K., MELEWAR, T. C., SEIDENFUSS, K.-U. & MUSA, G. 2010. Nation branding and integrated marketing communications: an ASEAN perspective. International Marketing Review, 27, 388-403.
DIVANDARI, A., EKHLASSI, A. & RAHMANI, K. 2014. Devising a branding model for multipurpose mega-projects in entertainment, residential, tourism, and sport in Iran. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 20, 73-91.
DOLNICAR, S. & GRUN, B. 2013. Validly Measuring Destination Image in Survey Studies. Journal of Travel Research, 52, 3-14.
DORAN, M. & LLOYD, P. 2016. East Timor-Australia maritime border to be negotiated before United Nations after protests. ABC-News [Online]. Available: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016- 04-11/east-timor-to-negotiate-maritime-border-with-australia-at-un/7316674.
DUFFY, R. 2002. A Trip Too Far: Ecotourism, Politics and Exploitation, London, Earthscan.
DUTRA, L. X. C., HAMWORTH, R. J. & TABOADA, M. B. 2011. An Integrated Approach to Tourism Planning in a Developing Nation: A Case Study from Beloi (TImor-Leste). In: DREDGE, D. & JENKINS, J. (eds.) Stories of Practice: Tourism Policy and Planning. Farnham: Ashgate.
EAST-TIMOR-GOVERNMENT. 2015. Tourism [Online]. Available: http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/tourism.htm [Accessed 25 March 2015.
EAST-TIMOR-NOW. 2016. Manu Fulun headdress [Online]. Available: 237 http://www.easttimornow.com.au/photo-review.aspx [Accessed 14 March 2016.
ECHTNER, C. M. & PRASAD, P. 2003. The context of third world tourism marketing. Annals of Tourism Research, 30, 660-682.
ECHTNER, C. M. & RITCHIE, B. W. 1991. The Meaning and Measurement of Destination Image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2, 2-12.
ECHTNER, C. M. & RITCHIE, J. R. B. 1993. The Measurement of Destination Image: An Empirical Assessment. Journal of Travel Research, 31, 3-13.
EDYVANE, K., MCWILLIAM, A., QUINTAS, J., TURNER, A., PENNY, S., TEIXEIRA, I., PEREIRA, C., TIBIRICA, Y. & BIRTLES, A. 2009. Coastal & Marine Ecotourism Values, Issues & Opportunities on the North Coast of Timor Leste – Final Report. In: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & FISHERIES, GOVERNMENT OF TIMOR LESTE (ed.). Dili, Timor-Leste.
EKINCI, Y. & HOSANY, S. 2006. Destination personality: An application of Brand Personality to Tourism Destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 45, 127.
ENGELHARDT, R. 2005. Culturally and ecologically sustainable tourism development through local community management. In: HOOPER, A. (ed.) Culture and Sustainable Development in the Pacific. Canberra: Asia Pacific Press.
ESTERBERG, K. G. 2002. Qualitative Methods in Social Research. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
ETAN. 2005. Plain facts about Australia and East Timor's maritime boundary [Online]. Available: www.etan.org/etanpdf/pdf3/boundaries2.pdf [Accessed 1 March 2013.
EVANS, B. 2000. Australian Operations in Timor 1942-1943. Wartime, 10, 28-29.
EVANS, G. 2003. Hard-branding the cultural city - from Prado to Prada. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 27, 417-440.
EVERINGHAM, S. 2012. UN mission planning surprise-free East Timor pull-out [Online]. Available: www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/radio/onairhighlights/un-mission-planning- surprisefree-east-timor-pull-out [Accessed 1 March 2013.
FALLICK, K. 2013. Why you can't afford to ignore the bucket list traveller. Available from: http://blogamadeus.com/10/04/why-you-cant-afford-to-ignore-the-bucket-list-traveler/ 2016].
FAN, Y. 2006. Branding the nation: What is being branded? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12, 5-14.
FERNANDES, C. 2010. Two tales of Timor. In: STOCKINGS, C. (ed.) Zombie Myths of Australian Military History. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
FIJI-BUREAU-OF-STATISTICS. 2016. Tourism & Migration Statistics [Online]. Available: http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/index.php/migration-a-tourism [Accessed 16 April 2016.
FLETCHER, R. 2011. “The Only Risk is Wanting to Stay”: Mediating Risk in Colombian Tourism 238
Development. Recreation and Society in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 1.
FOX, J. J. 2003. Tracing the path, recounting the past: historical perspectives on Timor. In: FOX, J. J. & SOARES, D. B. (eds.) Out of the ashes: Destruction and Reconstruction of East Timor. Australia: Australian National University Press.
FOX, J. J. 2011. The Articulation of Tradition in Timor-Leste. In: MCWILLIAN, A. & TRAUBE, E. G. (eds.) Land and Life in Timor-Leste. Canberra: ANU Press.
GALLARZA, M. G., SAURA, I. G. & GARCIA, H. C. 2002. Destination Image: Towards a Conceptual Framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 29, 56-78.
GARCIA, J. A., GOMEZ, M. & MOLINA, A. 2012. A destination-branding model: An empirical analysis based on stakeholders. Tourism Management, 33, 646-661.
GARCÍA, J. A., GÓMEZ, M. & MOLINA, A. 2012. A destination-branding model: An empirical analysis based on stakeholders. Tourism Management, 33, 646-661.
GELBMAN, A. & MAOZ, D. 2012. Island of Peace or Island of War: Tourist Guiding. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 108-133.
GERTNER, D. 2007. Editorial: Place branding: Dilemma or reconciliation between political ideology and economic pragmatism? Place Branding, 3, 3-7.
GLIŃSKA, E. & KILON, J. 2014. Desirable Traits of the City Brand Personality in the Opinion of Managers for the Promotion of the City Government in Poland1. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 156, 418-423.
GOBE, M. 2001. Emotional branding: The new paradigm for connecting brands to people, New York, Allworth Press.
GOMES, R. 1999. The impact of Indonesia Invasion in East Timor. Strategic Developing Planning for East Timor Conference. Melbourne.
GOTHAM, K. F. 2007. (Re)Branding the Big Easy: Tourism Rebuilding in Post-Katrina New Orleans. Urban Affairs Review, 42, 823-850.
GOVERNMENT-OF-TIMOR-LESTE. 2015. Historical Archive: Succession of Governments, general elections and legislatures [Online]. Dili, Timor-Leste. Available: http://timor- leste.gov.tl/?cat=25&lang=en [Accessed 26 March 2015.
GUDLAUGSSON, T. & MAGNÚSSON, G. 2012. North Atlantic island destinations in tourists' minds. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6, 114-123.
GUIRY, M. & VEQUIST, D. G. 2014. South Korea's Medical Tourism Destination Brand Personality and the Influence of Personal Values. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 1-22.
GUNN, C. A. 1972. Vacationscape - Designing Tourist Regions, New York, Van Nostrand Remhold. 239
GUNN, C. A. 1993. Tourism planning: Basics, concepts, cases, London, Taylor & Francis.
GUNN, G. C. 1999. Timor Loro Sae: 500 Years, Macau, Livros do Oriente.
GUTERRES, A. 2007. Migration and development. In: KINGSBURY, D. & LEACH, M. (eds.) East Timor: Beyond Independence. Clayton: Monash University Press.
HALL, C. 2007. Introduction to tourism in Australia: Development, issues and change, NSW, Pearson Education Australia.
HALL, C. M. 2010. Tourism destination branding and its effects on national branding strategies: Brand New Zealand, clean and green but is it smart? European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation, 1, 68-89.
HALLMANN, K., ZEHRER, A. & MULLER, S. 2015. Perceived Destination Image: An Image Model for a Winter Sports Destination and Its Effect on Intention to Revisit. Journal of Travel Research, 54, 94-106.
HANDSZUH, H. F. 2007. Is Tourism Fair? What the Figures do not Tell. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 4, 149-158.
HANKINSON, G. 2004. Relational network brands: Towards a conceptual model of place brands. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10.
HANKINSON, G. 2005. Destination brand images: a business tourism perspective. Journal of Services Marketing, 19, 24-32.
HANKINSON, G. 2007. The management of destination brands: Five guiding principles based on recent developments in corporate branding theory. Journal of Brand Management, 14, 240-255.
HANKINSON, G. 2009. Managing destination brands: establishing a theoretical foundation. Journal of Marketing Management, 25, 97-115.
HANNAM, K. & DIEKMANN, A. 2011. Tourism and India: A critical introduction, New York, Routledge.
HARENGEL, P. & GBADAMOSI, A. 2014. ‘Launching’ a new nation: The unfolding brand of South Sudan. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 10, 35-54.
HARISH, R. 2010. Brand architecture in tourism branding: the way forward for India. Journal of Indian Business Research, 2, 153-165.
HARRISON-WALKER, J. 2011. Strategic Positioning of Nations as Brands. Journal of International Business Research, 10, 135-147.
HAUGLAND, S. A., NESS, H., GRØNSETH, B.-O. & AARSTAD, J. 2011. Development of tourism destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 268-290.
HSU, C. H. & SONG, H. 2013. Destination image in travel magazines: A textual and pictorial 240 analysis of Hong Kong and Macau. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19, 253-286.
HUANG, Y.-C., TSENG, Y.-P. & YIAP, L.-C. 2013. Image Recovery of the Resurrected Seashore City—New Orleans, Louisiana. Journal of Coastal Research, 287, 430-437.
HUDSON, R. 2016. RE: Australia Flag House tourism. Type to CURRIE, S.
HUDSON, S. & RITCHIE, J. R. B. 2009. Branding a memorable destination experience. The case of ‘Brand Canada’. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11, 217-228.
HULTMAN, M., SKARMEAS, D., OGHAZI, P. & BEHESHTI, H. M. 2015. Achieving tourist loyalty through destination personality, satisfaction, and identification. Journal of Business Research, 68, 2227-2231.
IMMIGRATION-OFFICE-TIMOR-LESTE 2015. List of foriegners coming to East Timor 2011- 2014.
INTREPID-TRAVEL 2016. Timor-Leste Trip Notes.
IPRIS 2011. Portuguese Institute of International Relations and Security (IPRIS) Lusophone Countries' Bulletin: 2010 Review, Portugal, IPRIS.
ISHII, K. 2012. The Impact of Ethnic Tourism on Hill Tribes in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 290-310.
JANSEN, S. C. 2008. Designer nations: Neo-liberal nation branding – Brand Estonia. Social Identities, 14, 121-142.
JEFFRIES, D. 2001. Governments and Tourism, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
JEONG, C., HOLLAND, S., JUN, S. H. & GIBSON, H. 2012. Enhancing destination image through travel website information. International Journal of Tourism Research, 14, 16-27.
JI, S. & WALL, G. 2015. Understanding supply- and demand-side destination image relationships: The case of Qingdao, China. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21, 205-222.
JIANG, Y., RAMKISSOON, H. & MAVONDO, F. 2015. Destination Marketing and Visitor Experiences: The Development of a Conceptual Framework. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 1-23.
KALANDIDES, A., BRAUN, E., KAVARATZIS, M. & ZENKER, S. 2013. My city – my brand: the different roles of residents in place branding. Journal of Place Management and Development, 6, 18- 28.
KAPFERER, J. 1999. Strategic Brand Management,, London, Kogan Page.
KAPFERER, J. 2007. The new strategic Brand Management, London, Kogan Page.
KARAMUSTAFA, K., FUCHS, G. & REICHEL, A. 2013. Risk Perceptions of a Mixed-Image
241
Destination: The Case of Turkey's First-Time Versus Repeat Leisure Visitors. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22, 243-268.
KAVARATZIS, M. 2004. From city marketing to city branding: towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Journal of Place Branding, 1, 58-73.
KELLER, K. 2002. Branding and brand equity. In: KELLER, K. (ed.) Handbook of Marketing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
KELLER, K. 2003. Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand Equity, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall.
KENNETT, J. 2009. Rising in the east - Balibo: East Timor. Sunday Telegraph, 9 August 2009.
KERRIGAN, F., SHIVANANDAN, J. & HEDE, A. M. 2012. Nation Branding: A Critical Appraisal of Incredible India. Journal of Macromarketing, 32, 319-327.
KIM, S. & PARK, E. 2014. First-time and repeat tourist destination image: the case of domestic tourists to Weh Island, Indonesia. Anatolia, 1-13.
KING, C., CHEN, N. & FUNK, D. C. 2015. Exploring Destination Image Decay: A Study of Sport Tourists' Destination Image Change after Event Participation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39, 3-31.
KING, J. 2002. Destination Marketing Organisations: Connecting the experience rather than promoting the place. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8, 105-108.
KINGSBURY, D. 2009. East Timor: the Price of Liberty, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
KINGSBURY, D. 2012. A glass half-full [Online]. Available: diliweekly.com/en/editorial/editorial- corner/1431-a-glass-half-full [Accessed 1 March 2013.
KINGSBURY, D. & LEACH, M. 2007. Introduction. In: KINGSBURY, D. & LEACH, M. (eds.) East Timor: Beyond Indepdence. Clayton: Monash University Press.
KOKKRANIKAL, J., CRONJE, P. & BUTLER, R. 2011. Tourism Policy and Destination Marketing in Developing Countries: The Chain of Influence. Tourism Planning & Development, 8, 359-380.
KONECNIK, M. & GO, F. 2008. Tourism destination brand identity: The case of Slovenia. Journal of Brand Management, 15, 177-189.
KONECNIK RUZZIER, M. 2012. Developing brand identity for Slovenia with opinion leaders. Baltic Journal of Management, 7, 124-142.
KONECNIK RUZZIER, M. & DE CHERNATONY, L. 2013. Developing and applying a place brand identity model: The case of Slovenia. Journal of Business Research, 66, 45-52.
KOTLER, P. & GERTNER, D. 2002. Leveraging export brands through a tourism destination brand. Journal of Brand Management, 9, 249-261. 242
KOUTRA, C. & KARYOPOULI, S. 2013. Cyprus' image—a sun and sea destination—as a detrimental factor to seasonal fluctuations. Exploration into motivational factors for holidaying in Cyprus. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30, 700-714.
LA'O-HAMUTUK. 2009. How much money have international donors spend on aid in Timor-Leste? [Online]. Available: www.laohamutuk.org/reports.09bgnd/Howmuchaiden.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2013.
LA'O-HAMUTUK. 2012. RDTL General State Budget for 2012 [Online]. Available: www.laohamutuk.org/econ/OGE12/10OJE2012En.htm#PF [Accessed 4 March 2013.
LA'O-HAMUTUK 2013. Annual Report. In: LA'O-HAMUTUK (ed.). Bebora, Dili, Timor-Leste: La'o-Hamutuk.
LA'O-HAMUTUK. 2015. Information about the Treaty between Australia and Timor-Leste on Certain Maritime Arrangements in the Timor Sea (CMATS) [Online]. [Accessed 26 March 2015.
LEACH, M. 2015. Generational change in Timor-Leste. Inside Story [Online], 18 February 2015.
LEE, G., CAI, L. A. & O’LEARY, J. T. 2006. WWW.Branding.States.US:An analysis of brand- building elements in the US state tourism websites. Tourism Management, 27, 815-828.
LEHTO, X. Y., LEE, G. & ISMAIL, J. 2014. Measuring Congruence of Affective Images of Destinations and Their Slogans. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16, 250-260.
LEWIS-CAMERON, A. & ROBERTS, S. 2010. Strategic Destination Marketing: The Key to a Competitive Advantage. In: LEWIS-CAMERON, A. & ROBERTS, S. (eds.) Marketing Island Destinations. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
LI, X. 2012. Examining the ‘relative image’ of tourism destinations: a case study. Current Issues in Tourism, 15, 741-757.
LI, X. & STEPCHENKOVA, S. 2012. Chinese Outbound Tourists' Destination Image of America: Part I. Journal of Travel Research, 51, 250-266.
LICHROU, M., O'MALLEY, L. & PATTERSON, M. 2010. Narratives of a tourism destination: Local particularities and their implications for place marketing and branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6, 134-144.
LIYANAG, U. & JAYAWARDENA, C. 2013. Towards a positioning strategy for tourism in post- war Sri Lanka. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 5, 477-485.
LO, I. S. & MCKERCHER, B. 2015. Ideal image in process: Online tourist photography and impression management. Annals of Tourism Research, 52, 104-116.
LUNDAHL, M. & SJOHOLM, F. 2008. Limping on Three Legs: The Development Problem of Timor-Leste. Sweden: Research-Institute-of-Industrial-Economics.
MACCANNELL, D. 1973. Staged Authenticity: On Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist 243
Settings. American Journal of Sociology, 79, 589-603.
MALHORTA, N., HALL, J., SHAW, M. & OPPENHEIM, P. 2006. Marketing Research, NSW, Pearson Education Australia.
MARKET-DEVELOPMENT-FACILITY. 2015. Balibo: a new destination for tourists and a new opportunity for improving livelihoods in Timor-Leste [Online]. Available: http://marketdevelopmentfacility.org/newsletters/newsletter-september-2013/balibo-a-new- destination-for-tourists-and-a-new-opportunity-for-improving-livelihoods-in-timor-leste/ [Accessed 26 March 2015.
MARX, S. 2014. Foreward. In: RAJALINGAM, G. (ed.) 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste. Dili, Timor-Leste: The-Asia-Foundation.
MARZANO, G. & SCOTT, N. 2009. Power in Destination Branding. Annals of Tourism Research, 36, 247-267.
MATZLER, K., STROBL, A., STOKBURGER-SAUER, N., BOBOVNICKY, A. & BAUER, F. 2016. Brand personality and culture: The role of cultural differences on the impact of brand personality perceptions on tourists' visit intentions. Tourism Management, 52, 507-520.
MAY, T. 2011. Social Research: Issues, methods and process, Berkshire, England, Open University Press.
MCDONALD, T. 2016. A brighter future: Can tourism help rebuild East Timor? BBC News, 14 June 2016.
MCDOWELL, S. 2008. Selling Conflict Heritage through Tourism in Peacetime Northern Ireland: Transforming Conflict or Exacerbating Difference? International Journal of Heritage Studies, 14, 405-421.
Indonesia's scorched earth policy levels East Timor, 1999. Directed by MCKEW, M. Australia: ABC News.
MCLAUGHLIN, J. 2011. What is a Brand, Anyway? Forbes [Online]. Available: http://www.forbes.com/sites/jerrymclaughlin/2011/12/21/what-is-a-brand-anyway/ [Accessed 27 March 2015].
MEDWAY, D. & WARNABY, G. 2008. Alternative perspectives on marketing and the place brand. European Journal of Marketing, 42, 641-653.
MICHAELIDOU, N., SIAMAGKA, N. T., MORAES, C. & MICEVSKI, M. 2013. Do Marketers Use Visual Representations of Destinations That Tourists Value? Comparing Visitors' Image of a Destination with Marketer-Controlled Images Online. Journal of Travel Research, 52, 789-804.
MIDDLETON, A. 2009. City branding and inward investment. In: DINNIE, K. (ed.) City Branding: theory and cases. Britain: Palgarve Macmillan.
244
MIHAILOVICH, P. 2006. Kinship branding: a concept of holism and evolution for the nation brand. Place Branding, 2, 229-247.
MINISTRY-OF-FINANCE 2010. Highlights of the 2010 Census Main Results in Timor-Leste. Dili, Timor-Leste: Ministry-of-Finance.
MINISTRY-OF-FINANCE 2015. Population and Housing Census 2015: Preliminary Results. Dili, Timor-Leste: Ministry-of-Finance.
MINISTRY-OF-HOTELS-AND-TOURISM-MYANMAR. 2016. Tourism Statistics [Online]. Available: http://www.myanmartourism.org/index.php/publication/tourism-statistics [Accessed 16 April 2016.
MINISTRY-OF-TOURISM. 2015. Budget of the Ministry of Tourism approved with majority votes [Online]. Timor-Leste.
MITCHELL, R. E. & REID, D. G. 2001. Community Integration: Island Tourism in Peru. Annals of Tourism Research, 28, 113-139.
MOCANU, R. 2014. Destination branding through experience and authenticity. Journal of Tourism Challenges and Trends, VII, 89-106.
MOHN, T. 2013. Travel Boom: Young Tourists Spent $217 Billion Last Year, More Growth Than Any Other Group [Online]. Forbes. Available: http://www.forbes.com/sites/tanyamohn/2013/10/07/the- new-young-traveler-boom/#8c2034344a36 [Accessed 13 March 2016.
MOILANEN, T. & RAINISTO, S. 2009. How to Brand Nations, Cities and Destinations: A Planning Book for Place Branding, United Kingdom, Palgrave Macmillan.
MOLNAR, A. K. 2005. East Timor: An Introduction to the History, Policitics and Culture of Southeast Asia's Youngest Nation, IL, Northern Illinois University.
MOLNAR, A. K. 2010. Timor-Leste: Politics, History & Culture, Routledge, New York.
MOOTEE, I. 2013. 60 Minute Brand Strategist, Hoboken, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons.
MORGAN, N. & PRITCHARD, A. 2014. Key issues in destination brand management. In: McCABE, S. (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.
MORGAN, N. & PRITCHARD, A. 1998. Tourism Promotion and Power: Creating Images, Creating Identities, Chichester UK, Wiley.
MORGAN, N. & PRITCHARD, A. 2002. Contextualising Destination Branding. In: MORGAN, N. J., PRITCHARD, A. & PRIDE, R. (eds.) Destination Branding: Creating the unique destination proposition. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
MORGAN, N. & PRITCHARD, A. 2007. Meeting the destination branding challenge. In: MORGAN, N., PRITCHARD, A. & PRIDE, R. (eds.) Destination branding. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. 245
MORGAN, N. & PRITCHARD, A. 2014. Destination reputations and brands: Communication challenges. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 3, 1.
MORGAN, N., PRITCHARD, A. & PIGGOTT, R. 2003. Destination branding and the role of the stakeholders: The case of New Zealand. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9, 285-299.
MORGAN, N., PRITCHARD, A. & PRIDE, R. 2004. Destination Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
MURDOCH, L. 2012. Scarred leader seeks healing role. The Sydney Morning Herlad, 27 April 2012.
MURPHY, L., MOSCARDO, G. & BENCKENDORFF, P. 2007. Using Brand Personality to Differentiate Regional Tourism Destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 46, 5-14.
MURPHY, T. 2015. Tourism and Myanmar's missed opportuntity. New Mandala [Online]. Available: http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2015/07/23/tourism-and-myanmars-missed- opportunity/ [Accessed 10 April 2016].
MYANMAR-TOURISM. 2016. Myanmar: Let the Journey Begin [Online]. Available: http://myanmar.travel [Accessed 16 April 2016.
NADEAU, J., O'REILLY, N. & HESLOP, L. 2011. China's Olympic destination: tourist evaluations of China and the Games. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5, 235- 246.
NANDONDE, F. A. 2015. Exploring Foreign Tourists’ Image of Tanzania: A Factorial Analysis Approach. Journal of African Business, 16, 144-158.
NATAHADIBRATA, N. 2015. Garuda soon to fly Bali-Timor Leste route. Jakarta Post [Online], 30 August 2014. Available: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/08/30/garuda-soon-fly-bali- timor-leste-route.html.
NELSON, V. 2013. Place Image during Transition: The Case of Rijeka, Croatia. Journal of Travel and Tourism Research, Spring & Fall.
NEVES, G. 2011. Timor: Where has all the aid gone? [Online]. Available: www.fpif.org/articles/timor_where_has_all_the_aid_gone [Accessed 5 March 2013.
NICOLAU, G. & SCHNEINER, C. 2005. Oil in Timor Leste [Online]. Available: www.laohamutuk.org/oil/curse/oilintloilwatch.htm [Accessed 1 March 2013.
NOBLE, T. 2005. Ethical tourism on an untouched island: East Timor. Sun Herald.
NOH, J. & VOGT, C. 2013. Modelling information use, image, and perceived risk with intentions to travel to East Asia. Current Issues in Tourism, 16, 455-476.
NORTH, S. 2015. Why do most city branding campaigns fail? Available: http://placematters.co/Resources.html [Accessed 27 March 2015].
246
NOVELLI, M., MORGAN, N. & NIBIGIRA, C. 2012. Tourism in a post-conflict situation of fragility. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 1446-1469.
NOY, C. 2014. Staging portraits: Tourism’s panoptic photo-industry. Annals of Tourism Research, 47, 48-62.
NUNKOO, R. & GURSOY, D. 2012. Residents’ support for tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 243-268.
NUTTAVUTHISIT, K. 2007. Branding Thailand: Correcting the negative image of sex tourism. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3, 21-30.
O'NEIL, P. 2011. Arrival, on Timor time. Sydney Morning Herald, 21 May 2011.
OECD 2002. Frascati Manual. Paris, France: OECD.
OLINS, W. 2002. Branding the nation - the historical context. Brand Management, 9, 241-248.
OLINS, W. 2005. Making a National Brand. In: MELISSEN, J. (ed.) The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
OLIVEIRA, E. & PANYIK, E. 2014. Content, context and co-creation: Digital challenges in destination branding with references to Portugal as a tourist destination. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21, 53-74.
OLSEN, K. 2008. The Maori of Tourist Brochures Representing Indigenousness. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 6, 161-184.
OLSSON, L. 2009. Gender Equality and United Nations Peace Operations in Timor-Leste, Boston, Leiden.
OOI, C. S. 2004. Poetics and politics of destination branding: Denmark. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality, 4, 107-128.
OSEI, C. & GBADAMOSI, A. 2011. Re-branding Africa. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 29, 284- 304.
PALMER, C. 1994. Tourism and Colonialism: The Experience of the Bahamas. Annals of Tourism Research, 21, 792-812.
PALMER, L. & CARVALHO, D. D. A. D. 2008. Nation building and resource management: The politics of 'nature' in Timor Leste. Geoforum, 39, 132-1332.
PATRASCU, C. 2014. The politics of image and nation branding in post-communist countries: Branding policies in Romania. Public Administration & Regional Studies, 13.
PEMBERTON, C. 2016. Paradise found. Australian Geographic. Australian Geographic Outdoor.
PEREIRA, R. L. G., CORREIA, A. L. & SCHUTZ, R. L. A. 2015. Towards a taxonomy of a golf-
247 destination brand personality: Insights from the Algarve golf industry. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4, 57-67.
PHILIP, J. & MERCER, D. 1999. Commodification of Buddhism in Contemporary Burma. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, 21-54.
PIKE, S. 2004. Destination marketing organisations, Amserdam, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.
PIKE, S. 2005. Tourism destination branding complexity. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 14, 258-259.
PIKE, S. 2009a. Destination brand positions of a competitive set of near-home destinations. Tourism Management, 30, 857-866.
PIKE, S. 2009b. Destination Branding Case Study: Tracking Brand Equity for an Emerging Destination Between 2003 and 2007. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34, 124-139.
PIKE, S. & BIANCHI, C. 2016. Destination Brand Equity for Australia: Testing a Model of CBBE in Short-Haul and Long-Haul Markets. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 40, 114-134.
PITT, L. F., OPOKU, R., HULTMAN, M., ABRATT, R. & SPYROPOUTO, S. 2007. What I say about myself: communication of brand personality by African countries. Tourism Management, 28, 835-844.
POMERING, A. & WHITE, L. 2011. The portrayal of Indigenous identity in Australian tourism brand advertising: Engendering an image of extraordinary reality or staged authenticity? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7, 165-174.
POON, A. 1993. Tourism, technology and competitive strategies, Oxon, CAB International.
PRATT, S. 2013. Same, Same but Different: Perceptions of South Pacific Destinations Among Australian Travelers. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30, 595-609.
PRATT, S. 2015. The economic impact of tourism in SIDS. Annals of Tourism Research, 52, 148-160.
PRAWIRA, Y. 2014. Promising tourism in Indonesia presents new investment opportunities. CEIC-Data [Online]. Available: www.ceicdata.com/en/blog/promising-tourism-indonesia- presents-new-investment-opportunities.
PREBENSEN, N. K. 2007. Exploring tourists’ images of a distant destination. Tourism Management, 28, 747-756.
PRIDE, R. 2001. Brand Wales: 'Natural Revival'. In: MORGAN, N., PRITCHARD, A. & PRIDE, R. (eds.) Destination branding: Creating the unique destination proposition. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
QU, H., KIM, L. H. & IM, H. H. 2011. A model of destination branding: Integrating the concepts of branding and destination image. Tourism Management, 32, 465-476.
248
QUINN, M. 2007. The challenge of realising language and literacy goals in East Timor's schools. In: KINGSBURY, D. & LEACH, M. (eds.) East Timor: Beyond Independence. Clayton: Monash University Press.
QUINTAL, V., PHAU, I. & POLCZYNSKI, A. 2014. Destination brand image of Western Australia's South-West region: Perceptions of local versus international tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 20, 41-54.
RAJALINGAM, G. 2014. 2014 Survey of Travelers to Timor-Leste. Dili, Timor-Leste: The-Asia- Foundation.
RAMOS-HORTA, J. 1987. Funu: the unfinished saga of East Timor, NJ, The Red Sea Press.
RAMOS-HORTA, J. 2011a. Forward. In: COCKS, R. (ed.) Lonely Planet Timor-Leste. Singapore: Lonely Planet Publications.
RAMOS-HORTA, J. 2011b. RE: Tour de Timor and tourism. Type to CURRIE, S.
RAMOS-HORTA, J. 2012. Timor Leste: Tetum, Portuguese, Bahasa Indonesia or English? The Jakarta Post, 20 April 2012.
RAMOS-HORTA, J. 2015. Timor-Leste: Travel Advice by Australia and UK Govts. officialramoshorta [Online]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/officialramoshorta/posts/981072261944658 2015].
RAMSEOOK-MUNHURRUN, P., SEEBALUCK, V. N. & NAIDOO, P. 2015. Examining the Structural Relationships of Destination Image, Perceived Value, Tourist Satisfaction and Loyalty: Case of Mauritius. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 252-259.
RINALDI, C. & BEETON, S. 2015. Success in Place Branding: The Case of the Tourism Victoria Jigsaw Campaign. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 32, 622-638.
RITCHIE, J. R. B. & RITCHIE, R. J. B. 1998. The branding of tourism destination: past achievements and future trends in destination marketing - scope and limitations. Reports of 48th Congress. St-Gall.
RITCHIE, J. R. B & CROUCH, G. I. 2003. The Competitive Destination: A sustainable tourism perspective. Wallingford, Oxford: CABI Publishing.
RITTICHAINUWAT, B. 2011. Ghosts. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 437-459.
ROBERTS, S. & LEWIS-CAMERON, A. 2010. Small Island Developing States: Issues and Prospects. In: LEWIS-CAMERON, A. & ROBERTS, S. (eds.) Marketing Island Destinations. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
ROBINSON, G. 2003. East Timor 1999, Crimes against Humanity. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).
RODRÍGUEZ-MOLINA, M. A., FRÍAS-JAMILENA, D. M. & CASTAÑEDA-GARCÍA, J. A. 2015. 249
The contribution of website design to the generation of tourist destination image: The moderating effect of involvement. Tourism Management, 47, 303-317.
ROGAL, M. 2012. Identity and Representation: The (Yucatec) Maya in the Visual Culture of Tourism. Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies, 7, 49-69.
ROHNER, D. 2006. Beach holiday in Bali or East Timor? Why conflict can lead to under- and overexploitation of natural resources. Economic Letters, 92, 113-117.
ROSE, J. 2012. Ready for visitors, of sorts. The Sydney Morning Herald, 19 July 2012.
ROY-MORGAN-RESEARCH. 2013. Golden years: empty nesters indulge their wanderlust [Online]. Available: http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/empty-nesters-indulge-wanderlust-201308280112 [Accessed 7 March 2016.
RYAN, C. & CAVE, J. 2005. Structuring Destination Image: A Qualitative Approach. Journal of Travel Research, 44, 143-150.
RYAN, J. & SILVANTO, S. 2010. World Heritage Sites: The Purposes and Politics of Destination Branding. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 27, 533-545.
RYU, K., BORDELON, B. M. & PEARLMAN, D. M. 2013. Destination-Image Recovery Process and Visit Intentions: Lessons Learned from Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22, 183-203.
SAID, E. 1978. Orientalism, New York, Vinate Books.
SANTOS, E. R. M. D. & CAMPO, M. L. R. 2014. Destination branding: A reflective analysis of Brand Cape Verde. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 10, 87-102.
SARANIEMI, S. 2011. From destination image building to identity-based branding. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5.
SARTORI, A., MOTTIRONI, C. & CORIGLIANO, M. A. 2012. Tourist destination brand equity and internal stakeholders: An empirical research. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 18, 327-340.
SAURINE, A. 2013. Myanmar (Burma) facing challenges after huge tourism growth. Herald Sun, November 17, 2013.
SCHEYVENS, R. 2007. Exploring the tourism-poverty nexus. In: HALL, C. M. (ed.) Pro-poor tourism: Perspectives on tourism and poverty reduction. Bristol, England: Channel View Publications.
SCHEYVENS, R. & RUSSELL, M. 2012. Tourism and poverty alleviation in Fiji: comparing the impact of small and large-scale tourism enterprises. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20, 417-436.
SCOTT, N., ASHTON, A. S., DING, P. & XU, H. 2011. Tourism branding and nation building in China. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5, 227-234.
250
SEETANAH, B. 2011. Assessing the dynamic economic impact of tourism for island economies. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 291-308.
SEIDMAN, I. 2006. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences (3rd ed). New York: Teachers College Press.
SEKARAN, U. 1983. Methodological and Theoretical Issues and Advancements in Cross- Cultural Research. Journal of International Business Studies, 14(2), 61-73.
SELJESETH, P. I. & KORNELIUSSEN, T. 2015. Experience-based Brand Personality as a Source of Value Co-creation: The Case of Lofoten. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 15, 48- 61.
SHAMS, S. M. R. 2016. Branding destination image: a stakeholder causal scope analysis for internationalisation of destinations. Tourism Planning & Development, 13, 140-153.
SIDSNET:SMALL-ISLAND-DEVELOPING-STATES-NETWORK. 2015. SIDS - A Special Case [Online]. Available: http://www.sidsnet.org/about-sids [Accessed 23 September 2015.
SILVERMAN, D. 2010. Doing Qualitative Research, London, Sage Publications.
SINCLAIR-MARAGH, G. & GURSOY, D. 2015. Imperialism and tourism: The case of developing island countries. Annals of Tourism Research, 50, 143-158.
SIRGY, M. J. & SU, C. 2000. Destination image, self-congruity, and travel behaviour: toward an integrative model. Journal of Travel Research, 38, 340-352.
SMARTRAVELLER.GOV.AU. 2016. Timor-Leste [Online]. Available: http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/advice/Timor_Leste [Accessed 1 June 2016.
SMITH, V. L. & FONT, X. 2014. Volunteer tourism, greenwashing and understanding responsible marketing using market signalling theory. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22, 942-963.
SMITH, W. W., LI, X., PAN, B., WITTE, M. & DOHERTY, S. T. 2015. Tracking destination image across the trip experience with smartphone technology. Tourism Management, 48, 113-122.
STEEDMAN, P. H. 1991. On the relations between seeing, interpreting and knowing, in STEIER, F. (ed.) Research and reflexivity. Sage Publications: UK.
STEPCHENKOVA, S. & ZHAN, F. 2013. Visual destination images of Peru: Comparative content analysis of DMO and user-generated photography. Tourism Management, 36, 590-601.
STYLIDIS, D., BELHASSEN, Y. & SHANI, A. 2014a. Three Tales of a City: Stakeholders' Images of Eilat as a Tourist Destination. Journal of Travel Research.
STYLIDIS, D., SIT, J. & BIRAN, A. 2014b. An Exploratory Study of Residents' Perception of Place Image: The Case of Kavala. Journal of Travel Research.
SUN, M., RYAN, C. & PAN, S. 2014. Using Chinese Travel Blogs to Examine Perceived 251
Destination Image: The Case of New Zealand. Journal of Travel Research.
SUNG, Y., CHOI, S. M., AHN, H. & SONG, Y.-A. 2015. Dimensions of Luxury Brand Personality: Scale Development and Validation. Psychology & Marketing, 32, 121-132.
SZONDI, G. 2008. Public diplomacy and nation branding: conceptual similarities and differences. In: RELATIONS, T. N. I. O. I. (ed.) Discussion papers in Diplomacy. The Hague.
TAPSELL, R. & EIDENFALK, J. 2013. Australian Reporting from East Timor 1975-1999: Journalists as Agents of Change. Australian Journal of Politics and History, 59, 576-592.
TASCI, A. D. A. & GARTNER, W. C. 2007. Destination image and its functional relationships. Journal of Travel Research, 45, 413-425.
TASCI, A. D. A. & HOLECEK, D. F. 2007. Assessment of image change over time: The case of Michigan. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 13, 359-369.
TAVITIYAMAN, P. & QU, H. 2013. Destination Image and Behavior Intention of Travelers to Thailand: the Moderating Effect of Perceived Risk. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30, 169- 185.
TAYLOR-LEECH, K. 2007. Sustaining language policy and language rights: where to from here? In: KINGSBURY, D. & LEACH, M. (eds.) East Timor: Beyond Independence. Australia: Monash University Press.
TEMPO-SEMANAL. 2015. Speech of TL new PM on the occasion of the swearing-in of the new government. Tempo Semanal [Online].
TESSITORE, T., PANDELAERE, M. & VAN KERCKHOVE, A. 2014. The Amazing Race to India: Prominence in reality television affects destination image and travel intentions. Tourism Management, 42, 3-12.
TEUTSCH, D. 2008. After a false start, East Timor could yet live up to its tourism potential. Sun Herald, 10 August 2008.
THALER, K. 2011. Black gold or black hole? Oil and development in Timor Leste. In: GORJAO, P. (ed.) Lusophone Countries' Bulletin. Portugal: IPRIS.
THE GUARDIAN. 2015. Xanana Gusmao stands down as Timor Leste prime minister. 6 February 2015.
THE-HERITAGE-FOUNDATION&THE-WALL-STREET-JOURNAL. 2015. Timor-Leste Econony: Facts, Data & Analysis on Economic Freedom [Online]. Available: www.heritage.org/index/country/timorleste [Accessed 26 March 2015.
THE WORLD BANK 2011. Timor Leste: Expanding Near-Term Agricultural Exports. Poverty- Reduction-and-Economic-Management-Sector-Unit. The-World-Bank.
THE WORLD BANK & NATIONAL STATISTICS DIRECTORATE 2008. Timor-Leste: Poverty in 252 a young nation, Timor-Leste, The World Bank & National Statistics Directorate.
THOMPSON, K. 2006. An eye for the Tropics: Tourism, photography, and framing the Caribbean picturesque, London, UK: Duke University Press.
TIMOR-LESTE-GOVERNMENT 2011. Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030, Timor-Leste, Timor-Leste Government.
TKACZYNSKI, A., RUNDLE-THIELE, S. R. & CRETCHLEY, J. 2015. A vacationer-driven approach to understand destination image: A Leximancer study. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21, 151-162.
TOLKACH, D. 2013a. Establishing a community-based tourism network in Timor-Leste: opportunities and prospects. CAUTHE 2013. CAUTHE.
TOLKACH, D. 2013b. The propensity for community-based tourism in East Timor. Victoria University.
TOLKACH, D. 2014. History and future of tourism development in Timor-Leste. Understanding Timor-Leste 2013. National University of Timor Lorosa'e, Dili, Timor-Leste: Swinburne University Press.
TOURISM-AUSTRALIA. 2016a. Brand Australia [Online]. Available: http://www.tourism.australia.com/about-us/brand-australia.aspx [Accessed 13 March 2016.
TOURISM-AUSTRALIA. 2016b. A Uniquely Australian Invitation: The Experience Seeker [Online]. Tourism-Australia. Available: http://www.tourism.australia.com/documents/corporate/marketing_experience_factsheet.pdf [Accessed 13 March 2016.
TOURISM-CAMBODIA. 2016. Official Statistics [Online]. Available: http://www.tourismcambodia.org/mot/index.php?view=statistic_report#comp [Accessed 16 April 2016.
TOURISM-FIJI. 2016. Official website of Tourism Fiji [Online]. Available: http://www.fiji.travel [Accessed 16 April 2016.
TOURISM-NEW-ZEALAND-TRADE. 2016. 100% Pure New Zealand [Online]. Available: http://traveltrade.newzealand.com/en/training-resources-help/working-with-us/100-pure-new- zealand/ [Accessed 27 March 2016.
TOURISM-NT 2014. Quickstats Report: Year Ending September 2104. Darwin, Northern Territory: Tourism NT.
TOURISM-RESEARCH-AND-MARKETING 2013. New Horizons III. NSW, Australia: WYSE Travel Confederation.
TOURISM-RESEARCH-AUSTRALIA. 2015. Outbound Tourism Statistics [Online]. Available:
253 http://www.tra.gov.au/research/Australians-travelling-overseas.html [Accessed 16 April 2016.
TOURISM-TIMOR-LESTE. 2012. About Timor-Leste [Online]. Available: www.tourismtimorleste.com/mtci/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog &id=25&Itemid=1 [Accessed 1 March 2013.
TOURTELLOT, J. P. 2007. 111 Islands. National Geographic Traveler.
TRANSPARENCY-INTERNATIONAL. 2014. Corruption Perceptions Index [Online]. Available: cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/#CountryResults [Accessed 26 March 2015.
TRINDADE, J. 2012. Lulik: The Core of Timorese Values. In: LEACH, M., MENDES, N. C., SILVA, A. B. D., BROUGHTON, B. & XIMENES, A. D. C. (eds.) Timor-Leste Studies Association. Dili, Timor-Leste: Swinburne University.
TRUONG, V. D. 2014. Pro-Poor Tourism: Looking Backward as We Move Forward. Tourism Planning & Development, 11, 228-242.
UNDP 2011. Human Development Report 2011. Sustainability and equity: A better future for all, NY, UNDP.
UNDP 2015. Human Development Report 2015. Work for human development. NY: UNDP.
UNITED-NATIONS-DEVELOPMENT-PROGRAM 2007. Sustainable Tourism Sector Development and Institutational Strengthening Project. World-Tourism-Organisation.
UNITED-NATIONS:DEPARTMENT-OF-ECONOMIC-AND-SOCIAL-AFFAIRS 2013. Additional measures needed for SIDS.
URRY, J. 1990. The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies, London, Sage Publications.
URRY, J. 2002. The Tourist Gaze, London, Sage Publications.
US-AID 2015. Timor-Leste Economic Diversification Analysis: Candlenut, mobile finance market & tourism assessments. US-AID.
US-DEPARTMENT-OF-STATE. 2014. 2014 Investment Climate Statement - Timor-Leste [Online]. Available: http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2014/227292.htm [Accessed 26 March 2015.
USAKLI, A. & BALOGLU, S. 2011. Brand personality of tourist destinations: An application of self-congruity theory. Tourism Management, 32, 114-127.
VAN HAM, P. 2008. The image of the creative cit: some reflections in Turin. Cities, 25, 370-382.
VASUDEVAN, S. 2008. The role of internal stakeholders in destination branding: Observations from Kerala Tourism. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 4, 331-335.
VERSCHUREN, P. J. M. 2003. Case Study as a Research Strategy: Some Ambiguities and
254
Opportunities. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 6(2), 121-139.
VIETNAM-NATIONAL-ADMINISTRATION-OF-TOURISM. 2016. Tourism Statistics 2015 [Online]. Available: http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/cat/1501 [Accessed 16 April 2016.
VITIC, A. & RINGER, G. 2008. Branding Post-Conflict Destinations. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23, 127-137.
VOLCIC, Z., ERJAVEC, K. & PEAK, M. 2013. Branding Post-War Sarajevo. Journalism Studies, 15, 726-742.
WAGNER, O. & PETERS, M. 2009. Can association methods reveal the effects of internal branding on tourism destination stakeholders? Journal of Place Management and Development, 2, 52-69.
WALTER, M. 2010. Social Research Methods, Melbourne, Victoria, Oxford University Press.
WANG, D., CHAN, H. & PAN, S. 2014. The Impacts of Mass Media on Organic Destination Image: A Case Study of Singapore. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 1-15.
WEARING, S. 2007. Swimming against the mainstream. Australasian Parks and Leisure, 10, 15-19.
WHEELER, F. G. 2010. POLITICS, POWER AND PASSION: Regional Destination Branding in North-East Victoria, Australia. Doctor of Philosophy, Monash University.
WHEELER, T. 2004. East Timor, Melbourne, Lonely Planet.
WHYTE, S. 2011. 'Miss Rich' in spat over promo fee. Sun Herald, 3 July 2011.
WILDER, J. 2007. Nation Branding: With Pride Against Prejudice. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3, 144-150.
WINTER, T. 2008. Post‐conflict Heritage and Tourism in Cambodia: The Burden of Angkor. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 14, 524-539.
WISE, N. A. & MULEC, I. 2012. Headlining Dubrovnik's Tourism Image: Transitioning Representations/Narratives of War and Heritage Preservation 1991–2010. Tourism Recreation Research, 37, 57-69.
WORLD-TOURISM-ORGANISATION-AND-THE-EUROPEAN-TRAVEL-COMMISSION 2009. Handbook on Tourism Destinations Branding. Madrid, Spain: World-Tourism- Organisation.
XIMENES, V. & CARTER, R. W. 1999. Tourism: A strategic focus for sustainable development in East Timor. Strategic Development Planning for East Timor. Melbourne.
YANG, L. 2011. Ethnic tourism and cultural representation. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 561-585.
255
YANG, L. & WALL, G. 2009. Authenticity in ethnic tourism: domestic tourists' perspectives. Current Issues in Tourism, 12, 235-254.
YASARATA, M., ALTINAY, L., BURNS, P. & OKUMUS, F. 2010. Politics and sustainable tourism development – Can they co-exist? Voices from North Cyprus. Tourism Management, 31, 345-356.
YIN, R. 2003. Case study research: Design and methods, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
ZHAO, W. & LI, X. 2006. Globalization of Tourism and Third World Tourism Development. Chinese Geographical Science, 16, 203-210.
ZOUGANELI, S., TRIHAS, N., ANTONAKI, M. & KLADOU, S. 2012. Aspects of Sustainability in the Destination Branding Process: A Bottom-up Approach. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 21, 739-757.
256
List of Appendices
Appendix 1: List of interview participants by industry, nationality, location and participation
Appendix 2: Record of fieldwork conducted in Timor-Leste
Appendix 3: Destination brand, developed by the author
Appendix 4: Ethical approval attained for this thesis
257
Appendix 1: List of interview participants by industry, nationality, location and participation
# Sector Nationality Location* E SS FU1 FU2 FG1 FG2 FG3 W1 W2 1 Government Timor > 5yrs Dili X HE Jose Ramos-Horta 2 Government Timorese Dili X X X X
3 Government Expat Dili X X X X
4 Government Timorese Atauro X X X
5 Government Timorese Balibo X X X X X X Director of Marketing, Ministry of Tourism 6 NGO Timorese Dili X X
7 Education Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X
8 Education Timorese Dili X X
9 Private Sector Expat Dili X X X X X Tour operator 10 Private Sector Expat Atauro X X X X Tour operator 11 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X Tour operator 12 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X Accommodation 13 Government Timorese Dili X X X Minister for Tourism 14 Government Timorese Dili X X X X
262
15 Government Timor > 5yrs Dili X X
16 Government Expat Dili X X X
17 Government Timorese Lautem X X
18 NGO Timorese Balibo X X X
19 NGO Expat Dili X X X X
20 NGO Timor >5yrs Ainaro X X X
21 NGO Expat Aileu; Liquica X X X X
22 NGO Timor >5yrs Aileu; X X Hautbulico; Tutuala 23 Education Timorese Dili X X
24 Education Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X
25 Education Expat Dili X
26 Education Expat Baucau X X X
27 Student Timorese Atauro X X
28 Student Timorese Baucau X X
29 Student Timorese Bobonaro X
30 Student Timorese Baucau X
263
31 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X Accommodation 32 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Tibar X X Accommodation 33 Private Sector Expat Liquica X X X Accommodation 34 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X Accommodation 35 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X Tour operator 36 Private Sector Expat Melbourne X Tour operator 37 Private Sector Timorese Dili X X Travel agency/ tours 38 Private Sector Expat Dili X Airline 39 Private Sector Expat Darwin X X Airline 40 Private Sector Expat Dili X X Accommodation 41 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X Accommodation 42 Private Sector Expat Dili X X Accommodation 43 Government Expat Dili X X X X X
44 Government Timorese Dili X X X
45 NGO Expat Dili X X X
46 NGO Expat Dili X X
47 NGO Expat Dili X X
264
48 Education Expat Dili X
49 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Liquica X X X X Accommodation
50 Private Sector Expat Dili X Accommodation 51 Government Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X
52 NGO Expat Dili X X
53 NGO Timorese Dili X
54 Education Timorese Atauro X X
55 Private Sector Timor > 5yrs Dili X X X Accommodation 56 Private Sector Timorese Dili X X X Tour operator
* Indicates the location of the participants’ primary tourism interest. Location of interview may differ. E = Exploratory interviews, conducted August-October 2012 SS = Semi-structured interviews, conducted October 2013 to February 2014 FU1 = Follow-up interviews part one, conducted September to October 2014 FU2 = Follow-up interviews part two, conducted March 2015 FG1 = Focus group one, conducted March 2014 FG2 = Focus group two (industry participants), conducted July 2015 FG3 = Focus group three (government participants), conducted July 2015 W1 = Workshop one (government participants), conducted January 2016 W2 = Workshop two (industry participants), conducted February 2016
265
Appendix 2: Record of fieldwork conducted in Timor-Leste
Participation in cultural/ social events Tourism activities within the city of Dili Openings & official events with President Ramos-Horta (2011) Christo Rei Statue
Tour de Timor (2011) Pope statue at Tasi Tolu Election observer in Balibo (2012) CAVR Museum
Presidential inauguration & 10 year celebration of Resistance Museum independence in Tasi Tolu (2012) Dili Marathon (2012) Tais markets Tour de Timor (2012) Restaurants across Dili Guest tourism lecturer - Dili Institute of Technology (2012-13) Presidential Palace & Palacio do Governo Volunteer English language tutor UNTL (2012-13) Lago de Lecidere promenade
Presentation at TLSA conference (2013)
Managed joint UNTL/ Victoria University conference at Dili Convention Centre (2013) Managed launch event of ‘Australia House’ and Balibo Community Learning Centre (2013) Attended launch of new Balibo Fort Hotel (2015)
Presentation at TLSA conference (2015)
Managed joint UNTL/ Victoria University conference at Dili Convention Centre (2015) Attended opening of Balibo dental clinic (2016)
Tourism consultant – The Asia Foundation, Dili, (2015-2016)
258
Location District Accommodation Tourist sites July 2011 Maubisse Ainaro Maubisse pousada Maubisse market & town July 2011 Dare Dili n/a War memorial Sept 2011 Laclubar Manatuto Priest’s home Tour de Timor Visited official school opening w President Sept 2011 Baucau Baucau Baucau pousada Opening of ‘peace house’ with President Sept 2011 Com Lautem Com Beach Resort Tour de Timor
Oct 2011 Atauro Island Dili Barry’s Place Snorkelling, town of Beloi April 2012 Dollar Beach & Dili n/a Dive and snorkelling K41 spots east of Dili May 2012 Tutuala Lautem Valu Sera cooperative Jaco Island
May 2012 Los Palos Lautem Local homestay Local village tour
June 2012 Adara Dili Day trip Snorkelling and diving
July 2012 Balibo Bobonaro Nun’s guesthouse Parliamentary election observer, visit fort & town Aug 2012 Wataboi Beach Baucau Local guesthouse Swim, Wataboi restaurant on beach Aug 2012 Hatabulico Ainaro Alecrim Namrau Climb Mount Ramelau guesthouse at sunrise Aug 2012 Aileu Aileu Lunch only Town visit, old Portuguese ruins Sept 2012 Batagarde Bobonaro Campsite Tour de Timor, festivities on border Sept 2012 Pantemakassar Oecussi Campsite Tour de Timor - swim, scenic tour Sept 2012 Gleno Emera Campsite Tour de Timor- scenic route through Maliana & Atsabe Oct 2012 Atauro Island Dili Barry’s Place Swim, snorkel
Feb 2013 Cameo Beach Liquica Black rock resort Swim, sunset viewing
259
Location District Accommodation Tourist sites March 2013 Maubisse Aileu Cafe Maubisse Visit to hidden waterfall April 2013 Maubara Liquica Lunch Only Maubara fort and markets June 2013 Baucau Baucau Baucau pousada Visit to town, swimming pool & Wataboi beach June 2013 Balibo Bobonaro Day trip - stayed in Visit to Australia house Liquica Black Rock and fort
July 2013 Tibar Dili Tibar Beach Resort Weekend trip from Dili
Aug 2013 Ossu Viqueque Hotel Wailakurini Ossu caves, waterfalls, river Sept 2013 Balibo Bobonaro Campsite in fort Launch of new Australia House/ Balibo CLC Sept 2013 Liquica Liquica Black rock resort, Weekend trip from Dili Cameo Beach
Sept 2013 Maliana Bobonaro Pousada Maliana Morobo hot springs
Oct 2013 Com Lautem Com Beach Resort Markets, beach walk
Oct 2013 Tutuala Lautem Pousada Tutuala Jaco Island, Tutuala beach Nov 2013 Atauro Dili Barry’s Boat trip, snorkelling, hiking Dec 2013 Baucau Baucau Pousada Baucau Boat trip to hidden beaches, snorkelling Dec 2013 Aileu town & Aileu Lunch only Markets & war Dare memorial Jan 2014 Tibar Dili Tibar Beach Resort Weekend trip from Dili
Oct 2014 Venilale Viqueque Local guesthouse Swim in river, jungle walk March 2015 Balibo Bobonaro Balibo Fort Hotel Opening of new Balibo Fort Hotel July 2015 Liquica Liquica Black rock resort, Weekend trip from Dili Cameo Beach Jan 2016 Atauro Dili Barry’s place Boat trip, snorkelling
260
Location District Accommodation Tourist sites Feb 2016 Dare Dili Lunch only War memorial
April 2016 Gleno Emera Lunch only Coffee plantations, local warung May 2016 Aileu Aileu Lunch only Markets, new hiking track June 2016 Liquica Liquica Lahuna beachside Weekend from Dili resort
261
Appendix 3: Destination brand, developed by the author
Also available at: naroman.tl/ComeSee.pdf
266 COME SEE US timor AS WE ARE leste COME SEE Where ‘cultural US AS performances’ WE ARE are daily life COME SEE Where the US ‘cruise ships’ AS WE only have ARE one oar COME SEE Where you will US AS never travel in WE ARE a ‘tourist bus’ COME SEE Where there’s an US ‘information centre’ AS WE Where you will ARE at every turn never travel in a ‘tourist bus’ COME SEE A land of US AS rugged WE ARE landscapes COME SEE An ocean of US AS unexplored WE ARE treasure COME SEE Unearth your US AS intrepid WE ARE adventurer COME SEE Unwind in US AS a natural WE ARE paradise COME SEE A nation US AS with a new WE ARE beginning COME SEE A culture US that is AS resilient WE ARE and proud COME SEE Where history US AS meets the WE ARE future COME SEE Experience US AS more than WE ARE a holiday COME SEE A welcome US AS you’ll always WE ARE remember COME SEE The story of a nation US AS you’ll never forget WE ARE COME SEE only one US AS hour from WE ARE darwin COME only one SEE But an US hour from AS entire WE darwin ARE ‘world away’ COME SEE Visit Timor-LeSTe US AS before the tourists WE ARE find us COME SEE US AS WE ARE COME SEE US timor AS WE ARE leste
Text and strategy by Sara Currie Design by Naroman.tl Photography by Sara Currie,
Mat Lyn, Zoe Morely, Karen Ni Riada and Daniel Groshong.
Appendix 4: Ethical approval attained for this thesis
Ethics approval was attained through Victoria University on 29th October 2013 Application ID: HRE13-200
The above ethics was approved by Swinburne University on 20th October 2015 (No new number given)
Ethics approval for a second stage of research (due to PhD upgrade) attained through Swinburne on 12th October 2015. SHR Project: 2015/255
267
Dear PROF LINDSAY TURNER,
» Application ID: HRE13-200 » Investigators: PROF LINDSAY TURNER (Primary CI); MS SARA CURRIE, MISS THUY HUONG TRUONG » Application Title: Destination brand development for emerging nations: The case of Timor-Leste » Status: Pending - Amendments Required » Form Version: 12-10
Your ethics application has been formally reviewed. The outcome of this review is 'Amendments Required'. Before your application can be approved, you are required to make some revisions.
Please log in to Quest to make these necessary changes before resubmitting your revised application to the Ethics Secretary. Instructions on how to revise and resubmit your application are included below - please read these carefully as you will not be able to resubmit your application unless all steps are followed. We strongly recommend you download the more detailed Online Ethics Guide from the Quest website, http://research.vu.edu.au/quest_guide_ethics.php
The Ethics Secretary will then forward your revised application to the Chair of the Human Research Ethics Committee for a second formal review.
The Committee would normally expect that a revised application would be submitted within two months of the date of this notification. If you are unable to submit your amended application within this time-frame, please notify the Ethics Secretary in writing.
Remember, your application has not been approved - you cannot start your research project.
Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee Phone: 9919 4781 or 9919 4461 Email: [email protected]
268
To: A/Prof. Michael Leach, FHAD
Dear Michael,
SHR Project 2015/255 – Destination brand building for emerging nations: the case of Timor-Leste A/Prof. Michael Leach, Ms Sara Currie, Dr Ann Mitsis - FHAD Approved duration: 12-10-2015 to 12-04-2016 [adjusted]
I refer to the ethical review of the above project by a Subcommittee (SHESC2) of Swinburne's Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC). Your responses to the review as emailed on 05 October 2015 were put to the Subcommittee delegate for consideration.
I am pleased to advise that, as submitted to date, ethics clearance has been given for the above project to proceed in line with standard on-going ethics clearance conditions outlined below.
- All human research activity undertaken under Swinburne auspices must conform to Swinburne and external regulatory standards, including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and with respect to secure data use, retention and disposal.
- The named Swinburne Chief Investigator/Supervisor remains responsible for any personnel appointed to or associated with the project being made aware of ethics clearance conditions, including research and consent procedures or instruments approved. Any change in chief investigator/supervisor requires timely notification and SUHREC endorsement.
- The above project has been approved as submitted for ethical review by or on behalf of SUHREC. Amendments to approved procedures or instruments ordinarily require prior ethical appraisal/clearance. SUHREC must be notified immediately or as soon as possible thereafter of (a) any serious or unexpected adverse effects on participants and any redress measures; (b) proposed changes in protocols; and (c) unforeseen events which might affect continued ethical acceptability of the project.
269
- At a minimum, an annual report on the progress of the project is required as well as at the conclusion (or abandonment) of the project. Information on project monitoring and variations/additions, self-audits and progress reports can be found on the Research Intranet pages.
- A duly authorised external or internal audit of the project may be undertaken at any time.
Please contact the Research Ethics Office if you have any queries about on- going ethics clearance, citing the Swinburne project number. A copy of this email should be retained as part of project record-keeping.
Best wishes for the project.
Yours sincerely, Astrid Nordmann SHESC2 Secretary
------Dr Astrid Nordmann Research Ethics Officer Swinburne Research (H68) Swinburne University of Technology PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122 Tel: +613 9214 3845 Fax: +613 9214 5267 Email: [email protected] ------
270
Dear Sara,
On 5 October 2015 you contacted Swinburne Research seeking approval to use research findings from research undertaken during your previous enrolment at Victoria University as part of your Swinburne PhD project.
The Chair of the Swinburne University Human Research Ethics Committee has reviewed your request and recommended that the research already conducted presents no issue with regard to approved Swinburne human research activity. As such, I write to advise that Swinburne University has no issue with the completed research you conducted at Victoria University being used as part of your Swinburne PhD project.
If you have any further questions, please don’t hesitate to contact me.
Kind regards, Aimii
Ms Aimii Scott| Senior Manager, Graduate Studies Swinburne Research| Swinburne University of Technology Ph +61 3 9214 4591| Fax +61 3 9214 5267 [email protected] | http://www.research.swinburne.edu.au/
Please note: I work Monday to Thursday, and I am not in the office on Friday.
271
From:
Dear Michael Leach,
Re: Final Report for the project (Report Date: 23-03-2016)
2015/255 'Destination brand building for emerging nations: the case of Timor-Leste'
The Final report for the above project (Report Date: 23-03-2016) has been processed and satisfies the reporting requirements set under the terms of ethics clearance.
Research Ethics Team
Swinburne Research (H68) Swinburne University of Technology PO Box 218 HAWTHORN VIC 3122 Tel: 03 9214 5218 Fax: 03 9214 5267 Email: [email protected]
272