CENSUS OF INDIA 1981

SERIES, - 32

PONDICHERRY

PART-XB TOWN SURVEY REPORT KARAIKAL

Drafted by:

Dr. Machavaram Vidyasagar Assistant Director

Supervised by:

Gaspar· Britto Deputy Director

Directorate of· Census Operations Pondicherry

CONTENTS

Pages

Foreword (v)

Preface (vii)

Acknowledgtitment (ix)

CHAPTER Introduction 1-11

CHAPTER N History and Growth of Karaikal 13':28

CHAPTER III Administration, Amenities and Services 29-48

CHAPTER IV Economic Life of the Town 49-67

CHAPTER V Ethnic and Socio-Demographic profile of the Town 69-108

CHAPTER VI ' Migration and Settlement of Families 109-122

CHAPTER VII Neighbourhood Pattern 123-134

CHAPTER VIII Family Life in the Town 135-146

CHAPTER IX Housing and Material Culture 147-175

CHAPTER X Slums and Blighted Areas 177-187

CHAPTER XI Organisation of Power and Prestige 189-204

CHAPTER XII Leisure and Recreation, Social PartiCipation, Social Awareness, Religion and Crime 205-212

CHAPTER XIII Linkag~s and Continua 213-233

CHAPTER XIV Conclusions 235-239

Maps

1. Position of Karaikal District of Pondicherry in India (xi)

2. Karaikal District 5

3. Karaikal Municipality' - Karaikal District 9

4. Karaikal Municipality - Urban Land Use 11

iii Photographs:

Pages

1. Shopping place at Thiruna"ar Road 3

2. Karaikal Ammaiyar Temple 14

3. Our Lady of Angels Church 17

4. Masthan Sahib Darga 18

5. Administrative Office 31

6. Municipal Office (New Building) 32

7. Government Hospital (Main Entrance) 39

8. Arignar Anna Government Arts College 42

9. Awaiyar Government College for Women 43

10. Housing structure (Old and New) 148

11. The Peripheral lane or slums at Seniyar Kulathu Street 178

12. Shopping Junction - Church Street 218

iv FOREWORD

Apart from the decennial enumeration of population, the Indian Census is steeped in the tradition of undertaking a variety of stUdies of topical interest. In fact, the publications brought out in connection with the earlier censuses contained veritable mines of information on racial, cultural, linguistic and Sa number of other aspects of life of the people of this country. With the advent of freedom, however the scope and dimension of these special studies had to be restructured in a manner that would provide the basic feedbacks on the processes of development taking place in different spheres of life Of the people especially under planned development.

Thus, in connection with the 1961 Census, a massive programme was launched inter-alia to. conduct socio-economic survey of about 500 villages selected from different parts of the count'rY. The main objective of this study w~s to know the way of life of the people living in Indian villages which accounted for 82 per cent of the total population as per the 1961 Census. There was, however, an imperative need to extend the area of the study to urban centre$ as well, to provide a complete c:overage of the people living in diverse socio-economic conditions. It was with this objective in view ancillary studies on towns were launched as p~rt of the social studies programme in connection with the 1971 Census.

The programme of social studies taken up in connection with the 1971 Census, was continued without any major change at the 1981 Census as well. A study on traditional rural based handicrafts was, however, added as a new item under the social study projects of the 1981 Census. For the conduct of urban study, 64 small and medium towns were selected from different parts of the country following the criterias such as (a) size, (b) demographic featu'res, (c) functional characteristics, (d) specific industry or occupation dominating the economy, (e) location, (f) concentration of different castes and communities, and (9) other social and cultural phenomenon like temple town, health resort etc.

The research deSign, tools for data collection an~ formats for data tabulation and report writing required for urban studies were originally formulated by Dr. B.K. Roy Burman, the then Deputy Registrar General, Social' Studies Division. His successor, Dr. N.G. Nag took considerable pains to revise all the formats to make them more comprehensive. Dr. K.P. Ittaman, the present Deputy Registrar General heading Social Studies Division, coordinated these studies at different levels as well as rendered necessary guidance to the Directorates of Census Operations for their successful consumation. Shri M.K. Jain, Senior Research Officer with the able assistance of Smt. S. Prashar, Assistant Director and·Smt. Sabarwal, Investigator did

v a commendable job in scrutinising the reports and communicating the comments thereon to the Directorates. I am grateful to all of them.

The present report is the out-come of a study on KaraikaJ town undertaken by the Directorate of Census Operations Pondicherry. I am indebted to Shri G. Britto, Deputy Director and his colleagues in the Census Directorate for their painstaking efforts in bringing out this report.

V.S. VERMA New Delhi Registrar General, India

vi PREFACE

. Census of India, with a view to study varying types of Urban units in order to comprehensively project the operation of various socio-economic and demographic attributes at different levels of urban growth, launched a country wide project of urban studies selecting various towns in all parts of the country. Karaikal Town in Pondicherry Union Territory was one, among them selected for study after 1981 Census. This study had been initiated by my learned colleague the late Dr. Machavaram Vidyasagar, Assistant ,Director, well before I joined this Directorate as Deputy Director of Census Operations and Head, of Office. I record with deep regret the sad, sudden and premature demise of Dr. M. Vidyasagar, who has put in all his best efforts to conduct the town stydy and also prepare this report. Dr. M. Vidyasagar, had strained every nerve to make this study as useful as possible and as comprehensive and complete as possible and the result, I should say, is this report which will bear testimony to his sincerity and great devotion to the. work that was entrusted to him. Unfortunate, as it was, that he could not be alive to see this report printed and published, with poignancy I dedicate this Town Study Report to hrs memory. I have no hesitation to state that the entire credit of conducting the field study' and painstakingly pre­ paring this report should go to Dr. M. Vidyasagar. On behalf of Dr. M. Vidyasagar, I record our sincere gratitude to Shri V.S. Verma, I.A.S. the then Registrar General, India, for the encouragement and support given to this project. I am extremely grateful to the present Registrar General, India Shri A.R. Nanda I.A.S. for permitting me to prepare the final report. I also record our gratitude to the scholarly and expert guidance given to Dr. M. Vidyasagar by Dr. N.G. Nag, Deputy Registrar General (retired) and Dr. K.P. Ittaman, the present Deputy Registrar General (Social Studies). Our thanks are also due to Shri M.K. Jain, Senior Research Officer, Smt. S. Prashar, Assistant Director and Smt. Sabarwal Investigator in the Social Studies Division of the Registrar General, India's Office, who scrutinized the draft reports in the light of the study deSign formulated by the Social Studies Division. Dr. M. Vidyasagar has been permitted t'o use extensively the excerpts from "Glimpses of History of Karaikal" by Dr. (Smt) Saroja Sundararajan and the "Gazetteer of India"-Pondicherry edited by Shri F. Cyril Antony. Our thanks are due to them also for having permitted the author to do so. A number' of officials of Government of Pondicherry have also extended their excellent co-operation in providing relevant secondary data to this study. In the Directorate of Census Operations, Pondicherry a number of officials have assisted Dr. M. Vidyasagar and myself in preparing the report and the list of these officials is given separately. Their sincere and wholehearted co-operation is also gratefully acknowledged.

Pondicherry GASPAR BRITTO Deputy Director of Census Operations Pondicherry U.T.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. Shri V. Gopinathan, Head Assistant Supervision of Field Investigation 2. Shri P. Samidorai, Statistical Assistant Supervision of Field Investigation & Tabulation

3. Shri K.K. Gopala Pillai, Artist Cartography 4. Shri A. Philomefl Ambrose, Computor Field Investigation and Tabulation 5. (Late) Shri V. Ravikumar, Computor Field Investigation 6. Shri S. Venkatesp, Computor Field Investigation and Tabulation 7. Shri V.C. Vinaya Ram, Computor Correspondence, Documentation, Tabulation and Typing S. Smt. G. Revathy, Computor Tabulation 9. Shri K. Tamil Selvam, Computor Field Investigation and Tabulation 10. Shri M. Antoine, Computor Field Investigation and Tabulation 11. Shri R. Baguiradane, Computor Field Investigation 12. ·Shri N. Sellakrishnan, Computor Field Investigation 13. Shri K. Neelakantan, Draughtsman Cartographic Assistance 14. Shri B. Sivakumar, Lower Division Clerk Typing of Final Report 15. Smt. T. Saraswathy, Lower Division Clerk Typing of Draft Report 16. Kum. N. Indira, Lower Division Clerk Typing of Final Report

ix

,,' ..' ..' .. ' ". POSITION OF KARAIKAL DISTRICT OF PONDICHERRY IN INDIA

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(xi)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Location reflects its much heard prosperity and commerCial , life of the past. Moving around, one notices an Karaikal town spread over 19.0 Sq. kms of unnatural tranquility, a feeling of the ,entire town area, (1981) is an enclave of the Union Territory of 'sleeping as it were. It even borders on an uneasi­ Pondicherry. It is 120.7 Kms south of its capital, ness, a haunting silence of a deserted place, once Pondicherry, (U.l). Inter spreading between Jhe humming with activity of men and material. Except two is Tamil NaduState. It is connected by ,bus to for the bus stand area, and the small market Madras via Pondioherry, Cuddalore and Chidam­ square on the Thirunallar Road, people are hardly baram on the North; to Kumbakonamancl Tiruchira­ seen moving even during broad day light. But for palli on the west; '~nd to Nagapattinam and the pilgrims at bus stand enroute Sri Sanesswara Thanjavur on the South. Karaikal has a metre Temple at Thirunallar village or the commercial gauge railway line and IS connected to Myladuthurai . scene at Market Street even this modicum of (Mayavaram) Junction on Madras: Tiruohirapalli­ human movement might be absent. Rameswaram line. Lik$ any other enolave of Pon­ dicherry Union Territofy, it Is surrounded by the The core residential area of the town extends Bay of Bengal on one side 'and Tamit Nadu on the upto the railway line on the north and east, Ar­ other three sides. The river Arasalar runs along the asalar river on south and Vanjiar river on west. southern boundary of the town and opens into the Marshy and barren land fills the land between the sea arid its tributory Vanjiar runs across the town railway line and sea on western side whereas in South-West direotion, forming a flank of core paddy fields surround the suburbs of the town on town. the eastern side. The structure of the town testifies to the typical French planning in so far as the in­ Important Characteristics habited part of the town is concerned. With long, KaralkaJ is understood to have been a place straight streets cutting across each other, the of commercial, cultural and religious importance, layout of town presents a very planned set-up, from prevedic times. Due to its excellent port similar to that of Pondicherry (old town). Added to facililies existing from the earliest times of 4th and this feature is the typically arachaic charecteristic 5th Centuries, the sea trade flourished not only of a single building stretching to the entire side of with other parts of India but even with foreign the street approximated as a building. Each house­ countries. This factor added by the highly fertile hold thus, becomes only the space between two land reinforced the politically strategic importance walls over looking the street. A peculiar ownership of the tbwn. Thus, Karaikal is known to have been appears to be governing boundaries of such house­ a prized possession to the successive rulers of holds, with every wall on the left owned by the Thanjavur, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas, Rayas, neighbour. Nayaks and Marathas. Later, for the same reason, Dutch Britishers and finally French made this place Demographic Features their foothold. Modernization of navigation facili­ ties and mechanised sea transport replacing the Karaikal as per 1981 Census had a popula~ traditional ships on one hand and colonial exploi­ tion of 43,408 persons with a density of 2,285 per tation of foreign rulers on the other, however sq .. km. The ,sex ratio returned as 1040, is rather slithered this town to a debilitated, and stagnant unusual in the Indian Context. The town has all the state. Karikal town, therefore, at present hardly civic and other amenities as found in any other urban area. Karaikal being the regional Headquar­ Geophysical Division of the Geological Survey of ters, also has a well developed institutional infra­ India, and later by the Oil and Natural Gas Com­ structure with atnost every Government depart­ mission. ment having its office located within the town. Karaikal is a Municipality but there is no elected Flora body functioning at present as the elections have The natural vegetation, much altered by human not been conducted for more than a decade. A agencies, consists of numerous plants of littoral special Officer runs the local administration. regions which could tolerate the briny sand or the brackish waters. The aquatic species of the dry Till 1981, Karaikal (M), with an area of 6.68 terrains such as Agaves, Eupherbia Sl?tiquoram Sq. Kms constituted the Urban part of the total (Tam.** Sadurakalli), Acacia /encopheoea (Tam. Karaikal commune. In 1981, the entire rural area of Vilvamaram), Albizzia febbek (Tam. Vakai), etc. Karaikal commune spread over 12.32 Sq. Kms found in Pondicherry are very rare. Thus, the flora was merged with Karaikal (M) thereby vastly in­ of Karaikal differs trom that of Pondicherry Insplte creasing the area and population under the juris­ of the identical cli~ate of these two places. diction of Karaikal (Urban), otherwise, the Karaikal town. The Seashore Plants Topography Among the littoral specie$ tolerating a certain amount of salinity in the soil and in the water, the Karaikal is indebted to Cossman, for it was he following five species are the most common and who, for the first time, recovered from a borehole in remarkable ones: Karaikal in the year 900, richly fossiliferous marine beds of pliocene age* (7 million years) and called 1. Excoecaria agal/ocha (Tam. Tillai): It is a small them 'Karaikal beds' which is an important mark in tree found in abudance on the banks of Ar· the coastal territory sedimentaries. asalar often with lichens lying on its terminal branches; . Karaikal area is completely covered by a thick mantle of alluvium arrd no exposures are met with 2. Clerodendron incrme (Tam. Sangankuppl): A anywhere. shurb with opposite leaves and long white co­ rolla tubes; Towards the western portion the alluvium is more clayey while in the area around the Nagore­ 3. Acanthus ilicifolius (Tam. Kaludai Mum): A Tarangambadi road, it is more sandy. shrubby Acanthaceae of Tidal Forests; ,very gregarious; easily identified by its holly-like The minerals found in the Karaikal regi9n leaves and blue flowers; include bricklays, Kankar, sea shells, ilmenite and garnet sands. 4. Solanum tri/obatum (Tam. Tundulai): A very prickly trailing undershrub on the coastal sand; It may be significant to mention about the prospect of oil being found in the area, on account 5. Pand~nus tectorius (Tam. Talai): It is often I of the favourable results gathered first by the found as a natural hedge near the coast.

I< As the topography of Karaikal town cannot be isolated from that of Karaikal region, the regional details as a whole are given under this topic. Source: Gazeteer of I ndia, Pondicherry-1982. ** :The abbreviations 'Tam'. and 'Eng'. given in parenthesis stand for 'Tamil' and 'Engllsh'.

2 Among the littoral species,the plants which on the 'bounds' of rice fields such as Borassus tolerate little salinity of soil and thrive we" on the flabelifer (Tam. Panaimaram) and Acacia arabica coastal sands are COCOS nucifera (Tam. Ten­ (Tam. 'Karuvelamaram' Eng. 'Indian Gum Tree). naimaram, Eng. Coconut palm) and also the shrubby and very spinous Prosopis spinigera much planted Along the irrigation channels, small trees like for shade along sea-coast. Barringtonia actuangu/a (Tam. Sam uti rappalai) . Pongamia Pinnata (Tam, Punkamaram) Eng. A little interior in the country, on the Sea Pongam oil tree or Indian Beech) and Phoenix sands appear the CASUARINA EQu/SETIFOLIA Sylvestris (Tam. Iccamaram, Eng. Wild Date Palm (Tam. Chavukkumaram), Hibiscus ti/aceus (Tam. or Date Sugar Palm) are quite common. The foliar Hiraparutti) and Thespesia Populnea (Tam. Puvar­ buds and tender leaves of Barringtonia are re­ asam). ported to be edible. The oil extracted from the seeds of Pongamia is of industrial and medicinal Alongwith these plants thrive some heba­ value. ceous plants which are very conspicuous every­ where: (ii) Shrubl)y and herbaceous hydrophytic vegeta­ tion: 1. Croton bonplandinum (Tam. Eliamanku): A . Along the banks of i~rigation channels grows woody herb with nLlmerous branches; some­ a tall grass called Hemarthria compressa along­ times used as greer'! manure. I with an another ecological species called Arundo i donex Hibiscus vitifolices, a wild species of Habis­ 2. Ca/otropis glgantea (Tam. Enekku, Eng. Gi­ cus is also found in their company. gantic swallow-work): A milky and shrubby plant with opposite, sub-sessile leaves, whit­ Near the running water big tufts of Saccharum ish at their lower surface. Spontanum (Tam. Peykarumbu, Eng. Wilde Sug­ arcane) and Stachytarpheta indica (Tam. Seemai 3. Jatropa glanduliform (Tam. Adalayoedi): It is Nayuruvi, Eng. Aaron's Rod) are commonly found. often raised as a hedge plant in Karaikal. It has perrate and gland tipped leaves. I n the pond, and pools Nymphaea pubesens) (Tam. Alii , Eng. Water lily) is comon with large and 4. Datura fastuosa (Tam. Karu-umatai, Eng. long petiolated leaves. The other aquatic plants 'Thoranapple' or Devil's trumpet): A robust include Lemna polyrrhiza (Eng. Duckweed), Ipo­ herb with solitary, big trumpet shaped flowers, maca reptans (Tam. Vellikirni), Asteracantha often found in waste lands. lengifolia (Tam. Nirumulli), Neptunia oleracea, etc. Sesbania aegyptiaca (Tam. Karuncembai), a woody Plants growing near or In fresh water herb is found to be growing in abundance near I n this region, where fresh water runs abun­ water. Plenty of these woody shrubs may be seen dantly throughout the year, the hygrophytic flora is at Uzhiapathu (Neravy Commune). naturally well developed. A good number of hygro­ phytes can be seen ne~r Uzhiapathu (Neravy The Avenue Trees Commune). The main plants growing along the They are not much diversified and in all about water edges are given below: . 10 species could be recognised. These include: 1 . Po/yathia /ongifolia (i) Arborepcent vegetation: 2. Thespesia populanea (Tam. Puvarasam)­ This comprises essentially the trees planted It is planted along the roadside.

3 ,

Shopping place, at. Thirunallar Road

4 • KARAIKAL DISTRICT <{l o .",.. , i..,,_ ••

z '"

KOTTUCHERRY @ PTO

8 AY OF ENGAL

THANJAVUR DISTRICT TAMIL NADU

SIGle Boundary...... , Commune Boundary...... Dlstrlcl Headquarters.. ", ... @ From \." Commune HeadquQrters ... @ T_... ri ! Important Metalled Road. _ RS n .. ,. .. .J Railway Line with Station. Metre GauQ .... 00' I I IWI II ,'l ~ \ ~., River with Sireams... 00...... ~ Degree College and Technical Inltltutlon..... ~. rn Rest House, Oak Bungalow...... 00' ...... RH, DB "'. Travellers' Bungalow...... TB " . Urban Area with Populatlan IIze_ ...... tCla,. I, II, 111, IV, Vl Post and Telegraph Office...... PTO Vtnage Having 5000 and above } ...... population • Tidal River...... TN TAMIl. NADU' Wal.r Body...... K KARAIKAL

the pcnniuion of the Tt.. territorial watt" of IMia extend into U. scalo G tIICGnct 011•• 1 •• nautlcal ..H" _owed il'Om t ... _..... _ ....

5 3. Tamarindus indica (Eng. Tamarind) cal, climatic and biotic features of the surrounding 4. Syzygium jambolanum (Tam. Navalmaram) areas. 5. Samanea samam (Tam. Tunku- munchimaram) The fauna of Karaikal includes mammal rep­ 6. FIcus benghalensis (Tam. Alamaram) tiles and amphibians of various types. Besides, >: 7. Launea conomandelion the birds commonly found in Pondicherry are also 8. Medhuca longifolia (Tam. lIuppaimaram) found in Ka'raikal. 9. Kigelia pinnate (Tam. Marachurai) The important species of mammals found in The Hedge, Plants Karaikal are:

The mdst common species in the hedges is 1. Anathana ellioti (Eng. Madras Tree Shrew) Jatropa glandulifera (Tam. Adalayeedi) which is 2. Suncus murinus (Eng. House Shrew) seen growing alone or in the company of some 3. Pteropus gignateus (Eng. Indian Flying Fox) other bushes such as Vitex nequando (Tam. Nochi), 4. Megad.ermalpra Op', (Eng. Indian False Morinda tinctoria, Prosopis spicigera, Banbusa Vampire) arundinacea (Tam. Moongil), Lawsonia inermis 5. Megaderma spasma (Eng. Malay False (Tam. MarutanO, Ficus hispida (Tam. lIanthamaram) Vampire) and Aegle marmelos (Tam. Vilvam). 6. Rhinlophus rouxi (Eng. Horse shoe Bat) 7. Hipposiderous spenris (Eng. Schneider's The Garden Plants Leafnosed Bat) 8. Tadaridaplicata (Eng. Wrinkled Lipped Bat) The principal trees and shrubs met within the 9. Pipistrennuscoromandra (Eng. Indian pipis- gardens of Karaikal are: trelle) 10. Macaca radian 1. Areca Catechu (Tam. Pakkumaram) 11 . Presby tis entellus (Langur) 2. Bougainvillaea glabra (Eng. Glory of the 12. Canis aureus (Eng. Asiatic Jackal) garden) 13. Vulpes bengalensis (Eng. Bengal Fox) 3. Carica papaya (Tam. Pappalimaram) 14. Melursus ursin us (Soth Bear) 4. Cassia fistula (Tam. Carakkonrai) 1 5. Lutra lutra (Eng. Common other) 5. Ceiba pentandra (Tam. Illavam) 16. Herpestes edwardsi (Eng. Indian Grey 6. Cicca acida (Tam. Arinellimaram) Mongoose) 7. Corypha unbraculifera (Tam. Kuttaipanai) 17. Felis rubiginosa (Eng. Rusty-spotted cat) 8. Croton Spp. 18. Tragulus meminna (Eng. Mouse Deer) 9. Delonix regia (Tam. Mayirkkonraimaram) 19. Cervus unicolar (Sam bar) 10. Ficus religiosa (Tam. Aracamaram) 20. Tetracerus quadricornis (Eng. Four-horned 11 . Hibiscus spp. Antelope) 12. Leucaena glauca 21. Gazella gazella (Eng. Mountain Gazelle) 13. Caesalpinia pulcherrima 22. Lepus nigricollis (Eng. Indian Hare) 14. Roystonea regia, etc. 23. Ratufa indica (Eng. English Giant Squirrel) 30. Rattus blanfordi (Eng. Blandford's Rat) Fauna 31. Rattus rattus (Eng. House Rat) The fauna of Pondich-arry, Karaikal and Yanam 32. Mus Cervicolor (Eng. Fawn-coloured may be taken as essentially the same as that of the Mouse) nearby districts of Tamil Nadu, or Andhra Pradesh, 33. Funambulus tristatus (Eng. Jungle striped the regions presenting practically the same physi- squirrel)

6 In Karaikal some other species of bats, rats Among amphibians, the most common spe- and squirrels are also found. cies of frogs and toads are: 1 . Rana cyamophylctis (Skipping Frog) Reptiles such as Lizards, snakes are also 2. Rana hexadactyle (South Indian Frog) found in Karaikal as in other parts of this region. 3. Rana limaocharia (Paddy,Field Frog) The commonly found reptiles are: 4. Rana tigerina (Bull Frog) . 5. Buto melonistictus (Common Indian Toad). 1. Chelonia mydas (Green Tustle) 2. Hemidactylus triedus (House Lizard) Climate 3. Calotes veraic%r (Garden Lizard or Blood Sucker) . Karaikal, situated on the east coast of India, 4. Mabuya carinata (Skink) in the deltaic region of the Cauveri experiences 5. Varanus bengalensis (Monitor Lizard) tropical maritime type of climate with little variation 6. Boiga trigonata (Cat Snake) in daily temperature and moderate rainfall. 7. Lycodon aulicus (Wolf Snake) 8. Cerbenusshyncl:1ops (Dog faced Snake) Karaikal has an annual average rainfall of 9. Natrix stolata (Striped Keelback) about 126 em., 68 per cent of which occurs during 10. Ptyas mucosus (Rat Snake) October to December. The 'amount of rainfall dur­ 11. Bungarus Caeruleus (Krait) ing the south-west monsoon period is small, being 12. Naja naja (Cobra) less than 20 per cent of the annual rainfall. No­ 13. Enhydrina schistosa (Beaked Sea Snake) vember, is the rainiest month accounting for about 14. Hydrophis spiralis (Yellow Sea Snake) one third of the annual rainfall. In a year there are 15. Microcephalophis gracilis (Small Headed Sea on an average of about 55 rainy days, i.e., days Snake). with rainfall of 2.5mm, or more.

Average rainfall in millimetres in Karaikal Period from 1912-1960

January 78.5 February 17.2 March 25.0 April 24.7 May 39.1 June 31 :1 July 43.3 August 62.7 September 80.0 October 229.2 November 398.3 December 229.4

ANNUAL 1258.5

Temperature generally small throughout the year being highest (about 10°C) in May ahd June, and the least (about The level of temperature in Karaikal is about 5°C) during November to February. the same as in Pondicherry. December and Janu­ ary are the coolest months with the maximum at Important Public Places* about 28°C and the minimum at about 23°C. Mini­ mum temperatur~ as low as 16°C may sometimes Karaikal is a place of tourist importance due be recorded. The diurnal range oftemperature are to its religious shrines of great antiquity. Therefore,

* This topic is extensively derived from; Dr. (Mrs.) Saroja Soundararajan's, "Glimpses of History of Karaikal; 1985, Lalita Publications; Madras.

7 the places of public importance are mainly in the bearing a legend, enriching the multi religious fOrrTtofpl$ces of worship. I n fact some of them are character of Karaikal's histoty. It may be noted that the edifices which now stand as sentinels in sus­ Karaikal was earlier invaded by Muslim Kings from taining the rich cultural, literary and pOlitical history East-Asian countries.even before Ghazni entered of Karaikal. Among them, the Temple of Amn{aiyar the country from north-west. The foreign invaders dating back of fifth Century AD, is most famous. subsequently merged with local population of The story of the deity of the temple 'Ammaiyar' Karaikal and now form an Important business which found a description in the 'Periapuranam' community under the name 'Marickars'. composed by Sekkizhar in 12th Century AD, pro­ vides an excellent glimpse into the ancient socio­ Christianity took roots during the French regime economic and cui't~ral history of Karaikal. Other from mid 1649 to 1907 and is represented by a noted religious places a~e·tA~ Perumal Koil, adja­ number of Roman Catholic Churches at Karaikal. cent to Ammaiyar Temple, tha:temple of Yazhmoori­ Among them, 'Our lady of Angels' Church was built nathar at Dharmapuramtwl"lere the Saint Gnana­ in 1739 at the behest of Jeiuit Fathers, and the sambandar sung the hymns of 'Devaram'. Saint Anthony's Church, Saint Mary's Church at Thirutthelecherri belonging for Shiva; the Par­ Cluny Colony and Father Beschi', (1680) along­ vateeswarar temple at Koilpathu belonging to the with a score of other churches. They are distinct Pallava period (8th Century AD) carries the legend not only in their elegance and architectural beauty of Dakshayagna associated with this place. And but also their popularity in the region as devotees this is the place where a number of spiritual duels from all other religions visit these places regularly. took place between Gnanasambandar (8th Cen­ tury AD), and Buddhist and Jain monks. Sam ban­ MORPHOLOGY dar is said to have defeated the opponents and upheld the saivaite belief leading to the extinction Layout of Jainism and Buddhism in this area. Th-e inscrip­ tions and legends in these temples record the As could be seen from the Map the core town, hoary past of Karaikal as a very busy commercial that corresponds to the pre-1981 Karaikal is flanked centre also, mainly for its port activities reaching to by railway line on the North and North-East, the far off lands in East Asian countries. While em­ river Arasalar on South, and its tributary, Vanjiar barking on a pilgrimage to these temples, the Saiv­ river on the East. The layout of streets reflects a ite pedagogy of 63 Nayanars sang a great variety planned structure with long stretch of streets from of hymns whibh reflect the contemporary socio­ North to South, cutting across in East-West direc­ cultural history of Karaikal. Although not located in tions. There are three main highways passing Karaikal town proper, the famous temple built for through the town, viz., Chidambaram-Karaikal­ Dharbanyeswarar and Saneeswara at Thirunallar Nagore on North-South; Karaikal-Kumbakonam­ (5 kms) is identified as a part of Karaikal town. Thanjavur on East-North westerly direction and Karaikal-Thirunallar Road connecting Peralam road Muslim religion and history is projected by the on East-North westerly direction. There are four Masthan Sahib Darga which is said to have been main streets running parallel to each other on built after the visit of Masthan Sahib, descendent North-South direction. The first is Bharathiar road of Prophet Mohammed, about two centuries ago. in the centre; Church street in its east and Mastan The place where his mortal remains were buried is palli street on .the West. Towards further east of now the main darga of Karaikal. In addition, there Church street, the Mariamman Koil street on the are other mosques including the darga of Gul North, extended by Nehru street on south forms Mohammed, Guani Sahib, Jamman Sahib, each the fourth Longitudinal stretch of. the town. A

8 KARAIKAL MUNICIPALITY KARAIKAL DISTRICT

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Based upon Survey of India mop with the @Government of Ind ia Copyright, 1992 permission of the Surveyor General of Indio. The territorial wafers of India c)(Und into the S.a to a distance of tW(llv¢ nautical mil.s m.Q.sur~d from the appropriate base linc. 9 number of other streets cut across these four vast expanse of open area between the inhabited roads vertically all along. land and the sea coast. On south and west, there cannot be any change due to the rivers forming as Functional Areas town boundaries. The area in the north-west has paddy fields. Coconut trees are seen aplenty The town provides somewhat a seggregation atong the banks of Vanjiar river on the western of areas in terms of functional character as in the side. case of any medium size town, although the homogeneity of areas is not rigid. It is seen that the As is the case of functional isolation, there residences are spread all over the town. However, sppears to be a kind of religious polarisation by most of the northern half of Bharathiar road around habitation too, in some parts of the town, although the bus stand and the heart oftown comprising the not distinctly identifiable. This is indicated by quadrangle of Market street, Thirunallar road ex­ domination of Christians on Church Street and tended on either side of Mariamman Koil street most of the Muslim population residing along the could be marked as commercial area having busi­ Mastanpalli Street. The Hindu rich is concentrated ness and other establishments. Whereas the tiny in Mariamman Koil Street, on the southern half of quadrangle towards the south of Market Street, Bharathiar road, and in Three Wells Place Street. comprising the area between Church Street, Mari­ At the same time, coexistence oi households amman Koil Street, Ambedkar Street and Dupliex belonging to different religions could also be found Street (east) is dominated by Government offices in almost all parts of the t,own. Perhaps, such and could be marked as administrative area. Most scattering of population explains the transition of of the public institutions like colleges, schools, traditional town of Karaikal, into a contemporary hospitals, playgrounds etc. are all situated in the urban unit. At the western end of Thomas Arul area adjacent to administrative area on the east. A Street, called 'Pudu' Street, bulk of Scheduled remarkable feature, which signifies this town as caste population are found. basically a religious spot is noted by a number of Hindu temples all along Bharathiar road with most Slums of the Mosques located on either side of Mast­ hanpalli street and a number of churches on church The population belonging to different eco­ street on the eastern side of the town. nomic status are generally scattered in the town. The poorer sections comprising rickshaw pullers, Landuse and Residential Patterns agricultural labourers, daily wage earners etc., however, are clustered all along the banks of Karaikal town, although expanded in area Vanjiar behind Senior Kutathu Street, on the during 1981, but its habitation did not percolate North-West, Periapet area on North-East and the upto the merged area at the time of Survey (1985). Thomas Arul Pudu street on South. In fact, The residential area almost remains the same as these pockets const~ute the slum areas of Karaikal it was before 1981, except a few government and surround the entire core residential area. sponsored colonies coming up beyond the railway While some of the residents own "Patta" line on north. The slushy and barren fields on the plots, most of the habitations are unauthorised east remain the same and continue to provide a occupations.

10 KARAIKAL MUNICIPALITY URBAN LAND USE E R R Y COMMUNE K o u C H METRES 400 200 400 800 ...... _.__.._ .."".. __ .-._._._._._._.-

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Based upon Survey of Indio map 'Wltn tne permiSSIOn of the Surveyor General of India. © Government of IndiO COpyrt9'ht, 1992

The terfltOflol water. Q1 (fldlQ CJII;tCfl

CHAPTER II

HISTORY AND GROWTH OF KARAIKAL

From the available literature* and local folk­ Ammaiyar, composed in the 12th Century AD, lore it is understood that Karaikal has been a describes the town with many vessels of com­ Centre of activity even from pre-vedic times. One merce on the coast and its excellent accommoda­ of the legends connectEid with the town is derived tion for the boat trade. He adds that Karaikal was from its geographically ideal location, as the town a flourishing sea-port, in which "Borne by the bil­ stands at the confluence of Arasalar river, a tribu­ lowing waves, the curved 'chanks' travelled far tory of river Cauvery and the Bay of Bengal. The inland up the creek". He also speaks of the,­ Sthalavaralaru+ of Karaikal says that when Lord "molluscs and wild vegetation, abounding the Mahavishnu (God, The Protector) performed coastline, adding to the richness of Karaikal; the Abishega for Lord Shiva (God, The Destroyer) at living therein, of merchant citizens who were right­ Tejneervanam, the river Cauvery, in obedience to eous and who swerved not a while from truthful- the former's call readily flowed there. Mahavishnu . ness; the existence of palatial castles and build­ then called her Hari Nadi\ the river of Hari (Arinadhi­ ings", in short, the prosperity of Karaikal in those in Tamil). As this river. came into existence in days. Above all, his naming Punithavathiar after response to Hari it is called Harisollar later cor­ ,the town, as "Karaikal Ammaiyar" proves to the hilt, rupted to Arasalar. The origin ofthe name Karaikal the Karaikal had already bee.n famous. The im­ is assumed to be a continuation of two words: Ka: ages of Karaikal Ammaiyar were found in East­ Rai: and Ka: L. It is said to be a corruption of Ka: Asian countries as per a reference made by Pey, Rai: Ka: du, meaning a forest (Kadu) abundant in a French historian. This fact correlated with the a kind of weed (Ka: rail. This is supported by account in Ammaiyar Puranam that her husband Sthalavaralaru which refers to Karaivanam goes on voyage into sea for the purpose of trade (Vanam-'-forest). The visitor refers to the place as to far off countries clearly indicate the important fish pass but Ka-rai has several meanings and the place occupied by Karaikal even from the begin­ one that is said to suit best here is 'Masaonary'. ning of Christian era. The later Brahmandapuram in Sanskrit refers to the place as Sakamnaripuram in honour of Sakam­ Medieva~ History bari Devi for whom a temple is built near Karaikal. Historical material for the medieval period is The literature on the early history of Karaikal almost nil. For that matter, after the third Sangam, is scanty except what could be derived from the which was active during the first three centuries of story of Karaikal Ammaiyar who is dated to 5th the Christian Era, the whole of South India wit­ Century AD, and in whose-name a temple is built nessed a long historical night, lasting till 600 A.D. in the town. Today, this shrine attracts a number of This situation must have been aQ,gravated by the pilgrims from far off places. defeat, in about 350 A. D. of Vishnugopa of the second Pallava dynasty, by Samudra Gupta of the Sekkizhar in his Periapuranam on Karaikal north. When at last, the days was about to dawn in

+ 'Sthalavaralaru' (Sanskrit), the History of place as told in ancient scriptures. Most of the information in this chapter are execerpted from: * 1. Dr. (Mrs.) Saroja Sounderrajan, Glimpses of the History of Karaikal, Lalita Publications, Madras-1985. 2. Administration ofUnion Territory of Pondicherry, Gazetter of I ndia, Union Territory of Pondicherry (ED.) Antony Francis Cyri", Volume I & II, the Govt. Press, Pondicherry-1982.

13 Karaika.1Ammaiyar Temple

14 seventh century, Tamilagamwas again convulsed which have assumed special significance in the "in a manner unprecedented" by a tribe of Ob­ context of having been found at Kasakudi, in scurantist rulers known as Kalabharas (Kalap­ Karaikal. palar). While the other Kingdoms of Tamilagam recovered quickly from the effects of this catastro­ The copper plates speak of the conquest of phe, that of the Cholas remained obscure, even Simhavarman of "the Malaya, Kalabahra, Malva, after the "Kalabhra interregnum". There is there­ Chola and Pandya, Sinhala king who was proud of fore, no material evidence to bring alive a sequen­ the strength of his arms and Keralas". Of these, tial history of the once prominant and powerful Malaya is identified by eminent historians as Ma­ Cholas whose kingdom on the east coast from the laiyan or Malayaman, the ruling chief of the Ma­ mouth of the Krishna to the south of Thondi in the lainadu-the hilly country in the Nadunadu, with Zamindari of Ramnad is said to have existed from his capital at Thirukoilur in the South Arcot district. the earliest known historial times. The kingdom It is very probable that Pondicherry was a part of reached its zenith under Karikalan the beneficient this Malainadu. The Kalabharas held sway over and wise ruler and the architect of that "great the region further south. emporium of the east coast". After Karikala's as­ cendancy, enough had passed away from the From the stray references in literature and Cholas and it was only in the middle of the ninth inscriptions, it is known that the Cholas survived all century that they again rose to a position of emi­ along as a small feudatory in the Uraiyur region nence. Till the middle ofthe ninth century, hammed alongside a rival dynasty, the Muttaraiyar, remn'ants in by the Pallavas on one side and the Pandyas on of the Kallabharas, with their capital at Thanjavur. the other, the cholas owed allegiance to who ever Their dynastic power had thus suffered a tot~ was stronger. eclipse for six centuries.

Thanks to the archeological and epigraphical It has been surmised that Vijayalaya as a material left by the Pallavas, it is known positively small feudatory ofthe Pallavas, must have wrested that they had suzerainty over the northern portions Thanjavur in 850 A D. from the Muttaraiyar, oonse­ ofthe Tamil country with Kanchipuram in Chengal­ quent upon their breach of allegiance to the Pal­ pattu district (Tamil Nadu) as their Capital, from the lavas. Thereafter, the Cholas swiftly attained im­ commencement of the fourth century A.D. to the perial poSition and remained dominant in the south, end of the ninth century AD. Towards the end of defeating the Pandyas who would repay the the sixth century AD. the southern limits of the complaint only after four centuries. This period of Pallava kingdom stretched .as far as th~ Cauvery the Chola hegemony has been characterised as delta on account of the victorious campaign of his the golden epoch of medieval times. It was the son Simhavarman. This is known from the former's period of "political stability and economic prosper­ Pallankoil copper plate inscription dated in his ity as also the culmination· of the impulse and sixth regional year which says that Simhavarman, achievement of artistic endeavours in South India. "was a great "v'arrior, who conquered the Chola The Kingdom began to decline in the second country of the Cauvery delta". quarter of the thirteenth century and sank into oblivion in the next quarter. with the rise of Pan­ It is, therefore, beyond doubt that Karaikal dyas. With the defeat of Rajendra III in 1279, also, as part and parcel of the Thanjavur Kingdom, Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandya (1268-1310 A D.) had come under the Pallava influence, in the last became the unquestioned master of Cholaman­ decades of the sixth century, if not earleir. Then dalam which included the modern Pondicherry there are the famous Kasakudi copper plates of and Karaikal regions.,On his death in 1310 A.D. Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (731 to 796 AD.) there were dynastic disputes which were exploited

15 by Ala-ud-din's favourite slave Malik Kafur. The the famous Brihadeswara temple at Thanjavur, I~tter's depredation followed by fresh enemity among m,entioning the name of dancing girl belonging to the two sons of Kulasekhara, dealt a severe blow Karaikal. This strengthens the belief that Karaikal to the Chola country. It is not known what hap­ did not lag behind in the art of 'Bharatha Natyam'. pened to Thanjavur during the obscure years of more than five decades that intervened, between Then there are the stone inscriptions in the Malik Kafur's invasion and the 60's of the four­ Darbaranyeswarar temple at Thirunallar. On the teenth century, when she came under the control walls, five inscriptions are engraved. On these, the ofthe great Vijayanagar empire. Its prince Kumara first two belonging to Chola Rajadhiraja I (1018- Kampana, conquered practically the entire 1054), the third to Chola Kulothunga I (1070-1122) Tamilnadu as far as Madurai, for their newly found and the fifth to Jaravarman Sundara Pandya III empire. Kampana first reduced to subjection the {1303-1319}. The author ofthefourth inscription is Sambuvarayars of the North and South Arcot and not known. The first two ascribed to Vijaya-Rajen­ then with the latter's co-operation overthrew the dra Chola alias Rajadhiraja-I are assigned to his Madurai Sultanate. Kampana ruled the southern thirty first (1049) and thirty fourth (1052 A.D.), portion of the vast empire which extended from the regnal years respectively. The first refers to land River Krishna to Kanyakumari as viceroy a~sisted donated to one Kandanarangam by the temple to by such famous generals as Gopanna and Saluva perform the five dances (Aivagai Kuttru) during Mangu. This great empire serving as a bulwark Visakam festivals; and the second to an endow­ against the Islamic invasions from the north, lasted ment, the interest of which was to be used to till the death of Shri Krishna Deva Raya when it purchase paddy for daily Naivedyam offered to was overthrown at the famous battle of Talikotta in Lord Darbaranyeswarar. 1656. With its fall, the system of Governorship arranged by it for the governance of its southern The third belonging to Kulothunga Chola-I conquests, began to show signs of decay and (1 070-1122) speaks ofthe maintenance of a Saiva disruption. The seque'l was, the emergence of the Mandap (Hall) out of an endownment of 560 KaJams Nayak rulers, as independent rulers. Among them, (96 measures each) of paddy. The fourth one the Nayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominant. refers to a grant of land entitled "Neivaicheri This dynasty was founded in 1532 by Sevappa Anabhaya Mangalam" by one Ponnazhavan Nachi­ Nayak and was ruled successfully by Achyutappa, nar-kiniyan of Deepangudi to make food offerings Raghunatha and Vijayaraghava, for about a cen­ for the Lord on the Bharani day in the month of tury and a half. Aipasi (October-November) and Chitirai (April-May). The land was exempted from tax. The fifth one In 1676, Sivaji's brother Venkaji, also called dated to Jatavarman Sundara Pandya, refers to Ekoji, who was sent by the Bijapur Sultan to help the sale of commiJnity services (Samudaya Pani) enthrone Chengamaladas, a Nayak Prince of by the temple administration, to Siva Brahmanas Thanjavur, usurped the throne and founded the for 50 panams. Maratha rule in Thanjavur. The Marathas ruled Thanjavur till the end of the 18th century when it Advent of French* became a part ofthe British Raj. Thus, Thanjavur, as also Karaikal never came under direct Moham­ Karaikal and its surrounding areas formed madan sway. part of the Mayuran Subha of Thanjavur country under the first Maratha ruler Ekoji since 1675. It may also be mentioned here that there is another ~xtant document-a script on the wall of But soon after the arrival of the French in

*Excepts from Gazeteer of India--Pondicherry 1980, opsil.

16 Our Lady of Angels Church

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18 Pondicherry, Francois Martin is known to have Thanjavur, and Sahuji lost his throne in a domestic sent an envoy to the King of Thanjavur, seeking revolution. Pratap Singh who succeeded the throne permission to set up an establishment in his King­ renewed the demand for a loan of 1 ,00,000 chakras. dom. This as well as the mission sent in 1688 did On receipt of the first instalment of 40, 000 chakras, not bring success. he assigned eight more villages to the French, viz. Codal)1gue (Kodangai), Vanjiur, Arinullimangalam, In 1738, again Dumas negotiated with Sahuji Neravy, Dharmapuram, Ozhipathu, Mattakudy of Thanjavur for Karaikal, the fortress of Kar­ (probably Mattalangudy) and Polagam. On 5th akalacherry and five villages on payment of 40,000 January, 1740, the village of Ariamangalam was chakras. The Council Superior met on 10th July, exchanged for Courtallam (Kurtallam). On 12th 1738 and approved the treaty. Even before the February, 1740 Pratap Singh sold these eight French could take possession of the town and villages for 50,000 chakras which he had assigned villages, Sahuji backed out of his promise on the only the previous year for a sum of 40,000 chakras. convenient pretext of Dutch objection. Chanda The same year he pledged Thirunallar for a sum of Sahib ruling Pondicherry then, in an attempt to 55,350 chakras (equivalent to Rs. 82,000). He demonstrate his allegiance to the French, offered also pledged 33 villages for a sum of 60,000 to march his own troops to Karaikal. The troops led chakras. In July, 1741 a parwana (Farmana-Urdu) by Francisco Pereira, a Spainard in the service of was received from the Mughal Emperor, confirm­ Chanda Sahib, with French interest at heart, took ing the right to the French over Karaikal and the the town and the fort in no time. Karaikal, the fort five villages. ' of 'Karakalacherry' and the adjacent territory were made over to the French. Relations with the Thanjavur Court, however, became strained short:y Qfter. Neverthless, Febrier, On 14th February, 1739, Gratien Folard took successor to Gratien Golard, managed to ex­ possession of Karaikal town, the fort of Karakalach­ change Codague. Then Courtralam and Mattakudi erry and dependent villages. Although Chanda for Koilpathu, Vadamaranam, Keezhakasakudy Sahib's Thanjavur expedition did not achieve its and Thalatheru which increased the num ber of vil­ purpose, he wished to confirm the grant of Karaikal lages, sold from eight to nine. By a treaty signed on to the French. This was enough for the king of 12th January, 1759 Pratap Singh ceded 81 vil­ Thanjavur who raised the price of Karaikal town lages around Karaikal tothe French and cancelled and the fort of Karakalacherry to 50,000 chakras. the annual rent of 2,000 pagodas (Rs. 7,000) He also demanded a loan of 1,50,000 chakras payable for the villages. This was the territory, the without interest, repayable in three years against French possed in the Thanjavur country when the hypothecation of Mayuram lands and an an­ they surrendered to the British in 1761. The terri­ nual rent of 4,000 pagodas for fjve villages. The tory then passessed twice to British control in 1783 Council Superior agreed to all the terms except to and 1797 after which it was finally restored by John the repayment of 1,50,000 chakras which was Thaekerey, the controller of Thanjavur to Comte reduced to 10,000 chakras while the annual rent Beranger on 14th January 1817. The French held was reduced to two or three thousand chakras. it until they left the colony in October, 1954. The villages so received were Keezhaiyur, Melayur, Puduthurai, KOilpathu and Thirumalair ayanpatti­ Movement for liberation nam. The farmana of Chanda Sahib dated 1st July, 1739 ceded to Dumas the two villages of Unlike the other parts of the country, the ·,\leravy and 'Conde' situated south of Karaikal. struggle for freedom from the French possessions of parts of India started much later although the co­ Troubles started again in the Kingdom of lonial attitude shown by the French as well as the

19 Britishers appears to be almost of the same degree sacrifices made by them in rallying to the call of De­ for their basically exploitative nature. The political gaulle in the II world war, the public resentment, idealism centred around the respect to democracy culminated in the formation of Karaikal National shown by the Britishers and the principles of Congress in 1946. On 13th March, 1947, the liberty, equality and fraternity adopted by the French Karaikal National Congress passed a resolution to in their respective native lands slithered down to fight for the merger of their land with the Indian . mere peptalk when it came to their foreign subjects Union. overseas. This is the reason why the native people proved the historical reality that subjugation will The spurious reforms of the then Governor, not last long. Francois Brach, like the increased representation of Karaikal did not contain the Simmering unrest The first signs of resistance to the French and growth of nationalism. It had no alluding effect Government in Karaikal were seen in 193~ when on the intelligence of the local people. When ap­ the citizens opposed a legislation to levy a poll tax peasement failed, the French Government coun­ of Rs. 20/- per year on the British Indians in French tered the movement pOlitically by proxy in the form settlerT)ents. Already the French Government had of French India Socialist Party with Edward Goubert imposed a number of restrictions on the British as President, whose aim and objectives were Indians regarding passport certificates, migration maintaining French sovereignty permanently in permits etc. India. While their party was glorifying the necessity to perpetuate the political 'and cultural links with The local public grouped under Mahajan Sabha the French, the trade and commerce in the neigh­ led by Madan Sahib Marickar protested vocifer­ bouringlndia being the back bone of the economy ously and received great sympathy from the neigh­ of the town was slowly coming to a grinding halt, bouring government of Madras, the press and the due to the blockades. Smuggling reached an all public. However, this particular incident appears to time high. Government of India in 1948 closed all be only a reaction to the attempts made by French agreements with the French government which in humiliating the British through the British citi­ hitherto facilitated the free supply of commodities zens with whom majority of local leaders in Karai­ and essentials to the life of Karaikal. French India kal were having professional affiliations. Having became a foreign territory in war as it were, as a been pressurised by the public as well as by the customs cordon was thrown around Karaikal and envoys of the British government, the French Pondicherry. The necessity of the public and the government never implemented the legislation on greed of big businessmen left the smuggling un­ poll tax. abated.

As a result of the debiliating effects of the Consultations and discussions between the second world war, the French Government ne­ French and Indian Governments followed leading glected their colonies in India including Karaikal, in to the Indo-French agreement of 8th June, 1948 all respects. The French India's representation in according to which the people of the French settle­ the National Committee or the Parliament in PariS ments should themselves determine their future during the period came almost to naught resulting political status by means of "Free and sincere con­ in the total negligence of economic, social arid sultation, the particulars of which should be fixed in political problems and grievences of its colonies. A agreement with the Elected Municipal Councils of H feeling of bitterness grew among the public. Added those settiements • Instead of settling the issues, by a sense of betrayal in view of the most loyal this agreement ultimately found to consolidate the

* Most of this portion is excerpts from "Glimpses of History of Karaikal" by Smt. Saroja Soundarrajan, 1982. The comments, however, are the author's own. '

20 two groups, one for the merger, another resist­ they not only ascertained the rewards expected ing it. from the French Government in-case they helped the referendum for the French, but also visited The implementation of this agreement in Chan­ Delhi to find out what would be the gains if the set­ dranagore, a French colony in West Bengal how­ tlements were merged with India. The French ever, led to its merger with the Indian Union in turned down the proposal of the team with regard 1950. Fearing that this event will lead to the reper­ to conferring autonomous status before the refer­ cussions of the same effect in other colonies, endum, but accepted the autonomy, provided the French India with the help of the French India So­ referendum decided to continue to be under France. cialist party launched oppressive measures against The Indian Government agreed on the other hand the activities of the Merger group which was grow­ in positive for autonomy unconditionally. ing in numbers. In order to infiltrate the anti-merger group in the Municipal Councils thereby derive a I n spite of the assurances made to the Gov­ decision favourable to the French interest, the ernment of India, the delegation, on return to Pon­ French government announced Elections in Sep­ dicherry got a resolution passed for accepting the tember, 1948 without adequate notice on one offer of autonomy by the French Government. As hand and by adopting the pernicious list system in this was not acceptable, merger campaign reached lieu of the existing ward system, (electing a panel the stage of 'Quit India' in Karaikal. The anti­ of candidates) on the other. The implicit vested merger group headed by Goubert was equally interest of the French government was cleverly active, supported by the French Government. apprehended by the public at Karaikal and other places and was officially protested by the Govern­ As the French Government was undecided' ment of India. Shri Kantha Aamanujam as the between 'consultation' and 'referendum' the agita­ President of the Karaikal Congress condemned it tion became intenSive, led by Shri Rama Srini­ as a 'violation of all democratic principles'. Subse­ vasan of Youth Congress. On the otherhand, the quently the elections were postponed sine die only economic situation was fast deteriorating. Mean­ to be re-announced again within a week. Prime while, the leader of ardent anti-merger group, Shri Minister Shri Jawaharlal Nehru took up the matter Goubert entered into friction with the French with Paris. Even as discussions were going on the Government and not only joined the merger group, Governor Bouar imposed restrictions on the politi­ but soon became the militant leader of liberation cal parties working for the merger into the Indian movement. With this, the agitation for merger into Union. Karaikal National Congress and Karaikal the Indian Union became a tidal wave that started Communist Party decided to boycott the elections. sweeping the foundations of French rule in Karai­ However election took place as scheduled on 24th kal and other places. On 18th March, 1954; Minis­ October, 1948 in all the French settlements, ex­ ters of Cabinet, Mayors of Commune Municipali­ cept Mahe. ties constituting 90% of the total population under French territories adopted a unanimous resolution The outcome of the election was of course a 'merger without referendum'. Inspite of this de­ forgone conclusion. All Municipalities except Thi­ mand by the competent elected representatives runallar were captured by the French-Indian So­ as per the 1948 agreement and also by the subse­ cialist Party. The MuniCipal Council of all the com­ quent resolutions by the karaikal Youth Congress, munes met in March, 1949, at Pondicherryto chalk the French Government kept silent. On the other out the modalities for the proposed referendum. A hand, repressive measures were increased in­ three man delegation belonging to anti-merger cluding the cordoning off Karaikal from all sides so group visited Paris in July, 1949, known for their much so that the Sathyagrahis could not enter sense of political expediency of the greatest order, Karaikal from Indian territory. However, the

21 agitation continued unabated under the leader­ sentatives of the Congress socialist and Commu­ ship of Shri Rama Srinivasan, Leon Saint Jean, nist parties respectively. Venkatachellum Pillai, S.B. Shaik Md. Sahib Mar­ ickar etc., HOisting the Tricolour flags, breaking the The waves of freedom from the liberated prohibition orders etc. formerd the method of agi­ areas started sweeping across the Karaikal town tation. The Satyagrahis, however remained non­ too, resulting in the increased optimism of the violent all along despite serious provocations and people. Also the loss of morale and treasury over physical harrasment by the police. the defeat at Indo-China war in 1954 made it difficult for the French government to hold on to her Having seen the futility of their policy thus far, colonies in India. Pondicherry was in fact being in May 1954, the French Government.. invited the used more as a stop for refuelling of steamers Government of India for negotiations. R.K. Nehru, enroute Indo-China. Finally P. Mendes France Secretary to the Indian Foreign Ministry led the succeeded Joseph Laniel as French Prime Minis­ Indian delegation while M. Guy D.O. Law Tour­ ter in June, 1954 who was a statesmen and a true nalle, Director of Political affairs at the French believer in liberty, equality, fraternity and also Foreign Ministry presented the French view point. peace. All the factors culminated in a joint commu­ India made the first move by modifying her original nique issued by both the Governments stating that stand of the de-facto transfer ofthe territories, tak­ the elected members of the Representative As­ ing over of the police, judiciory and treasury and sembly and the Municipal ,Councils of Pondicherry keeping pending the mode of transfer of sover­ and Karaikal would meet 6n 18th October to take ignty to be discussed and implemented in due a decision on the proposals being offered by the course. Though France also dropped the demand two governments. The meeting was held as sched­ for referendum and conceded the eventual merger uled and an overwhelming majority of the mem­ of her territories with India. However, the French bers voted for merger. The issue was decided. Ac­ delegation agreed to transfer only the control of cordingly the de-facto transfer would take place on Customs Department and not the Police and Judi­ 1 st November, 1954 followed by an interim period cial Departments. With this refusal the negotia­ during which the details for the smooth transfer of tions were called off. As the talks failed agitations power de-jure to be effected. were resumed, with leading Muslims like S.M. Kakariya, A.M. Khader, Hanifa Marickar and Sher­ On the morning of 31 st October, 1954 at 6 iff Marickar. P.M. Boucheney the Administrator of Karaikal lowered the French flag at the Government House The French Government intensified the re­ and on 1st November, 1954, AV. Loganathan pressive measures by landing French troops into took over as the first Indian Administrator of Karai­ the town, and sealing of borders that prevented kal which became a part of Pondicherry Union supply of the articles of daily necessities to the Territory as a part C state of the Indian Union. The public. The French Government also encouraged de-jure transfer took place on 16th August, 1962. Pro-French and anti-Indian demonstrations in the form of organisations like partie-Progressite and Pre-Urbanisation details of the town Comite Francophile. Meanwhile the citizens of Yanam liberated themselves on 30th June, 1954. The first Census of this town by the Govern­ Close on the heels, on 16th July, 1954, Shri I. K. ment of India was taken as a part of 1961 Census Kumaran, President of Mahe Mahajan Sabha took under an agreement with French Government as over the Administration himself. Already parallel the de-facto transfer had already taken place in governments were set up in Nettapakkam by Shri 1961. Therefore a systematiC account of the pre­ Goubert and Thirubhuvanai who were the repre- urbanisation details of the Karaikal town are

22 available only from 1961 onwards. This, inspite of kal region and hence cannot be used for the pre­ the fact there are some French Government rec­ sent study. Karaikal town of today being the com­ ords which indicate the census taken by the French mune of yesteryear, the following statement shows Government from 1842 onwards itself. However, increase in the population of Karaikal Commune most of these census records of 1852, 1891, 1901 since 1909. to 1948 give basic particulars on the entire Karai-

SI. Commune-wise population between 1909-1971 No. 1909 1931 1948 1961 1971

1. Karaikal 20,380 17,038 23,008 29,309 36,152

The growth of Karaikal town during the period regarding Karaikal area dates back to the Pallavan 1961-1981, for which the details are available is era. According to the inscriptions, all the villages given in the statement overleaf. .and lands within the Kingdom seems to have been surveyed and detailed records of land rights were It is seen that, Karaikal town registered a maintained by the village and district officers. growth rate of 17% during the period 1961-1971 Und~r the Pallavas, land revenue is understood to and a phenomenal increase of 66% for the period have been a share in the produce by the King. 1971-1981. However, this high growth could be Subsequently under the Cholas it is said although attributed as a corollary of entire rural part of the land revenue remained in Kind, the amount is Karaikal commune, with an area of 12.5 Sq. Kms said to be based on the type of land, classified into and 8 constituent villages merged into the jurisdic­ different grades. During the later Moghul period tion of Karaikal Municipality. The inflated and dubious the King was the sole proprietor of all lands with nature of the growth rate during 1971-81 is the share of the produce granted to the cultivator # evident by comput~ng the growth of Karaikal town, by the King at his will and pleasure. restricted to its original area of 1971. As per this calculation, the Karaikal original area registered a During the French period, the old principle population of 28,857 in 1981 as against its popu­ that all lands belonged only to the King, and that lation of 26,080 in 1971, showing.a growth rate of there are no individual ownership was maintained. mere 1 0.6%. Thus, what is construed as an all time Lands were either given out to rentiers who in turn high growth of an urban unit, is actually a normal gave them to other sub-rentiers or leased out to increase in real terms. While calculating the the ryots directly. The rentiers also leased out the growth rates conversely, it is substantiated by the lands to ryots under adamanam. The adamanam fact that, the rural part of Karaikal in 1971 (which is was of two sorts; Vaaram and Tirvai. Under Tirvai merged into Karaikal town in 1981) registered a the land was granted to the ryots on a fixed rent. growth of 44%, thus clearly showing its contribu­ Under vaaram the produce was shared between tion to the 1981 growth rate of Karaikal town. the farmers and the ryots. In both the cases, Nevertheless, these facts make the year 1981, a however, deductions amounting to about, 10% major landmark in the urbanisation process of were made from the crop towards payment for Karaikal. village servants, artisans, temples etc., before the ryot was allowed to remove any portion of the har­ Land Revenue Administration vest. The land was classified either as paddy land (wet) or small green (dry) land. The dry lands was The earli~st history available on this subject usually assigned a fixed rent, while the wet land

23 STATEMENT ·1 STATUS AND GROWTH HISTORY OF KARAIKAL TOWN

SI, Class, name and civic Location Name of Area in No, of house· No, administralion status Code No, Commune Sq, Kms, holds including Population and groWlh rale of Ihe lawn at the censuses of of lawn houseless households (1981) 1911 1921 1931 1941 1948

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1, Class· II I KaraiKal (MuniCipalny) 3~~1 Karaikal 19,00 8,301 The entire area of KaraiKal Commune has been notified as lawn in 1981 Census (8 villages in the Karaikal Commune have been nolHied as lawn area in 1981 Census).

SI, Population and groWlh rate of the Density Sex Ratio No. town at the censuses of (1981)

I\) Census 1961 Census 1971 Census 1981 Census ~ 19&1 1971 1981

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. 22,252 26,080 43,406 2,265 1,095 1,057 1,040

(17%) (66%) was either rented or cultivated according to the Commission was constituted in 1846. As per its crop sharing system. recommendations, a general remission of tax was granted with effect from 15th July, 1854. As re­ At the beginning ofthe 19th century i.e., soon gards the ownership of lands, all land holders were after the taking over of the establishment from the declared the undisputed owners of the lands they British (1860), the French brought forward some cultivated, provided they had cleared the payment legislation not only to regulate the system of farm­ of tax. ing out lands but also toimprove cultivation. In an Ordinance issued on 25th October, 1826 some In order to have a fresh assessment of the changes were brought out with regard to the land and for the revision of the tax thereof, a ownership of land to the French citizen, the fixation Commission was constituted in 1898. On the basis of tax as an average of the last 15 years harvest of its recommendations, lands were broadly clas­ etc. This Ordinance was replaced by another on sified into three categories. 17th June, 1828 where the lands were divided into four categories. The first category had lands granted 1. Irrigated land or wet lands; on charity basis to people, temples, chowltries and 2. Non-irrigated lands or dry lands; such institutions. This was subject to the condition that these lands could not be used for any purpose 3. Waste, non-cultivable lands. other than for which they were meant. The second category comprised of lands coming under the According to this classification, a survey was grant of ownership called adamanams. The tax to conducted in Karaikal during 1912-1920. Subse­ be paid by them was fixed according to the type of quently it was found that the survey suffered from irrigation provided to the land and also that the tax many deficiencies with regard to land ownerShip, cannot be increased or revised. The third category tenancy, cropped area etc. To remedy the situ­ included all'poramboke' lands which are under the ation, the Pondicherry Survey and Boundaries Act direct control of the Government. These lands of 1967 was passed, and the Directorate of Survey could be leased on rent or sold by auction. The and Land Records was formed in the same year to fourth category included all lands considered to be carry out a fresh survey. This survey was com­ the public property. This is the basic and pre­ pleted in August, 1973. This Pondicherry Settle­ mordiallaw to which one has to refer even now for ment Act 1970 was brought forward to decide the matters relating to the origin of land ownerShip. rate of assessment on each land wherein the This system was followed without any change till lands are divided into groups and classes, based 1853. on facilities and other allied circumstances, such as rainfall, marketing facilities and profits. In order to redress the public grievance re­ The rate of assessment per hectare for Karaikal garding the heavy tax and also to look into the region as per this Act is given in the following problem of ownership rights of the cultivators, a statement:

25 Taram Wet Dry Pandugai (i. e., lands between the river embankments and the water course)

1 2 3 4

Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P.

1. 41.07 20.39 20.39 2. 35.21 14.68 14.68 3. 29.33 11.73 4. 26.25 8.65 5. 23.48 7.41 6. 20.39 5.85 7. 17.60 4.32 8. 14.68 3.71 9. 12.98 2.94 10. 11.73 2.15 11. 10.18 1.24 12. 8.65 0.62

Land Utilization Pattern 1961-71-1981 lords resorted to direct cultivation with or without the assistance of hired labourers. Under these The phenomenon of agrarian problems is with­ circumstances it became necessary to pass the nessed all over India. Karaikal region is no excep­ Karaikal Cultivating Tanants Protection Order, 1958 tion. Hitherto the terms of land tenancy between (8th August, 1958) under the powers of the For­ owners and tenants were mostly oral and the eign Jurisdiction Act with a view to preventing­ terms of the contract depended entirely on the will such evictions pending application of the tenancy of the land owners. This led to conflicts as the laws. The term of this order was extended from public became more and more aware of the rights time to time till it was ultimately replaced and re­ and privileges. The report of the National Council pealed by the Karaikal Tenents Protection Order, for Applied Economic Research in 1965 had an im~ 1960 which came into force on 30th March, 1960. pact on the socio-political measures taken by the Under this order no cultivating tenant was liable to Government regarding the land reforms. be evicted unless he used or attempted to use the land for a purpose other than agriculture or horti­ The Karaikal Cultivating Tenants Protection culture or deliberately neglected to take steps in Order 1958 reasonable time to cultivate the land or had not paid the rent within three months from the date of Soon after the merger, the question of ex­ acquisition. It must, however, be noted that agree­ tending the Thanjavur Tenants and Panniyal Pro­ ments between the tenants and landlords were tection Act, 1952 engaged the attention of the Ad­ very often entered into orally. As suc.h the question ministration. But even in anticipation of the intro­ of tenancy rights were always subjected to dis­ duction of the law, eviction of tenants started in pute. Tenancy certificates could not be issued and Karaikal at the instance of landlords. The land- the revenue authorities were given instructions to

26 conduct preliminary enquires and to give tenancy nate the engagement by giving a minimum notice certificates so that these tenants who were dragged of 12 months ending with the expiry of the agricul­ to courts could have the added weight of tenancy tural year or by mutual agreement. When how­ certificates issued by the revenue authorities. ever, a land-owner terminates the engagement, he has to pay the panniyal six months wages or This order was replaced by the Pondicherry such amounts as may be agreed upon. Cultivating Tenants Protection Act, 1970 which came into force from 10th April, 1971. The provisions of this Act did not apply to land-holders having less than one veli (2, 2/3 hec­ The Karaikal Panniyal Protection Act, 1968 tares) whether wet or dry land irrigated from-gov­ ernment source, or three velis (8 hectares) of dry The constitution of a special committee by the land not irrigated from government source. The Pondicherry Representative Assembly (20th Oc­ jurisdiction of the Civil Court or the Administrative tober, 1960) to report on the need to extend the Court was barred in regard to any order or decision Thanjavur Panniyal Act to Karaikal came as an in­ or award passed by any Revenue Court or any dication of the interest shown by the representa­ officer under this Act. As a post-script it will suffice tives of the people over the plight of Panniyals in to add the comment of an authority on the subject; Karaikal. After about six years, the Act came into "In actual fact, however, the implementation of the force from 1 st May, 1966. The Act and its provi­ law seems to have adversely affected the panni­ sions were made applicable only to Karaikal as it yals. Most of them have been converted into daily exclusively dealt with the question of agricultural wage earners with the result that the Act has been labourers called Panniyals and their wages. Al­ rendered ineffective". though the Act defined a Panniyal as a person engaged by the land owner to look after the farm The Karaikal Agricultural Labourer Fair Wages, and do all cultivation work on the land whenever Act 1970 necessary in the course of an entire agricultural year (Le., year commencing from the first of July), This was another measure of some impor­ it however did not include those who were en­ tance under which agricultural labourers were gaged either casually or for a specific item of work. assured of fair wages. The bill was passed by the Assembly on 12th June, 1970, and was brought The wages of panniyals were determined as into force on 10th September, 1970. follows:- This Act was to remain in force for a period of 1. Two Marakka/s*of paddy for every adult male three years and upon the expiry ofthe Act, the pro­ member. visions of section 6 of the Central Clauses Act, 1897 as applicable under the section 2 of the Pon­ 2. One Marakkal of paddy for every adult female dicherry General Clauses Act, 1965 was to apply member, and as if this Act had then been repealed by a Pondi­ cherry Act. The Agricultural labourer was defined 3. Three-fourths of a marakkal of paddy for every as a person who performed manual labour on the worker not being an adult. agricultural land of the land-owner. It did not in­ clude a panniyal as defined by the Karaikal Pan­ A panniyal was not to be dismissed by a land­ niyal Protection Act, 1966 and also persons en­ owner. But a land-owner or a panniyal may termi- gaged in household work of the land owner or for

*Marakkals=Approximately 3 Kgs and 250 grams.

27 .cleaning the cattle yard or for storing manure. or five litres of paddy and 25 np. per day for Complaints under the Act will be heard by the women. As per the Act, work did not include Conciliation Officer, who will be an officer of the ploughing where bullocks and ploughs were pro­ Revenue Department not below the rank of a vided by the agricultural labourer. For harvesting, Tahsildar as notified in the Gazette. It will be his re­ the wage was fixed at six litres out of every fifty four sponsibility to ensure the payment of fair wages. litres of harvest paddy. For the purpose of arriving Appeal against the order of the Conciliation Offi­ at the wages, no deduction was to be made either cer will be with the Revenue Court and the deci­ for kalavady or for any other expenses out of the sion of the Revenue Court will be final subject to harvest till the wages were paid. revision by the District Court. The Pondicherry Cultivating Tenants (pay­ The Act fixed the wages for all kinds of work ment of fair rent) Act, 1970 was made applicable in during the cultivation season at Rs. 3 or six litres of this region with effect from 1st April 1971. paddy and Rs. 1.25 per day for men and Rs. 1.75

28 CHAPTER III ADMINISTRATION, AMENITIES AND SERVICES

Since the days of Napoleoni-I, the executive Nagar Emp!re and gradually started losing their remained separated from the judiciary, not only in function thereafter. Lack of a strong administra­ France but also in its overseas territories. Under tion, frequent wars and skirmishes, political insta­ the French set up, the functions relating to reve­ bility and the ever-changing external society might nue administration, judiciary and law and order have resulted in the socio-economic and cultural were dealt separately by different officials at the disorders within, which might have affected the level of the district unlike in British India. After strength of these Councils. merger, following the appointment of a Collector, the territory was divided into 4 revenue divisions, After the French took over, in 1817, a Munici­ viz. Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam*. pality in Karaikal was formed. As regards the rural Each of these revenue divisions were brought areas which are part of the present Karaikal town, under the control of an 'Administrator' who was a commune level territory was estabilished on 25th mainly responsible for the collection of revenue. December, 1907. Already through a Directive of The Administrator of Karaikal was also declared 12th March, 1880 the list of items of expenditure to as Deputy Collector by the Reorganisation of 1970. be incurred by the Municipalities was passed by The Administrator was also appointed as the Sub­ the French Government. In 1912, keeping in view divisional Magistrate under the Pondicherry Land the limited resources of the MuniCipalities the Gov­ Reforms Act, 1973. The Administrator had also ernment made these institutions eligible for a share been declared as authorised officer according to in some of the direct and indirect taxes. Through an Act of 1975 as the Land Grant Officer. Thus the another Ordinance on 2nd March, 1925, the Administrator virtually controls all the vital Government made obligatory on the part of the departments of the government. In a way he is the Municipalities to bear the expenditure incurred by first representative of the Government. This the administration towards water supply. After post is filled up from the officers of the State merger, the Pondicherry Municipal Councils (Elec­ Civil Service. tion) Act, 1966, provided for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes in the Municipal Councils. History of Local Self Governments* The Pondicherry Municipal Decree (Amendment (Municipality) Act 1966) regulated the recruitment and condi­ tions of service of Municipal employees in accor­ The earliest evidence of local self govern­ dance with rules framed by the administration. But ment in the present Pondicherry Union Territory for these acts and resulting changes, the Munici­ area is available from the Pallava era. It appears pal administration continued to be carried accord­ that" Nadu and Kottam" happened to be the ad­ ing to French Laws. ministrative units which can be compared to pres­ ent Commune Panchayat and Municipalities re­ With the reorganisation of Municipalities in spectively. These institutions constituted a sort of the form of Pondicherry Municipality Act, 1973, the Council made up of distinguished men having Mayors and Deputy Mayors ceased to function power to deliberate over the questions of public with immediate effect. All the executive powers of importance. These Councils are understood to the'Mayors stood transferred to the Commission­ have continued effectively till the end of Vijaya ers pending elections.

*Termed as 'Districts', in Census parlance. *Excerpts from Gazeteer of I ndia, Union Territory of Pondicherry-1982.

29 Following the introduction of the above Act, was no provision in the old law either for a member Karaikal Municipality came into being. While Pondi­ to resign from the Councilor to remove the Mayor cherry Municipality was designated as a selection through a motion of no-confidence. The new grade Municipality, Karaikal belongs to Grade-II. measure provided for such exigencies. Under the new law, all functions excluding those which were assigned to the Chairman, that is, The Municipalities are empowered to levy those which were hitherto exercised by the Mayor taxes which are compulsory. In some cases the came to be exercised by the Commissioners. The tax may be imposed with the approval of the Gov­ Karaikal Municipality was headed by a Commis­ ernment. The Municipalities could frame their own sioner Grade-I. The Council became the govern­ budgets within the limits of their own financial ing body of the Municipality as well as the Com­ resources. All taxes which were lawfully and actu­ mune Panchayats with powers to issue directions ally levied prior to the commencement of the Act to the executive authority. The Chairman, as the continued to, be in force. The responsibility for the presiding officer of the Municipal Council repre­ collection of taxes which was hitherto under the sents the Council in the day-to-day administration control of the "Receveur MuniCipal" stood trans­ of the Municipality and is entitled to be kept conti­ ferred to the Commissioner. Under the new dis­ nously informed of the working of the executive pensation, taxes are collected by the Municipali­ authority. The Commissioner has to consult the ties themselves. The proceeds of such taxes which Chairman in respect of all matters of which such were assigned by the Administration to the local consultation would be conclusive to the smooth bodies like house tax and land revenue surcharge, working of these bodies. While the Commissioner continued to be levied and collected by the Reve­ is to function under the general control of the nue Department. The new law prescribed a uni­ Council and to carry out all the decisions and direc­ form procedure for the determination of conditions tions, he is expected to discharge all the executive of service etc. The major departments under functions vested in him, at his full discretion. When­ Municipal Administration are; ever the Commissioner feels that a particular direction is against the law, he is entitled to make (i) Municipal Revenue a reference to the Government and seek its or­ ders. To sum up, the Commissioner is the reposi­ Collection of Property tax, Entertainment tax, tory of all executive powers under the Act. No Octroi, Professional tax, Advertisement tax, Duty official correspondence between the Municipality on transfer of property, tax on Municipal stalls and and the Government shall be conducted except godowns, Bus stand fee, rent from Municipal Kaly­ through the Chairman. ana mandapam etc.

Any measure which is likely to promote public (ii) Municipal Health Office safety, health, or the convenience of the inhabi­ tants of the locality generally comes within the The Municipal Health force consists 87 scav­ ambit of the functions of the Council. Except in engers for sanitation, supervised by 7 maistries matters which may be subject to restriction and with a Municipal Health Officer as the head. After control by the Government, no resolution of the cleaning the streets the waste is dumped at 12 Municipal Council would require the prior approval temporary dumping pOints. The Municipal vehicles of the Government. However, an authenticated collect the garbage and dump them in the dumping copy of the minutes of the proceedings of the grounds. There are 34 toilet blocks at various parts meeting of the Municipal Council has to be for­ of the Municipality. There are two pay and use warded by the Chairman, to the concerned Direc­ latrines, and it is the Karaikal Municipality which tor, within three days of the date of meeting. There first introduced this in the Union Territory of

30 Administrative Office

31

Municipal Office (New Building)

32 Pondicherry. A slaughter house is maintained by tion of side drains are taken up in Kallaraipet and the Municipality to ensure the sale of quality mut­ Periapet under this scheme. Municipality carrying ton. A Veterinary Asst. Surgeon is incharge of the out works relating to 'Integrated Development' of slaughter house. Surprise inspections are carried small and Medium towns; Construction of By-pass out at mutton stalls. To catch and destroy stray road to Karaikal town and construction of Central dogs an intensive campaign is also being under­ Bus-stand are being taken up. taken. Inspection of boarding houses and lOdg­ ings are conducted regularly and instructions are Under Welfare Department grant, construc­ given to the authorities concerned for maintaining tion of toilets, and scavengers' quarters are being the hygiene and sanitary conditions. The cooks taken up. Three scavengers' quarters have been and suppliers of hotels are checked. completed recently.

Public Works Section With regard to the improvement work under Municipal Budget, works of small and urgent na­ Public works section of the Municipality looks ture are taken up, like Irrigation, chan!lels, protec­ after the maintenance and developmental works tion offunds, boreing wells, providing hand pumps, of the Municipality. Development works are car­ repairing lavatories, maintenance of road etc. The ried out usually under the following 5 categories, Karaikal Municipality is maintaining about 50 Kms (1) Local Administration Department-Grant in aid, of road length of 72 Kms. of channels, 18 water (2) Local Administration Department-Loan, (3) Town supply system with 121 hand pumps, 32 public and Country Planning Department-Grant in aid, latrines and 12 graveyards. (4) Welfare Department-Grant in aid, and (5) Municipal funds. Under Local Administration An amount of Rs. 2 lakhs is being spent for Department grant in aid, improvement works to the maintenance and improvement of Municipal Municipal roads, irrigation structures, protection assests per annum. Registration of Births, Deaths works to channels, ponds, construction of small and Marriages are done. culverts and construction of road side drains are taken up. Under LAD loan only remuneral scheme Cominte de Beinfaissance Other Local works are undertaken, such as the construction of Bodies town hall-cum-Municipal Office at a cost of Rs. 8.21 lakhs. The work is expected to be completed Styled after the French system, it is cont~nued by September '85. Local Administration Depart­ even after merger with Indian Union. The Commit­ ment has also sanctioned another scheme for the tee does not come under the purview of the Pon­ construction of Travellers bungalow at Kothukulam. dicherry Municipalities Act 1973. It is governed by Under the scheme of issuing loan to householders a committee under the chairmanship of speCial for converting dry-latrines into water borne Rs. officer and the Commissioner is the Executive. Its 38,500 were given by Local Administration De­ fund is formed from the 25% share of the Enter­ partment for the issue of this loan. tainment tax and this is used for charitable pur­ poses. The Municipality feeds the poor on allinde­ Under Town and Country Planning Depart­ pendence and Republic days, funds are utilized ment grant environmental improvement scheme for the supply of free uniforms to poor school going works are taken up. Improvement of slum areas is children residing within the Municipal region. It undertaken under this scheme. Construction of also doles out cash to about 140 old age pension­ Public lavatory, maintenance of roads, construc- ers.

33 Karaikal Planning Authority Directorate of Accounts and Treasuries

1. This department is meant: Audit and rendering of Accounts. To prepare landuse map and register; Interim development pian; Office of the Deputy Director of 'Agriculture Comprehensive development plan; and detailed development plan. Soil testing for Agricultural purposes.

2. To prescribe use of land within the planning Office of the Deputy Director of Fisheries area. Implementation of development schemes for 3. To prepare reports of survey. the welfare of Fishermen and increase fish pr9- duction, both marine and inland. 4. To control and regulate development and use of land. Branch Survey Office

5. To enforce and implement detailed develop­ Updating of survey and land records. ment plan schemes. Office of the Deputy Director of Agriculture 6. To make any agreement with any person and (Extn.) body to carryout detailed development plans. Agricultural development. 7. To perform any other functions as assigned from time to time. Office of the Director of Economics and Statis­ tics Directrorate of Social Welfare (Sub-Office) 1. Collection of price statistics. Aweard of scholarship to physically handi­ 2. Collection of Agriculture statistics. capped children, widow's children, Gold mang'al­ 3. Livestock census and collection of other statis­ yam, Old age and widow pension, Incentives for tical data as and when required by Govern­ the remarriage with widows, widow's daughters ment. marriage, Running of Pre-schools and Balwadis. 4. Agricultural Census (Quin quennial) 5. Conducting of the Socio-economic surveys of Intergrated Child Development Project the NSSO (Staff deputed from Headquarters).

Running of Anganwadis for the children in the Office of the Deputy Collector (Reveunue) age group of 0-6, pregnant women and lactating mothers, supplementary nutrition is given to the Collection of land Revenue; Excise; loans; at­ children as well as pregnant women and lactating tachment of properly under Revenue Recovery mothers and the Anganwadi Centre is also en­ Act, Land acquisition Act, Revenue Court, Pawn gaged in providing facility of medical check up to brokers Act, Money Lenders Act, Tamilnadu Debt the beneficiaries and functional literacy to Adult relief Act, Enroachment Act, Indian Stamp Act and women in the age group of 15-45. distribution of pattas under Land Reforms Act,

34 L.G.R. Scheme; issue of various certificates, li­ Labour Welfare Centre cences under Excise. Educating the women folk of the labour soci­ Civil Supplies Department ety in the art of sewing and handicrafts.

Public distribution system and control over Child Welfare Centre the availability of essential commodities at fair prices. looks after the children of age group 3 to 5 of the labour society. Public Works Department While the preceeding discussion refers to the Maintenance of roads and irrigation. policy and statutory responsibilities of the Munici­ pality, and other public offices, the actual implem­ Town and Country Planning Department entation are detailed below in terms of provision of amenities by quantity and quality. (a) Assist the Senior Town Planner in preparing, co-ordinating planning policies of the Govern­ Provision of Civic Amenities mental machinery; (a) Water Supply : Previously the inhabi­ (b) Supervise local planning programmes; tants of Karaikal depended on wells and ponds for the drinking water and during the rainy season (c) Furnishing returns, statements, estimates, river water was also used. Although these sources statistics, and other information relating to the provided plenty of water throughout the year, ab­ administration and reports. sence of purified water and a high content of so­ dium chloride resulted in frequent epidemics of (d) Any other assignments given by the Senior Cholera and Typhoid .. After a few experiments of Town Planner. digging the wells in different places, it was decided to construct a water supply complex with a reser­ Electricity Department voir, pipe line and distribution network, from the northern bank of Arasalar river. The construction Distribution of Electric Energy. was completed in 1930. This continues to be the ma,;n source of water supply even today. After the Office of the Labour Officer completion of another scheme in 1974, two more sources of water supply viz., the pumping stations Implementing various labour laws and at­ . at Thenur and another at Nehru Nagar started tending conciliation proceedings. water supply to the population. All the three sources of water supply are now controlled by the Public Sub-Employment Exchange Works Department. The entire Karaikal town, in­ cluding the fringe area, is now served with pro­ Attending exployment services and giving tected water supply. As on 1984-85, 5.40 million vocational guidance. litres of water is supplied to the referent area every day. The water is given the treatment of plain Office of the Asst. Inspector of Labour chlorination using stable bleeching powder.

Enforcing various labour laws. A comprehensive urban water-supply scheme

35 at a huge cost of As. 25 lakhs was taken up to sory Maistries (7) and scavengers (87). The sys­ achieve the target of consumption of 3 lakhs tem of sewerage employed is the water flushout gallons of good drinking water a day for an esti­ system. As on 1985, the Karaikal town area stretch­ mated population of 56,000. Under this scheme ing to 2.5 Sq. Kms and about 1500 households are the Head water works in Agalankannu has been covered under this sewerage. This corresponds to equipped with a deep well turbine pumpset and the pre 1981 Karaikal core town. As regards drain­ the overhead tank in Karaikal with diesel genera­ age, the system is open surface system during tor to serve as an alternative source of power for 1985, and the total length of the drainage runs to the supply of water, if the energy fails. Besides 45 kms., covering almost the entire Karaikal core these, tube wells have also been drilled to aug­ town. ment the supply of water. Method of Disposal of Night Soil At the time of survey, the combined capacity of Agalankannu head works, the Thenur pumping Very few households have private flush la­ station, the over head tank at Karaikal, and the trines. Mostly, the disposal is carried by Municipal Thalatheru pumping station stood at 3,00,000 scavengers. Wheel-barrows and septic tanks are gallons through underground reservoirs and used for the purpose. Garbage collection is done 1,50,000 gallons by over head tanks. The total manually and it is collected from 12 dumping length of conduits through which this water is points from which municipal vehicles carry it to the supplied has a length of about 25,000 metres. The urban compost yard. From here, the garbage by entire town is covered under this protected water the natural conversion as compost is re-utilized by scheme. The following are the rates of tariff col­ agriculturists. lected from the public for the supply of water. Conservancy 1. Domestic Supply There are no special efforts for conservancy Metered 0.25 per 1000 Itrs. or part thereof as there is no separte manpower alloted for this with a minimum of As. 6/- per quarter of an year. purpose.

Commercial Supply Power Supply

As. 0.50 per 1000 Itrs. or part thereof with a Power supply came to the town in 1935 and minimum of As. 15/- per quarter. is looked after by the Electricity Department, Gov­ ernment of Pondicherry. Public Taps The power supply for the town as well as the As. 50/- per tap per quarter to be collected entire district is drawn from Tamil Nadu state grid from the Municipality. to which the data is available, the average annual consumption of electricity for the town was re­ 2. Sewerage and drainage ported to be 2,28,00,000 units. The other statisti­ cal details of the power supply in the town are The Karaikal Municipality is the agency re­ given in two inset statements, No. IlLii and lI!.iii. sponsibleforthe construction and maintainance of infrastructure with regard to sewerage and drain­ Transport and communication age. The MuniCipal Health Officer is incharge of this department and other staff include Supervi- Karaikal is connected by rail and road, the

36 town has a terminal railway station connected to the field of medicine and health care, have been Mayladuthurai Junction on Madras-Rameswaram the instalation of the diesel generator as a stand­ Meter gauge line. However, the rail transport is by in the Government Hospital at a cost of Rs. 1.3 hardly utilised for passenger traffic with only one lakhs and the expansion of medical services by the train a day. The rail is mostly used for freight appointment of specialists in Midwifery and E.N.T. purposes. The road transport is the widely used The splendid of all the achievements in the sphere transport for travel, commercial and trade pur­ of health was the successful implementation of poses. Karaikal is connected to all the major towns Family planning in 1975 and 1976. An intensive and cities around such as Nagapattinam on the Family Planning drive was launched involving South, Tiruchirapalli, Kumbakonam and Thanjavur leaders of public opinion, MuniCipal Councilors, on the South-West, Mayiladuthurai on the West Commune Panchayat Members, Lecturers, Teach­ and Madras and Pondicherry on the ·North. ers and Social Workers. Karaikal exceeded the targets set for it. During survey Karaikal town had Health the apex health institution in the form of General Hospital containing 280 beds with a complement As for Medical and Public Health Services, oHifty eight doctors, eighty three nurses and three prior to merger there was only one 'Centre Medi­ hundred and eighty three para-medical staff. In cal' in Karaikal which had its nucleus in the Dispen­ 1984-85 this hospital had catered to about four sary established in 1855. A maternity wing was at­ lakh thirty seven thousand patients and about tached to the medical centre in 1935 but it made no fifteen thousand inpatients. progress till the late fifties. After merger, the ·Centre Medical" became ~nown as the General Hospital In addition to the General Hospital there is having a dental section, an opthalmiC section, a one Subsidiary Health Centre located at Kovilpa­ pathological laboratory, V.D. Clinic, a 25 bedded thu, having a Doctor assisted by a nurse and isolation ward and an X-Ray unit added to it. There seven para-medical staff. During the same period are four Primary Health Centres situated in Varic­ this dispensary catered to about forty three thou­ hikudy, Nedungadu, Thirunallar and Vizhidiyur. sand patients. Ten sub·centres are attached to those Primary Health Centres-three each in Nedungadu, and Incidence of Diseases Thirunallar and two each in Varichikudy and Vizhidiyur. Six dispensaries opend between 1956 People inhabiting Karaikal Town suffer mainly and 1970 have been located in Ambagarathur, from water-borne diseases. The details of inci­ Kottucherry, Nallambal, Nallathur and Neravy and dence of diseases which are given below amply Thi rumalai rayanpatti nam. substantiate this fact. It was reported in 1985-86 that the maximum number of cases for a fortnight In the developmental programme of Shri Ched­ pertain to gastro enteritis 1,373 out of a total of dilal, the erstwhile Lt. Governor of Pondicherry Un­ 2,674 indoor cases ~md 5,677 dysentry cases out ion Territnry, medical services received its due to of 8,287 outdoor cases. The maximum ~aths share. 1 ne addition of twenty-five bedded T.B. reported (53 out of 88) were also because of Sanitorium and the Out Patient Departmen\ and gastro enteritis. The following statement provides Pharmacy Block costing Rs. 6.75 lakhs to the details of other incidences of diseases treated in General Hospital, Karaikal, profit the public tre­ the General Hospital, for the first fortnight of mendously. The other notable achievements in 1985~86.

37 INCIDENCE OF DISEASES AT GENERAL HOSPITAL During the year 1985, it was reported that a total of KARAIKAL FOR THE YEAR 1985-86 769 tubectomy and 87 vacectomy operations were performed in these centres, in addition the 613 1. Chickenpox IVD insertions and distribution of temporary Fam­ 2. Diptheria ily Planning devices to about 60,000 for males and about 2500 to females was also done. 3. Measles 4

4. Woophing cough 2 7 Animal Husbandary and Veterinary Health 5. Poliomyelitis 12 4

6. Tetanus 116 785 Karaikal town has a fulfledged institutional structure for this purpose with an apex hospital 7. Tuberciosis 832 84 having a Veterinary Asst-Surgeon, 2 Veterinary 8. Enteric fever 95 75 Field Assts. and one Compounder. Further, the 9. Inf. Hepatitis 73 145 surrounding and the entire rural part of the town is

10. E ncephal itis 2 covered by a Key Village Veterinary Unit with a doctor and 5 field assistants. 11. Influenza 12. Dysentry 163 5,667 During 1985-86, a total of 28,284 cases were 13. Gastro-Ente"ritis 1,373 868 treated at Veterinary Hospital, Karaikal and at Key Village Unit, Karaikal. 430 male and 359 female 14. Dengue fever cow calves and 56 male and 47 female buffallow 15. Haemorrhage calves were born at the key village unit. Rinder 16. Rabies 2 227 Pest Vaccine for cholera and dysentry were given

17. Syphilis 374 to 1995 animals in both the centres; 550 castra­ tions were done; 4291 Artificial insemination for 18. Gonococal I nf. cows and 595 for buffalows were given. 2778 Blackquarter was done; Raniket Vaccine for sheeps Total 2,674 8,287 and goats were also done; 13 Antirabies injections were done; 126 piggery pion vaccine were done Family Welfare 32 Foul pox Vaccine and 683 for Haemorragic Septiceamiz; 480 Foot and Mouth diseases for The main family welfare activity is conducted by Bovines were also treated. the Family Welfare Centre, attached to the Gen- eral Hospital in the town. In addition, the Primary The incidence of veterinary diseases in both Health Centres and sub-centres located in and the institutes for 1985-86 are given in the following around the town also undertake several family statement; planning and maternity and child welfare activities.

38 I

Government Hospital (Main Entrance)

39 Type of animal Name of Number treated disease Reporting Reporting from within from outside the town the town

Key village Ve. Hos. Total centre 2 3 4 5. 1. Black Cattle 1. Rinderpest ',595 400 1,995 and white 2. Haemorrhage ',993 683 2,676 Cattle Septiceamiz 3. Foot and Mouth. 480 480 4. Blace Quarter 1,976 802 2,778

2. Sheep and Goat 1. Anthrax 2. Surrah

3. Poultry 1. Ranikhet 10,092 5,875 15,967 2. Fowlpox 8 24 32

4. Others 156 156

Education ment Middle Schools and 92 Government Primary Schools having a total strength of 22,707 (13,138 At the time of merger, the education offered boys and 9,569 girls) of which 3,611 (1943 boys was of three types. One. was through French and 1668 girls) belong to the Scheduled Castes. medium and the total duration of schooling was 12 Two of the private High Schools-the Nirmala years-Primary 5 years, secondary 4 years and Ranee High School for Girls and the Saint Mary's higher seconaary 3 years. The second type was School for boys offer courses also through the through Tamil meqium with a total duration of 11 English medium. All the schools are under the years-Primary 7 years and High School 4 years. control of the Chief Educational Officer The third was through English medium with a duration of 10 years-Primary 4 years, Middle The system of education under the French Schools 3 years and High Schools 3 y~. Since regime did not provide for collegiate education. the merger, except in "College d' ensignment sec­ The so-called 'College Moderne' was but a school, ondaries", the system of education has been on coaching the students upto higher secondary class. the same pattern adopted in the adjoining state of The first college in Karaikal for Men was estab­ Tamil Nadu. The ·students appear in the Secon­ lished in 1967. This college, which was known for dary School Leaving Certificate and the Higher many years as Modern College, shifted to its own Secondary Examinations, conducted respectively, spacious campus in Nehru Nagar, Thalatheru and by the Boards of Secondary Education and Higher is renamed as Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College for Secondary Education, Tamil Nadu. In Karaikal, men; in 1977. It offers courses in Arts, Science and there are 3 Higher Secondary Schools, 16 High Commerce. Tamil and Economics are being taught Schools (including 3 private schools), 19 Govern- at the Post Graduate Level.

40 The Avaiyar Government College for Women, 18-25, as fitters, turners, mechanics, wiremen, was established in July 1972, at the initiative ofthe welders and Masons. Admission is restricted to 40 then Chief Minister of Pondicherry, Sh. M.O.H. candidates. The course is free and one third of the Faroor Marickar, himselt a native of Karaikal. It is students are given a stipend of Rs. 25/- mensem named after Awaiyar, a gifted poetess of Tamil besides free hostel accommodation, free medical language (6th Century A.D.). The college offers care and free clothing during the entire period of B.A. in History and in English literature and B.Sc. their training. Candidates belonging to Scheduled in Mathemtics, Chemistry and Botany: In Septem­ Castes and Scheduled Tribes and repatriates get ber, 1977, it moved from Thalatheru to the prem­ a stipend of Rs. 45/- per mensem. It is headed by ises of the Old College Moderne. a group' instructor now called Principal who is di­ rectly answerable to the Commissioner of Labour, Both the colleges are affiliated to the Univer­ Pondicherry. There are ten commercial institu­ sityof Madras. Both the colleges have excellent li­ tions run by private bodies training candidates in braries as substantial amounts are allotted every typing, short-hand, book-keeping and account­ year by the Education Department for the pur­ ancy. chase of books and periodicals. But there are no public libraries except the 'Bibliotheque publique' A word about the Tamil Association will not be which has only about 6,000 books in all the three out of place in a discusson on the region's cultural languages-Tamil, Teluguand English. By the de­ growth. Called the Tamil Perawai, it has made cree of June 1952, It was placed under the care of commendable contribution to the growth of Tamil an Ecrivain de la Bibliotheque. There a~e fifteen literature in Karaikal. Inagurated in 1973, it has so branch libraries and one Mobile Library. far published six research papers on "Sang am literature". Leading literacy luminaries have ad­ There are also technical and commercial in­ dressed the Peravai. stitutions in Karaikal. The Industrial Training Insti­ tute esbalished io August, 1968 at Thirumalairay~ Following statement No. 111.1 provides the anpattinam under the Craftsmen Training Scheme details of educational institutions by type and the gives training to candidates in tbe age group of strength of staff/student.

41 Arignar Anna Government Arts College

42 Avvaiyar Government College for Women

43 STATEMENT NO. 111.1

DETAILS OF THE STRENGTH OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUnONS

Name of the Number of students Number of teachers Indication of the number ot institution institutions having co-education Male Female Total Male Female Total and others exclusively meant for females.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Degre. College 1. Arignar Anna govt. Arts College 455 31 486 59 3 62 Co-education (P.G. course in Economics and Tamil literature offered) 2. Awaiyar Govt. College for women 127 127 12 12 24 Exclusively for women Higher Secondary 1. GoYl. Hr. Secondary School, Kovilpathu 495 495 Nt\. 2. Awaiyar Govt. College for women (Hr. Sec. Section) 280 280 NA High Schoole: 1. Ecole Maderne (French Medium) 244 '116 360 NA 2. Govindasmy Pillai Govt High School 421 421 20 20 Exclusively for boys 3. Govt. Girls High School (Karaikal North) 441 441 9 7 16 Exclusively for women 4. Murugathal Achi Govt. girls High School 404 404 13 11 24 • do·

Private High School 1. Nirmala Ranee School 89 614 703 NA Private Management 2. SI. Marys High School 966 966 NA Private Management 3. Muslim Educational Society 334 334 NA Exclusively for boys

Middle Schoole 1. Govt. Middle Boys School 322 322 15 . 15 Exclusively for boys 2. Kanamannan Govt. Middle School 467 467 5' 16 21 3. GoYl. Middle School, Karaikalmedu 275 170 445 14 14 4. Govt. Middle School, Vadamarakadu 293 214 flJ7 5 15 20 5. Govt. Middle School, Kovilpathu 377 332 709 13 10 23 6. Govt. Middle School, Karaikal West 325 325 14 14 7. Govt. Middle School, Kothakulam, (Boys) 192 192 11 2 13 Exclusively for girts 8. Govt. Middle School, Thalatheru 185 180 365 11 12 Exclusively for boys TABLE XIII,I (Contd.)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Primary Schools 1. Govi. Primary School (Girls) Karaikal South 353 353 18 18 2. Central Girls School, Church St. 148 148 7 7 3. Govi. Primary School, (Boys) Perumal Koil SI. 150 150 8 8 4, Govi, Primary School, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 78 58 136 5 5

5. I Govt, Primary School, Patchur 7 9 16 NA 6, Govi. Primary School, Pillanheruvasal 22 18 40 3 3 7. Govt. Primary School, Puthuthurai 49 52 101 4 5 8. Govi. Primary School, Thalatherupet 24 21 45 4 4 g. Nehru Nagar 33 47 80 2 2 4 10. Go'll. Primary School, Dharmapuram 65 53 118 6 7 11. Govi. Primary School, Vadamarakadu East 89 86 175 2 4 6 12. Govt, Primary School, Periapet 64 69 133 5 6 13. Goo. Primary School, Thirunagarpet 14 8 22 14. Govt. Primary School, Girls, Karaikal East 153 153 7 7 ,5, Goo. French Primary School, Karaikal 15 10 25 NA 16. Govt. Pre·Primary, Karaik~ 13 26 39 2 2 ~ Prlvat, I. Shanmugha Nursery School (unrecognised) Not av~lable Nehru Nagar 2. Vigneswara Padasalai, Karaikalpathu Not av~lable 3. Servile English School, Karaikal Nol available STATEMENT NO. 111.11

DETAILS OF ELECTRIC SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION IN KARAIKAL TOWN (1981)

Type of connection Code Number of Volume of Rate connection consumption per unit given (1981)

2 3 4 5

1 . Domestic a. Ughting A2' tariff 7,758* 2,42,499 0.38 b. Power Tariff 1103 2,18,831 0.20 ps

2. Industrial 'C'tariff 302 10,68,226 0.22 ps plus Rs. 5/­ monthly

3. Irrigation '0' tariff 191 2,23,190 0.16 ps plus Rs. 5/­ monthly

4. Other estab· 'E'tariff 10 84,820 lishment (Combined power and lighting)

5. Commercial 'A l' tariff 2,016 9,88,522 0.50 ps

6. Road lighting 6 6,18,204 0.15 ps/ unit upto 2000 unit & 0.45 ps/ . unit there­ after

7. Industrial 82,13,960 MDRS 15/ Power HTI KVA

* Total number of connections existing in 1981.

46 STATEMENT NO. 1II.lii

DETAILS OF PUBLIC LIGHTING IN KARAIKAL

Type of Light Hours of lighting Total No. Total con­ (1984-85) Average of points sumption per month

2 3 4

1. Ordinary light 40 w. 275 6012

2. ~~Twin Tube light 275 4308

3. 4' Single Tube lights 275 4836 1,85,700 units 4. 4' twin tube lights 275 60

5. 12W M.v. Lamp 275 648

Fire Fighting in the preceeding pages at appropriate places. The differential allocation for the amenities by the This service could be considered very meagre State Government Departments could not be ob­ relating to the population and area of the Town as tained. However, the statement No. lll.iv provides there is only one fire station and one ambulance in the Municipal budget for the year 1984-85, which operation for the entire town, perhaps, for the dis­ throws' some light on the differential allocation of trict as a whole. The details of staff are not avail­ financial resources by the local self government. able. However, it is seen from records that there has been a gradual reduction in the calls attended As the budget preparation and execution is a over the last three years number 32, 30 and 7 re­ policy decision of the Municipality, in the present spectively. One cannot say the reduction is due to context, by the State Assembly, there is no scope lesser number of fire accidents or the attendance for evaluation of the above allocation. Neverth­ on the part of fire brigade. less, the statement, on the face of it, glaringly projects a fact that out of a total annual budget of Finance and allocation for civic amenties about 27.0 lakhs', only 2.50 lakhs are actually utilized on the civic services while the establish­ The State Government Departments and the ment and salaries took away as much as 15 lakhs Municipality share the responsibility of providing in addition to the repayment of loans to the tune of the amenities and services to the town. The spe­ 2.30Iakhs. cific allotments in this regard are already explained

47 STATEMENT NO. II I. Iv

MUNICIPAL BUDGET FOR KARAIKAL TOWN-1984-85

I. Receipt and Expenditure for the year 1984-85: 1. Receipts 26,65,744-75 2. Expenditure 26,58,968-85 3. Average monthly income 2,22,145-40 4. Average monthly expenditure 2,21,580-75 5. Establishment charges for a month 1,42,976-80

II. Financial Position 1984-85: 1 . Receipt anticipated 33,70,00-00 2. Municipal Fund 2,79,513-95 3. Grant in aid and loan 57,74,596-00 4. Cash balances 60,54,109-95

III. Wofks through Grants 1984-85: 1 . Grant from LAD 5,83,358-15 2. Grant from Town and Country Planning Department 70,561-15 3. Loan 1,62,731-60 4. Harijan Welfare 31,901-40

IV. Expenditure 1984-85: 1. Pay and Allowances 14,85,172-75 2. Pensions 1,13,985-35 3. Stationery and Printing 36,448-75 4. Electricity Charges 3,49,050-20 5. Water Charges 20,200-00 6. Vehicles maintenance 1,41,891-70 7. Purchase of Stores 38,307-90 8. Civil works 38,409-45 9. Repayment of Loans 2,30,237-20

48 CHAPTER IV

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE TOWN

Vertical social mobility, a feature of motfern Basically the questions have been formu­ society is always associated with the change in the lated, so as to attempt a classification of the economic structure. Development as a nascent population into those who have worked any time at concept and also as an induced factor by the State all during the last year, and these who have not is therefore gauged by the degree of economically worked, at all. Having categorised the population active population of a unit area. Conversely, tHe into these broad groups, the next attempt has dependency ratio is taken as the negtive factor been to further classify those who have worked stymieing the efforts for the allievation of poverty any time into two groups, viz., those who have The study of the process of urbanization, there­ worked in some economic activity over the period fore, invariably requires an inquiry into the status of six months or more in both the agricultural and dynamics of a, given community under the seasons and those whose work can be considered above dimensions of economy. In operational as marginal or secondary. Finally an attempt also terms, the existing occupational .structure, the has been made to determine whether those who occupational mobility of the population over a are non-workers and those who are in fact period of time, the employment depth at house­ marginal workers seeking or available for work. hold as well as for the unit population as a whole, immigration into a unit urban area for occupation Work has been defined as participating In any reasons, etc., are taken for study while examining economically productive activity. Such participa­ the process of urbanization for a given unit. tion may be physical or mental in nature. Work involved not only actual work, but also effective I n this chapter, the economic Iife of the popu- supervision and direction of work . lation• is studied as existing today and in compari- son to urban units o.f the state. The dynamnics are In all these questions the reference period is studied over a period of time to show the extent of one year preceeding the date of enumeration. its impact on the over all urbanisation growth, or Certain types of work such as agriculture and the lack of it; and; compared to the institutional and household industry are carried on either through­ establishment potential operating in the town. out the year or only during certain seasons or parts of the year depending on th~ local circumstances. Concepts I n such cases the reference period has been the broad time span of the agricultural seasons pre­ One ofthe importnat characteristics on which ceeding the enumeration. the information is collected through the Census re­ lates to the economic activity of the people. At the The main workers are those who have worked 1981 Census it was considered desirable to obtain for a major part of the year preceeding the enu­ in detail the profile ofthe working characteristics of meration. the population. At the same time comparability with the 1961 and 1971 was also kept ill view to the The work concept of 1961-71 censuses, as extent possible. It was also thought that in the opposed to the income or economic independ­ context of this. country the enquiry relating to the ence concept of the censuses prior to 1961 was current status of a worker was rather irrelevant and retained in the 1981 census also. But the criterion the usual status was more appropriate. for classification of persons as workers underwent

49 changes. While in 1961-71 the dual approach viz. Occupational Shift usual status and current status were adopted with reference period of one year for seasonal and one An important index of urbanisation is the fortnight in 1961 and one week in1971 for regular occupational shift from Agricultural activities to work, at the 1981 census the usual status ap­ other activities. From this point of view it is interest­ proach was adopted uniformly for all work. It was ing to note from the same table that the percent­ expected that the main worker of 1981 would age of Agricultural labourers has increased from correspond to the worker of 1971 and the main 4% in 1961 to 6% in 1971 and doubled by 1981 worker and the marginal worker together of 1981 (12%). Sex-wise, it is the same among males (2%, would correspond to the worker of 1961. The table 4%, 30% respectively). However, among the fe­ No. IV.i provides the distribution of population by males exactly reverse happened and much more different economic activities of Karaikal during significantly (53%, 24%, 11 %). The increase of 1961, 1971 and 1981. For analytical purposes, in Agricultural labourers between 1971-1981 could this table the sum of main workers and the mar­ be a result of large rural area brought under the ur­ ginal workers are grouped as workers with respect ban fold in 1981. But, the same, between 1961 to 1981 in order to compare with the workers of and 1971 when there was no jurisdictional change 1971 and 1961. remains to be explained. As a whole the growth of Agricultural labourers among total population i.e., It can be seen that the proportion of total among males can also be seen by proxy against workers is more than 1/4th of the total population the steady decrease of other workers from 1961- in 1981 (28%) and is also higher than the corre­ 1981. The table shows that as"against 94% of sponding figure for 1971 (23%) and 1961 (24%). females engaged in occupation other than Agricul­ This is due to the fact that the marginal workers tural in 1961, the corresponding figu~es for 1971 is are also included in workers for 1981. Sex-wise, 91 % which has 'come down heavily to 82% in almost half of the male population recorded as 1981. Correspondingly this decrease of Agricul­ worker in 1981 (47%) compared to far lesser tural labourers among females seen earlier is number (43%)' in 1971 but slightly higher figure reflected in a rapid growth of females engaged in (49%) in 1961. In contrast hardly one tenth (10%) non-agricultural pursuits from 1961-1981 (38%, of the female population returned as workers. Al­ 76% and 87%). though there has been a growth of female workers from 1961-71 to 1981 (1%,5% and 10% respec­ Another interesting feature in terms of the tively), the very low percentage of females in occupational shift from 1961 to 1981 is that the economically productive category is a sure sign of percentage of female cultivators to their respec­ stunted urban characteristic .. Even among males, tive total female population had drastically came there has been no perceptible growth of work force .down almost to a naught. But shot up between for the last two decades. At the same timEi the 1971 and 1981 and stood more than what it was in decrease in the work participation rate from 1961- 1961, whereas in terms of males it has been 1971 among total workers and more prominantly steadily increasing. among males is perhaps due to the fact that there had been definitional change in 1971 as against The above analysis leads to an observation that of 1961 whereby many persons considered as that the impact of urbanisation is quite different workers in 1961 were placed in the category of between males and females where the male popu­ non-workers in 1971. lation for reasons unknown are retrogressing.

50 Whereas females are catching up with prompti-· high percentage of male scheduled caste workers tude. The inexorable laws of diversity of occupa­ in Karaikal town compared to the Union Territory of tion alongwith urbanization seems to be of no Pondicherry. validity as far as the male work force of Karaikal is concerned. Union Territory of Pondicherry had an excep­ tional growth rate of Scheduled Castes (65%). Compared to this growth rate, there is an impres­ Marginal Workers sive growth of workers (32%). The growth of non­ workers is also equally striking 56%. However, Among the total marginal workers as per these figures cannot lead to any conclusion be­ 1981 Census the maximum number (73%) are cause of the extension of jurisdiction of Karaikal agricultural labourers followed by trade and com­ town to entire Karaikal Commune in 1981 which merce. However, it is interesting to note that while could have inflated the growth rates, from 1971 to there are 29% of male marginal workers among 1981 particularly with respect to the total popula­ agiculturallabourers, not even 1 % are females. In tion as a whole. From the Table IV.I it could be any case the work participation of marginal work­ seen that the percentage of workers to total popu­ ers in other industrial category other than agricul­ lation and male work force to the respective popu­ ture are negligible. It wi'll be interesting to compare lation is in consonance with the corresponding the corresponding figures with regard to main percentages of the census data. Conversely the workers category who are in occupations other percentages are very much identical with those than agriculture (81 %). This once again reflects from the census data in terms of non-workers also. the occupational mobility from agricultural occupa­ This shows that the sampling design and the tions to non-agricultural' pursuits as a primary sample selection adopted for the survey proved to livelihood. This also points to an observation that be representative and reliable. enough employment potential is generated in small and remote urban units for which industrial growth Coming to the details, it can be seen that the need not necessarily be a prerequisite and at the percentages of workers is steadily increasing by same time the employment potential needs to be each successive age group upto 35-49, and there created from the services of institutional nature. is decline there after. Same is the case with work For, only 30% of the total workers are from state, force and with slight fluctuation wi.th regard to central or local self government in this town. It is female work force. However, the major portion of further ~een that the age group 15-30, both in case the work force is observed to be concentrated of males and females has the largest concentra­ among the population between the age group 20- tion of marginal work force, with regard to agricul­ 49, with a combined proportion of 71 %. The distri­ turallabourers and also category V-b (other than bution of workers in different sample localities as household industry). shown in Table IV.II does not show any sharp variations while seven out of twelve localities have Work Participation among scheduled Castes less than 10% of workers, rest of the 5 localities have 11 to 21 % of workers. Among males the situ­ As per 1981 Census, 39% of total Scheduled ation is more or less the same among females. Caste population with 51 % of males and 26% of However, higher percentage of female work force females returned as workers for the Union Terri­ is seen in Sethilal Nagar, Seniar Kulathu Street tory as a whole. Compared to these figures, the and Mariamman Koil Street in that order. These corresponding figures for Karaikal urban are 34%, three localities are mostly inhabited by daily wage 55% and 12% respectively. This shows relatively workers and agricultural labourers.

51 Employment Depth tion i.e., agriculture is always associated with the joint family system. And the extent of urbanization While the data analysed so far is with regard is usually associated with the diSintegration of Joint to the town as a whole the table No. IV.III goes into family system into the nuclear family system along­ the details on work force through another index with an occupational shift from primary occupation viz.lhe employment depth at the household level. to secondary or tertiary occupation. I n the table no. The employment depth indicates the number of IV.IV'this paradigm is examined according to the workers per household on average. From the survey data. same table, it can also be seen that 236 out of 250 households surveyed, (94%) have atleast one It can be seen that most. of the households worker per household. Among them, 141 house­ surveyed are either nuclear 70% or composed of holds (60%) have only one worker on average, single person. Joint family system constituted only and 65 (28%) two workers on an average per 4% of the households. This is an indication that household. Remaining households have either Karaikal town is very much urban in character as three or four workers per household (13%). This far as its family structure is concerned. In the same shows that the majority of the sample households table it appears that it resulted in breaking the have an employment depth of only one with trivial predominance of cultivation among the joint fami­ number of households having an employment lies as the data shows a highly defused distribution depth of two. This is a clear indication that income of occupation cutting across the type offamily sys­ per household in general must be relatively very tem. poor. This Is substantiated in other way by the fact that the increase in the average number of workers Occupational Diversity per household is inversely proportional to the corresponding proportion (percentage) of total Tables IV.VI provides distribution of house­ households. The table also shows that the number holds and population according to occupational di­ of workers with employment depth of one or two is versity. The data shows that the households with mostly concentrated in the households having occupational diversity, indeed pervate almost all size of four to six, seven to ten and eleven and localities. Three of the localities, infact have all above. their constituent households with diverse occupa­ tions. It is further noted that. ,"'s whole, as many as Unemployment Depth 191 households (76%) have occupational diver­ sity. However, it is noted that the occupational di­ Conversely, table No. IV.IV presents the data versity extended only to the maximum two occupa­ about the unemployment depth (number of unem­ tions at household level. This is an indication of ployed in the household). The data shows that as urbanization process. the number of unemployed are increasing, the number of households having them is decreasing. Mother Tongue and Educational standard of In other words, the increase in unemployment workers depth is inversely propotional to the respective number of households. As regards the linguistic dispersal and the educational status of the work, (Please see Table occupation related to the type of family IV.vii) it is almost a total domination of the local people i.e., Tamilians. It is observed that the The linkage between the type of family and working population is drawn from all the edu­ the type of occupation is an important feature of cational levels starting from illiterates to Post Indian social structure, particularly, at the family Graduates and professional level. However, bulk level. It is widely known that the primary occupa- of the work force have an educational status of

52 Matric/Higher Secondary level. The proportion of an average land holding of 2.56 hectares and at workers or non-workers for that matter at profes­ locality level it is the highest (3.5) in Church Street sional Diploma level or Post Graduate degree is which is predominantly composed of French pen­ quite low. sioners closely followed by Jawaharlal Nehru Street mainly consisting of Hindu and Christian rich. It Employment Status can also be seen that most of the households own their land which is more than four kilometres in Another index of the relative advancement in distance from their respective places. the occupational status of the workers is reflected from the survey data from table No. IV.VII. It is Modernization of Agriculture seen that most of the work force surveyed are employees (64%). This category has majority of One of the indices of eocnomic status in any them,' (60%) in private industry, like shops, facto­ predominantly agriculture community is the extent ries etc. followed by those working in Government of modernization of agricultural and this moderni­ Offices (38%). It is conspicuous, that the female zation is always positively associated with the work force is also seen to be high in the same educational level. This general assumption is categories. This indicate~ that the town till date is examined with reference tothe survey data. (Table basically a service town. At the same time, the No.IV.x). contemporry trend of growth of middle income group is very much evident in this town. Out of the total households owning land, more than half (48%) conduct mechanized agri­ Population engaged in agriculture culture in the form of either tractor or power tiller About one fourth of the households (23%) have Karaikal has been a town since ancient times. mechanized irrigation through pump sets. Since However, it acquired a very large area into its fold there is no comparable data for other units or the in 1981 which was hitherto rural and its population states as a whole, it is not possible to evaluate the predominantly agrarian by occupation. Table No. degree of modernization from this data except the IV. IX provides data on the ownership of agricul­ state that it is not discouraging. tural or horticultural land in each locality under survey. From this statement it is seen that only The modernization of agriculture related to 18% of households out of the sample surveyed on educational levels show that those households land. Most of these households (60%) having with members having educational level of matricu­ ownership of land are distributed in Market Street, lation and above are seen to be using modern Jawaharlal· Nehru Street and Masthanpalli Street. tools and equipments more for agriculture than It is not a surprise, as already been stated else­ those with the lower educational level. where, that the Hindu/Muslim rich engaged in business or agriculture are dominating communi­ Establishments ties in these localities. Going deeper at locality level, Market street has the highest percentage of So far, the economic activity of the town has households having land to the total household in been described in its demographic perspective. It that locality (50%). Jawaharalal Nehru Street, is seen that the work partiCipation as such is about Masthan Pal Ii Street, Bharathiar Street and Am­ one fourth of the total population and that more bedkar Street also have considerable proportion than three fourth of the work force is engaged in of their respective total households owning land. non-agricultural occupations. This indicated the probability of a strong cluster of establishments in As regards the quantitative aspect of the land the town where there is enough potential for holding Is concerned, the sample households have employment.

53 An exhaustive survey shows that the town While vegetables and grocery items come from indeed has a wide range of establishments in Kumbakonam, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Thi­ terms of number as well as the commodities which runchirapalli (distance 60 to 160 kms), the poultry they are dealing. They are discussed in brief as products come from Nagapattinam (20 Kms). The under. milk items come from Pondicherry (162 Kms.) The goods are carried usually by road transport Factories and Industrial Establishments such as trucks and Vans. The supplies are mostly Although great in number, the manufacturing on daily basis and some of the non-perishable industry confined to small scale industries only in items are supplied on weekly or fortnightly this town with no large or medium scale industries basis. located within its jurisdiction. The details of the firms under this category are provided in the inset Financial Institutions statement IV. (1). Trade and Commerce The financial institutions consist of four na­ tionalised banks, and about seven registered chit As the town itself is small, most of the activi­ fund companies. In addition there are as many as ties pertaining to trade and commerce take place thirty eight individual money lenders. The particu­ on the Market Street and all along the enclave of lars of the financial transactions and otheF details Church Street, Thirunallar Road and Bharathiar of all these institutions are not available. Road which from a quadrangle of commercial centre. The entire complex is called Nehru Market. The vegetable market is situated in the Market Places of Stay and Cafeteria Street. Specifically the cloth shops are located on Thirunallar Road, Church Street and Bharathiar Karaikal town has a few lodges for the tour­ Road, household and fancy good shops on Church ists. Among them there are two rest houses man­ Street and Thirunallar Road and the shops selling aged by the Government. One is the Municipal transport and automobile goods on Bharathiar Travellers Bungalow located opposite Administra­ Road. As the number of such establishments are tor's Office having ten double rOoms and six single too many and not recorded properly, detailed data rooms and another managed by the Department could not be given. of Tourism and Information located at Bharathiar Road with four double rooms and seven single Supply of Essential Commodities rooms. The details of these two Government rest houses alongwith others run privately are given in The essential items for the public consump­ statement that follows: The inset statement tion are mostly imported from surrounding towns. No.IV.ii.

54 STATEMENT NO: IV (I) DETAILS OF FACTORIES AND INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS IN KARAIKAL TOWN

SI. Size (Large/ Type with reference to Approximate Approximate No. Medium/Small) main product No. of units Total Works

2 3 4 5

1. Small Scale Food Products 23 200

2. -do- Beverages and tobacco products 5 35

3. -do- Cotton Textiles 6 32

4. -do- Wood Products 7 32

5. -do- Paper products and printing 4 20

6. -do- Leather products 2 10

7. -do- Rubber and plastic products 3 15

8. -do- Chemical and Chemical products 6 30

9. -do- Non-metallic mineral products 4 20

10. -do- Metal products 5 20

11. -do- Transport parts 8

12. -do- Miscellaneous manu- facturing Industries 5 20

13. -do- Personal services 4 15

14. -do- Repairing and servicing 5 20

55 STATEMENT NO. IV (II) LODGES AT KARAIKAL

SI. Location and name No. of rooms/ Rent per Facilities available No. beds room/bed per day

2 3 4 5

1. Government Tourist Home, 11 rooms Single: Rs. 12 All rooms with Bharathiar Road Double: 4 Double: Rs. 20 attached bathroom: Single: 7 Hot water facilities 15 beds available 2. Govt. Excursion Centre Dormitory Re. 1/- per With Common bath Beach Road head per day rooms. Pillow and carpet are supplied freely. The building is also used for holding marriage and cultural functions. 3. Modern Lodge, Bharathiar Single: 6 Single: Rs. 10/- Common bath rooms. Road Double: 10 Double: Rs. 15/- 4. P.S.R. Lodge, Opposite Single: 5 Single: Rs. 15/- With attached bath Bus stand Double: 4 Double: Rs. 25/- rooms and also an Beds: 13 attached restaurant, and Bar. 5. Ashok Lodge, Opposite Double: 9 Double: Rs. 20/- -do- Bus stand Single: 9 Single: Rs. 15/- , Beds: 27 6. Ammaiyar Lodge, Market Single: 2 Single: Rs. 8/- Two rooms with attached Street Double: 4 Double: Rs. 15/- bath rooms. Beds: 10 7. Safire Lodge, Bharathiar Single: 5 Single: Rs. 7/- Common bath rooms Road Double: 6 Double: Rs. 12/- Beds: 21 4 beds: Rs. 20/- 4 bedded: 1 8. Golden Lodge, Thirunaller Single: .12 Single: Rs. 15/- Attached restaurant/ Road Double: 6 Double: Rs. 20/- bath room. Beds: 31 3 beds: Rs. 40/- 4 beds: Rs. 45/- 9. Escorts Lodge, Thirunaller Single: 10 Single: Rs. 10/- Common bath rooms Road Double: 2 Double: Rs. 15/- Beds: 14 10. Ajantha Lodge, Church Single: 9 Single: Rs. 10/- Common bath rooms Street Double: 3 Double: Rs. 17/- Beds: 15 11. Municipal Travellers Single: 6 Single: Rs. 6/- With attached bath rooms. Bunglow, opposite Adminis- Double: 10 Double: Rs. 12/- trators Office Beds: 26

Source: Municipal/Information Department, Karaikal.

56 TABLE NO. IV.I

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY WORKERS AND NON-WORKERS, AGE AND SEX (SURVEY DATA)

Workers Non-Workers Total Age-Group p M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

BeloW 10 3 3 246 112 134 249 115 134

10-14 6 2 4 152 74 78 158 76 82

15-19 24 19 5 143 58 85 167 77 90

20-24 41 32 9 97 35 62 138 67 71

25-29 47 41 6 80 18 62 127 59 68

30-34 44 36 8 43 7 36 87 43 44

35-49 129 120 9 119 7 112 248 127 121

50-59 42 39 3 64 11 53 106 50 56

60-64 14 11 3 29 4 25 43 15 28

65+ 18 14 4 60 21 39 78 35 43

Total 368 317 51 1,033 347 686 1,401 664 737

57 TABLE NO.IV.II

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES, 1981

Census Total Population Total Workers Total Non-Workers Year Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1961 22,252 10,621 11,631 5,341 5,174 167 16,911 5,447 11,464

1971 26,080 12,679 13,401 6,059 5,444 615 20,021 7,235 12,786

1981 43,408 21,278 22,130 12,208 9,932 2,276 31,200 11,346 19,854

Census Agricultural Labourers Cultivators Other Workers Year Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1961 217 128 89 181 167 14 4,943 4,879 64

1971 352 207 145 287 286 5,420 4,951 469

1981 1,524 1,265 259 543 503 40 10,141 8,164 1,977

58 TABLE IV.II

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY WORKERS AND NON·WORKERS LOCALlTY·WISE

Workers Non-Workers Total Locality P M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Three Well Place St. 9 9 36 8 28 45 17 28

2. Mariamman Koil st. 39 34 5 109 38 71 148 72 76

3. Seniarkulam St. 77 63 14 166 49 117 243 112 131

4. Market Street 19 19 72 24 48 91 43 48

5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 30 27 3 138 43 95 168 70 98

6. Masthanpalli St. 47 46 148 52 96 195 98 97

7. Bharathiar St. 20 17 3 87 32 55 107 49 58

8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 7 4 3 22 9 13 29 13 16

9. Deitha St. 6 3 3 31 13 18 37 16 21

10. Sethilal Nagar 71 56 15 111 40 71 182 96 86

11. Church Street 29 25 4 92 34 58 121 59 62 12. Thomas Arul Padu Street 14 14 21 5 16 35 19 16

368 317 51 1,033 347 686 1,401 664 737

59 TABLE NO. IV.III

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY EMPLOYMENT DEPTH (I.e. NUMBER OF WORKERS PER HOUSEHOLD)

No. of workers Number of households by size and No. of aduhs having number of workers in Col. 1 in the household Remarks All house- No. of 1-3 4-6 7-10 11 & above holds Aduhs

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Nil 14 73 7 5 2

141 503 23 93 24

2 65 264 2 41 19 3

3 23 110 2 14 6

4 7 38 5

Total 250 988 34 158 52 6

TABLE NO. IV.IV

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY UNEMPLOYMENT DEPTH (NO. OF UNEMPLOYED IN THE HOUSEHOLD)

No. of unemployed Number of households by size and No. of aduhs having number of Non-workers including who are noted in Col. 1 Remarks seeking work All house- No. of 1-3 4-6 7-10 11 & above holds Adults

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Nil 236 915 27 152 51 6 1 7 41 3 3 1 2 5 25 3 2 0 3 2 7 4

Total 250 988 34 158 52 6

60 TABLE NO. IV.V

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS AND TYPE OF OCCUPATION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Type of Occupation of Head of Nucler Single Joint Others Total household Person Family

2 3 4 5 6

1. Unskilled manual 42 2 1 10 55 2. Skilled manual 18 2 7 27 3. Lowest Professional and admin- trative 24 3 28 4. Small business 21 2 8 31 5. Highly skilled and supervisory manual 6. Clerks and Shop Assistants 11 3 15 7. Inter-mediate professional and related posts 9 2 11 8. Medium business 8 2 10 9. Higher professional and salaried posts 9 2 11 10. Owners of factories large shops etc. 4 4 9 11. Cultivator 4 2 7 12. Pensioners and retired personnels 10 2 13 13. Beggars and Prostitutes 14. Unclassified/others 6 4 11 15. Non-workers 9 12 22

Total 175 4 10 61 250

61 TABLE NO. IV.VI

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY NUMBER OF MEMBERS AND OCCUPATIONAL DIVERSITY AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL LOCALITY WISE

SI. Name of the Locality Having occupational Not having occu- No. diversity pational diversity Total

No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total house- No. of House- No. of house- No. of holds members holds members holds Workers

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Three Well Place Street 9 9 9 9 2. Mariamman Koil Street 22 25 5 14 27 39 3. Seniar Kulathu Street 27 35 15 42 42 77 4. Market Street 15 12 3 7 18 19 5. Jawaharlal Nehru Street 24 19 5 11 29 30 6. Masthan Palli Street 17 24 8 23 25 47 7. Bharathiar Street 16 14 3 6 1'9 20 8. Dr. Ambedkhar Street 7 7 7 7 9. Deitha Street 6 6 6 6 10. Sethilal Nagar 22 28 14 43 36 71 11. Church Street 18 19 5 10 23 29- 12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 8 11 3 9 14

Total 191 209 59 159 250 368

62 TABLE NO. IV. VII

WORKERS AND NON WORKERS BY MOTHER TONGUE SEX AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL

Mother Illiterate Prima~ Middle Matrie +Hi~her Seconda~ Tongue Per· WorK· Non· Per· WorK· Non· Per· WorK· Non· Per· WorK· Non sons ers worKers sons ers worKers sons ers worKers sons ers worKers

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

TAMIL 238 31 2JJ7 387 81 306 312 85 '!J.7 343 127 216 HINDI 2 2 3 1 2 TELUGU 2 2 10 10 13 2 11 13 3 10 FRENCH 1 4 4

Total 240 31 2JJ9 399 81 318 326 87 239 363 131 232

Mother Technical Diploma Degree Tech, Diploma P,G, Degree Technical Total Tongue not equal to degree equal to degree P,G, ~ P W NW P W NW P W NW P W NW P W NW P W NW

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 '!J. 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

TAMIL 10 7 3 49 22 27 3 3 - 9 4 5 - - 1351 360 991 HINDI ------5 1 4 TELUGU - - - 1 . ------40 7 33 FRENCH ------5 - 5

Total 10 7 3 50 23 27 3 3 - 9 4 5 - 1401 368 1033 TABLE NO. IV.VIII

EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF WORKERS BY SEX-WISe IN-THE KARAIKAL TOWN

Employment Status Persons Males Females

2 3 4

Total Workers 368 317 51 Employer 68 63 5 Employee 234 198 36 Single Worker 43 39 4 Family Worker 19 13 6 Cultivator Agricultural Labourers 4 4

64 Table No.IV.1X

OWNERSHIP OF AGRICULTURAL OR HORTICULTURAL LAND OUTSIDE TOWN WITHIN 2KMS FROM OUTER PERIPHERY OF TOWN BY LOCALITY WHERE THE HOUSEHOLD IS SITUATED

Localny Total No. of No. of households having agricultural Average size No. of Households or horticutturalland (Hectares) of house- having agri· Agriculture! holds cultural or Adjoin- Within a Within adis- More than Horniculture Horticultural ingthe distance tance of 2·3 4kms from land per house- land inside House ofl Km Krns from House hold on adjoining from house the town house 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Three Well Place 9 Street

2. Mariamman Koil SI. 27 3 3 1.83

3. Seniar Kulathu SI. 42 0.50 Ol 01 4. Market Street 18 9 3 6 2,33

5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 29 9 3 6 3.05

6. Masthanpalli SI. 25 9 3 5 2.49

7, Bharathiar SI. 19 5 5 2.79

8. Dr, Ambedkhar SI 7 2 2 1,99

9. Deitha Street 6 0,50

10. Selhilal Nagar 36

11. Church Street 23 5 5 3.50

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9

Total 250 44 9 34 112.74 TABLE NO, IV,X

IMPORTANT TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS FOR AGRICULTURE/HORTICULTURE AS RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI. Educational Size of No. of Num ber of households using No. level of holding house· head of (in heet· holds Tools for Tilling Irrigation Agricultural household ares) owning I II Implement·111 land Mecha· Tradi· Both Pump Natural Using Not suing nised tiona I set source sprayer sprayer Tractor! (plough Power w~h tiller Bullock)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Illiterate a) Upto5 3 2 2 3 b) 6·10 c) 11·25 ~ d) 26+

2, Ltterate a) Upt05 7 2 4 6 3 4 upto b) 6·10 Primary c) 11·25 ~ 26+

3, Middle a) Upto 5 7 4 3 6 4 3 b) 6·10 1 1 c) 11·25 d) 26+

4, Matricor a) Upto 5 18 9 8 4 14 3 15 Higher b) 6·10 1 Secondary c) 11·25 d) 26+

5, Technical a) Upt05 diploma or b) 6-10 certrricate c) 11·25 not equal d) 26+ to degree TABLE NO. VI,X (Concld.)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

6, Graduate a) Upl05 5 2 2 4 4 and above b) 6-10 1 c) 11-25 d) 26+

Tolal a) Uplo5 41 4 22 15 8 33 11 30 b) 6-10 3 1 2 3 c) 11-25 ~ 26+

GRAND TOTAL 44 5 23 16 10 34 14 30

CHAPTERV

ETHNIC AND SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE TOWN

Salient Features made them a highly successful business commu­ nity. Majority of them whose ancestry had roots in Karaikal town although unassuming in its Arab countries but now who are Tamil speaking • profile is nonethless unique in its ethnic and social Musalman tribe of Hindu and Musalman origin are characteristics for more than one reason. called "Marickars·. this word actually is derived from the Marikkaiyar with "Marakalam" meaning First, its diversity in terms of religion. Almost ship and Ariyar meaning King. Most of the Muslims all the major religions have had their impact on th,e in Karaikal belong to the Sunni sect and the great social life here at one time or the other. Hinduism, majority of them follow ~hafi school of ritual and Islam and Christianity are well represented today. dogma. Buddhism and Jainism too received popular as well as royal patronage in the past but are now Christianity developed roots in Karaikal town reduced to structures and sculptures. From chrono­ only from 1545 although the place was a strong logical prespective, Hinduism has been the oldest catholic centre even before. As seen from the surviving religion. It has its period of glory during letters of Saint Francis Xavier, the first chapel was the Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar days from 6th built in 1986. The arrival of the French, however, century AD. to 16th Century AD. Through innu­ (1739) lent a new impetus to the growth of Roman merable temples, large endownments, a number Catholicism. The French as expected, were gen­ of literary classics and series of Guru dynasties erous in granting lands, money and material for the (Pedigree), this religion sustained throughout the construction of churches and Missionery convents. ages and showed its impact on every aspect of the The Jesuits inspired by the support of the Govern­ life among the followers. Hindus in this area fall ment also attempted to interfere in the administra­ under two main sects known as Saivites, who wor­ tion. However, this was not acceptable to the ship Shiva in various forms as the God-generous French Government as well as the native public. in his boons and Vaishnavas who worship Vishnu, The attempts to proselytize, therefore, did not the protector. While Saivites apply the sacred ash yield results. This is inspite of strenuous indigen­ on their fore-heads horizontally the Vaishnavas isation of Missionaries suct) as adopting the habits put on verticdallines made of flour and bindi (lines and customs of the natives, naming themselves made in red colour) in between. Among the Vaish­ western Brahmins, ,sermonising in local language, navas again, there are two sects known as attiring in saffron cloth, applying sandalwood on 'Thenkalai' who attach more importance to Tamil the foreheads and performing ablutions meticu­ while 'Vadakalai' who are more versed in Sanskrit. lously and even to the extent of forbidding non­ vegetarianism and alcoholism. These neo-Brah­ Islam, although has enough historical or mins as they were called were respected and ac­ material evidence to show its ancient existence is cepted as a part of the community, but their prose­ neverthless said to have come to stay only after Iytisation was rejected. Neverthless, they did have the early eighth century. The town is reported to be success among a good number of tribal communi­ the place of settlement by the migrant Arabs who, ties and also the so called out-castes of the Hindu over a period of time entered into matrimony with society who became converts to the Christian local population and became part of the natives. faith. However, this religion has come to stay. In There enterpreneurship and industrious nature addition to the above religions, Jainism and 69 Buddhism also found place in this area although ety and strict social gradations, one surprisingly they are almost extinct now. Buddhism spread finds highest degree of public participation in all during the pre-christian era as can be seen from festivals irrespective of religion at collective level the granite sculptures identified in 1966 near Thi­ and adopting common mores and traditions in all runallar and also from the names of villages like ceremonies at household level. This is testified by Puthakudy and Puthamangalam. Jainism enjoyed the fact that in as much as the Muslims attire in royal patronage and political influence in the court colourful dress and partiCipate in the Hindu Man­ of Mahendra Varni a, the Pallava King. The poular­ gani festival, the Hindu and Muslrms communities ity of both these religions was, however, curtailed worship Our Lady of Assumption when this Chris­ by the Saivite movement in seventh and eighth tian festival is celebrated at the Church 'Our Lady century and by the time the French landed, both of Angels' so also the Kandoori festival of Muslims the religions disappeared from this area altogether .. which Hindus and Christians do not fail to attend. The participation is not merely symbolic nor is it an The second important and conspicuous fac­ occassion of entertainment. The prayers are ren­ tor is the rigid social structure which is governed to dered in all faith and reverance. Christians on the a great extent by the ascribed status of the caste other hand consult horoscopes, fix auspicious to which one belongs. The caste and sub-caste. days for wedding and observe Hindu customs like are totally endogamous, interaction at domestic nalungu (applying a paste of turmeric and lime on level is highly forbidden and the general percep­ the bride & bridegroom by married ladies) Paligai tion of hierarchy or awareness of the inferior/supe­ (growing 'nava dhanyas' {nine cereals) in earthern rior complex of sub-caste within a community is of wares, by immersing them in water which is a a very high degree. More interesting is that it is not symbol of fertility). With this basic and internalized only confined to the Hindus but among other two sense of commonness, it is but natural that, one religious group as well viz., Muslims and Chris­ finds this town noted for communal harmony and tians, the religions, which are otherwise reputed to peaceful coexistence. have an equality of status and devoid of caste system. This clearly reflects the basically Hindu Religious composition based eccelesiastical impact on the local popula­ tion. Among Christians, those who converted from According to 1981 census, (see inset. table their original out caste group from Hindus are No: V1.) Karaikal town recorded a majority of the treated as inferior to the other Christian groups. households from Hindu community (68%) followed Similarly among Muslims, the rich business Mar­ by Muslims (19%) and Christins (13%) with negli­ ickar community is treated superior to Labbai gible number of other faiths. This distribution of Muslims who are mainly engaged in beedi and population also had the same order (66%, 22% cigar manufacturing. Inter-caste dining, social and 12%) respectively. movement, etc., is equally discouraged among these religions and endogamy is totally observed The sample data of the two hundred and fifty as in the case of Hindus. households surveyed (please see table No: V.I) more or Jess correspond to the same proportion of The third and most significant characteristic households as well as the population. This once which in fact goes contra to the diversity and rigid again illustrates the representativeness of the identity of religon and caste, is the peculiar obser­ sample design adopted. Going down at the sub­ vance of traditions, customs, rites and rituals strata level i.e., locality wise, the distribution at commonly by the people from all religions. In a inter-locality level does not show any concentra­ town which is dominated by a class-oriented soci- tion of a given community except in single instance

70 where as much as 39% of the total households tion of population by different caste is spread out and 50% of the population of the total Muslim com­ except that the Marickars appear to be dominating munity are in Masthanpalli street. At intra-locality in Masthan Palli Street and virtually absent in level, the distribution, however, shows a concen­ Deitha Street, Church Street and Thomas Arul tration of Hindus in Seniar Kulathu Street, Mariam­ Pudu Street. Similarly, the Scheduled Castes are man Koil Street, Dr. Ambedkar Street, Chruch totally concentrating in Oeitha Street and Thomas Street, Sethilal Nagar and Jawaharlal Nehru Street Arul Pudu Street while being totally absent in all in that order. In the Three Well Place Street, the other localities. At intra-locality level (Table 1.2) total sample consisted of Hindus only. The Muslim Horizontal the Pillais are concentrated in Three community shows a relative concentration in Well Place Street where as the Nadars are in Masthan Palli Street and Market Street whereas it Seniar Kulathu Street. As already pOinted out, is virtually absent in Thomas Arul Pudu Street, Oei­ -Masthan Palli Street is mostly composed with tha Street and Church Street. This is significant of Marickars where as Thomas Arul Pudl,l Street the fact that the Christian community is highly con­ have no other households except that of Sched­ centrated in these. three streets. uled Caste as per the sample.

The distribution of population at locality level Distribution according to Mother Tongue thus shows some degree of ethnic concentration at different localities in the town, particularly with Karaikal town has 97% of the population regard to Muslims and Christians whereas the which returned Tamil as mother tongue as per the Hindu community is spread out. Whether the survey data as at the time of drafting of this report, awareness of their minority nature leading to a the census figures partaining to Mother Tongue sense of the need for security and ethnic group have not been published. affiliations are responsible for such cluster habita­ tion requires further and deeper probe. Noneth­ As the Survey data knows see table No. V.III) less, it reflects the typical feature of a not so there is a insignificant proportion of Telugu speak­ advanced urban area where defusion or disinte­ ing people and a negligible number of persons gration of ethnic habitation is rather slow com­ having Hindi as mother tongue. It is surprising to pared to more cosmpolitan areas. This is supple­ note that despite a strong relationship with France mented by the fact that there is no single house­ historically, politically, culturally and above all having hold which is multi-religious in composition. been under its rule for more than two centuries, only one household out of 250 returned French Distribution of population according to Caste langauge as its mother tongue. Even under the category of subsidiary languages too (see table The census enmueration did not collect fig­ V.IV) similar information has been 'recorded. It ures at individual community/caste level. There­ shows that the language is not affected by the fore, only the survey data is relied upon (Please process of social change easily. In contrast, one see table No. V.II). Of the total population in the can see the process of social change viruta"y sample of 1 ,401 persons, the highest proportion is transforming, if n9t totally changing, every social constituted by Pillais followed by Marickaras institution at family and community level in the (Muslims). It is significant to note that while castes town. like Naidus, Reddiars etc. comprise a big propor­ tion jointly, but, their representation at individual Distribution and growth of Scheduled Castes community level, is minute. As per 1981 Census (Please see table V.2) At inter-locality level, however, the distribu- 10% of the total households and 8% of the total

71 population belonged to Scheduled Castes. They Distribution of Houseless population registered a growth rate of 19% as compared to the 20% ofthe general population. In 1981,34% of The table No. V.4 provides data on houseless the scheduled caste were literates compared to population. The data shows that 196 out of 8,301 the corresponding figure of 16% in 1971. Notwith­ households and 357 persons out of 43,408 total standing this sharp rise, the percentage of literates population do not have a house to live in (2% and among scheduled castes in 1981 (34%) is far less 1 % respectively) . The proportion is identical to that than that of general population (63%). of the Union Territory as a whole.

Further there.is a slump in the work participa­ Distribution of Institutional Population tion. Among scheduled castes as against 34% of the population. as main workers in 1981, there Karaikal (M) registered 642 persons as insti­ were 44% in 1971 showing a negative decadal tutional population with 327 males and 315 fe­ growth of 10%. The proportion of dependent i.e. males (PI. see table No. V.5). They are spread out non-workers, at the same time had a slight de­ in 196 households. They constitute 1 .48% of the crease from 56% in 1971 to 53% in 1981, although total population and 2.36% of the total households there is an overall growth of 14%. Conspiouously, respectively. the agricultural labourers have decreased from 32% in 1971 to 21 % in 1981 showing a negative Distribution of populatIon according to Age growth of 19%. and Marital Status

The decrease in the worker's participation Table No. V. V provides data on the distribu­ rate may be explained due to the definitial change tion of population according to age and marital of workers in 1981 census or as a reflexation of status as per 1981 Census. As per this table, the growing unemployment. However, the fact that the highest percentage comes under age-group 0-9 large rural area came into the fold of the unit of (23%) followed by the age group 35-49. However, observation i.e. Karaikal, normally should have led if the total percentage under the population 0-19 is to a large increase of workers to total population in taken, it comes to almost half of the population the form ofthose engaged in Agricultural acitivites. (46%). But the decline in workers particularly main work­ ers from 1971 to 1981 census belies this assump­ The Census data show 38% ofthe population tion. H is all the more baffling in the context of under married category as against 54% under ample governmental and institutional support being never married category. When the marital status is extended exclusively to this community. The high related to age, as one can expect, the proportion degree of retrogression among S.C. (10%) com­ of unmarried show an inverse trend to that of pared to the decline is general population (1 %) married as the age goes up. However, the interest­ clearly point out to the unemployment problem ing feature is the highest percentage of married rather than the effect of definitional change. persons is in the age group 35-49 (36%) compared to those in younger age groups. Further, the pro­ Distribution of Disabled population portion of widowed is absent upto the age 34 and equally prominent above 35. In 1981 Census, for the first time the disabled population constituti ng totally blind, totally crippled At intra-age group level also, the proportion and totally dumb persons were enumerated (Table of married is quite high in the age 30-50 compared V.3 provides data in this regard). The table is self to the younger age group. The proportion of sepa­ explanator.y. rated/divorced is quite negligible (1 %) and it is

72 highest in quite contrast in age group 35-49. 5-24 is taken for the purpose of studying the relative differential of the student-non-student The survey data in terms of distribution of ratio (Table No. 8.0). It can be seen that 58% of the population accerding to the above categories tetal sample are students. It can also be seen that (Please see table No. V.v) almost corresponds alongwith each successive age group the percent­ identically with census data. However, the differ­ age of students is in the descendence, beth in the ential propertions of males population compared case of males and females. Within each age group (PI. see Table Ne. V.6) to females population show however, there is not much of difference between more females under married catE!gory, upto age males and females with respect to students or group 35-49 but receding thereafter. Also lesser non-students. percentage of female under unmarried category compared to males in general. It can also be seen The situation with regard to each of the major that while 21 % of males are under married cate­ religions (pI. see table No. VVIII) and Scheduled gory up to the age of 34 as many as 48% of the Caste is almost identical with that of the total total females are already married. All these fea­ sample examined, above. tUfes are quite in tune with typical, traditional, Indian, social system. However, one interesting Age, Sex and Education feature of the survey data is while 12% of the females are under widowed category, correspond­ One of the most important indicators ~ Edu­ ing figures for males is hardly 1%. This feature cational progress of a given unit of population is added with the fact that the widowed in case fe­ distribution of population according to the educa­ males was recorded at the age 30 onwards, the tional levels attained. Many of socio-economic correspending figures for males start only frem the assumptions and hypotheSiS are tested through age at 50. This goes against the popular assump­ this index. Although fast changing, the adherence tion that males have a higher life span compared to traditional values, particularly in the semi-urban to females in which case the data should have and rural areas has been the cause for apathy to been other way rO\Jnd. Although the data cannot higher education particularly among females. This be called conclusive, it nevertheless raises a query assumption as related to age is examined for the and deserves a depper probe specific to this area. present sample and the data is provided in Table No. V.IX. It can be seen that the difference in the Distribution of population according to Educa­ percentages of males and females to thei r respec­ tional participation tive total population confirms the above assump­ tion to some extent. It is said, 'to some extent', As per the pelicy of the Government or by any since the differential is not very high. However, the can nos of progressive thinking, in an equalitarian fact remains that the females are lagging behind society, the population under twenty years if not particularly after middle school level. This is further upto twentyfie are to be engaged only in the made evident if one looks at tne distribution of persuasion of their educational careers. From a males and females within each educational level limited perspective, it is assumed that the degree (horiz,ontal percentage). However, one important of involvement in education upto the age of 20-25 thing to be noticed is the parity between males and determines the degree of urbanization of a given females at higher secendary level, in the age area. The sample data is studied from this angle as greup 15-19 and 20-24 which .otherwise could be . seen in Table No. V.VII. called the prime age fer learning. The percentage .of females is far higher compared te males at the Among the sample population, only the age secendary level. This .only shews that after a par-

73 ticular stage of education, the take off sets in, Mainworkers by age, sex and educational level where motivation breaks the tradition. One of the indices of modernization as re­ The distribution of population according flected by the degree of urbanization process is to age, sex and level of education (Table the educational level correlated to the work force. No. V.8) as per 1981 census gives an As per Census 1981 the following are the percent­ identical picture to that of the sample studied ages of main workers according to different levels above. of education.

SI. Educational level Percentages of Main workers No. Male Female Total

2 3 4 5

1. Illiterates 21 58 26 2. Literates 14 6 13 3. Primary 25 8 22 4. Middle 13 5 12 5. Matric 18 15 18 6. Higher Secondary 3 2 3 7. Non-Technical diploma not equivalent to degree 8. Te.chnical diploma equivalent to degree 2 9. Degree other than Technical 3 3 10. Post Graduate 11. Engineering N N 12. Medicine N N N 13. Teaching 1 \

Average Educational Score per head Jawaharlal Nehru Street have a very high educa­ tional score in contrast to the localities where daily The relative attainment of educational level is wage earners, labourers etc. are concentrated. further put to a confirmatory index called average The male, female diffferences at locality level is educational score. The index is computed by strik­ high in the localities inhabited by the lower ing the average from total score of all the members economic strata Muslims, Seniyarkulathu Street, of a given sample_ The scores are predetermined. Masthanpalli Street & Thomas Arul Pudu Street. I n the present analysis the average educational On the whole, the average educational scores for score per head is provided at locality level as well females is far less (1.97) as compared to that of as for the town as a whole. males (2.47).

As the table No V.x shows localities domi­ Enrolment nated by upper economic strata particularly Deitha Street, Church Street, Dr. Ambedkar Street and Enrolment is a quantitative index of public

74 participation in educational process and is always among females. The educational level under related to set norms for the educational policy. The different age groups show (vertical percentage) universal enrolment of all eligible children is the that in the higher age groups, it is low or to be target set by the end of 6th Plan. Enrolment is in precise the age group fifty and above mostly fact in contrast to other qualitative indices such as comprise illiterates and in the lower age groups literacy rates and educational levels which throw particularly in 15-19 and 20-24, most of them have more light on the motivational aspects from indi­ reached matric level. Within each educational level, vidual point of view over time, whereas enrolment illiterates, are more in higher age groups and low provides the information on the implementation of at Matric level. The above figures collaborate the the policy at a given paint of time. general situation of Scheduled Caste in terms of the'ir overall backwardness on one hand and the The overall enrolment of children (in the age slightly progressing younger generation compared group 5 to 14) comes to about 80% which is quite to that of the higher age groups on the other, satisfactory. The default consistency or inconsis­ needs no further emphasis. tency for total population is insignificant but in relative terms, the default consistency among the Age at Marriage females is high over males (Plese see Table V.xl) the reasons for non-enrolment is reported to be Age at marriage is not only one of the indices poverty and apathy towards education in general of the prevailing social customs, but also of the and household duties in particular. effectiveness of policy of the State. It is seen that the 47% out of the total population surveyed are Non-enrolment and Drop-outs married with 41 % among males and 52% females. From Table No. V.xlll it is also seen while only 1% As regards the drop-outs, poverty appears to of male is married upto 24, the corresponding be the main reason and the drop-outs are equally figure for female is 10%. Am'ong those males distributed between ages 9-14. It is seen that the whose present age is between 25-34, 20% are drop-outs although very insignificant (2%) cut across married with corresponding figure for female as various castel communities; among males it is 38%. It is also seen that the average age at quite insignificant (less than 1%) and among females marriage for almost half of the male population is (2%). Children mostly drop out after fifth or sixth between 25-29, for one fourth it is 20-24, for two standard of education. thirds of females it is 14-19 and remaining one third, age at marriage being 20-24. This reflects a Scheduled Castes and Education typical Indian Society where at marriage particu­ larly among females is quite low. The only notice­ The Educational attainment specific to Sched­ able feature is that none of the sample from uled Castes is studied with refrence to the sample females was married, before attaining the age of in the survey and the relevant data is available in fourteen. Table No. V.XII. It can be seen that the educational status among Scheduled Castes as a whole ap­ Religion/Community-wise (pI. see Table No. pears unimpressive with more than half of the V.xIV and X.XV) among Hindus, most ofthe males sample S.C. population being illiterate and one. belonging to Pillai, Mudaliar, Nadar and Sched­ third reaching only upto matric level. The picture is uled Caste Communities marry in the age group the same among the males as well as females 25-29 and Chettiars in the age group 22-24. Among except that the percentage of illiterates are more Muslims, males marry in the age group 25-29. As

75 regards females almost all the communities be­ Age at marriage as related to educational longing to all the religions marry their daughters in level (Table No. V.XVI) shows that among males the age group 14-19. The indicates the age at generally the age at marriage is indpendent of the marriage governed not so much by religion as that educational level whereas among females there of community or caste or the sub-group tradition. appears to be a slight indication of the educational This also shows that the caste norms are contin­ level and age at marriage having positive as­ ued even after conversion to other religions which socaition. is a singular feature of this area.

76 TABLEV,I

HOUSEHOLD POPULATION BY REGLIGION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Tolal Pupulalion Hindus Muslims

No. of No. of No. of Household Persons Males Females Househod Persons Males' Femals Household Persons Males Fem~es

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

MOl 43,408 21,278 22,130 5,632 28,587 14,419 14,168 1,618 9,514 4,372 5,142 (100) (100) (100) (68) (66) (68) (64) (19) (22) (20) (23)

Chrislians Buddhists Other Religions &p~rsuasions

'No. of No. of No. of Household Persons Males Females Househod Persons Males' Femals Household Persons Males Fem~es

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

1,048 5,298 2A84 2,814 5' .. 5 2 4 3 0~ O~ O~ 0~ TABLE NO. V.2

EDUCATIONAL AND ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF SCHEDULED CASTES OF KARAIKAL-1981

No. of S.C. Total S.C. Population Literates House holds Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 3 4 5 6 7

Karaikal 826 3,459 1,801 1,658 1,179 819 360 10% 8% 8.5% 7.5% 34% 45% 22%.

Main Workers

Total Main workers Cultivators Agricultural Labourers

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1,193 994 119 47 41 6 731 597 134 34% 55% 7% 1% 2% N 21% 33% 8%.

Main Workers

Household Industry, Manufacturing, Processing Servicing and Reparis Other worker Marginal Workers Non-Workers Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males, Females 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

7_ 5 2 408 351 57 421 34 387 1,845 773 1,012 N N N 12% 19% 3% 12% 2% 23% 53% 43% 67%

78 TABLE NO. V.3

DISABLED POPULATION-1981 CENSUS

SI. Name of town Total Total Population Total % of dis- Density Remarks No. Area disabled abled popu- of disabled in Persons Males Females popula- lation to total sq. Kms. tion population

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Karaikal 19.0 43,408 21,278 22,130 68 0.16% 4

TABLE NO. V.4

HOUSELESS AND INSTITUTIONAL POPULATION

U.T./T'own Total no. of Total no. of Total Population occupied Households (Including Institutional Households) Residential Houses Persons Males Females

2 3 4 5 6

Karaikal 7,420 8,301 43,408 21,278 22,130

U.T./T'own Houseless Population Institutional Population

No. of No. of Households Persons Males Females Households Persons Males Females

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Karaikal 196 357 237 120 23 642 327 315

79 TABLE NO. V.S

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION ACCORDING TO AGE, SEX AND MARITAL STAUTS

SI. Age Marital Status No. Group Persons Males Never Married Widowed Separated Total Females Married or Divorced

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. 0-9 P 9,935 9,935 M 4,699 4,899 F 5,036 5,036 2. 10·14 P 5,353 9 5,362 M 2,737 3 2,740 F 2,616 6 2,622 3. 15·19 P 4,456 394 1 4 4,855 M 2,315 11 1 1 2,327 F 2,141 383 3 2,528 4. 20-24 P 2,478 1,726 11- 28 4,243 M 1,785 287 1 3 2,076 F 693 1,439 10 25 2,167 5. 25-29 P 855 2,545 39 32 3,4i1 M 683 952 4 2 1,641 F 172 1,593 35 30 1,830 6. 30-34 P 214 2,476 53 22 2,765 M 161 1,239 7 6 1,413 F 53 1,237 46 16 1,352 7. 35-49 P 180 6,014 633 71 6,928 M 126 3,133 77 20 3,356 F 54 2,881 586 51 3,572 8. 50-59 P 60 1,985 732 27 2,804 M 40 1,260 95 9 1,404 F 20 725 637 18 1,400 9. 60-69 P 28 973 946 17 1,964 M 18 729 132 10 889 F 10 244 814 7 1,075 10. 70+ P 20 437 616 3 1,076 M 10 378 137 3 528 F 10 59 479 548 11. Age not P 1 1 stated M F Total P 23,579 16,560 3,061 204 43,404 M 12,773 7,993 453 54 21,278 F 10,804 8,567 2,608 150 22,130

Source: Part III A & B General Economic Tables, Census of India, 1981-Pondicherry. Note: The vertical total do not tally as per the source.

80 TABLE NO. V. 6

AGE, SEX AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ·KARAIKAL TOWN· 1981

SI, Age Group Total Population "I~erates No, Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1, 05·09 5,176 2,527 2,649 1,929 894 1,035 2, 10·14 5,361 2,740 2,621 738 260 478 3, 15 ·19 4,855 2,327 2,528 834 269 565 4, 20·24 4,244 2,076 2,168 731 219 512 5, 25·29 3,472 1,642 1,830 814 194 620 6, 30·34 2,765 1,413 1,352 693 171 522 7, 35·59 9,732 4,761 4,971 3,930 1,148 2,782 8, 60+ 3,042 1,419 1,623 1,700 458 1,242

Total 38,647 18,905 19,742 11,369 3,613 7,756

(Xl ..I TABLE NO. V.6 (Contd.)

SI, Age Group Literates (wtthout Educational level) Educational level No, Non·formal Formal Primary Middle

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1. 05·09 8 5 3 3,173 1,591 1,582 66 36 30 2, 10 ·14 12 3 9 1,746 933 813 2,338 1,270 1,068 488 256 232 3, 15 ·19 27 12 15 567 230 :t37 1,213 575 638 1,030 596 434 4. 20·24 44 17 27 417 174 243 948 439 509 561 302 259 5, 25·29 35 12 23 312 135 176 742 317 425 386 230 156 6, 30·34 23 9 14 233 93 140 586 271 315 294 155 139 7. 35·59 229 123 106 1,059 533 526 2,065 1,109 956 938 585 353 8. 60+ 72 49 23 261 145 116 541 372 169 .210 160 50

Total 450 230 220 7,767 3,834 3,933 8,499 4,389 4,110 3,907 2,284 1,623 TABLE NO. V.6 (eontd.)

SI, Age Group Education level No, Matriculatlonl Higher Secondary/ Non·T echnical diploma or Secondary Intermediate/PUC certHicate equal to degree

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 21 22 23 24 25 26 '0 28 29

1, 5·9 2, 10 ·14 36 18 18 2 2 3, 15·19 947 518 429 221 110 111 4, 20·24 921 503 418 391 266 125 5, 25·29 692 403 289 160 97 63 4 2 2 6, 30·34 580 410 170 116 99 17 3 1 2 7, 35·59 1,089 882 207 96 88 8 17 12 5 8, 60+ 221 199 22 14 13

Total 4,486 2,933 1,553 1,000 673 327 25 16 9 ~ TABLE NO, V,6 (eontd,) SI. Age Group Education level No, Tech, Diploma or Certificate Graduate degree other Post graduate degree not equal to degree than technical degree other than technical degree Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 1, 5·9 2, 10 ·14 3. 15 ·19 12 12 2 2 4, 20·24 57 44 13 138 93 45 12 7 5 5, 25·29 49 36 13 174 137 37 48 35 13 6. 30·34 48 36 12 104 95 9 26 23 3 7. 35·59 48 40 8 119 114 5 42 37 5 8, 60+ 2 2 14 14 3 3

Total 216 170 46 551 455 96 132 106 26 TABLE NO. V.6 (eontd.)

81, Age Group Technical degree or diploma equal to degree or post graduate degree No, Engineering and Technology Medicine Agricutture and dairying

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males ·Females

2 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

1. 5·9 2, 10 ·14 3, 15 ·19 1 1 4, 20·24 3 3 3 2 3 3 5, 25·29 7 7 4 9 5 4 3 3 6, 30·34 1 15 15 4 4 7, 35·59 13 13 19 16 3 3 3 8, 60+ 2 2

Total 26 26 4 48 39 9 13 13

(l) w TABLE NO. V.6 (Concld.)

81. Age Group Technical degree or diploma equal to degree or post graduate degree No, Veterinary Teaching Others

Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

1, 5·9 2, 10·14 3, 15·19 4, 20·24 9 2 7 5, 25·29 40 31 9 6, 30·34 2 2 36 27 9 7, 35·59 64 57 7 8, 60+

Total 4 4 149 117 32 TABLE NO. V.I

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION BY LOCAUTY, REUGION AND SEX (IN CASE OF HOUSEHOLD, REUGION OF THE HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD WILL BE CONSIDERED TO BE REUGION OF THE HOUSEHOLD)

81. Locality Hindu Muslim No. HH P M F HH P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. There Well place St. 9 45 17 28 2. Mariamman Koil St. 21 122 57 65 3 15 8 7

3. Seniar Kulalhu St. 37 216 99 117

4. Market St. 9 39 16 23 8 46 25 21

5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 18 108 50 58 2 13 7 6

6. MasthanpaJli St. 12 80 40 40 13 115 58 57 ~ 7. Bharathiar SI. 13 76 37 39 9 2 7

8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 5 21 10 11 4 3

9. DeithaSt. 3 17 7 10

10. Sethil~ Nagar 23 119 61 68 4 20 13 7 . 11. Church St. 15 84 45 39

12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 4 16 10 6 4 2 2

Total 169 943 449 494 . 226 116 110

Note: HH denotes Households, TABLE NO. Vol (Concld,)

SI, Localny Christian Jains Total No, HH P M F HH P M F HH P M F

2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1. Three Well Place SI. 9 45 17 28

2, Mariamman Koil SI. 3 11 7 4 27 148 72 76

3, Seniar Kulathu SI. 5 27 13 14 42 243 112 131

4, Market SI. 6 2 4 18 91 43 48

5, Jawaharl~ Nehru SI. 9 47 13 34 29 168 70 98

6, Masthanpalli SI. 25 195 98 97

7, Bharathiar SI. 4 17 7 10 5 3 2 19 107 49 58

8, Dr, Ambedkar SI. 4 2 2 7 29 13 16 ffi 9, De~haSt. 3 20 9 11 6 37 16 21

10, Sethilal Nagar 9 43 22 21 36 182 96 86

11. Church SI. 8 37 14 23 23 121 59 62

12, Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 4 15 7 8 9 35 19 16

Total 47 'tJ.7 96 131 5 3 2 250 1AOl 664 737 TABLE NO. V,II

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION BY LOCALITY, CASTE OR TRIBE OR COMMUNITY AND SEX

81, Locality Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar No, HH P M F HH P M F HH P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Three Well Place 81. 6 30 11 19 2 8 4 4 2. Mariamman Koil SI. 7 31 13 18 6 4 2 4 33 17 16

3, Seniar Kulathu SI. 7 33 16 17 3 15 5 10

4, Market SI. 4 21 9 12 2

5. Jawaharlal Nehru SI. 10 67 25 42 2 10 5 5 4 2 2

6, Masthanpalli SI. 6 40 23 17

], Bharathiar SI. 6 38 18 20 4 25 13 12 3 13 6 7 ~ 8. Dr. Ambedkar SI. 3 12 5 7 4 2 2

9. Deitha SI. 2 16 9 7

10. Sethilal Nagar 6 29 16 13 2 11 5 6 2 12 5 7

11, Church SI. 10 47 22 25 6 33 18 15 4 23 11 12

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street -

Total 67 364 167 197 16 89 47 42 20 110 51 59 TABLE Volt (Contd.)

SI, Locamy Nadar Kavundar Marickar No, HH P M F HH P M F HH P M F

2 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1- Three Well Place S1. ,...

2, Mariamman Koil SI. 2 11 4 7 . 3 15 8 7

3, Seniar Kulathu SI. 23 132 62 70 4 31 15 16

4, Market SI. 8 46 25 21

5, Jawaharlal Nehru SI. 8 2 6 2 13 7 6

6, Masthanpalli SI. 5 33 16 17 13 115 58 57

7, Bharathiar SI. 6 3 3 9 2 7

8, Dr, Ambedkar SI. 4 3 co 'J 9, DeithaSI. 2 7 3 4

10, SethilaJ Nagar 4 20 11 9 4 21 13 8 4 20 13 7

11, Church SI.

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street - 4 2 2

Total 28 158 76 82 18 111 53 58 33 226 116 110 TABLE NO. V.II. (Concld,)

SI, Locality Secheduled Castes Others Total No, HH P M F HH P M F HH P M F

2 'l1 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

1. Three Well Place SI. 7 2 5 9 45 17 28 2, Mariamman Koil SI. 10 52 26 26 27 148 72 76

3, Seniar Kulathu SI. 5 32 14 18 42 243 112 131

4, Market S1. 5 22 8 14 18 91 43 48

5, Jawaharlal Nehru S1. 13 66 29 37 29 168 70 98

6, Masthanpalli SI. 7 6 25 195 98 97

7. Bharalhiar SI. 4 16 . 7 9 19 107 49 58

8, Dr, Ambedkar S1. 2 9 5 4 7 29 13 16 ~ 9. Deilha SI. 2 14 4 10 6 37 16 21

10, Sethilal Nagar 7 37 21 16 7 32 12 20 36 182 96 86

11, Church SI. 3 18 8 10 23 121 59 62

12. Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 8 31 17 14 9 35 19 16

Tolal 15 68 38 30 53 275 116 159 250 1401 664 737 TABLE NO, V,III

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION BY LOCALITY MOTHER TONGUE WISE

SI. Name of the Tamil Telegu No, local~y Total Persons Males Females Total Persons M~es Females No, of no, of household household

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Three Well Place S1. 8 43 16 27 2

2,. Marlamman Koll St. 27 148 72 76

3, Seniar Kulathu 81. 42 243 112 131

4, Market S1. 18 91 43 48

5, co Jawaharlal Nehru St. 25 146 62 84 3 17 6 11 to 6, MasthanpaJll St. 25 195 98 97

7. Bharathlar 81. 18 102 46 56

8, Dr, Ambedkar 81. 7 29 13 16

9, DelthaSt. 6 37 16 21

10, Sethllal Nagar 36 182 96 86

11. Church S1. 21 108 53 55 2 13 6 7

12, Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 9 35 19 16

Total 242 1,359 646 713 '6 32 13 19 TABLE NO, V,1Il (Concld.)

81 Name of the Hindi French Total No, localny Total Total Total No, of No, of No, of House House House holds Persons Males Females holds Persons Male Females hold Persons Males Females

2 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1, Three Well Place SI. 9 45 17 28

2, Mariamman Koil SI. 27 148 72 76

3, Seniar Kulathu St. 42 243 112 131

4, Market SI. 18 91. 43 48

5, Jawahar\a\ Nehru SI. 5 2 3 29 168 70 98

6, Masthanpalli SI. 25 195 98 97 ~ I, 7, Bharathiar SI. 5 3 2 19 107 49 68

8, Dr, Ambedkar SI. 7 29 13 16

9, DeithaSI. 6 37 16 21

10, Sethilal Nagar 36 182 96 86

11, Church SI. 23 121 59 62

12, Thomas Arul Pudu S1. 9 35 19 16

Total 5 3 2 5 ' 2 3 250 1A01 664 737 TABLEV.IV

MOTHER TONGUE AND SUBSIDIARY LANGUAGES OF MEMBERS OF HOUSEHOLDS AS RELATED TO DURATION OF STAY IN PRESENT RESIDENCE

SI. Mother tongue Number speaking subsidiary languages with reference to duration of stay in present residence No. 0-4 years

Tamil Malayalam Telugu Hindi English French Urdu Others·

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Tamil 1 7 2 26 7 2 2. Malayalam 1 3. Telugu 2 2 4. Hindi 5. French 5 - 5

Total 8 7 2 33 7 2

TABLE V.IV (Contd.)

SI. Mother tongue Number speaking subsidiary languages with reference to duration of stay in present residence No. 5-9 years

Tamil Malayalam Telugu Hindi English French Urdu Others·

2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. Tamil 7 2. Malayalam 3. Telugu 4. Hindi 5. French

Total 8 2

TABLE V.lV (Concld.)

SI. Mother tongue Number speaking subsidiary languages with reference to duration of stay in present residence No. 0-4 years

Tamil Malayalam Telugu Hindi English French Urdu Others·

2 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1. Tamil 3 4 11 148 47 5 9 2. Malayalam 3. Telugu 30 9 14 4. Hindi 5 4 2 5. French·

Total 35 3 4 11 161 48 7 23 • Others include: Kannada (2); Gujarati (1); Burmese (1); Kambodia (7); Vietnamese (7); German (1); Arabic (1) and Mala (1).

91 TABLE NO, V,V, DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE AND MARITAL STATUS (Survey)

SI. Marital Status No, Age Group RemrrKs Never Married Widowed Separated Divorced Unspecified Tolal married

Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 I 9 10

1. !H14 106 106

2, 05-09 144 144

3, 10-14 163 163

4, 15-19 170 7 177

5, 20-24 92 41 134

6, 25-29 45 79 124

7, 30-34 9 73 2 85 ~ 8, 3H9 7 223 15 245

9, 50-59 81 22 104

10, 6H9 37 31 69

11. 70+ 27 50

Total 738 563 96 4 lAOl TABLE NO, V,VI, DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE, SEX AND MARITAL STATUS

SI Marital Status &Sex No, Age Group Never Married Married Widowed Separated Divorced Unspecified Total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1. 4 52 54 52 54

2. 5·9 64 80 64 80

3. 10·14 79 84 79 84

4. 15·19 79 91 7 79 98

5. 20·24 60 32 4 37 64 70

6. 25·29 37 8 20 59 57 67

(D tv 7. 30·34 9 33 40 2 42 43

8. 3549 4 3 121 102 15 ". 125 120

9. 50·59 49 32 21 51 53

10. 60·69 24 13 4 27 28 41

11. 70 t 19 3 3 24 23 27

12. Age not stated

Total 386 352 270 293 8 88 4 ". 664 737 TABLE NO, V,VII

NUMBER STUDYING AND NOT STUDYING PERSONS IN AGE GROUP·WISE DATA (SURVEY)

Sl, Age Group No, Studying No, not studying Total No, Perosns Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. 5·9 137 59 78 7 5 2 144 64 80 2, 10 ·14 150 77 73 13 2 11 163 79 84

3, 15 ·19 80 39 41 97 40 57 177 79 98

4, 20·24 10 9 124 55 6g 134 64 70 5, 25+ 677 326 351 677 326 351

Total 377 184 193 918 428 490 1,295 612 683 to ~ TABLE NO, V,VIII

AGE, SEX AND DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY AND NON·STUDY BY RELIGION (Survey)

SI, Religion Number slUdying Number not studying Total No, Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. HINDU 253 127 126 605 275 330 858 402 456 2, MUSLIMS 43 23 20 152 73 79 195 96 99

3, CHRISTIANS 62 24 38 131 58 73 193 82 111

4, JAINS 3 2 2 5 3 2

5, SCHEDULED CASTES 16 8 8 28 21 7 44 29 15

Total 377 184 193 918 428 490 1,295 612 683 TABLE NO. V.IX

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGEl SEX AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL

SI. Educational Level 5·9 10 ·14 15 ·19 20· 24 No. P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Illrterates 8 4 4 5 4 8 3 5 5 4 2. Lrterates 3. Primary 136 60 76 62 28 34 24 10 14 23 7 16 4. Middle 79 45 34 46 22 24 36 14 22 5. Matric/Secondary 16 5 11 68 34 34 '40 28 12 6. Higher Secondary/ 24 7 17 17 6 11 Intermediate 7. Non·Technical Diploma 8. Technical Diploma 2 2 or Cert~icate

(0 9. Graduate, Degree 5 4 8 5 3 (J1 other than Technical 10. P. G. Other than Tech. 2 2 11. Engineering & Technology 12. Medicine 13. Agricu~ure & Dairying 14. Veterinary 15. Teaching 16. Others

Total 144 64 80 163 79 84 177 79 98 134 64 70 TABLE V.lX (Concld,)

SI, Educational Level 25·34 35·49 SOt Total No, P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1, IIlnerates 18 3 15 39 13 26 66 12 54 149 37 112 2, Ltterates 3, Primary 36 13 23 54 17 37 53 19 34 388 154 234 4, Middle 50 19 31 67 29 38 52 29 23 330 158 172 5, Matric/Secondary 69 35 34 59 40 19 44 36 8 296 178 118 6, Higher Secondary/ 12 10 2 6 6 5 3 2 65 32 33 Intermediate 7, Non·technical Diploma 8, Technical Diploma or 2 2 3 3 9 9 Certiflcate 9 Graduate, Degree 18 14 4 9 9 2 2 42 31 11 other than Technical ~ 10, P,G, other than tech, 2 2 2 2 6 4 2 11, Engineering &Technology - 2 2 3 3 12, Medicine 13, AgrlcuHure &Dairying 14, Veterinary 15, Teaching 2 3 3 6 5 16, Others

Total 209 99 110 245 125 120 223 102 121 1295 612 683 TABLE NO. V.X

AVERAGE EDUCATIONAL SCORE PER HEAD BY LOCALITY AND SEX

SI. Locality Average per Head Educational Score No. Total Male Female

2 3 4 5

1. Three Well Place Street 2.47 2.65 2.35 2. Mariamman Koil Street 2.45 2.65 2.26

3. Seniarkulathu Street 1.93 2.11 1.78

4. Market Street 2.35 2.67 2.05

5. Jawaharlal Nehru Street 2.61 2.82 2.45

6. Masthanpalli Street 1.89 2.57 1.29

7. Bharathiar Street 2.39 2.65 2.19

8. Dr. Ambedkar Street 2.54 2.56 2.53

9. Deitha Street 2.53 2.56 2.50

10. Sethilal Nagar 1.89 2.11 1.60

11. Church Street 2.70 2.97 2.43

12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 0.82 1.06 0.53

Total Sample 2.20 2.47 1.97

97 TABLE NO. V.XI

Households defaulting In enrolling school going children by Caste or Tribe or Community of Head of Household.

Caste/Tribe/Community No. of house No. of households with only of head of Household holds not No. of householdshaving male children of school having any children of school going age going age and failing to child of send them to shcool school going Male Female Both age only only Male& Female

2 3 4 5 6

Hindu Pillai 21 9 6 18 Mudaliar 6 3 3 2 Chettiyar 5 3 3 7 Nadar 8 7 6 5 Kavundar 2 2 2 3 Sch. Caste 3 2 2 Others 16 8 12 8

Muslims 15 4 7 7

Christians Pillai 9 2 2 Mudaliar Chettiyar Nadar Kavundar 2 Sch. Castes 2 2 Others 6 3 3

Other Religion

Total 96 42 50 62 2

98 TABLE NO. V.XI (Contd.)

Caste{rribe/Community No. of households No. of households with No. of households with of Head of household with only male child­ only female children only female children ren of school going of school going age of school going age and age and failing to and failing to send failing to send some of send some of them them to school them to school to school

7 8 9

Hindu: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Muslims 2

Christians: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Other Religion

Total 6 2

99 TABLE V.XI. (Contd.)

Caste!Tribe/Community No. of households No. of households No. of households with of Head of household with both male and with both male & male and female female children of female children of children of school school going age & school going age & going age & failing failing to send failing to send to send some male both to school male children only to school to school

10 11 12

Hindus: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Muslims

Christians: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Other Religion,

Total 2

100 TABLE NO. V.XI (Concld.)

Caste(fribe/Community No. of households No. of households No. of households Remarks of Head of household with both male with both male & with both male and female children female children and female children of school going age of school going of school going age and failing to send age and failing and falling'to send only female children to send some of some male and some to school them to school female children to school

13 14 15 16

Hindus: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Muslims 2

Christians: Pillai Mudaliar Chettiar Nadar Kavundar Sch. Castes Others

Others Religion

Total 3 2

101 TABLE NO, V,XII

DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED CASTE POPULATION BY AGE, SEX AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (Survey Data) .

81, Educational Level Age Group No, 5·9 10-14 15-19 20-24

P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1, 111~erates 2 2 2. Lnerates 3, Primary 5 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 4, Middle 3 3 1 1 1 5, Matrie/Secondary 4 2 2 2 2 6, Higher Secondary/ Inter/PUG ..t. 7, Non·T echnical diploma - 0 rv course etc, 8, Technical diploma 9, Graduate/Degree 10, Post Graduate 11. Engineering &Technology - 12. Med~ine 13, Agri &Dairying 14. Veterinary 15, Teaching 16, Others

Total 5 3 2 9 4 5 . 8 5 3 6 5 TABLE NO, V,X" (Concld,)

, SI, Educational Level Age Group No, 25-34 35-49 50t Total

p M F P M F P M F P M F

2 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1, 111~erate 3 3 6 4 2 11 7 4 25 13 12 2, LHerate ,... 3, Prlma~ 3 3 2 2 16 11 5 4, Middle 5 5 5, Malric/Secondary 8 4 ·4 6, Higher Secondary! Inler/pUC 7, Non·Technical Diploma - course ale, 8, Technical Diploma 0""" w g, Graduate/Degree 10, Post graduate """ 11, Engineering &Technology - 12, Medicine 13, Agri &Dairying 14, Veterinary 15, Teaching 16, Others

Total 4 4 9 7 2 13 9 4 54 21 TABLE NO, V,X'"

AGE AT AMARRIAGE AS RELATED TO sex AND PRESENT AGE

SI. Present Age Age at Marriage No. Male

Below 14 14-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 4(}44 45+ Total

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 19 11

1. Below 14 2. 14-24 2 2 3. 25.34 2 17 32 4 55 4. 35-44 2 25 41 18 3 89 5. 45-54 20 27 11 2 60 6. 55+ 17 23 20 6 5 72 7. Age not stated ..I ~ Total 5 81 123 53 11 5 278

SI. Present Age Age at Marriage No. Female Total

Below 14 14-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45+ Total P M F

2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

1. Below 14 2. 14-24 31 9 40 42 2 40 3. 25-34 58 38 8 105 160 55 105 4. 35-44 51 26 2 80 169 89 80 5. 45-54 34 23 2 59 119 60 59 6. 55+ 73 23 4 101 173 72 101 7. Age not staled - Total' 247 119 16 3 385 663 278 385 TABLE NO. V.XIV

AGE AT MARRIAGE AS RELATED TO RELIGION

SI. Religion Male No. Below 14 14·19 20·24 25-29 30·34 35-39 40-44 45+ Age not Total staled

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Hindu 3 59 86 37 7 4 196 2. Muslims 1 14 19 8 1 1 44 3, Christians 8 18 8 ' 3 37 4. Jalns

Total 5 81 123 53 11 5 278

~ 0 (/l SI, Religion Female Total No. Below 14 14·19 20·24 25-29 30·34 35·39 40·44 45+ Age not Total P M F slated

2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1. Hindu 172 79 12 2 - 265 461 196 265 2. Muslims 42 20 3 65 109 44 65 3. Christians 32 20 54 91 37 54 4. Jains 1 2

Total 247 119 16 3 - 385 663 278 385 TABLE NO. V.XV

AGE AT MARRIAGE AS RELATED TO CASTE/TRIBE/COMMUNITf

SI. Casteff ribe Age at Marriage No, Communny Male

Below 14 14·19 20·24 ,25·29 30·34 35·39 40-44 45+ Age not Total stated

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Hindu Pillal 16 28 16 2 3 65 Mudaliar 6 6 2 14 Chettiar 3 12 5 3 24 Nadar 9 13 3 26 Kavundar 3 3 4 10 S,C, 3 3 1 7 ... Others 10 28 9 3 50 8 2, Muslims 14 19 8 44

3, Christians Pillai 4 3 4 11 Mudaliar 3 3 Chettiar Nadar 2 Kavundar 1 1 4 S,C, 2 3 5 Others 6 2 2 11

4, Jains

Total 5 81 123 53 11 5 278 TABLE NO, V,x:! (Concld,)

SI, Casterrribe Age at Marriage No, Communtty Female Total

Below 14 14·19 20·24 25-29 30·34 35·39 40·44 45+ Age not Total P M F .stated

2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21, 22 23 24 25

1, Hindu Pillai 58 26 5 90 155 65 90 Mudaliar 10 5 2 18 ' 32 14 18 Chelliar 18 12 31 55 24 31 Nadar 29 5 35 61 26 35 Kavundar 8 6 14 24 10 14 S,C, 5 2 7 14 7 7 Others 44 23 3 70 120 50 70

.... 2, Muslims 42 20 3 65 109 44 65 0 'l 3, Christians Pillai 14 5 19 30 11 19 Mudaliar 2 1 3 6 3 3 Chettiar 1 2 1 1 Nadar 2 2 4 2 2 Kavundar 2 3 5 9 4 5 S,C, 6 1 7 12 5 7 Others 6 9 17 28 11 17

4, Jains 2

Total 247 119 16 3 385 663 278 385 SI. Educational level Age at marriage No. Females Total

Below 14 14·19 20·24 25·29 30·34 35-39 40-44 45 &above Total Persons Males Females

2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

1. IIiHerate 65 27 3 96 121 25 96 2. Educational wnhout level - -. 3. Below Primary 2 4. Primary 110 38 3 151 223 72 151 5. Middle 45 20 66 115 49 66 6. Matrlc 25 32 7 65 162 97 65 7. Diploma &Certfficate 3 3 8. Degree &above 2 3 6 37 31 6

Total 247 119 16 3 385 663 278 385 CHAPTER VI

MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT OF FAMILIES

Once of the three factors that influence the economic strata engaged in occuptions like Rick­ demographic and economic situation of a given shaw pullers, loaders, daily wagers, masonaryetc. area or population is migration, the other two being Within the localities, however, the Mariamman Koil the birth rate and death rate. While the latter Street and Thrpe Well Place Street also have a factors represent the' natural phenomenon, the majority of the household where the place of birth migration is a cause as well as effect of man made of the head of the household is outside the place environment, in operational terms, the urbaniza­ of enumeration. These localities have basically tion .process. It has been· established that the white collar people. nexus between the rural and urban area in terms of the pulls from urban areas the push from the In terms of the migration from rural-urban rural areas for a variety <:>f reasons, results in cen­ classifications, the migrants from urban area is al­ tripetal migration. In fact, the migration has be­ most of the same proportion (45%) to those from come such a dominating aspect of human life that rural area. The migration from urban areas is more it is now being looked upon as one of the major in the localities of Sethilal Nagar particularly (PI. evils thrown up by the urbanization process. The see Table No. VI.II). urbanization which was treated as a harbinger of socio-economic progress is itself now crumbling The above migrationary trends basically indi­ under its own weight of inviting large scale migra­ cate what the major cause for migration into the tion where it is leading to an unwieldy human con­ town is occupational in nature from lower eco­ gestion and also a high degree of imbalances in nomic strata, in search of livelihood which is of the spatial dispersal of population. The present subsistence level in character. Secondly the mi­ sample area is examined within .this broad frame gration is from urban areas in as much as from the work of the nature of migration or its role in the rural areas. It is also noted that the migration within structUring of a unit area. The unit of analysis at the district particularly, the expected pull from the family level is the head of household, unless rural areas of the district is very insignificant in specified otherwise. comparison to the quantum of migration from the adjoining state. Migration with respect to place of birth of Head of Household Migration and family composition

Out of the sample household surveyed, the Out of the total families, majority of familes place of birth of 31 % of heads of households is (56%) have a family also of four t9 five members outside the town. (Table No. VI. I) . Thus almost one (Please see Table No. VI.IV). However, it is seen third of the sample households could be termed that a significantly high percent of urban migrant migrants. Among them, majority are seen to be households (40%) have a family size of five and flailing from the neighbouring State of Tamil Nadu. also a sizeable percentage (24%) of migrant fami­ The distribution of migrant households by locality lies from rural areas have a family size of 4 and 6 shows that bulk of the migrants are concentrated to 7. The frequencies tend to concentrate towards in Seniar Kulathu Street, Sethilal Nagar and Mari­ larger family size in general. amman Koil Street (40% of the total 77 migrant households). It can be mentioned here that the Separate analysis with respect to last place three localities are mainly composed of the lower of residence is not made since in all the migrant 109 families the place of birth and place of last resi­ Employment status and migration dence of household are reported same. Among the total migrant heads of house­ Longitivity of the migration status holds, almost two thirds are employed, with a few among them single workers. 20% of the migrants The survey data shows, (see Table No. VI.IV) are employers (Table No. VI.VI). It is interesting to in general, the migration into the town both from ru­ note that among the total migrants, the females ral as well as urban areas have taken place atleast employed outnumber the corresponding propor­ a decade ago. Precisely, the duration in the pres­ tion of males. In otherwords, out of the total female ent residence is mostly eleven years and beyond migrants, 80% are employed whereas out of the for most of the migrant families from rural areas total male migrants only 57% are employed. This (69%) and urban areas (66%). At individual level difference may be due to the fact that among the also it is seen that households having larger family male migrants as many as 26% are employers. size appeared to be staying in the present resi­ Among the employers specifically, almost half of dence beyond eleven years or more. The above them had their last residence in other State and data indicate the migration into the town rather on from rural areas at that. Among the employed permanent basis either at individual level or the however, almost three fourth of them also had their households as a whole. Another important aspect last residence outside the state but from urban that emerges is that this permanency is clearly areas. reflected with respect to those from rural areas. This leads one to believe that there is sufficient Migration Stages need fulfilment as also stable and secure life after migration. It appears that there was a sudden flow of migrants after 1966 into the town (68%). the quan­ Migration Status of economically active popu­ tum of migration earlier is hardly significant (Table lation No. VI.VII). This dividing line actually coincides with the merger of French Pondicherry into Union Among the total migrants only one fourth are of India, and become a Union Territory. There is economically active and the rest three fourths are every livelihood that this factor has led to large non-workers (see Table No. VI.V). Among the scale immigrations into the town. This is substan­ workers as well as non-workers, the duration of tiated by the fact that at all migrations that have stay in the present residence is highly varied taken place after 1966 are direct and not from except that a slightly higher proportion of workers/ intermediary stages, as also, the fact that the bulk non-workers are staying between 10-20 years. of migrtion is reported from the adjoining states There is no significant differential between males compared to that of the same district/state. and females in this regard. However, the bulk of the workers or non-workers have their previous Migration by time lengt,h is also looked from a place of residence outside this State and are different angle in terms of actual distance from reported to be stayhing in the present residence where the migration has taken place. It is seen for the last 5-9 years. To put it in another way the from Table No. VI. VII I that most of the households duration of stay in the present residence does not who have migrated before 1960 hailed from the appear to be related with the economic status of distance of within 299 Kms, whereas those from the migrant, but positively related to the place or places which are 100-500 Kms. in distance or the distance of the last place of residence. In other more migrated later. This again indicate a migra­ words, the farther the last place of residence, the tion boom after 1960 or after the merger. older is the time of migration.

110 Factors of Migration Some Relfections on Migration

Taking the migrant households as a whole, The preceding review of migration reveals the main causative factor is reported to be employ­ that the Karaikal town has a significant amount of ment (see Table No. VI,IX) followed by business. migrant families to an order of one third of the Marriage is responsible for the migration of very sample survey. Most of them have come from the few households. According to the time of migra­ neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu, and belong to tion, there appers to be no change with respect to lower economic strata in search of occupation and dominance of employment as a cause. This can be livelihood. A great deal of the migration took place seen from the relative proportion of migrant house­ immediately after the merger of Karaikal town with holds with respect to different reasons remaining the Indian Union. In the context of the town not • the same for any category of period. The fact that having a great industrial potential but attract large only a fraction of them are employed in Govern­ scale migration all the same deeper probe was ment serVice makes it still more interesting as to made to ascertain the cause. how the town has been so attractive. It is learnt through informal, but official sources Background of Migrants that the migration probably is related to the attrac­ tive civic amenities offered to the public as the Un­ Out of the total migrant households as much ion Territory has been endowned with higher fi­ as 83% are reported to have no property in the re­ nancial aid and funds from the Central Govern­ spective place.s from where they have migrated. ment. It is said that the Karaikal town as a part of Among the households who have property, most the Union Territory of Pondicherry provides the of them have migrated from rural areas. It is also best per capita public distribution system, best per seen that the rural urban differential or the dis­ capita expenditure on medical facility, a very lib­ tance of migration is not related to the above eral allocation of free house sites and house dichotomy of economic background (VI,X). The building aid to the weaker sections. Further the self fact that having no property for the migrants ap­ employment schemes like provision of rickshaws, pears to be acting as an independent variable by petty-vocational occupations, fishery etc., also act itself and is not affected either by distance or by the as attraction. rural urban differential.

111 TABLE NO. VI.I

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY LOCALITY AND DISTRICT/STATE TO WHICH HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD BELONGS

SI. Name of Locality Number of households where head of household belongs to No. Same Same Same State Other Other Other Country Total Total %of town District State State migr- no,of total District District District- Ceylon Singa- rant house house Pondi- Mahe Yanam Tamil pore House holds holds cherry Nadu holds

2 3 4 5 . 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1- Three Well Place Street 4 5 5 9 55 2, Mar/amman Koil SI. 15 3 8 12 27 44

3. Seniaf Kulathu St. 26 14 16 42 38

4. Market SI. 16 2 18 11

...I ...I 5. Jawaharlal Nehru SI. 24 2 2 5 29 17 I\) 6. Masthanpalli SI. 18 5 7 25 28

7. Bharathiar SI. 12 7 7 19 37

8. Dr, Ambedkar Sf. 5 2 7 28

9, DeithaSt. 4 2 6 27

10, Selhilal Nagar 24 3 8 12 36 33

11. Church SI. 16 5 7 23 3

12. Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 9 9

Total 173 13 7 55 77 250 TABLE NO. VLlI

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY LOCALITY AND PLACE OF BIRTH OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI. Name of Locality Number of Households where head of household is born in Total Migrants from

Same Wilhin Other Other States Other Countries (Col. 4to 11) town district district of the State

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban R U T

2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Three Well Place SI. 4 4 4 5 2. Mariamman Koil St. 15 3 4 4 7 5 12

3. Seniar Kulathu SI. 26 9 5 10 6 16

-4 4, Market SI. 16 2 -4 (U 5, Jawaharlal Nehru SI. 24 2 2 4 5

6. Masthanpalli SI. 18 3 2 4 3 7

7. Bharathiar SI. 12 5 2 5 2 7

8. Dr. Ambedkar SI. 5 2

9. DeithaSI. 4 2

10. Sethilal Nagar 24 3 7 5 7 12

11. Church SI. 16 2 3 3 4 7

12, Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 9

Total 173 13 6 28 27 2 42 35 77 TABLE NO, VI, III

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY NUMBER OF MEMBERS, MIGRATION STATUS AND PLACE OF BIRTH OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI. Migration status Number of households having members No. and place of birth of head of household Single 2 3 4 5 6·7 8·9 10·12 13+ Total

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

I. Non·Migrant 4 14 12 24 31 64 12 10 2 173

II. Migrant born a, Rural 2 7 3 13 outside the town in the b, Urban district

III. Born within a, Rural the State in the district b, Urban 3 3 6 ..I Pondicherry , ..I ~ IV, Born in- a, Rural 3 6 10 7 28 Other State b, Urban 2 6 10 5 3 27 Tamil Nadu

V, Born in Country·1 other Country Country·11 (Urban)

Total Rural 2 4 10 9 10 7 42 Urban 2 1 10 14 5 3 35 Total 4 5 20 23 15 10 77

GRAND TOTAL 1+ 2 4 18 17 44 54 79 22 10 2 250 TABLE NO. VIN

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY NUMBER OF MEMBERS, MIGRATION STATUS OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD AND DURATION OF STAY OF ANY MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD WHO HAS STAYED THE LONGEST IN THE PRESENT RESIDENCE.

Number of households where the migration status and place of last residence of head of household and duration of slay of any member of the household who has stayed longest is

SI, No, of Non·Migrant Last residence in Rural area and duration of present residence (year) No, members (born &last residence in Less than town) one year 1·5 yrs So10yrs 11·20yrs 21+yrs Tolal

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1- Single 4

2, 2 14

3, 3 12 2 3

..i 4, 4 24 3 4 ..i ()1 5, 5 31 2 4 5 12

6, 6·7 64 7 8 16

7, 8·9 12 4 6

8, 10·12 10

9, 13tabove 2

Total 173 2 4 7 17 12 42 TABLE NO. VI.V

DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS WORKERS AND NON·WORKERS BY DURATION OF STAY IN THE PRESENT RESIDENCE AND PLACE OF LAST RESIDENCE

SI. Duration of stay in WorKers Non-workers Total No. present residence Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Meles Females

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

I. Non·Migrant 283 247 36 m 254 517 1,054 501 553

II. Migrant

Less than 1year 2 2 12 5 7 14 7 7

1-4 years 13 8 5 59 16 43 72 24 48

5-9 years 16 14 2 67 32 35 83 46 37

10·19 years 31 27 4 82 27 55 113 54 59 ~ ~ OJ 20 +years 23 19 4 42 13 29 65 32 33

Unspedfied

Total II 85 70 15 262 93 169 347 163 184

GRAND TOTAL I +II ~. 317 51 1,033 347 686 1,401 664 737 (Non·Migrant &Migrant) TABLE NO, VI,VI

EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF WORKERS BY MIGRATION WITH REFERENCE TO PlACE OF lAST RESIDENCE AND SEX

SI, Place of last Total Emplo~ment status b~ sex No, residence p M F Emplo~er Emplo~ee Single worker

p M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

I. Non-Migrant 283 247 36 50 45 5 182 158 24 34 32 2

II. Migrant Last residence outside the town but in the district (Rural) 14 13 2 2 8 7 2 2

Last residence outside the district· (Rural) 3 3 3 3

..I but within the (Urban) 8 8 5 5 ... ~ state

Last residence in (Rural) 20 17 3 9 9 7 5 2 3 3 other states (Urban) 39 29 10 3 3 32 23 9 2

Last residence in other count~ (Urban)

Total 85 70 15 18 18 52 40 12 9 7 2

GRAND TOTAL 1+11 368 317 51 68 63 52 234 198 36 43 39 4 TABLE NO, VI, VI ~Concld,)

SI, Place of last Employment status by sex No, residence Family worker Cullivator Agricultural Others

P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

I. Non-Migrant '9 '3 6 3 3

II, Migrant Last residence outside the town but in the district (Rural) - 2 2

Last residence outside the district (Rural) - but within the (Urban) - stale .. (Xl Last residence in ~Rural) - other states (Urban) -

Last residence in other count~ (Urban) -

Total 5 4

GRAND TOTAL I +II 19 13 6 4 4 5 4 TABLE NO. VI.VII

TIME OF MIGRATION OF HOUSEHOLD HAILING FROM OUTSIDE

SI. Place from Total no. No. of households Number of nouseholds migrating No. where the of households migrated household hails 1955 or earlier 1956-60 1961-65 1966 & Total later (cols.4 to 7)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Other town of the district

2. Rural areas of the 13 2 -9 13 district

3. Other districts of 7 6 7 the State

4. Other States 55 5 5 9 36 55

5. Other Country 2 2

Total 77 8 6 11 52 77

TABLE NO. VI.VIII

TIME OF MIGRATION AND DISTANCE FROM THE PLACE OF LAST RESIDENCE

SI. Distance in kms. Last residence outside the town but within the district; No. Last residence outside the district but within the State; Last residence in other States- Tamil Nadu.

Prior 1956 1956-60 1961-1965 1966 and later Total

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. 10 and less 2 2 8 13 2. 11-20

3. 21-50 3 3 9 16

4. 51-100 6 T

5. 101-200 2 5 8 15

6. 201-500 2' 20 23

7. 501 + above 2

Total 8 6 11 52 77

119 TABLE NO. VI.IX

BROAD CATEGORY OF PLACES FROM WHERE THE HOUSEHOLD HAILS TIME AND REASON FOR MIGRATION

Broad category of Time of migration No. of households migrating because of Remarks places from where the household hails Reason I Reason II Reason III Total (Job) • (Business) (Marriage/ others)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

PLACE: I Prior 1956 5 2 8

1956-1960 4 6

1961-1965 7 2 2 11

1966 onwards 37 11 4 52

Total 53 16 8 77

120 TABLE NO, VI,X

PROPERTY AT THE PLACE FROM WHERE MIGRATED BY THE DESCRIPTION OF THE PLACE AND DISTANCE AND DURATION OF STAY

Place from where Distance No, of households not having property at place from where migrated who are residing in migrated (kms) present place

Less than 1yl. 1·4 yrs, 5·9yrs. 10·19 yrs 20 +yrs

R U R U R U R U R U

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

I. Last residence Less than 10 2 7 outside the 11·20 town but in the 21·50 district SHOO 101·200 201·500 501 + .. II. Last residence Less than 10 I\l... outside the 11·20 district but 21·50 2 3 wHhin the state 51-100 101·200 201·500 501 + III. Last residence Less than 10 in other state 11·20 21·50 2 2 4 51·100 1 2 1 101·200 - 2 3 2 4 201·500 8 6 3 1 501 + IV, Last residence less than 10 in other Country 11·20 21·50 SHOO 101·200 201·500 501+ 2 Total 2 3 11 5 8 10 14 10 TABLE NO, VI.X (Concld.)

Place from where Distance No, of households having property from migrated who ara residing in the present place migrated (kms) Total Less than 1Yr 1·4 yrs 5·9 yrs 10·19 yrs 20·yrs

R U R U R U 'R U R U

2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

I. Last residence Less ,than 10 3 13 outside the 11·20 town but in the 21·50 district 51·100 101·200 201·500 501 + II. Last residence Less than 10 outside the 11·20 ... district but 21·50 7 I'll w~hjn the state 51·100 I'll 101·200 201·500 501 + III. Last residence Less than 10 in other state 11·20 1 21·50 9 5HOO 7 101·200 15 201·500 23 501 + IV, Last residence less than 10 in other Country 11·20 21·50 _, 51·100 101·200 - 201·500 501+ 2 Total 2 4 2 77 CHAPTER VII

NEIGHBOURHOOD PATTERN

An important attribute of society (a nexus of society as the nexus of relationships falls back to relationship) is the widely ignored concept of neigh­ original pattern. bourhood. As in the case of many sociological or epistemological usages, neighbourhood also is It is in this context that, the concept of neigh­ rooted in history, as it denotes as extension of bourhood acquires a new dimension applicable to primary relationship outside the family. Neigh­ the contemporary life of man. The original basis, bourhood is as strong and as durable as the family. the primary relationship is replaced by secondary The mutual dependence born out of division of and tertiary relationship, 'with dependency factor labour within the self-dependent economic units remaining constant. The emergence of varied made such organic s91idarity with neighbours associations affiliated to age, ethnicity, religion, imperative till the industrialization. Of course, the political ideology and so on could be seen having role of tradition too had a significant influence in their structural formations at locality or street level, forcing such brotherhood. in small groups of people. Also, the habitational clusters within concentration of a particular com­ However, in the contemporary social life, one munity, or religion, or occupation provide an alto­ notices a threat to the existence of primary rela­ gether different scenario to the concept of neigh­ tions even in the association of family itself. As bourhood. The policies and programmes of the such the very concept of neighbourhood has virtu­ state also contribute to this new phase of the ally become defunct. It started with the corrosion of neighbourhood with the provision of closely at­ primary relationships with the increasing urbaniza­ tached residences, for a particular group of people, tion, where mutual dependence its replaced by and providing a franchise for a representation at self motivated and independent mode of life. There locality level in local governments. is more awareness of those around in rural areas, in comparison to urban areas. But even this aware­ In this chapter, it is, attempted to examine the ness in rural areas is not due to the operation of reflection of neighbourhood, both in its original primary relations. It is because of limited area and form as well as in its present day context an~ see modility and therefore a compulsive interaction. In therein relative relevance to the tranSitory nature fact, the development of communication and trans­ of the town in terms of modernization, which is al­ port is gradually withering this distinction too be­ ready evident by now. tween rural and urban areas. Characteristics of neighbourhood Then, the question arises as to how the urban areas the centres of mass movement generate As already described elsewhere, twelve lo­ anrl,have centrifugal effect on the hinterlands. On calities which are synonymous with the indivi'dual purely logical basis, such unification of human streets of the town, have been selected as sample interest could be possible only where there is a for the survey (Please see the map). The names of similarity in action and gratification which is usually the localities are as follows: associated with primary relationship. The fact is that when values and interest become common, a 1. Three Well Place South Street; nascent primary relationship is bound to surface. 2. Mariamman Koil Street; But it is only for a limited purpose and is sustained 3. Seniar Kulathu Street; till the common need is·fuifilled. Thereafter, the 4. Market Street; 123 5. Jawaharlal Nehru Street; houses to people engaged in white collar jobs. The 6. Masthan Pal Ii Street; ethnic association of different localities has al­ 7. Bharathiar Street; ready been described in Chapter-V. It can only be 8. Dr. Ambedkar Street; added that inspite of mixed habitants in terms of 9. Oeitha Street; socio-economic and ethnic attributes, certain 10. Sethilal Nagar; amount of homogeneity is in existence in terms of 11. Church Street; the housing structure in almost all the localities 12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street. which can be broadly classified as hutments or kutcha houses on one hand and the typical mono­ Geographically speaking, Seniar Kulathu housing pattern on the other. Further homogene­ Street, the Western and of Market Street and ity in economic and ethnic features is also ob­ Thomas Arul Pudu Street are mostly clusters of served in the localities like Masthan Palli Street, huts without any planned demarcation of the Church Street, Mariamman Koil Street as also in boundaries. In fact these localities are perched on Seniar Kulathu Street and Pudu Street. This is the the sandy embankment of river Vanjiar coconut broad panoramic view of the neighbourhood pat­ groves. They are mostly habitated by lower eco­ tern at the localities selected for a study. nomic strata (particularly the Pudu Street) and Identification of neighbourhood have a concentration of Scheduled Caste people. The boundary of the sample in these localities cul­ The survey data regarding (Table No. VII.I) minate as they join Bharathiar Road for Seniar the identification of neighbourhood show a near Kulathu Street, extends right upto the end of Mar­ unanimity in which the respective neighbourhoods ket Street on the eastern bank of the town where extend to the streets where the respondents are Kamraj Salai goes across in north-south direction residing. This is found common by the responses and the begining of Masthan Palli Street for Pudu according to religion or occupation. Implicit in this Street. However, as already pOinted out, these is the conceptual understanding of the term three localities are homogeneous as far as the neighbourhood in purely physical terms and not by types of the houses and the economic strata of the social reference or the informal relationships. The people who reside in those localities are con­ identification almost corresponds to the cerned. Then the Masthan Palti Street, Bharathiar description of localities discussed previously. Street, Church Street, Mariamman Koil Street are the localities under sample which are in fact long The history or legend of localities is usually parallel roads cutting across the town in the middle associated with some background. They are named extending upto both the ends of the ,road except after place of worship as in the case of Mariamman that the sample is restricted in Bharathiar Road Koil Street or some physical structure of public from the southern beginning upto cutting of the utilityexisting in earlier times like that of Three Thirunallar Road. Sethilal Nagar which is an inde­ Wells Place Street amids the triangle of three wells pendent colony by itself is a series of parallel lanes which are now closed. The Seniar Kulathu Street from west to each within the quadrangle of Gov­ has an interesting story where it is said that the ernment hospital on the north Railway Station earlier residents of this area were "Seniars·, which Road on the east, Thomas Arul Pudu Street on the means those who make nets for fishing. They used south and the Thyagaraja Street on the west. This to dip the nets in the adjoining pond (Kulam) to colony particularly is named after the former Gov­ further the durability of the nets. Thus the area ernor Shri Chh,edilal (Sethilal in Tamil) during whose came to be known as Seniar Kulam (Kulathu) time this housing colony was constructed for the Street. Other localities are l1amed after a distin­ Scheduled Castes. However, it is reported during guished personality of the contemporary times or investigation that most of them have rented these a prophet or some of the French administrators.

124 Group activity at neighbourhood level liberal donations. But this does not lead to any conclusion that the neighbourhood in its original The main group activity or interaction ap­ nature of an acquaintance or interaction at primary pears to be singularly religious in character in all level is in existence. There is no evidence to that the localities under survey. However, people from effect. The definition or identification of neigh­ different religions are reported to be taking part in bourhoods in any locality did not refer to person, or festivals belonging to other religions as well. The household or such indicators congnitive of face to participation is either as donors or worshippers. face' relationship either. Further, there are some festivals which have a religious umbrella but are exclusively celebrated Amenities and neighbourhood by a particular caste like that of "Ega-Dina La­ ksharchanai" by the Vaisya chettiar community in Among the respondents, 80% are reported to Mariamman Koil Street during the month of April­ be going out of their neighbourhood for purchas­ May. Also the Pushpa Pallakku procession for the ing different commodities. As far as the availing of Goddess Mariamman by flower merchants in the educational facilities are concerned, the decision month of July-August. Equally interesting in the appears to be totally governed by the availability of Thai Kadai Velli Festival by pathar community a particular institution or dictated by a necessity for (Goldsmith) during the month of January-Febru­ quality. So also is the case with reference to Medi­ ary. Apart from these community exclusive festi­ cal facility. As far as recreation facilities are con­ vals, there are other celebrations on popular occa­ cerned, in addition to the periodical festivals al­ sions. "Thai Pongal" by locality-wise associations ready described, a video boom appears to be called "Manrams· is one of them when program­ consolidating the identity of neighbourhood in mes and competitions in music, sports and the like physical terms. They are particularly in operation will be conducted. They have also the institutional during the public viewing of films regularly in Sethi­ support as gathered from Seniar Kulathu Street. lal Nagar and Seniar Kulathu Streets. Another important religious activity is reported from Jawaharlal Nehru Street where the St. Lour­ The above data on the features of neigh­ des Church conducts its annual celebrations for bourhood shows the identity of the concept through nine days in which there is an enthusiastic and ethnic affiliation and physical boundaries of re­ active participation of the Hindus also. Then there spective localities. This means an emergence of are the festivals like Kandoori which, although neo-neighbourhood concept where social influ­ localised in a particular street, is a celebration for ence on the individual is evident. This had been the entire town. Table No. VII. II provides the the social process implicit in the neighbourhood of detailed picture of all the festivals or group activi­ tradition of by-gone era, but without the behavi­ ties by different localities with a trace of neigh­ oural conditioning through a sense of community bourhood identification in some cases. The rela­ or a generic sense of belonging as human groups. tive nature of participation according to occupation The community is generally identified only for or education or age appears to be purely individu­ caste or religious purpose, even though encom­ alistic in nature and does not provide a fixed passing a boundary. The present situation is pro­ pattern. moting a conscious resurgence of ethnic affili­ ation, what is termed as sectionalized grouping. The group activity at neighbourhood level is Otherwise the present situation does not show the mostly religious in character or a reflection of caste earlier connections of neighbourhood in terms of affiliation supported by the fact that they are being normatively regulated and tradition sustained rela­ celebrated regularly and on a large scale both in tionship of every man to the other, irrespective of terms of popular enthusiasm as well as in the social status.

125 TABLE NO. VI!.I.

BOUNDARY OF NEIGHBOURHOOD AS DEFINED BY PERSONS BELONGING TO DEFFERENT RELIGION, CASTEJTRIBE

SI. No. Locality as reported by Neighbourhood described by No. of interviewees describing . Interviewee persons Interviewed in the locality HINDU

Caste: 1 Caste: 2 Caste: 3 Caste: 4

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Three Well Place St. Church street in the -East Chetliar Pathar Bharathiar street in -West (others) Kamalar street in -North 2. Mariamman Koil St. a. Dorbingee Street -South Others Others Thlrunagar -North (Naidu) (Kanar) b.) Parking Street -South Chettiar Brahmin Thirunagar -North (2HHs) (1 HHS) 3. Seniar Kulathu SI. a. Kothalampel -West Nadar Mudaliar Kavundar Others Bharathiar 51. -East (4HHs) (Pathar) 4. Market St. a. Water tank -West Pilla! Chettiar Brahmin

.,.L b, Old Tranqubar 51. -East (2HHs) I\) 5, Jawaharlal Nehru SI. a, Arasalar river -South Pillai Others Ol SC Bose Slreel (2HHs) (Yadava) DupliexSt. (upto Adminis- ·North trators bunglaw) 6, Masthan Palli SI. a MarT\athambi Mari ckar street -North Pillai Others Dupliexst, -South (rnuthllraja family) 7. Bharathiar st. a, Nandalar Bridge -North Pillai Mudaliar Vanniar Arasalar Bank -(North)·South (2HHs) 8, Dr. Ambedkar SI. a. Poralyar Road -West Others Kamaraj salai -East (Agamudaiyar) 9, OeithaSt. a. Kamaraj salai -East b. Vandikara Veedhi -West 10, Sethilal Nagar a Indira Nagar -East Kavundar Others St. Francis st, ·West (2HHs) (Kamalar) Polican st, -South Thomas Arulpudu st, -North 11. ChurchSt. a, Sub-Jail Road -South Pillai Chettiar Others Jeevanandam st. -North (2HHs) 12. Thomas Arul Padu St. a. Railway station, sea - shore -East Sunnambukkara St. uptoMOH -West TABLE VII.! (Concld,)

51. No. Who are of religion

CHRISTIANS MUSLIMS

Caste: 1 Caste: 2 Caste:3 Caste: 4 Caste: 1 Caste: 2 Caste:3 Caste:4

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. - 2. - 3. Nadar 4. - 5, Pillai Vanniar (2HHs) 6, - Marickar , ..t. (3 HHs) I\) -oJ 7. - 8, - 9. Vanniar 10, Mudaliar Pilla! Others (2HHs) • 11. Nadar 12. Pillai (2 HHs) TABLE NO. VIUI

PARTICULARS OF CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES INSIDE THE NEIGHBOURHOOD AS REPORTED BY PERSONS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT RELIGION, CASTtTRIBE

SI Name of the Cu~ural, Religious or Social Activities No. neighbourhood ------Name Description Pertormer Manner . Religion 1whose members par ticipated (Hindu) Mode of Finan cial contribution

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Three Well NIL a) DonorNVorshipper Each Chettiar family PlaceS!. (Chettiar Community) contribute @Rs. SO/- for the function.

b) DonorNVorshipper Each Chettiarfamily have (Cheniar Community) contributed Rs. 200/· for the pertormance of the function .

..I f\) Q'J Fund for celebrating the festi val is maintained by the Endownment of Arya Vaishya Cheniar

2. Mariamman Mariamman a) During the month of April-May (i,e. the Tamil By the Brahmin KoliS!. Koil month of Chitirai) 'Ega Dina Laksharchanai Day' Priests

I Festival has been conducted by Arya Vaishya Chettiars. (Religious) On that day there will be special Abhishegams, Aradhanas for the Deity. Continous Archanas from morning to night. b) During the month of Adi (I.e. July-August) last Friday there will be a'Pushpapallakku' procession of the Goddess Mariamman, This function has been sponsored by all the flower merchants of the town. c) During the month of Thai (Jan·Feb) "Thai Kavadi' festival was celebrated during the las! Friday of the month. During this festival the deily will be taken out in decorated manner i.e. 'Lion Vahana', This festival is conducted by all Pathar community (I.e, Gold Sm~h) of Karaikal Town. TABLE NO. VII.II (Contd,)

2 3 4 5 6 7

d) During the month of April, the Arya Vaishya By the Ary, Chettiars of Karaikal will celebrate the 'Vallalar Vaishya Vizha' (disciples of Ramalinga Adigal Samy) on Chertiar's the eve of the birthday of Ramalinga Adigal Trustee Board, Samy. This is athree day festival. On the birthday, Ramalinga Swami's port ran will be taken out for procession, Music concerts, Thiruvarutpa discourses will be rendered by famous scholars and eminent musicians for all three days,

3, Seniar Religious This is aten day festival, In the first day, old Nadar Community DonorN/orshipper Rs, 25/- per head Kulathu S1. "Mulaikottu' Sumangali ladies will sow the Navadhanyams in (Nadar) is contributed Festival in earthen pots which contain alluvial soil. These pots I Nadana will be kept inside aho~ temporary small hut, daily Kaliamman pujas will be pertormed in the evening for those earthen Temple pots by Brahmin priests, Special Archanai and Abhishegams During Pongal will be pertormed to the deity for ten days, For These Cu~ural Fes­ ten days cultural programmes will be celebrated, On the tival viz, "Pon­ 1OIh day night, the diety 'Muthumariamman' will be taken gal vizha" is out on the Anna Vahana and Nadana Kaliar in the Simha celebrated Vahanam accompanied by the Sumangali ladies carrying the earthen pots on their heads in the main streets of the town. The procession ~nal~ lead to the river Arasalar, where grown-up Navadhanyam plants will be immersed in the river beds, After that the deny will be taken back to the temple,

During Pongal festival (Pongal Vizha) will be celebra­ ted by the mandram in front of the temple. The festival is celebrated for aweek which includes music, dramas, video programmes and sports events. Three clothes will be distributed for the physically handicapped persons in the Karaikal Town,

4, Market S1. In the month of Feb·March, there will be afunction Temple Aughorrty Rs. 100/- is regular~ Religious at 'Poonkaliamman" temple called Karagam, Agnikupparai collecting money paid by the Pillai Tirunal. Every Tuesday of Masi month there will be from people, community TABLE NO. VIUI leontd.)

2 3 4 5 6 7

aprocession from the temple, Non-Brahmins pooiari will Monthly Donars! carry akaragam on his head (decorated brass vessel Devotees. with flowers) in the night through the main streets. The procession will come to an end in the early morning. On last Tuesday pooiari will carry on his head Agnikupparai (earthen posts containing fire) in the night through the main streets and in the early morning he will return to the temple.

Market SI. b) Kavadi Utsavam: In the Tamil month of Chitrai, April- Temple autho- Devotees Each Naidu (Contd,) May, devotees will carry Kavadi from Sri Nityakalyana rity collect community perumal Koil which contains most probably milk or ing money people paid panneer with Nadaswaram and Kolattam procession from the str- Rs. SO/- per through the main streets in the day time and come to eet people family to this Ponkaliamman temple and pertorm Abhishegam to this function the deity with the Kavadi milk and paneer .

.;" VJ 0 5. Jawahar Lal Religious There is aChurch inside the Nirmala Rani Girls High Christian All commun~y Nehru street S1. Lourdes School managed by the Nuns of Christian Missionary. Missionary people are Festival The church is dedicated to the Shrine of Saint spectators of Lourdes. In the month of October there will be a this festival festival for 9days, First day aflag hOisting ceremony will be conducted by the priest of the Church. Every day special Novine and Bible discourses will be pertormed. Last day, in the evening at 6P,M. the statue of St. Lourdes will be taken out in an illuminated and decorated truck through the main streets of Karaikal town. Large number of Christians will follow the procession singing songs. The procession will return back to the Church at about 10 PM. The next day the function will conclude with the ceremony of 'Kodiyirakkam', Apictorial exhibnion of the Christ will also be exhibited inside the Church for all tha nina days.

Interview-As above TABLE NO. VIl.li (Contd,)

2 3 4 5 6 7

6, Mast han Kandoori The festival begins with Flag hoisting ceremony, Dharga Panchayat - Each Muslim family PaIliSt. Festival On that day, at abQut lOAM there will be abig Board pays As, 100/· for the procession with decorated cars (rathams) Pallakku festival wooden ships, Rail engines, This procession goes through the main Muslim streets and it ends at the Dharga Shariff at about 8PM, The cars and the Pallakku will carry all the flags which will be hoisted in the following days, 'Fathika' (Prayer) ceremony will be conducted by the Town Khaziyar before the head side of the Darga Shariff, Affer the 'Fathika' is over the holy flags will be hoisted in all the minars and one Kodimaram, On the 10th day 'Sandanakoodu' festival will be celebrated, Ab~ car (koodu) decorated by electrical bulbs and other paper works will be taken out through all the I~ w main Muslim streets, It starts at Midnight and ends ~ at 6AM, In the meantime an elephant covered with shawls and flowers accompanied by music parties comes from the next street to the Darga Shariff, This is called 'Poolank" sandal paste will be taken in a silver vessel and ~ will be applied to the Domb of Prophet Masthan Sahib at about 4AM, This is called the Sandhanam Poosudal. The day is called Hatham. On the fifteenth day the function will be concluded wHh the ceremony of Kodiyirakkam in the presence ofTown Kazhiyar and Muslim devotees, In all the 15 days music programme takes pi ace,

7, Bharathiar Mangani The Mangani festival begins two days prior to the Trust Board Worshipper As, 5/- Street Festival full moon day in the month of Aani (June-July) the of the temple (Mudaliar) (Religious) flrst day is called 'Mappilai Azhaippu'. The Cheniar deny will be taken in achariot from the temple of Aathangarai Vinayagar to the temple of Karaikal Ammaiyar. The second day is called the 'Thirukalyanam day', The major ceremony between Chettiar and Karalkal Ammaiyar will be conducted by the Chief Priest of the Temple amidst the TABLE NO. VI!.II (Contd.)

2 3 4 5 6 7

Administrator of Karaikal, some of the local Ministers and large number of public gatherings. That day night the deities of Chettiar and Ammaiyar will be taken in adecorated 'Muthupallakku' by procession in all the main streets. Special Nadas waram and Thavils will be arranged. The next day is the main day of the festival. On that day the Shiva deity in the form of Pitchandg will be taken in decorated phavazhakal chapparam by procession from Kailasanathar temple to the Karaikal Ammaiyar temple.. During the procession, the people will throw mangoes to the derry. This is the special feature of the festival. In the night time the Karaikal Ammaiyar statue will be taken in decorated Pushpapallakku by procession in all the main streets and it will be ended at the temple of

~ w Aathankarai Vinayagar. The Karaikal Ammaiyar Statue I\l In the form of Skeleton will be taken to the tample of Karaikal Ammaiyar. The function will last 15 days. In all these days classical music, literary meetings, drama will be conducted by the temple authority inside the temple.

Brahmotsavam This function begins 10 days prior to the fu/l moon day in the month of Masi (Feb·Mar). Everyday evening the Perumal deny will be taken in different Vahanas such as Surya, Chandra, Seha, Lion, Garuda, Hanuman, Horse etc. The final day is called the 'Masi Magam'. On that day the perumal deny wi\! be taken in apallakku to the seashore of lR. Pat!inam. ' The next day morning the deny will return to the temple. These Brahmotsavam lasts for 10 days.

Interview: 2

1. Mangani D~scription by the first imormat·one day Ubayam Trust Board Donor/Devotee Festival: by means of Neivedyam. of the temple (Vanniyar) RS.l00/· TABLE NO. VIl.li (Contd.)

2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Perumal Sannidhana Abhishegam to the Perumal for one day Rs.25/· Koil during the Brahmotsavam. Utsavam

3. Pillaiyar During Vinayaga Chaturthi in the month of Avanl Rs.25/· Koil (August·Sept.) 10 days prior to Vinayaga Chaturti festival day, the festival begins. Daily In the evening Brahmot· Vinay~ka will be taken in procession In savam surrounding streets in different Vahanas like Surya, Chandra, Sesha, Lion, Horse, Mooshika etc. for 10 days. The 10th day is the major Chaturtl day.

Republic/lndepen· On January 26th Republic function will be celebrated. In Administrator of dence day celebr- the presence of Administrator the function is celebrated. Karaikal. ations (Cunural) Parade, folk dance by school children, songs, Kolattam will be conducted. Finally, prizes wlli be given to the ... best participant. Likewise on the Independence day flag ~ hoisting will be done. Dance programmes by school children and the entertainment programmes will be conducted. These functions will be conducted in front of the Administrator's office, near the MuniCipal Guest House.

8. Dr. Ambed· Republic! Republic day parade will be conducted on the Republic kar SI. Intependence day. Folkdance and cultural programmes will also be day celebrations held. Functions are conducted in agrand manner. Independence day is also celebrated by flag hoisting followed by cultural programmes.

9. Deitha street Respondent: 1 There is no soclaVrel~ious/cuttural programmes conducted In our neighbourhood.

Respondent: 2 -do-

10. Selhllal Nagar Religious There -are no Social/CuHural/Rellgious programmes in Rs. 25/· for construction Respondent: 1 the neighbourhood. But used to go to the Church of of Church South India In Kappappa Colony Old sRuated In Tranquebar Road. I have direct belief In God Jesus. TABLE NO, VII,II (Concld,)

2 3 4 5 6 7

I am aprotestant Christian. AChurch for Protestant Christian Is being c~structed in the Kappappa Colony by 30 families belong to C.S.1.

Respondent: 2 No sociaVcutturaVreliglous actM~ in our neighbourhood.

11. Church street Respondent: 1 This festival is celebrated on 15th August wery year, that Thethiruvu day is called as Mudha Moksha Arohana day. The festival Madha festival begins wtth aflag hoisting on 6th August. Every day grand , I ' (Religious) mass will be conducted by the Head Priest of the Church. On 15th August at about 7PM statue of the Thethiruvu Madha will be taken In an illuminated decorated truck in procession through all main streets. Large number of gatherings participate in procession by singing devotional .. songs through all the main streets. The procession will end ~ at 9PM and the Kodiyirakkam ceremony will be conducted following athanks giving ceremony.

Respondent: 2 Watch the proces~on of Thethiruvu Madha taken ftom the Church in an illuminated decorated truck followed by a large number of gatherings by singing devotional songs and reading bible.

Christmas will be celebrated in the Church ~self. People will go early morning to the Church for the mass, conducted by the Parish Priest.

12, Thomas Arul Respondent:1 No social/cu~ural/religious festival is conducted in pudu street th~ neighbourhood

Respondent:2 ·do- CHAPTER VIII

FAMILY LIFE IN THE TOWN

Urbanization process does not involve a mere The Family Structure change in the physical or material environment nor the quantitative indicators in terms of the distribu­ (i) General tion of population (the demographic characteris­ tics) alone but reflect all of its dimensions, for, Out of the 250 households surveyed as many qualitative change of the society is also always ~s­ as 70% are nuclear families in contrast to only 4% sociated with the urban growth. A series of trans­ termed as joint families (Table No. VilLI). However formations are witnessed with respect to norms a significant portion, to the order of one fourth of and behavioural pattern. cross cutting the struc­ the total households do not come under any par­ tural and sub-structural components of the soci­ ticu
ar type of the above two categories nor their ety. Family as an association is one of such com­ respective allied setups. Mostly this "Other cate­ ponents in the larger dynamics of the society gory" are families constituted by remotely extended ~iewed from the urbanization of a given unit. relatives or groups of people not related but lead­ ing a sort of sumbiotic life.

The role of family in the individual's life vis-a­ (ii) Religion/Community and family structure vis the society in which he lives needs hardly and emphasis. Family from times immemorial is the The distribution of the households by the type primary socialising agent, place of physical and of the family related to Religion/Community shows mental security, the connecting link between the the predominance of nuclear family setup in most individual and other institutions, and one which of the communities except that the other category fulfils the basic needs of man. Ttlesubservience of of households are prominent with respect to Kavun­ individual's identity to his family.is a reflection of dars, Marickars (Mulims) and also the Scheduled total control of family over individual. However, its Castes. It may be noted that the former two com­ role has under gone change to such extent that munities are engaged basically in business. The today it is trite to say that the basic features of distribution of households within each type of family are chaning due to the influence of urban family, however, is almost equitable. way of life. Whether it is the type of the family from joint to nuclear, the weakening of prilTlary bonds (iii) Education and Family Structure between the family members, concious preference of the ascribed status conferred by the Education-wise (PI. see Table No. VIII. II) it society on the individual are all pointers to the appears that the level of Education and the type of growth of individualisation necessiated by urban the family are independent of each other and the way of life. The family. from a normative concept, is usually expected positive association between the fast becoming a transactional or corporate nuclear family and higher education level or the concept. In this chapter certain broad indicators lower education and joint family did not find much of the family life are examined to have a flimpse evidence. of change which have taken place at family level, within the consanguinity by selected (iv) Occupation and Family Structure characteristics. The data do not show any strong relationship 135 between occupation and type offamily (See Chap­ bined percentage of mother and father staying ter-lV)d except that large businessmen and culti­ away show the predominance of nulcear families. vators have relatively higher proportion of joint families among the respective total households The family composition regarding the mem­ compared to the corresponding figures of other bers staying outside by occupation reveals (Table occupations. No. VIII. III) in general no definite pattern of rela­ tionship. However, it is seen that those house­ Age of the Head of Household and size of holds, where the brothers are staying outside are household mostly composed by business communities.

It is usually assumed that the household As one looks at the educational level of the strength is directly proportional to the age of the members staying outside the family (Table No. head of the household provided other things remain VIII. IV), most of them are parents among those constant. This assumption arises from the tradi­ who have studied upto primary or middle sc~ool tional family structure. The survey data are studied level and most of them happened to be the off­ to examine the applicability of this assumption to springs and to some extent, the collaterials i.e. the sample under this study. It is seen that the ma­ brothers/ sisters for those with matriculation and jority of the household have the head of the house­ above. This basically gives a glimpse of separa­ holds aged between 30-60. In otherwords, the age tion of two generations whe~e the differential edu­ of the head of the hosueholds is almost evenly cational level is bound to act as a catalyst in this distributed. This itself is a relfection of the urban spilitting of consanguinity. However, the mixed character of the sample, atleast of prOjection of its educational levels commonly found in nuclear as transitory nature from a traditional family set up to well as joint families earlier is not contradictory to the contemporary family system. This is further this observation but only a pOinter to the interven­ substantiated by the fact that the number of house­ ing variable of spatial separation and the tradi­ holds having· differential numerical strength are tional state of family structure in present sample. evenly distributed with reference to the ages of the corresponding heads of households. In other­ Family composition and economic acitivity words, the age of the head of household and the household strength appear to be independent of It is observed that among the family members each other in present sample. For example, the who are staying outside, the highest proportion households having their head of households in the (18%) are non-workers. A majority among these age-group of 30-39 are uniformly distributed with non-workers happen to be the parents, mostly respect to households of varying strengths. Same mothers. From a different angle among the fa­ is the case with referene to the heads of house­ thers, who are staying outside, their respective holds in the age group of 60 years and above. economic activity is disbursed among different oc­ cupations without any concentration. Among the Relationship of members staying outside with sons, the white collared activity constitutes almost the respondents half and among the daughters the majority of them (60%) lower level professions. Other relations Among the members of the family who are constitute too insignificant proportion to warrant staying outside the household of enumeration, the any analysis. highest percentage (32%) are the sons of the head of the household (See Table No. VIII. III). this sub­ Exclusive to non-workers, almost 2/3 of them stantiates the earlier finding of joint families split­ who are staying outside are engaged in h04sehold ting into nuclear families. Conversely the com- duties/dependents.

136 Duration and distance 200 kms. Conspicuously households from Hindu community appeared to have greater members of Among the members of different households persons who are staying between 100-200 kms., who are staying outside the highest number (37%) whereas Muslim communities have a very high are reported to have been away between 1-4 percentage of members staying beyond 500 Kms. years and among them most are staying out for with duration almost equally distributed. occupational reasons (Table No. VIII.V). They are mostly sons and daughters. The distribution of Economic Linkage members staying outside with the remaining ten­ ure of stay is almost even for the category 5-9 The details of the financial support extended years and 10-19 years. Conspicuously those who by the family members staying outside as seen are staying outside less than one year and more from the Table No. V!'I.VII. reveals that the major than 20 years on the other extreme of the point of portion of the remittance is from the sons and the scale are very few compared to those between daughters and husbands. Particularly those from 1-19 years. This indicate the relative stability of the the urban areas outside the district and also out of family system' in operational terms. Further, it the state and country. The remittance from the reflects the mobility point as very recent, i.e. 20 other countries is quite significant. This reflects a years. strong bond between the parents and offsprings despite the separation by time and distance. As far as the distance is concerned (Table Conversely Table No. VIII. VIII. showing the parents No. VIII.VI) it is seen more than 3/4 of the house­ supporting their children staying outside in holds have members staying 100 kms. or beyond considerable measure, supports the above and among them more than half between 100 to observation.

137 TABLE NO. VIII.I

DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY CASTE OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD AND TYPE OF HOUSEHOLD

Number of households where head of household belongs to SI. No. Type of Household Remarks Pillal Mudaliar Chattiar Nadar Vannlyar Marickar Sch. Others Total (Vellalar) Caste

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1, Nuclear 45 13 16 22 10 17 9 43 175 2. Supplemented Nuclear 3, Sub·Nuclear 4, Single PersOn 2 2 4 5, Supplemented sub·nuclear 6, Collateral Joint 3

o.l 7, ~ Supplemented Collateral Joint 2 8, Lineal Joint 2 9, Supplemented Lineal Joint 10, Uneal collateral Joint 2

1" Supplemented collateral joint 12, Others 18 2 2 6 6 14 4 9 61'

Total 67 16 20 28 18 33' 15 53 250

• The ~pe of household which are not covered under the prescribed household pattern will come under item: Others. TABLE NO, VIII,II

, DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY TYPE AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLDS

SI, Type of \ Number of households where educational level of Head of household is No, Household III~erate Educational Below Primary Middle Matrie Diploma & Degree Total wtthout level Primary Certificate and above

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Single 2 4

2, Nuclear 15 32 37 71 4 15 175

3. Joint 3 4 10

4. Others 5 11 16 24 3 61

TotaJ 23 2 44 57 100 4 19 250

..I ~ TABLE NO. VIII.III

PARTICULARS OF PERSONS STAYING OUTSIDE BY OCCUPATION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLDS AND NATURE OF RELATION TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI. No. Occupation of Head of No.of Households whose members are staying outside Total Household (Describe as house .No. of per No, O3-Dign) holds members (Those staying members outside staying outside) Father Mother Son Daughter Brother Sister Other kin Wife Husband

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1. Unskilled Manual 11 5 6 3 17 2. Skilled Manual 3. Lowest professional &adminis- 9 3 4 4 14 trative (e.g. Primary teacher) 4. Small Business 13 4 4 3 5 4 20 .... 5, H~h~ skilled and 4 2 3 1 7 ~ supervisory manual 6, Clerk &Shop Assistants 3 3 5 7. Intermediate professional and 5 2 4 9 related posts (Sec, teacher etc,) 8, Medium Business 2 3 5 9. Higher professional & 2 2 2 3 7 salaried posts 10. Owners of factories, 2 2 large shops etc, 11, Cunivators 1 1 1 12. Pensioners &retired personals 7 8 9 13. Beggars &Prostttutes - 14. Unclassified 4 4 1 7 15. Non-Workers 9 5 4 2 12

Total 72 15 21 37 5 15 3 15 3 115

* Others kins include • 1. Son-in-law 2. Brother -in-law/Sister ·in·law 3, Mother/Father·ln·\aws TABLE NO, VIII, IV.

PARTICULARS OF FAMILY MEMBERS STAYING OUTSIDE BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AND RELATION TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI, Educational level Number of persons staying outside who are related to head of households as Total No, Fatehr Mother Son Daughter Brother Sister Other Kin Wife Husband

2 3 4 5 6 7 .8 9 10 11 12

1, IIInerate 10 11 2, Educational wrrhut level

3, Below Primary 4, Primary 4 10 5 3 2 25 5, Middle 7 3 2 6 2 22

6, Matric 3 16 2 2 9 3 36

7, Diploma &Certificate --' ~ ..,flo 8. Degree &above 12 5 2 20

Total 15 21 37 5 15 3 15 3 115

NOTE: Other kin include: Son·ln·law, Brother's son, TABLE NO, VIII,V,

NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS STAYING OUTSIDE DURATION OF STAY REASON AND RELATION TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

SI, Relation to Number of family members staying outside for reasons No, Head of Household Less than 1year 1· 4years 5· 9years 10 ·19 years 20 +more Total

Native R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R1 (Study) Business! Job, Job Business/ Study! Job! Study! Native Native Land Place! Students job Studyl Seeking Native Business Business Place Place super Job Dependent Job place

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. Father 2 5 15 2, Mother 2 4 3 5 3 21 3, Son 18 4 7 2 2 2 37

...L 4, Daughter 2 2 5 .flo I\) 5, Brother 7 2 15 6. Sister 3 7, Husband 3 8, Wife 9, Other kins· 2 3 7 15

Total 6 26 16 11 11 8 18 9 6 2 115

* Other Kins include: 1, Son·in·law; sister·in·law, 2, MotherIFather·in·laws, 3, Brother·in·law. Rdenotes reason TABLE NO, VIII,VI,

HOUSEHOLDS WHERE FAMILY MEMBERS ARE STAYING OUTSIDE BY RELIGION AND CASTE OR TRIBE OR COMMUNITY AND DISTANCE OF LAST RESIDENCE

81. Religio~Castel Total No. of households whose family members are staying outside and where distance of place of last No. Tribe/Commun~y No. of residence of Head of Households(Kms) House Remarks holds Same Town 50 or less 51·100 101·200 201·500 501 +

1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Hindu Pillai 21 3 4 7 5 Mudallar 6 3 1 Chetliar 6 4 Nadar 4 2 1 Sch. Castes - Others 7 2 2 Vanniyar

Total: 45 5 8 2 17 9 4 --~ U) 2. Christians Pillai 5 2 2 Mudaliar 2 Chettiar Nadar Sch. Castes 2 Others 5 3

Total: 16 5 4 2 5

3. Muslims Marickar 11 9

4. Jains

GRAND TOTAL: 72 10 8 2 22 12 18 TABLE NO. VIII.VII.

REMITTANCES SENT BY ABSENTEE FAMILY MEMBERS CLASSIFIED BY RELATIONSHIP TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD AND PRESENT ADDRESS

SI. Relationship to Head Absentee Average amount of rem~tance sent by absentee family members whose present address is Total not No, of household family sending members same town Other Rural Other district of the state Other Other any Money but sapa· towns area State Country rate house· of the of the Rural Urban Name (Name) hold district district each

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1, Father 14 3,000 1,350 11 2. Mother 23 23 3, Son 39 1,250 15,800 3,680 9,475 19

4. Daughter 15 3,600 2,400 2

... 5. Brother 15 850 13 t 6. Sister 2 2 7. Others Husband 3 5,000 11,000 Son·in·law 10 4,000 4,600 10,950 2 Brother's son

Father·in·law

Grandson 2

Total 115

Foot Note: 1. People staying in other district of the State (Col.S) : Pond~herry 2. ·do· . States :: Tamil Nadu &U.T. of Delhi (son) 3. -do· Countries, :: Singapore, France TABLE NO, VIII,VIII,

REMITTANCES SENT BY HOUSEHOLDS TO ABSENTEE FAMILY MEMBERS CLASSIFIED BY RELATION TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD AND PRESENT ADDRESS

SI. Relationship to Head of No, of No, of Average amount sent by each household to present addres i,e, REMARKS No, Household House absentee holds family Same Other Rural Other districts Other members town town areas of the state States separate of the 01 the ~amil household district district Rural Urban Nadu)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1, Father 5 -(1) -(1) - 1,575(4) As far as other 2, Mother 7 300(1) 1,000 500(1) 600(4) districts of 3, Son 5 1,000P) 3,000(2) 300(2) the State is 4, Daughter -(1) concerned ... 5, Brother 5 -(2) -(3) absentee memo ~ ()1 6, Sister - ber belongs to 7, Other kin 5 720(1) 1,000(2) 3,300(2) Pondicherry 8, Wife •• districts only 9, Husband - &similarly in other states Tamil Naduonly

Total 28

Note (Figures in brackets gives the number of persons) TABLE NO, VIII,IX,

PARTICULARS OF FAMILY MEMBERS STAYING OUTSIDE BY AGE AND RELATIONSHIP TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

81. Total number of households whose members are staying outside and number of persons staying outside No, Age-group Total Father Mother Son Daughter Brother Sister Other Kins* Wife Husband

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. 0- 09 2, 10 -14 2 3, 15 -24 18 3 4 3 28 4, 25- 34 12 8 3 5 29 5, 35-59 3 11 6 2 5 3 30

6, 60+ 12 10 2 25

..I. ALL AGES 15 21 37 5 15 3 15 3 115 .f:,. Ol * Other kinds includes: Son-in·law, Brother-in·law CHAPTER IX

HOUSING AND MATERIAL CULTURE

General Layout material used for ceiling as well as for doors and windows make Seniar Kulathu Street and Sethi­ As already pointed out in the introductory chapter lal Nagar distinct from other localities. the core Karaikal town which belongs to French era is planned with a single house stretching to major Housing with reference to floor part of a particular street with the households sepa~ rated by a common wall. They give an appearance Out of the 250 Households under sample as of single building as it were as in case of garrisons. many as 233 are located in the ground floor which Another feature is that these monolithic structures are in fact single storyed building as already seen over look the streets or roads so much so that most in Table IX.I. There are a few households located ofthe households do not have compound walls (see in first floor and still less in second floor. The inset photo). The only possible reason for such households which are in first or second floor are housing design appears to be the added security for mostly located in Jawaharlal Nehru Street, Mast­ the individual households. However, the new or hanpalli Street and Bharathiar Street comprising recent constructions on the northern and eastern the higher economic group, business men and extensions differ with the old housing culture with in~ French pensioners generally. As regards the dependent houses having compound walls etc. The problems related to the floor in which households housing structure in Karaikal town is basically clas~ are situated (Please see Table No. IX.I), the sified into three categories details in the Table No. households in most of the localities found the IX. I. It is seen that as many as 233 out of 250 ventilation is proper in contrast to Seniar Kulathu househodls surveyed do not-have compound walls. Street and Sethilal Nagar which are highly unsat­ Localitywise 8 localities out of 12 do not have even isfactory. It may be noted that these two areas have most of the households comprised by ex­ a Single house with compound wall. Even in the re~ maining 4 localities the proportion of houses having tremely lower economic group and kutcha houses compound walls is much less compared to those with highly unhygenic and unplanned housing without. patterns.

Construction material The growth and usage of Housing

The floor of the households in most of the Karaikal in, 1971 had 2021 occupied resi­ localities are the usual constructions made out of dential houses which rose to 7420 by 1981. The brick and mortar (see Table IX. II) except a high growth of households during the same decade proportion of households in Seniar Kulathu Street , has been from 2,078 to 8,301. Thus, the occu­ Sethilal Nagar and to some extent Thomas Arul pied houses and households registered a growth Pudu Street where the walls of of the houses are rate of 267% and 299% respectively. Obviously, made out of mud or bamboo/thatches. Similarly, the this is not as phenomenal as it appears to be but pre~dominant material of the roof is the conven; an inflated picture owing to the effect of vast rural tional wood, brick, tiles or such permanent material component merged into Karaikal town in 1980. in most of the localities except in Senior Kulathu By keeping the urban area of 1971 constant, Street and Sethilal Nagar where it is mostly thatched, *the estimated growth of housing under the two bamboo with covering of greenleaves or reeds. The categories provide the following picture:

* Comparison of frequencies within the initial urban area of Karaikal as existing in 1971. 147 Housing structure (Old and New)

148 Growth of Housing at Karalkal

Type 1980 1971 Increase Oecadal Average growth annual growth

1. Occupied residential 4537 2021 2516 124.5% 12.45% Houses

2.. Households 5375 2078 3297 158.7% 15.87%

Although, the real growth as shown in the following is the average number of rooms for statement is admittedly substantial, the operation household which is self explanatory. of territorial expansion as an interve!11ng variable is once again well illustrated. SI. Locality Average no. of room Coming to the details of usage, the Table No. No. per household IX.I provides the comparative picture of different 1 2 3 types of uses to which the houses were deployed (per 100) during 1970 and 1980. 1. Three Well Place Street ,1.00 2. Mariaman Koil Street 2.37 The table reveals that, in general, there has 3. Seniar Kulathu Street 1.10 been a growth of houses which are either totally 4. Market Street 2.17 establishments or residences-cum-establishments. 5. J.N. Street 2.03 At the same time, a slight decline is seen in case 6. Masthan Palli Street 2.15 of purely residential houses and places of worship. 7. Bharathiar Street 2.37 While the increasing frequencies reflect the growth 8. Dr. Ambedkar Street 2.00 attribute of urbanization process, the decline again 9. Deitha Street 2.00 could purely be due to expansion in unit urban 10. Sethilal Nagar 1.33 area. The only disturbing factor, nonetheless, is 11. Church Street 2.30 the increase of vacant houses that rose from 913 12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 1.00 in 1970 to 934 in 1980 (P.17-Part VII, census Total 1.82 Pondicherry), which cannot be explained by either of the above assumpations. Further 119 households out of 250 (47.60%) Household Congestion are single room households, 60 households have 2 rooms (24%) and 69 with 3 room (please see Thetown in 1981 has 7,420 occupied houses Table No. IX. III). Among the localities having house­ giving an average of 6% per house. With the total holds with 1 room the highest ~oportion of 32% number of 8,301 households, number of persons are in Seniar Kulathu Street and 5% in sethilal per household come to 5 on average. Further the Nagar, thus constituting more than half of the total town has more than one household for census household with single rooms. At the same time, house on average. Mariamman Koil Street, Masthan Pafli Street and Bharathiar Street seem to be having large propor­ The total 250 households under sample have tion of households with 2 rooms or 3 rooms. The altogether 454 rooms, bringing it to approximately following inset table provides the number of per­ 1.8 rooms per household. At locality level, the sons per room, an average in different localities.

149 SI. No. Locality Total no.of Total persons No. of persons rooms persons per rooms

1 2 3 4 5

1. Three Well Place St. 9 45 5.00 2. Mariamman Koil St. 62 147 2.37 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 46 243 5.28 4. Market St. 39 91 2.33 5. J.N. St. 59 168 2.59 6. Masthan Palli st. 58 195 3.36 7. Bharathiar St. 45 107 2.38 8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 14 29 2.07 9. Deitha St. 12 37 3.08 10. Sethilal Nagar 48 182 3.79 11. Church St. 53 121 2.28 12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 9 35 3.89

Total 454 1,401 3.09

The above talbe shows an average house­ per capita floor space shows that most of. the hold congestion of approximately 3 persons per households (70%) and most of .the population room for the town as a whole. Compared to this, (76%) have a per capita floor space of 2 to 3 Sq. Seniar Kulathu Street and the Three Well place Mts. only. As insignificant number of Rouseholds Street are seemed to be having a very high house­ and population have less than 1 Sq. Mt. or more hold congestion with more than five persons per than 6 to 9 Sq. Mts. Among the households having room. Showing as it did, such high congestion in less than 1 Sq. Mt. a conspicously large proportion Seniar Kulathu Street, is very much related to the are found in Seniar Kulathu Street and Masthan low economic profile. As regards the Three Well Palli Street. While enough has been said with Place Street, being nearer to the bus-stand and regard to Seniar Kulathu Street, the large house­ also in the centre of the town could have made the hold population usually found in Muslim communi­ availablity of houses dearer commensurate with ties could have led to the relatively low per capita the demand or the choice of this particular locality. floor space in Masthan Palli Street. In any case the overall situation of 3 people shar­ ing a room on average for the town as a whole, Availability of Amenities more so the fact-et5 persons per room specifically in two of the localities leaves a lot to be desired. The availability of facilities is directly related to the housing structure. Accorddingly Seniar Per Capita floor space Kulathu Street, Sethilal Nagar are the localities where the facilities like kitchen, bathroom and Thetown as per 1981 Census ~as a total area lavatories are prominently missing, including elec­ of 19 sq. Kms. with/a population df 43,408. This tricity. (See Table No. IX.V). On the whole the gives less than 5 Sq. Mts. of per capita space with individual amenities namely kitchen, bathroom, the urban area kept constant, the figure is the lavatory, water for washing and electricity are not same. Table No. IX.IV pro~des survey data on the avaUable in as many as 28% of the total house-

150 holds with the most conspicous facilities being not among the rented, Seniar Kulathu Street and available are that of bathroom (28%) an~ lavatory Masthan Palli Street comprises a large proportion. (21%). The differential availability of having the As regards these who are staying' 10 years and facilities independently with that of shared one is above, Senior Kulathu Street has large proportion the same as having or not having at locality level. of owned houses closely followed by Church Street. Regarding the rented houses also Senior Kulathu Tenural Status Street takes the highest proportion to the order of almost one fourth of the total households with the Out of the sa'1'ple households studied the duration status of 10 years and above. A special distribution between the owned and rented house­ mention may be made about the Sethilal Nagar holds constitute 3/4th of the total households and where 34 and 36 households under the sample the remaining ,one fourth are the quarters con­ are constructed and allotted by the Government structed and allotted by the Government. The exclusively for Scheduled Castes which however distribution of households between the owned and are found to have been subsequently rented to rented is almost at par ex~ept the former having a mostly to white collar employees particularly Gov­ slight edge as can be seen from the inset table. ernment employees.*

Owned Rented Allotted Total Surveyed Houses related to different charac­ teristics 1. Less than one year 1 (1.1) 1 (0.4) , That a concentration of houses in terms 2.1-4 8 (8.8) 8 (3.2) of ethnic occupational and migrationary 3.5-9 19 (21) 4 (7.5) 23 (9.0) characteristics was observed has already been 4.10+ 106 63 (70) 49 (92) 218 (87) detailed in relevant places in the preceding chapters. Total 106 (42) 91 (36) 53 (21) 250 Material Culture It is also seen that a great majority of the household have been staying for more than 10 Table No. IX. VII. provides data on existence years with a minute fraction having been for the of furniture by locality and duration stay in the pres­ last 5-9 years. The recent entries of less than 4 ent residence. In addition to the basic glimpse of years is insignificant. These figure correspond to the indoor items, this table highlights the fact that the large scale migration that took place between in almost all the localities different items of 60's and 70's. However, the question arises as to furniture are available in the households which what could have happend to the residents who have a tenural status of 5 years and more and were before? Was there any corresponding emmi­ gradually shows lesser and lesser numbers as the gration during the period of transfer alongwith the tenure comes down. In other words, the duration large scale migration into the town? In the ab­ of stay is found to enhance the establishment and sence of any information one is led to believe so. with the factors and directly and positively related. For locality level details, please see Table No. IX. As regards lUXUry and costly goods, it may be VI. In all the localities studied, of the households mentioned that the respondents from affluent which have been staying between 5-9 years, none localities like Market Street, Masthan Palli Street, of them in any locality has their own houses and etc., were apprehensive in disclOSing the relevant

* This information came to light only during the data collection on household schedules defying the criteria of selecting this locality as that S.C. dominated area.

151 information the localities of lower economic group goods is independent of the occupation of the such as Seniar Kulathu Street and Sethilal Nagar head of the houehold. were too willing and proud to exhibit the items which they have earned darly (Table No. IX.VIII). As regards other materials, from Table No. Although the data provided therein is somewhat IX. X. it can be gathered that the utensils for dubious, it nevertheless clearly point to the gen­ kitchen is generally made of metals with aluminium eral psychology of people with varying economic and Indalium for the localities with low income status. Table No. IX. IX also provides the same de­ group like Seniar Kulathu Street and Sethilal Nagar tails according to the occupational diversity where whereas Stainless Steel and I?ronze metal is widely it can be seen tht the presence of luxury or costly used in other localities.

152 TABLE NO. IX I.

RELATION OF SELECTED HOUSES OF SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS WITH ADJOINING IN SPAce BY LOCALITY

SI, Locality No, of Separate house No, of separate houses No, of houeses which are flats in No, house wah compound without compound multi-flat housing unit holds No, of Problem faced No, of Problem faced No, of Problem faced houses houses houses

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1, Three Well Place street 9 Nil 9 a) Ventialation is not Nil satisfactory

2, Mariamman Koil SI. 27 4 No Problem 23 b) Vicination is not good 6 a) Ventilation is not sufficient

3, Senlar Kulathu SI. 42 Nil 42 b) Vicination is not good Nil

4, Market SI. 18 Nil 18 a) Ventilation is not good Nil ... b) Vicination is not good (11 w 5, Jawaharlal Nehru SI. 29 4 No Problem 25 a) Ventilation is not good 8 a) Ventilation is not sufficient 6, MasthanpaUi St. 25 2 No Problem 23 a) Ventilation is not good 14 a) Ventilation is b) Vicination is not good not sufficein!

7, Bharathiar SI. 19 7 No Problem 12 a) Ventilation is not 6 a) Ventilation is Sufficient not sufficient

8, Dr. Ambedkar 8t. 7 Nil No Problem 7 a) Ventilation is not good a) Ventilation is not sufficient

9, Deitha St. 6 Nil No Problem 6 b) Vicination.is not Nil sufficient

10, Sethilal Nagar 36 Nil 36 b) Viclnatlon Is not Nil sufficient

11 , Church St, 23 Nil 23 a) Ventilation and Vicina- 2 a) Ventilation is tion are satisfactory not sufficient

12, Thomas Arul Pudu SI. 9 Nil 9 b) Vicination is not good Nil

TOTAL 250 17 233 37 TABLE NO.IX.II. DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSES BY PREDOMINANT MATERIALS OF FLOOR, WALL. ROOF AND CEILING BY LOCALITY

SI. No. Locality Total Predominant material of Floor house holds Mud/log Wooden Bricks/Stone! Others planks/lime Mosaic/cement

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Three Well Place St. 9 9 .2. Mariamman koil St. 27 27 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 42 31 11 4. Market St. 18 18 5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 29 29 6. Masthanpalli St. 25 4 21 7. Bharathiar St. 19 19 8. Dr.. Ambedkar St. 7 7 9. DeithaSt. 6 6 10. Sethilal Nagar 36 11 25 11. Churoh St. 23 23 12. Thomas Aruf Pudu St. 9 9

Total 250 55 195'·

TABLE IX.II (Contd.)

SI. No. Locality Prenominant material of Walls

Mud/grass/ Wood/G,t. Stone/Cement Others leaves/reeds/ sheets/other concrete/burnt bam boo/thatches metals/unburnt bricks bricks

2 8 9 10 11

1. Three Well Place St. 9 2. Mariamman koil St. 27 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 32 10 4. Market St. 18 5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 28 6. Masthanpalli St. 4 21 7. Bharathiar St. 19 8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 7 9. Deitha St. 6 10. Sethilal Nagar 11 25 11. Church St. 23 12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 7 2

Total 55 2 193

154 TABLE IX.II (Contd.)

SI. NO. Locality Prenominant material at Roof

Green leaves/ wood/unburnt Bricks/stone/ Others mud/reeds/ bricfks/corrugated RCCIREC thatched iron/asbestos bamboo sheets

1 2 12 13 14 15

1. Three Well Place St. 6 3 2. Mariamman koil St. 11 16 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 41 1 4. Market St. 12 6 5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 18 11 6. Masthanpalli St. 7 14 4 7. Bharathiar St. 13 6 8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 3 4 9. Deitha St. 1 3 2 10. Sethilal Nagar 24 1 11 11. Church St. 12 11 .12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 9

Total 82 94 74

TABLE'NO. IX.II (Contd.)

SI. No. Locality Predominant material of Ceiling

Bamboo/ Iron/ wood No ceiling reeds/mud Grills

1 2 16 17 18 19

1. Three Well Place St. 3 6 2. Mariamman koil St. 2 13 12 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 42 4. Market St. 3 15 5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 1 12 16 6. Masthanpalli St. 6 19 7. Bharathiar St 6 13 8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 4 2 9. Deitha St. 2 4 10. Sethilal Nagar 8 28 11. Church St. 1 9 13 , 12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 9 Total 5 66 179

155 TABLE IX.II (Concld.)

SI. NO. Locality Predominant materials of Doors and Windows

Green leaves/ Wood/burnt bricks/ Bricks/ Others mud/reeds! corrugated iron! Stone thatched bamboo Asbestos sheets RCCIREC

2 20 21 22 23

1. Three Well Place St. 9 2. Mariamman koil St. 27 3. Seniar Kulathu St. 29 13 4. Market St. 18 5. Jawaharlal Nehru St. 28 6. Masthanpalli St. 24 7. Bharathiar St. 19 8. Dr. Ambedkar St. 7 9. Deitha St. 6 10. Sethilal Nagar 5 31 11. Church St. 23., 12. Thomas Arul Pudu St. 8

Total 43 206

156 TABLE NO. IX. III

HOUSEHOLDS CLASSIFIED BY NUMBER OF MEMBERS, NUMBER OF ROOMS OCCUPIED &LOCALllY

51. locali~ Total No, of members Total no, of Total no, of Households with one room No, household rooms Persons Males Females No, of Persons Males Females rouseholds

1- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1, Three Well Place Street 45 17 28 9 9 9 45 17 28 2, Mariamman Koll street •148 72 76 27 62 5 19 8 11 3, Seniar Kulathu Street 243 112 131 42 46 38 219 98 121

4, Market Street 91 43 48 18 39 4 19 6 13 5, Jawaharlal Nehru street 168 70 98 29 59 13 78 35 43 6, Masthanpalll Street 195 98 97 25 58 6 42 23 19 ~ 7, Bharalhiar Sirae! 107 49 58 19 45 2 15 8 7 ~ 8, Dr, Ambedkar Street 29 13 16 7 14 2 8 3 5 9, Oeitha Street 37 16 21 6 12 7 3 4 10, Sethilal Nagar 182 96 86 36 48 26 136 72 64 11, Church Street 121 59 62 23 53 4 20 11 9

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 35 19 16 9 9 9 35 19 16

Total 1,401 664 737 250 454 119 643 303 340 TABLE NO, IX,III (Coneld,)

SI, Localrry Households w~h 2rooms Households w~h 3rooms Households with 4rooms No, No, of No, of No, of Remarks house house house holds P M F holds P M F holds P M F

2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

1, Three Well Place Street

2, Mariamman Koil Street 9 46 24 22 13 83 40 43 3, Seniar Kulathu Street 4 24 14 10 4, Market Street 7 32 16 16 7 40 21 19

5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 4 20 8 12 10 55 21 34 2 15 6 9 6, Masthanpalli Street 5 43 24 19 14 110 51 59 7, Bharathlar Street 8 45 18 27 9 47 23 24 .... ~ 8, Dr, Ambedkar Street 3 13 7 6 2 8 3 5 9, Deitha Street 4 24 9 15 6 4 2

10, Sethilal Nagar 8 37 19 18 2 9 5 4 11, Church Strae! 8 48 22 26 11 53 26 27 12, Thomas Arul Pudu Sirae!

Total 60 112 161 171 69 411 194 217 2 15 6 9 TABLE NO, IX,IV,

HOUSEHOLDS CLASSIFIED BY LOCALITY AND CAPITA FLOOR SPACE

81, Locality Households Per Captta Floor Space No, Total No, of 1or less Sq, mt. 2·3Sq, mts, 4·5Sq, mts, Nos, members No, of No, of No, of No, of No, of No, of households members households members households Members

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1, Three Well Place Street 9 45 6 37 3 8 2, Mariamman Koil Street 27 148 17 17 103 7 25

3, Seniar Kulathu Street 42 243 5 37 32 186 5 20

4, Mark~t Street 18 91 11 9 58 5 17

..L 5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 29 168 11 21 134 5 19 U1 (0 6, Masthanpalli Street 25 195 5 61 19 131 3 7, Bharathiar Street 19 107 14 92 3 11 8, Dr. Ambedkar Street 7 29 5 6 24 9, Deitha Street 6 37 7 5 30 10, Sethilal Nagar 36 182 28 160 4 15 11, Church Street 23 121 18 109 2 6 12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 35 4 21 3 11

TOTAL 250 1,401 14 144 174 11066 44 159 TABLE NO, IX,IV, (Concluded)

per capita Floor space

6·9 Sq, mts, 10·15Sq, mts, 16 and above . SI. No, Localny No, of No, of No, of No, of No, of No, of households members households members households members

1, 2 11 12 13 14 15 16

1, Three Well Place Street

2, Marlamman Koil Street 2

3, Seniar Kulathu Street 4, Markel Street 2 4 5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 2 4 6, Masthanpalli Street

~ § 7, Bharathiar Street 2 4 8, Dr, Ambedkar Street

g, Deitha Street

10, Sethilal Nagar 4 7 11. Church Street 3 6 12, Thomas Arul Pudu SIreet 2

Total 15 29 2 2 TABLE NO, IX,V,

AVAILABILILITY OF AMENITIES BY LOCALITY

~ ...... --. Total Amenmnies and availablrry No. of house _. Knchen availabilITy Bathroom availabilny SI. No. LocalITy holds Not Having Shares No, of Not Having Shares No. of having separately wnh house having separately wHh house other holds other holds households households

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Three Well Place Street 9 9 9 7 9 2, Marlamm3n Koil Street 27 24 2 27 2 22 3 27

3. Senla' Kulathu Strep.~ 42 41 42 38 4 42

... 4. Market StreP.f I 18 17 18 13 5 18 ...(j) 5. Jawaharlal Nehru ~tr!!el 29 27 29 5 22 2 29 6, Masthanpalli Street 25 3 22 25 4 20 25 7, Bharathiar Slreet 19 18 11 16 2 19 8. Dr, Ambedkar Street 7 6 7 6 7 9, Oeitha Street 6 6 6 6 6 10. Sethilal Nagar 36 17 19 36 18 16 2 36 11. Church Street 23 22 23 21 2 23 12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 9 9 2 7 9

Total 250 23 220 7 250 71 153 26 250 TABLE NO, IX,V (eontd,)

Amenities and Availabil~y

Lavatory Availabilny Source of Drinking Water availability 81. No. localny Not Having Shares WITh No. of house Not Having Shareswnh No. of having separately other hovse rclds having separately other household holds households

2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1. Three Well Place Street 7 9 4 5 9 2. Marlamman Koil Street 23 3 27 23 4 27 3. Senlar Kulathu Street 36 6 42 15 9 18 42 4. Market Street 13 5 18 12 5 18 5. Jawaharlal Nehru Street 7 21 29 5 20 4 29 ... 6. Masthanpalll Street 2 21 2 25 18 7 25 ~ 7. Bharathlar Street 2 15 2 19 18 19 8. Dr. Ambedkar Street 5 2 7 5 2 7 g. Deitha Street 6 6 6 6 10, Sethilal Nagar 4 15 17 36 15 20 36 1,. Church Street 21 2 23 21 2 23 12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 8 9 9 9

Total 153 43 250 22 151 n 250 TABLE NO, IX,V, (Concld,)

AmenITies and AvailabllHy

Water for washing availabilITY Electric current avallabU~ SI. No, LocaJny Not Having Shareswtth No. of house Not Having Shares with No, of having separately other house holds having separately other household holds households

2 20 21 22 24 25 26 27

I. Three Well Place Street 7 2 9 7 / 2 9 2. Mariamman Koil Street 24 3 27 24 3 27 3. Seniar Kulathu Street 25 17 42 25 17 42 4. Market Street 13 5 18 13 5 18 5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 6 21 2 29 6 21 2 29

~ 6. Masthanpalll Street 4 20 25 4 20 25 ~ 7. Bharathiar Street 18 19 18 19 8. Dr. Ambedkar Street 5 2 7 5 2 7 9, Deitha Street 6 6 6 6

10. Seth~~ Nagar 14 19 3 36 14 19 3 36

11. Church Street 22 23 22 23 12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 7 9 7 9

To~ 57 173 20 250 57 173 20 250 TABLE NO IX, VI

HOUSEHOLDS CLASSIFIED BY LOCALllY, DURATION OF STAY IN THE PRESENT RESIDENCE AND TENURAL• STATUS

SI, Less than one year 01· 04 years No, Localtty No, of owned Rented Allotted No, of Owned Renled Allotted households households

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Three Well Place Sireet Nil

2, Mariamman Koil Siree! Nil

3, Seniar Kulathu Sirae! Nil 2 2

4, Market Street Nil

5, Jawaharlal Nehru Sireet

6, Maslhanp~lj Streel Nil

~ 7, Bharalhiar Stree! Nil ~ 8, Dr, Ambedkar Sireet Nil

9, De"ha Street Nil 10, Sethilal Nagar Nil

11, Church Sireet Nil 2 2 12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street Nil

Total 8 8 TABLE NO.IX.V1 (ConcId.) .

SI, 05· 09 years 10 ym Md 800Ye No, Local~ No, of owned Rented WtIMi No. of Owned Remed Wed households IwsetXlki

2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1, There Well Place Street 7 7

2, Mariamman Koil Street 2 2 24 12 11

3, Seniar Kulathu Street 5 5 35 20 15

4, Ma~et Street 18 13 5

5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 2 2 26 13 13

6, Masthanpalli Street 4 4 20 10 3 7

7, Bharathiar Street 2 2 16 11 4

..I 8, Dr, Ambedkar Street 6 5 OJ 01 9, De~ha Street 5 4

10, Sethllal Nagar 4 4 ~ 31

11, Church Street 20 17 3

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 9

Total 23 19 4 218 100 49 TABLE NO, IX,VII

EXISTENCE OF FURNITURE BY LOCALITY AND DURATION OF STAY IN THE PRESENT RESIDENCE

Total Total No, of No, of households having furniture with duration of slay in the present residence No, of households 81, house having· Less than one year No, Name of Locality holds no furnilu re Chair Table Col Newer col Others

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1- Three Well Place Street 9 2, Mariamman Koil Street 27 2

3, Seniar Kulathu Street 42 23

4, Ma~et Street 18

5. Jawaharl~ Nehru Street 29 2

.. 6, Masthanp~li Street 25 5 OJ OJ 7. Bharathiar Street 19

8, Dr. Ambedkar Street 7

9, Deitha Street 6

10. Sethil~ Nagar 36 13 11. Church Stree! 23

12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 7

Total 250 53 TABLE NO, IX,VII (Concld,)

No, of households having furniture with duration of stay in the present residence

SI. No. Name of Locality 01· 04 years 5years and above REMARKS

Chair Table Cot Newer cot Others Chair Table Cot Newer cot Others

2 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1. Three Well Place Street 4 3 4 3 Others in·

2. Mariamman Koil Street 24 18 18 15 clude cup·

3, Seniar Kulalhu Street 2 12 6 5 14 9 board, Almi·

4. Market Street 18 18 16 13 rah, etc.

5. Jawaharl~ Nehru Street - 26 23 11 10 2

6. Masthanpalli Street 19 16 14 7 4

7. Bharathiar Street 18 17 14 3 16 ..l OJ '-l 8, Dr. Ambedkar Street 7 6 6 3 3 9. Deitha Street 6 6 4 3 4

1O. Sethil~ Nagar 15 8 2 8 10

11. Church Street 2 2 2 2 21 19 19 3 19 12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street - 2

Total 8 7 6 6 170 140 113 65 88 TABLE NO. IX. VIII

PRESENCE OF LUXURY AND COSTLY GOODS BY LOCALITY

81. Name of locaJtty Total No, of No, of households possessing Remarks No, no, of households house processing Wrist Table RPl TeIe- Grama- Others holds no luxury watch clock m phoneS &cost~ goods

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1, Three Well Place Street 9 8 3 6 Others inclm 2, Mariamman Koil Street 27 25 19 24 12 VCR Deck 3, Seniar Kulathu Street 42 20 20 7 13 4 ac,

4, Market Street 18 2 16 14 14 8

~ 5, Ol Jawaharlal Nehru Street 29 29 21 26 9 13 co 6, Masthanpalli Street 25 5 18 17 3) 9 10

7, Bharathiar Street 19 19 19 19 3 9

8, Dr, Ambedkar Street 7 7 4 5 3

9, Deithan Street 6 6 6 5 3

10, Sethilal Nagar 36 12 19 7 19 8

11. Churcu Street 23 23 23 21 2 15

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 9

Total 250 50 190 140 ' 172 86 TABLE NO, IX,IX

PRESENCE OF LUXURY AND COSTLY GOODS BY LOCAUTY AND OCCUPATION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Three Well Place Street Mariamman Koil Street SI, No, Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio T.V, Others Wrist Table Radio T.V, Others watch Clock watch clock

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1, Unskilled Manual 1

2, Skilled Manual 4 3 2

3, Lowest professional and 4 2 4 4 4 3 2 administrative (e,g, Primary teachers)

4, Small Business 6 6 7 3

...I OJ 5. High~ skilled and (Q supervisory manual

6, Clerks and Shop Assistants 2 4 4 4 2

7, Intermediate professional and 4 3 related posts, secondary teachers

8, Medium Business 2

9. Higher professional & salaried posts

10. Owners of factor ips & large shops etc.

11. CuHivators

12. Unclassified/Others

13. Non·Workers

Total 8 3 6 25 19 24 12 TABLE NO IX,IX (Contd,)

SI, Seniar Kulathu Street Market Street No, Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio TV. Others Wrist Table Radio T.V, Others watch Clock watch clock

2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1. Unskilled Manual 11 2 6 2 3

2, Skilled Manual

3, Lowest professional and adminis- 4 2 trative (e,g, Primary teachers)

4, Small Business 2 2 6 5 6 3 5, Highly skilled and supervisory manual

6, Clerks and Shop Assistants 2

...to ".J 0 7, Intermediate professional and related posts, secondary teachers

8, Medium Business

g, Higher professional &salaried 2 2 posts

10, Owners of factories &large shops etc,

11, Cuttivators

12, Unclassified/Others 2 2

13, Non-Workers

Total 20 7 13 4 16 14 14 8 TABLE NO. IX. IX (Contd.)

SI, Jawaharlal Nehru Street Masthanpalli Street No, Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio T.V, Others Wrist Table Radio lV. Others watch Clock watch clock

2' 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

1, Unskilled Manual 2 2 4

2, Skilled Manual 10 7 9 6 2 2

3, Lowest professional and admlnis- - trat~e (e,g, Primary teachers)

4, Small Business 4 3 4 4 3 3

5, Highly skilled and supervisory manual

... 6, Clerks and Shop Assistanls 4 2 3 2 2 2 ...".J 7, Intermediate professional and ' 1

related postsl secondary teachers

8, Medium Business 2 2 2

g, Higher professional &salaried 2 2 2 2 2 2 posts

10, Owners of factories &large 2 2 2 shops etc,

11, Cu~ivators 2 2 2 2 2

12, Unclassified/Others

13, Non-Workers

Total 29 21 26 9 13 18 17 20 9 10 TABLE NO, IX,IX (eontd,)

SI, Bharathiar Street Dr, Ambedkar Street No, Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio IV, Others Wrist Table Radio IV, Others watch Clock watch clock

2 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

1. Unskilled Manual

2, Skilled Manual 2 2 2

3, Lowest professional and adminis· 4 4 3 2 tralive (e,g, Primary teachers)

4, Small Business

5, Highly skilled and supervisory manual

..I. 6, Clerks and Shop Assistants 2 2 ~ 7, Intermediate professional and 3 3 4 related posts, secondary teachers

8, Medium Business 2 3 3

9, Higher professional &salaried 2 2 2 posts

10, Owners of factores &large 2 2 2 2 shops etc,

11, CU"iva\OIS

12, Unclassified/Others

13, Non·Workers

Total 19 19 19 3 9 7 4 5 3 TABLE NO.IX.IX (eonld.)

SI. Derrha Street Sethilal Nagar No. Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio T.V. Others Wrist Table Radio T.V. Others watch Clock watch clock

2 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

1. Unskilled Manual 5 8 2

2. Skilled Manual -I 8 2 5 2

3. Lowest professional and adminis· 3 2 3 trative (e.g. Primary teachers)

4. Small Business

5. Highly skilled and supervisory manual

6. Clerks and Shop Assistants 'J"'" (I) 7. Intermediate professional and related posts, secondary teachers

8. Medium Business

9. Higher professional &salaried 2 2 2 posts

10. Owners offactores &large shops etc.

11. Cunivators

12. Unclassified/Others

13. Non·Workers

Total 6 6, 5 3 19 7 19 8 TABLE NO.IX.IX (Concld.)

SI, Church Street Thomas Arul Pudu Street ~o, Type of Occupation Wrist Table Radio lV, Others Wrist Table Radio lV, Others watch Clock watch clock

2 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62

1, Unskilled Manual

2, Skilled Manual

3, Lowest professional and adminis- trative (e,g, Primary teachers)

4, Small Business 4 3 3 2

5, Highly skilled and supervisory manual

~ 6, Clerks and Shop Assistants 2 2 2 -..j lI. 7, Intermediate professional and 4 5 4 3 related posts, secondary teachers

8, Medium Bu~ness

9, Higher professional &salaried 3 3 3 2 posts

10, Owners of facto res &large shops 2 2 2 2 etc,

11. Cu~ivators 2 2 2

12, Unclassified/Others 4 5 3 3 '

13, Non-Workers

Total 23 23 21 2 15 TABLE NO, IX,X

MATERIALS OF WHICH UTENSILS ARE MADE BY LOCALITY AND STATE AND DISTRICT TO WHICH THE HOUSEHOLD BELONGS

No, of households where cooking untensils No, cf h~useholds where utensils for serving are made food are made of SI, Tolal No, of No, Localtty households Clay/ Aluminium/ Steel/ Clay, Aluminium/ Steel earthern Indalium Bronze, earthern Indalium Bronze, pots Silver, pots, Silver, Copper porcelaine Copper

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Three Well Place Streel 9 8 9 2, Mariamman Koil Street 27 16 11 25 3, Seniar Kulathu Street 42 4 38 22 20 4, Market Street 18 10 7 6 2 10

.,j, 5, Jawaharlal Nehru Street 29 19 10 2 5 22 ~ 6, Masthanpalii Street 25 24 4 .8 13 7, Bharathiar Street 19 10 9 18 8, Dr, Ambedkar Street 7 5 2 7 9, Deilha Street 6 4 2 6 10, Sethilal Nagar 36 3 31 2 9 27 11, Church Street 23 15 8 23

12, Thomas Arul Pudu Street 9 9 9

Total 250 8 189 53 14 56 180

CHAPTER X SLUMS AND BLIGHTED AREAS

For an Innocuous, non-Industrialised and rela­ 'Porambokku' or 'Patta'iands more often than not tlvelya low profile town like Karalkal, It Is remark­ rented by the respective 'Patta' owners. Most of able that there are as many as 45 localities de­ the constructions on 'Porambokku' lands are clared as slums with a total population of 4,840* unauthorised and some of them over the temple (pl. see statement no. X.I.) (11%) 3130 occupied lands also. It may be mentioned here that a majority residential households (46%). The Individual popu­ of Schedule Caste population have built lation of the slums localities range between.50 to unauthorised. constructions In such places like 1000, with as many as 10 localities having a popu­ Netheeswaran East; Odayarkulam; Pudutheru; lation of 500 or more. Topographically the slum Sokkanathan Koll Street; Vadamaralcadu etc. localities from the entire outer ring of the Karalkal town In all the four dlre'ctlons such as the Thalath­ The huts are usually made of mud with thatched erupet on the northern side between the railway roof and are single roomed. In most of the line and the newly developing housing colony of localities, the houses are constructed at random Nehru Nagar; the Perlapet on the North-Eastetn within a specified boundary or within the Jurisdic­ end, of Marlamman Kolt Street; Kallarlpet on the tion of a particular patta and as a result without any North Eastern flank between Kamarak Salal and proper apporach or pattern. Water supply Is either the Railway line; part of Sethll~1 Nagar and Indira through common Municipal taps or wells. About Nagar on the South Eastern flank; Part of Pudu half of the localities are electrified. Almost all the Street on the South Western area between Tho­ localities are without lavatory facilities, either pri­ mas Arul Pudu Street and river Vanjiar and Vad­ vate or community, while most of the localities are amaralcadu In the Seniar Kalathu Street on the without any drainage. If any, there are only natu­ North Western side end of Masthanpalll Street. rally made channels developed due to a regular Remaining areas which are declared as slums are flow of water. mostly located on the outer periphery of the Karaikal town (see map). Occupation Characteristics It appears that the original Karaikal town which is close, compact and planned originally The occupation of the slum population in all during the French regime acquired this outer land the localities is basically daily wage earning and of slums due to large scame migration, from low consists of mostly casual labourers, loaders, ma­ income groups in search of livelihood during re­ sonary, vendors, rickshaw pullers and a few agri­ cent years. This is evident by the relative ages of 'cultural labourers. Specifically the agricultural labour - the slums (see statement No. X.I) which ranges ers are concentrated in the adjoining slums of between one to six years. Kattunaicken Street, Vadamaraicadu West and Vadamaraicadu East. It is reported that the growth Housing condition In Slums of these slum localities or the preference of these localities by respective residents is primarily due to The main types of houses in all the slum the proximity of their work place and also availabil­ localities are generally huts and built over ity of employment.

* Source: Town and Country planning Dept., Karaikal1985. 177 ·\,~,\ -...... '.. .. \. .~ .... , - _- . F ... ~ . ..' 'It

\ . \\ t, "\ \ \. \, . \ . \'. ~,\ ' \ ;

The peripheral lane or slums at Seniyar Kulathu Street

178 Ethnic Characteristics clearance scheme is a part of the overall Master plan of Karaikal town which is in the final stage of Out of the 45 localities declared as slums, 23 preparation. The department, has already estab­ localities are predominantely constituted by Sched­ lished an office at Karaikal town with a JuniorTown uled Castes. About 18 localities are of multicaste Planner to assist the Senior Town Planner at the nature. In one particular locality namely Stalin State Head Quarters in preparing and co­ Nagar, Scheduled Castes and Christians domi­ ordinating the planning pOlicies. This office is en­ nate. And a locality by name BurmaColony is to­ gaged in a continuous preparation of land use tally comprised by Muslim Refugees from Ran­ maps and registers which are short term and long goon in Burma in the early 1970s. term in nature, area specific as well as comprehen­ sive development plans, prescribing controlling Deviant Behaviour in Slums and regulating the use of land and above all to The crime statistics at locality level particu­ enforce and implement developmental plan larly with reference to slum could not be procured. schemes. However, a discussion with Police Officers incharge of protection of weaker section revealed tht the Another important duty performed by this de­ slums are relatively free from any crime or deviant partment is the framing of rules and effective behaviour for the last two years. supervision on the construction of buildings sub­ scribing to set standards of hygene, sanitation, Plans of Amelioration public health and way of life. The department ac­ cordingly initiated a number of schemes which In view of the severe nature of proliferation of include the slum clearance programme wherever slums, the Town and Country Planning Depart­ such localities exist. However, they are all in initial! ment of Govt. of Pondicherry embarked upon a planning stages as on date and hence much comprehensive plan of action. In fact the slum assessment could not be done.

179 TABLE NO. 11

SLUMS AND BUGHTED AREAS IN KARAlKAL

Location Age of the slum Manhoosetype Road and Commlllicml Name Md approxinie (paved road in Ions) Area Population no.otm

2 3 4 5 6

1, Thalatherupet 650 Approximaletf 3years 220huls Rocm 2, Pillayarpet 200 Approximatetf 3years 45 lids Kutcha roiKl 3, Valluvar Street 130 Approximctett 3years 26lMs Kutcharoad 4, Vettikaran Street 600 Approximalett 3years 150 huts Kutcharoad 5, Kovilpathupet 350 Approximatet16 ears 85 huts Puccaroad 6, Netheswaren East 500 Below 1year 150 huts ~charoad 7, Netheswaren West 120 Below 1year 35 huts KutctJa.road

_" 8, Omakularn 50 Below 1year 15tMs Kutcharoad CD 0 g, Dropathiamman Koil Street 450 5years Pucca houses and huts Puccaroad 10, U.dayarkulam 120 2years 38huls Ktfcharoad 11, Padthar the~ 120 5years 40 huts Puccaroad 12, Sokkanathasamy Koil Street 125 3years 25lluts Puccaroad 13, Kattunaicken Street 254 5years 58 hu!s,fucca huts houses Puccaroad

14, Vadam~acadu East 596 More than 5years 11 huIsIPucca houses Puccaroad 15, Vadamaracadu West 1,017 More than 5years 199 h~ucca houses Puccaroad 16, Kothalampet 124 5years HIlS Puccaroad 17, Thikkal 52 3years HIlS Ktfcha roiKl lB, Thiru Nagar 7B2 5years Wutca hIxEes Puccaroad. 19, Penyapet 625 5years H~s Puccaroad 20, Kaiarapet 250 3years Hus Puccaroad

21, Amma~ar Koil 582 1year HtAs Ktfcha roiKl 22, Mammathambi Marickar Street 231 1year Hl4s Kutcharoad 23, Indira Nagar 670 1year Hms Puccaroad 24, Sethilal Nagar 420 10 years HutsIPucca hoUses Puccaroad 25, Santhanampillai Thidal 300 2years HtAs Puccaroad TABLE NO, X, I (Contd,)

Water supply (No, of Lighting (No, of Latrine points/public hydrants electric connections, Installed for protected Domestic, Road lighting, Private Community water supply) others) Water bore Service Others Water bore Service Others

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1, Water supply available Domestic-200 Open Road lights are available space 2, Water supply not available, Not available -do- Well water 3, Water supply not available, -do- -do- Well water 4, Water supp~ not available, Partly electr~led -do- Well water 5, Water supply available Ful~ electrified Public Latrine ..I , III 6, Well water Not electrffied Open space - ..I 7, Well water -do- -do- 8, Well water -do- -do- 9, Water supply available Ful~ electrified available 10, Well water Not electrified Open space - 11, Water supply available Electrified available -do- 12, Water supply available Electr~led available -do- 13, Water supply available Electrified available -do- 14, Water supply available Electrified available -do- 15, Water supply available Electr~ied available -do- 16, Water supply available Electrified available -do- 17, Well water Not electrffied available -do- 18, Water supply available Electrffled available -do- 19, Water supply available Electrified available open space - 20, Water supply available Electrified available -do- 21, Not available Not electrnied --do- 22, Not available Not electrnled -do- 23. Water supply available Electr~led available -do- 24, Water supply available Eleclrffled available -do- 25. Water supply available •Electrffled available -do- TABLE NO. X. I. (eonld.)

Method of Approximate Castes/Communnies Main occupation disposal of No, of house· and religious groups of the slum dwellers Night soil Drainage holds to which the slum dwellers mainly belong

15 16 17 18 19

1. Open drains 220 Scheduled Castes Coolies 2, Not av~lable 45 Scheduled Castes Coolies 3, Not av~lable 26 Scheduled Castes Coolies/Cobblers 4, Not av~labale 150 Scheduled Castes All coolies 5, Se~ic tank Open drainage 85 Scheduled Castes Coolies 6, Open drainage 150 All Castes Coolie~Scavengers 7, Open drainage 35 Scheduled Castes Coolies 8, Not available 15 Scheduled castes Coolies 9, Open drainage 120 All Castes Coolies 10, Not Available 38 All Castes Coolies

~ 11, Available (Open drainage) 40 All Castes Coolies, vendors, ~ 12, Open drainage 25 All Castes Coolies 13, Open drainage 58 Scheduled castes Coolies, Agrilabourers 14, Open drainage 144 All castes Coolies, Agri, labourers 15, Open drainage 199 All castes Collies, Agr, labourers 16, Open drainage 30 Scheduled Castes Coolies 17, Not av~lable 7 Scheduled Castes Coolies 18, open drainage 190 Scheduled Caste~others Coolies, Vendors, Rickshaw pullers, etc, 19, Open drainage 140 Scheduled Castes Coolies, Vendors 20, Open drainage 55 Scheduled Castes Coolies, Vendors 21. Nol av~lable 106 All Castes Coolies, Vendors 22, Not av~lable 41 All Casles Coolies, Vendors 23, Open drainage 120 All Castes Coolies, Vendors 24, Open drainage 151 All Castes Coolies, Vendors, Govt, servants etc, 25, Open drainage 53 All castes Coolies, Vendors, TABLE NO. X.I (Concld.)

Approximate distance from Ownership of Scheme, if any, for Factory responsible Remarks place of occupation of slum land reclemation of the slum for continuation of ~um dwellers and rehabilitation of the slum slum dwellers

20 21 22 23 24

1. 2kms Purambokku/Patta Slum clearance board Nearness to job facil~les. ~setu 2. 2kms -do- -do- -do- 3. 2kms -do- -do- -do- 3, 2kms -do- -do- -do- 4. 1.5 kms -do- -do- Job facilities 5, 1km -do- -do- -do- 6. 1.5 kms -:-do- -do- -do- 7. 1.5 kms -do- -do- -do- 8. 1.5 kms -do- -do- -do- 9, 1km -dO- -do- -do- lO. 1.5km -do- -do- -do- 11. 2kms -do- -do- -do- """ ~ 12. 1.5 kms -{jo- -do- -do- 13. Hm -do- -do- -do- 14. 1km -do- -{jo- -do- 15. 1km -do- -do- -do- 16. 1km -{jo- -do- -do- 17. 1.5 kms -do- -do- -do- 18. 1km -do- -do- -do- 19. 1km Puram bokku/Patta Slum clearance board Job facilities is set up 20, 1km -do- -do- -do- 21. 1km -do- -do- -do- 22. 1km -do- -do- -do- 23. 1km -do- -do- Nearness to job purpose 24. 1.5 kms -do- -do- -do- 25, 1.5 kms -do- -do- -do- TABLE NO. X. I (Concld.)

Location Age of the slum Main house ~pe Road and Communication Name and approximate (Paved road in kms) Area Population no, of each

2 3 4 5 6

26, Stalin Nagar 171 2years Huts Pueea road 27, Mettutheru 161 3years Huts Kutcha road 2B, Pudther Nagar 120 Byears Huts/pucca houses Pueca road 29, Meerapalli 200 2years Huts Kutcha road

30, S~anpadavar Street 150 1year Huts Pueca road 31, Sankara Street 473 2years Huts/Pucca houses Pueca road 32, Komisyam Kattali 200 3years Huts Kutcha road

33, T~omas Pillai Thidal 180 2years Huts Pueca road

34, Anton~ar Koil pet 160 3years Huts Kuteha road 35, Keelodulhurai Anton~ar Koilpet·1 - 300 2years Huts Kutcha road '" ~ 36, Keeloduthurai Antoniyar Koilpet·1I - 250 2years Huts Kutcha road 37, Meloduthurai Anton~ar Koilpet 50 2years Huts Kutcha road 38, Pillanheruvasal pet 100 3years Huts Pueea road 39, PillaHheru thoppu 125 2years Huts Pueea road 40, Patchur 160 3years Huts Pueca road 41. Patchurpet 150 2years Huts Kuteha road 42, Dramapurampet 200 3years Huts Pueca road

43, Subbha~a, thoppu Koilpel 100 2years Huts Kuteha road 44, Burma colony 80 3years Huts/Pucca houses Puea road 45, Kandanpat 120 4years Huts Pueea road TABLE NO. X, I (Concld,)

Water supply (No. of Lighting (No. of Latrine points/public hydrants electric connections, inst~led for protected Domestic, Road lighting, Private Com~untty water sup~y) others) Water bore Service Others Water bore Serviae Others

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

26, Yes Yes available -{lo- 27, Yes Electrified available -{lo- 28. Yes Yes available -{lo- 29, Yes Partly electrHied available -{lo- 30, Yes Not electrified available -{lo- 31, Yes Partly electrified available -{lo- 32, Yes Not electrified available -{lo- 33, Yes ElectrHied -{lo- 34, Well,water Not electrified -{lo- 35. Well water Not electrified -{lo- -I -{lo- ffi 36. Well water No! electrified 37. Well water Not electrified -{lo- 38, Water supply available Electrified -{lo- 39. Water supply avaJlable Electrified -{lo- 40. Well water Electrffied -{lo- 41, Well water Not electrHied -{lo- 42. Well water Partly electrrried -{lo- 43, Well water Not electrified -do- 44, Water supply available Electrified -do- 45. Water supply available Electr~ied -do- TABLE NO. X.I (Concld.)

Method of Approximate Castes/Communities Main occupation disposal of No, of house· and religious groups of the slum dwellers Night soil Drainage holds to which the slum dwellers mainly beong

15 16 17 18 19

26. Open dr~nage 34 S. C.{Chrislians Coolies, Rickshaw pullers etc, 27. Open drainage 30 All castes Co~ies, Vendors. 28. Open drainage 32 All castes·Predom. of S.C, Coolies, Rickshaw pullers 29, Open drainage 45 All Castes Vendors and Coolies 30. Open drainage 32 All Castes Coolies, 31, Open dr~nage 107 All Castes Coolies, Govt./Municipal staff 32. No 50 S,C. only Coolies 33, No 40 All castes CooliesNendors 34, No 40 S,C, only Coolies, Rickshaw pullers 35, No 32 S.C. only Coolies 36. No 70 S.C. only Coolies ...I 37. No 15 S.C. only Coolies, Vendors ~ 38. Open drainage 25 S.C. only Coolies, Vendors 39. Open drainage 45 All CastElS Coolies, Vendors 40, Open drainage 40 All Castes Coolies 41. No 32 S.C. only Coolies 42, No 45 S.C, only Codies 43. No 30 All castes Coolies, Vendors 44, Open drainage 25 Muslims (Predom) Bu~ness 45. Open drainage 85 S.C, only Coolies. TABLE NO. X.I (Concld.)

Approximate distance from Ownership of Scheme, if any, for Factory responsible Remarks place of occupation of ~um land reclemation of the slum for continuation of slum dwellers and rehabilitation of the slum slum dwellers

20 21 22 23 24

26. 1.5kms Puram bokku/Patta Slum clearance board Nearn86s to job facilHies is set up 27. 2kms -do- -do- -do- 28. 2.5 kms -do- -{jo- -do- 29, 1,5kms -{jo- -do- -do- 30, 1,5kms -do- -do- -do- 31. 2kms -{jo- -do- -do- 32. 1.5kms -do- -do- -do- 33. 2kms Private (donated) -do- -do- 34. 2kms Koil place -do- -do- 35. 2.5 kms Koil place -{jo- -do- 36. 2,5 kms Koil place -{jo- -do- 37. 2.5 kms Koil place -{jo- -do- -I OJ 38. 2kms Purambokku -do- -do- 'l 39. 2,5 kms -{jo- -{jo- -do- 40, 2.5 kms -do- -{jo- -do- 41. 2.5 kms -{jo- -{jo- -do- 42. 2.5 kms -do- -do- -do- 43, 2kms Koil place -do- -do- 44, 2kms Purambokku -do- -dc- 45. 2kms Purambokku -{jo- -do-

CHAPTER XI

ORGANISATION OF POWER AND PRESTIGE

Change is an inexorable law of nature. And tion dawned on the society along with the emer­ the concept of elite is no exception. From pre-his­ gence of voxpopuli-vox-dain, a new class of elite toric times to the beginning of industrial era, the evolved. The institutional hold on the society with- elite was the structural component forming the . ered away and the individual rights and aspira­ apex of social pyramid. It was that class of people tions surfaced. The ascribed status which was who achieved excellence and gifted with superior largely dominating the formation of elite class was levels of competence in a particular field. In a way, replaced by acquired status on receiving social they were the repositories of instutions which approval. The ultimate result is that the multi-disci­ regulated and governed the society in a particular plinary nature of the elite class, with specific refer­ area of social action. In the social hierarchy, their ence to power and prestige, became a monolithic duty was to manage'their respective institutions group of people who have enough eco!1omic, and the common factor was their capability to resources, necessary skills and charismatic ap­ enforce the normalive and behavioural ~dherence peal over the people. Thus the elite is now defined by the public or the community at large. The as a set of people who are politically influential and community in turn respected and obeyed the elite those who are economically affluent. In Indian through whom the institutions functioned for the case, more often than not, the politically estab­ maintenance of social harmons and equilibrium. lished are necessarily having a firm economic Thus the religion regulated the society through the base. If not, the political 'groups or the parties are priest who was revered due to his way of life and largely suriving out of the financial support from his scholaship in interpreting the scriptures and the affluent both from within as well as outside. also unfolding nuances of profanities in the life Conversely, the qualifications interms of knowl­ beyond. A teacher was respected for his superior edge, skill of superior capabilities are now not knowledge, wisdom and his role in the imparting mandatory for a person to be among the elite but education as well as in the Socialization proccess it is imperative to be a political persona-grata or of making the individuals into responsible person­ sufficiently rich to patronise the political group or alities. The king and his nobility were looked upon both, to be at the top of the social hierarchy. for the protection and security from extemal ag­ However, those who achieved certain levels of gression, preservation of ethos, patronage of arts authority in different walks of life are also looked and culture and the maintenance of internal law upon as elite, but they are always placed next to . and order. It is a different historical issue alto­ the class described above in terms of power and getherthat many atimes one or more ofthese elite prestige. While the politically and economically groups were defied by the public which led to powerful groups are "influential", the remaining social upheavals at macro social level. And also. elite are 'respected' in public's eye. These two there have been instances of conflict within the groups, however, may not always be exclusive elite groups itself leading. to blood bath. It is a well and at times, over lap each other. known fact that the European history is nothi n9 but a history of war between the Pope and the Throne. Elite Structure of Karaikal Town Neverthless, the mutually exclusive character of elite group underlined by a specialised skill re­ From this conceptual background, the Karai­ mained, particularly in the Indian society. kal town provides a typical dichotomy of elite struc­ ture of contemporary trends. For the analytical As the new industrialised and dialetic civiliza- convenience, the existing elite structure is de- 189 scribed in the concentric circles of expanding varying activities. One could be a party function­ levels starting from locality level to the town lead­ ary, and·at the same time a religious trusty while ing to the men of reckoning of the town at state being a member of a peace committee as well. The level or outside the town. These sub-groups and only exception is some respondents mentioning the higher groups also seem to be cross cutting the administrator (The Chief Representative for different fields of activity. the government in the Distrct). The underlined factor however is the acquisition of followers over Elite withing the neighbourhood an ideology at town level in contrast to the utilitar­ ian nature of the elite at locality level. While the In terms of individual's mental horizon and gratification experienced by the public from the also from the administrative and democratic insti­ elite at local level is of a material character, tHe re­ tutions point of view, the commond of respect or lationship between the public and the elite at the exertion of influence originates at the neigh­ border level, operationally at town level, is an bourhood or within the physical environs of the equation between collective identity of values and household. From the investigation it was observed the credibility of the elite (leader). The elite thus that the most-respected persons within the locality sustain their position by upholding the larger per­ are those who are of some professional service to spective, need not ~ways be in terms of material the public. They may be teachers, Medical prac­ gratification but over a sense of abstract fulfilment tioners, Lawyers, Money-lenders or Public ser­ or image conception. Further the responses show vants in the field of health etc. This underscores a such overlapping of individual,ocimes that the line single facet ofthe elite at the locality of being public drawing those from most respect to most influen­ utility personnel, meeting the immediate needs. It tial becomes very thin, unlike the percetpion of had also been seen that the respect shown by the elite at locality level. people towards the elite at locality level often cut across the caste and occupational affliations. A Karaikal town as seen from the response of person is not so much respected for what he is as different localities revealed the elite of town as of what he does. It is for this reason that the most multiple ideologies and backgrounds. It can be respected persons within each locality are seen deduced that the alligiance is widely shared. This varying with each respondent. is evident by the fact that the respondents have repeatedly mentioned those from the ruling party As regards the persons of influence, they are and equally those from the opposition. The refer­ mostly political in nature who are with or without ence to different elite personalities as perceived some official position in the local government or of by the respondents is given in inset Statement no. a particular political affiliation. Among them the XI. (i). sitting elected representatives are usually most in­ fluentia! at a given pOint of time. Formation and Mobilization of Interest Groups

Organisation of power and prestige of the town: The major interest groups in the town are political parties as well as outside the government; Present set of elite personnel of the Karaikal the trade unions; the religious trusts or endow­ town under 'influence' category consists mostly of ments and the voluntary organisations. those who are office bearers of different political parties or those who are actively associated in Politically Oriented Groups them. A few are religious leaders and heads of voluntary associations. As already pOinted out, an The political history of Karaikal is synony­ individual leader is quite likely to be involved in mous with the history of democratic institutions

190 and also in a way the history of Pondicherry itself and Municipal election in July 1955 there was a during the pre and post French periods. For most proposal to the inclusion of Shri Pakkirasamy Pillai of the prominent personalities who steered the to represent the backward class which was imme­ merger movement and those who are now holding diately followed by a stiff opposition by Shri Rama important sway over the political system are the Srinivasan stating that the former who was an natives of Karaikal region. Further the important anti-freedom group leader is not acceptable to be stages of freedom struggle originated and spread honoured by the people for whom the persons from Karaikal although the head-quarters being such as Rama Srinivasan sacrificed a lot. Since Pondicherry proper. As on today, the Chief Minis­ then a number of independent parties such as ter, the Minister of Agriculture and housing, the . Makkal Munnani, Pondicherry National Congress, lone Sitting M.P., one ex-Chief Minister, and one etc. emerged and had their taste of success and ex-Minister are hailing from this region only. To defeat as well. However, Shri Pakkirasamy Pillai understand the multiplicity and divergent nature of managed to become the Chief Councellor after the power groups in the town, it is necessary to re-call Municipal Elections but after his death in 1956, the the political history of Karaikal town, in other words, selection of Shri Gubert who has been an anti­ of the Pondicherry region. * merger turned pro-merger leader was proposed as Chief Councellor. A floor crossin~ of severe As already described earlier chapters, before magnitude took place with a pro-Gubert group and 1954, this town also surged in unison for the an anti-Gubert group virtually cutting the commit­ purpose of getting out of French yoke. Not tee in the middle. Ultimately the situation become withstanding the internally divergent views of ridiculous to such an extent that the effect has conflicts-and certain vested interests, the goal was spread to the very existence of the Ministry at nevertheless pursued with relentless vigour. The State level and in October 1958, the Ministry was struggle was viewed as a translation of independ­ dissolved. In the next election of 1959, Congress ence as an ideology which was universally forme9 a Ministry and somehow continued till approved as noble and good. However, the post 1963 when the term expired and The Union Terrttory liberation era saw a sea change of goals and Act, (1963) came into operation. In the conse­ priorities. Ever since 1st November 1954, the day quent general election in August 1964, the on which Karaikal alongwith the other parts of Congress again won and formed a Ministry with Pondicherry acquired independence till the last Late Shri Venkatasubba Reddiar and Shri P. general elections for the Assembly held in March Shanmugam, Present M.P. (Lok Sabha) from '85, this area has been in a war of attrition and a Karaikal as a Minister of seveal important competition for the spoils. The amount of portfolios. The inevitable discontent over the min­ defections, floor crossing and frivolous attitude isterial berths raised its head again and over a no shown, even by some of the leaders of pre-inde­ confidence motion, two other Ministers left the ship pendent era make the silhoutte of the unity of to sink and brought down the majority of, the ideologies and purpose of the liberation Congress to equal strength. A new perty by name movement rather smeared, smutty and smudgy. Democratic United Front (DUF) was formed by The very first election to the representative dissidents with the help of opposition. While the Lt. assembly witnessed lot of dissensions when Sellen Governor was painfully waiting for the instructions Naicker fiercely opposed a committee of represen­ of the centre from Delhi, two congress members tatives of all political parties, who had some share returned home. With the slender majority of 17 out or the other in the subversion of freedom struggle. of the total strength of 30, Congress again formed While selecting the candidates for the assembly a Ministry in April 1967 only to be followed by the

* The factual information on the post-merger history detailed in succeeding pages was taken from 'Glimpses of history of Karaikal' by Dr. (Smt). Saroja Soundara Rajan. Interprelation is author's own.

191 resignation of the Chief Minister same year when This ministry was formed in January 80 with D. the pa~ty wanted a member to be made a cabinet Ramachandran as Chief Minister and Dr. S. Sourira­ minister who defeated earlier. As if the confusion jan as Home Minister. There was an all round is not enough, the ex-C.M. himself joined D.U.F. expctation that with such a large and favourable very soon, became a leader and formed a Ministry verdict a stable Government would ensure. But it in March, 1968 only to be culminated in the proved to be a futile hope against a stark political dissolution of assembly in September, 1968. reality. Within 3 years, the co-aliation broke down and the Ministry lost its majority. As the tradition The political instability continued even into would have it, it was followed by the dismissal of the next general election. While the emergence of the Government in June 83. Thus the Pondicherry D.M.K. in neighbouring Tamil Nadu cast its spell in has the dubious distinction of each successive Pondicherry, Congress strength came down from legislative assembly ending in its dissolution leading 20 to 10 but the D. M. K. which secured 15 seats to the imposition of President rule and every Ministry badly needed a support to form a Ministry M.O.H. formed is to be dismissed, as a rule, till 1983. Farook who had already joined D.M.K. formed a . There was no otliler political pattern except coaliation Ministry in 1969. However the boat kept changing trends and force as seen from the Voting rocking with members jumping in and baling out. behavour. The strength of ruling D.M.K. which was 16 in October, 1971 became 15 in February, went down It appears some sense started prevailing. further to 13 in January 1974. The Ministry got Since the last general election 'held in December dissolved with barely 2 months due for next gen­ 1984 and the assembly election in March 1985. eral elections. The 4th General elections held in The government formed by Cong-I has been stable February, 74 again saw Pondicherry caughing under the leadership of Shri M.O.H. Farook. The when Madras sneezed. This time the growing Ministries over the last 2 decades, which were influence of AIADMK in Tamilnadu cau~ed the only indulging in political chicanery, have now DMK in Pondicherry to loose its ground. While been replaced by a Ministry showing signs of a DMK got only 2 members elected, AIADMK cap­ Government. The administration which was tured 12 seats. AIADMK formed a minority govern­ consigned to playa dumb role is now geared upto ment in March 1974 but ran into storm oin the very action or what is expected of it. It is true that the first day of the assembly and on the second day anti-defection law passed by the Parliament may over a motion of budget leakage, the ministry was be a factor acting as deterrent to the legendary voted out of power. Due to the unpredictable defections for which the political history of nature of the strength of different parties, the Pondicherry has become famous. assembly was dissolved. Next general election 1977 saw the repetition of the same circle with the Pattern of Voting Behaviour AIADMK forming a ministry with the support of CPM, Shri S: Ramasamy, was. installed as Chief The pattern of people's choice with regard to Minister. But the Ministry could not withstand the the parties has already been described in floor crossing which took place in September, 78, precceding pages. A deeper study of the voting leading to the dismissal of the· S. RamasalTlY pattern suggests that as shown in Statement No. Ministry and dissolution of the assembly. In order XI (ii) the percentage of voting during the last Lok­ to eliminate the possibility of further political horse Sabha election (1984) and Assembly election (1985) trading, Pondicherry was brought under presiden's was 67% and 74% respectively. This shows a high rule for the fifth time. The 6th General elections pOlitical awareness and i,ts consistant with a way were held in January 1980. The Cong-I-DMK front the fortunes of different parties have been won 2/3 majority. AIADMK had a complete route. swinging from the very first general Elections held

192 in 1955 at the same time the responses of the Trade Unions people with regard to the influential personalities in a highly distributed pattern also goes in For a miniature town and having no medium congruence to the fact that in the last election the or heavy industrial establishment at that, it is votes have been distributed to different con­ remarkable that there are as many as six testents with very little margin. For example in the trade unions functioning in Karaikal. (For details, Lok-sabha election out of the total votes of 16,626 please see statement No. XI (iii). It may be noticed the winning candidate could muster only a narrow that all the six unions have suddenly emerged margin of victory with 9375 votes foiled to him with as it were, having been established between two other immediate contestants together 1983 and 1985. The total membership as on 1985 securing almost 7,000 votes. Similarly, in the of all the unions was 270. The actual purpose Assembly seat, had a very narrow margin of victory and activities of these unions could not be of polling 4784 votes out of a total of 9656 with the ascertained. remaining 2 contestants polling 4852 votes. This goes to say that the organisation of power is more Voluntary Organisations on the basis of individual personality lhan the affliations of the individual to different political As in the cas of trade unions, it is equally parties. surprising that a small town like Karaikal has all the national and internat10nally known voluntary bodies like Rotary Club, Lions Club, Chamber of Local Self Government Commerce, Nehru Yuvak Kendra etc. locally formed organisations include a sports Youth club, one Next to the elite groups or the power groups Indira Gandhi Women's Club (Mahilamandal) one operating at state level is the group of people club exclusively for physically handicapped and associated with the local self government. For the another, Shim Sena, meantfor Scheduled Castes. Karaikal town, the Municipal council is the From the details given in the Statement No. XI. (iv) , democratically elected government at local level. it can be seen that the activities of thes organisa­ The Pondicherry Municipalities act of 1973 which tions though mutually exclusive, nonthesless was enforced on 26-1-74 envisaged a new pattern project highly laudable and progressive goals, of local self government with a Municipality headed such as rehab.ilitation of public from natural by Chairman and a house of councillors. However, calamities, promoting interest marriages, widow the electons for this council have not been re-marriages, regulate the trade and commerce conducted even once since the promulgation of fluctuations, organising employment opportuni­ act in 1974 due to the highly instable government ties for the physically handicapped and weaker at the state and also the unresolved issue of sections of the society. Women welfare with regard reservations. From the beginning, a speCial officer to nutrition, household hygiene, and child welfare, has been incharge of the functions of Municiplity Protection of women rights, recreation and read­ with a commissioner as executive head. The pattern ing facilities etc. However, the actual accomplish­ and history of disbursal of community and services ments of the individual organisations were not is already discussed in Chapter-III. made available.

193 STATEMENT NO. XI. (I)

LIST OF INFLUENTIAL AND POWERFUL PERSONS IN KARAIKAL

Locality Within Locality/Within Town

2

S/Shri 1. Three Well 1 . V. Govindarajan (Con. I) Place Street 2. Dava Sunder 3. Selvaraj (DMK) 4. Varadapillai (AIADMK)

2. Mariamman 1 . Swathi Marthandam (AIADMK) Koil Street 2. M.O.H. Farook (Cong-I, CM) 3. V. Govindarajan (Cong-I) 4. Dr. S. Sourirajan (Cong-I) 5. S. Ramasamy (Ex-C.M.) 6. Dr. Easwaraj 7. Dr. Sundarrajan

3. Seniar Kulathu 1. Dessigan Street 2. Amirrudin (Cong-I) 3. Karai Alim (Journalist) 4. Thavasu Nadar (Hindu Muslim Peace Committee Member) . 5. V. Govindarajan (Minister Cong-I) 6. Venkatachalam Pillai (Cong-I) MLA from Kottucherry) 7. Karai Subbiah (Artist)

4. Market Street 1 . Vaiyapuri Pillai (Industrialist) 2. M.O.H. Uduman (Chief Minister's brother) 3. Saih Marickar (Ex-MLA, Muslim League) 4. Dr. Sourirajan, (Ex-Minister Cong-I) 5. S. Ramasamy (Ex-Chief Minister)

5. J.N. Street 1 . V. Govindarajan 2. M.O.H. Farook 3. Selvaraj (DMK Secy.) 4. Sahul Hammed (Dist. Judge) 5. S. Ramassamy, (MLA).

6. Masthanpalli Street 1. V. Govindarajan Respondent is ·2. S. Ramassamy 4th Std.

194 1 2

3. Dr. Sourirajan (Temple Chowkidar) (Ex-Home Minister) 4. L. Sreedharan (Administrator)

7. Baharathiar Street 1. V. Govindarajan Respondent 2. Dr. Sourirajan a Hindu Doctor (Ex-Minister) 3. Seik Davood Marickar 4. Kanagaraju (Jwellery Merchant) 5. Thavasu Nadar (Country Liquor) merchant and Hindu Peace Committee member)

B. Dr. Ambedkar Street 1. V. Govindarajan 2. Rathinasabapathy Chettiar (Hindu Religious Trustee) 3. L. Sreedharan (Administrator)

9. Deitha Street 1. V. Govindarajan (Minister) 2. Amirrudin (Cong-I Leader) 3. Dr. Amalanathan 4. L. Sreedharan 5. Rev. Fr. Sudarshan (Parish Priest) 6. Thavasu Nadar 7. M.O.H. Uduman (Chief Minister's brother)

10. Sethilal Nagar 1. A.V. Subramaniam (Contractor) 2. Seetharaman (Municipal Commissioner) 3. L. Sreedharan (Administrator) 4. S. Ramassamy 5. Dr. S. Sourirajan

11. Church Street Nil

12. Thomas Arul Pudu 1. V. Govindarajan Street 2. Amirrudin 3. M.O.H. Farook 4. S. Ramasamy

195 STATEMENT NO, Xl,ii

PATTERN OF VOTING BEHAVIOUR

Pomical Name of the Year when Whether Number of Total institution Constiluency election Name of Polling Station reserved registered of which to which the was held or unreserved Voters election was polling slalion Constituency held belongs

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. LokSabha Pondicher~ Lok 24.12.1984 There are two Assembly Unreserved 25,259 25,259 Sabha Constituency segments in Karaikaltown (Lok Sabha) i.e., Karaikal and Karaikal elections. south. Karaikl has got 17 and Karaikal south 15 polling slations i.e" atolal of 32 for both the parliament and assembly elections.

-L (() (7) 2. Vidhan Sabh~ 1. Karaikal 05.03.1985 Unreserved 14,651 14,651 Assembly 2. Karaikal (South) 5.03.1985 Unreserved 11,196 11,196

3. Municipalny

4. Other Slatuto~ bodies (spec~)

Source: Election Department, Pondicher~. Table XI.II (eontd.)

.Dominant ethnic Dominent socia- Particulars of Candidates category (SC/STI economic class Other Hindul (Upper/middle! Name Ethnic category Party Muslim/Christian! Lower according SeIST/Other Hindu Sikh/Buddhist! to standards of Muslim/SiktVChristian/ Others) the town Buddhist/Others

8 9 10 11 12

S,lShri Lok Sabha Hindus 1. Russou Angappan Independent 2. S. Ramassamy Hindu -do- 3. N. Gajendra Bhaskara Hindu -do- 4. A.LN. Kumarasamy Hindu -do- 5. P. Shanmugham Hindu Indian National Congress (I) 6. S. Sukumaran HinOO Congress (S) 7. C.P. Thirunavakkarasu IfIl'KlJ D.M.K. .... 8. N.Ramu Hindu Independent (0 9. P. R~asekaran Hindu -do- '" 10. VIA. Veerappa gounder Hindu -do-

Vidhan Sabha Hindus KARAIKAL (Assembly) 1. V. govindar~an HirdJ Indian National Congress (I) 2. V.M. Salin Marickar Muslim Independent 3. G.Rqar~ HirdJ Janatha 4. KS. Manimaran Hintll Independent

.KARAlKAL SOUTH: 1. S.Ramassamy HinckJ Independent 2. A.M. Kasim Muslim Indian National Congress (I) 3. A. Arumaikannu Hirxll D.M.K. 4. M.S. H~amoideen Muslim Independent

Municipaltty

Others TABLE XI.l1 (eontd.)

No. of valid Total No. of votes Remarks votes polled polled by candidates (valid{invali~

13 14 15

LokSabha 16,626 22 Total Valid Votes 16,626 2,118 Rejected votes 218 30 Tendered votes 8 78 Total voters 25,259 9,375 Male voters 12,600 95 Female vot8!S 12,659 4,799 Polling Stations 32 40 %Voting 66.7% 42 'lI Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) 9,656 4,784 Total Electorate 14,651 "" 3,671 Female voters 7,336 ~ Male voters 7,315- 1,081 Talai valid votes 9,656 120 Rejected 89 Total votes polled 9,745 Total polling stations 17 %Voting 66.5% 3,808 Total Electorate 11,196 Male Voters 5,597 2,393 Female voters 1,923 To1al valid voles 8,149 25 Rejected as Total votes polled 8,235 Total polling station 15 %Voting 73.6%

MunicipalHy Elections to Municipalities, were not Others conducted after 1967

In case of big towns and cities may be furnished in respect of representative sample of booths not exceeding five. In respect of small towns may be furnished In respect of all booths, For booths thus covered notional maps of town may be prepared deiJneating the booths and approximate percentage of population by ethnic categories and socia-economic classes, STATEMENT NO,X1.(II~

Name Industry Factory Category of When estab· Affliation to which to which workers to lished related related which r~lated

2 3 4 5 6

1. Karaikal Cinema Operators Cinema Karaikal Cinema Operators 20th April, Association region 1983 Cinema Theatres

2, Karaikal region Municipalhy Water tank 7th March, All India Trade Municipalny and and Commune Operators 1984 Union Congress Commune Panchayat Panchayat in water lank opera Karaikal region ators Union

3. Karai Min Oozh~ar Electrictty Electricity 3rd December ... Sangam Department, Workers 1984 (0 (0 Karaikal

4, Karaivatta Co-op. Milk Milk Vendors 11th November, Centre of Indian , Kootturavu Pal- Society, Karaikal 1982 Trade Unions vazhangum (CITU) Thozhilalar Sangam

5, Karaikal Central Karaikal Central Co-op, Marketing 17th April, Co. op, Marketing Co, op, processing, Society 1985 Society Employees supp~ing and Employees Union marketing society , 6, Karaikal Public Karaikal public Public Servants 17th April, Servants Consu· S8fVants Consumer Consumer Co,op, 1985 mer Co,op, Sales Co,op, Stores Stores Staff Staff Union STATEMENT NO. XI.(iii) (Concld.)

Political Total Eligibil~y of Membership Subscription alligiance membership

7 8 9 10

20 Any workman who is employed in Karaikal Rs. 2per month region Cinema theatres Entrance fee Re. 1/=

2 Communist Party of 32 Any workman who ~ employed as water tank Rs. 2per month India operator in the MunicipalHy and Commune Entrance fee Re.l::: Panchayats in Karaikal Region

3 - 90 Any workman who is employed in Electricny Rs.S= per month department in Kar~kal region.

4 Communist Party of 86 Any workman who is employed in Karaikal Re.l!= per month India (Marxist) regional Co.op. Milk Society fI) 5 - 32 Any workman who is employed in Karaikal Rs.51: per month 8 Central Co.op. processing supp~, Marketing Society.

6 - 10 Any workman who is employed in karikal Rs.S/= per month. Public Servants Consumer co.op. Stores

Source: Labour Department, Pond~herry. STATEMENT NO. XI.(iv)

SPECIAL PARTICUlARS ABOUT IMPORTANT VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS INCLUDING CLUBS, LIBRARIES, PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, CASTE OR COMMUNITY ASSOCIATIONS ETC. (FOR BIG CITIES UP TO THE NUMBER OF 20 SUCH ORGANISATIONS ARE TO BE COVERED).

Name Location When estab- No. of Member Whether mainly lished ~ any employees associated with No. Basis of particular caste membership or community! occupation groupl other interest group

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. UonsClub Karaikal Town 1970 NIL 40 High Society and financially rich.

2. Rotary Club -do- -do· NIL 45 -do·

3. Chamber of Karaikal Town 1963 3 200 Business People engaged in Commerce approximately community business of various I\l categories ...0 4. Karaikal Karaikal Town 1983 NIL 22 Any physically Physically handiea· physically handicapped pped people of Handicapped person Karaikal Club

5. Karaikal Karaikal Town 1979 NIL 60 any youth Any youth of Karaikal Sports above 15 town above 15 years Youth Club years

6. Nehru Yuvak Nehru Nagar 1977 4 Youth Wenare Karaikal region

7. Indira Gandhi Karaikal Town 1980 40 Members are Weffare of women (Mahilamandal) ladies who Narpani Mandram are aged above 15 years

8. BhimaSena Karaikal Town 19B4 30 S.C. Members Scheduled Caste only members are only as sociated with the sena STATEMENT NOli (Iv) (Contd.)

SI. Aims and Subjects Nature of activi~ Social reform or social change, nany, Area of operation including ~an No. promoted by the organisation outside the town 8 9 10 11

1. Social~ relevent Help to poor people from fire, flood To promote inter-caste marriage, widow Karaikal region aaiVities and communicable disease affected remarriage and such other socially areas. progressive activtties 2. -do- -do· ·do· ·do· ,3. Promote Trade and Commerce 1. Help goods transport and also watch and act on 2. Give instructions on price trends market trends. to business people Promote business ·do- 3. To regulate the business activITY, 4. To standardize the quanti~ and quali~ of the goods sold in the town

4. Promote hand~apped people 1. Take the count of Physically Promote employment opportunHies and Karaikal region I\J 2 of Karalkal region handicapped persons and bring other social~nancial help for for the them to the notice of Govt. phycial~ handicapped people for various purposes

5. Promote I~erature, Se~· 1. To bring to the notice of un·employed Promote employment and such other Karaikal Town

employment I and cultural youths the projects undertaken by We~are actiVITies among the youth of activhies among the youth the DRDA, Nehru Yuvak Kendra and Karaikal town of Karaikaltown. Block Development Office. 6. Promote Youth Welfare Social service and other Cultural activtties Mutt Education Schemes, Karaikal among youths Nutrition, library facilHies etc. region

7. Promote the Women 1. Tailoring classes Promotion of Equalny and Karaikal town We~are 2. Demonstration on Nutrition food, social righ~ of women deanliness of surroundings and child care etc. are conducted i 8. Promote S.C. Welfare Actions are taken for getting the Welfare of Scheduled Castes Karaikal region allowed quotas STATEMENT NO,XI (Iv) (eonld,)

SI. Quantnative index Working hours for If there is an attached library No. of various ~ pes of various types of activfiies (eg. no. activities Type of book (fiction, Approximate Average of Schools started Drama, Children's story Number number of book, biography, politi· readers calliterakJre, economic per day and social problem, other journals by categories)

12 13 14 15 16

1. Social works are carried Story books, novels etc. out on holidays are available. T. v., sports materials are also available

2. ·do· ·do·

3. Works on all business NIL NIL NIL III days. Meetings are 8 conducted after business hours

4. There are no particular the club borrows books NIL NIL working hours. from information depart· ment and youth club, Karaikal on loan basis and distribute the same to its members

5. 10AM to 2PM and Maintain agood library 4PM to 8PM wnh books, magazines, newspapers etc.

6. ahours per day Attached library with stores containing sports articles

7. 3PM to 5PM daily NIL NIL NIL

8. Daily news paper only STATEMENT NO,XI (Iv)'(Contd,)

81. Rate of subscription Finance by ExpendHure If affiliated to any If having No. or/and other payment main sources by main ttmes social, political, branches of various services cuttural, religious particulars REMARKS or other1ypes of of the same organisations parti- culars of the same 17 18 19 20 21 22 1. Will and pleasure of Contribution Purchase of books members from members and sports material and help to fire and flood affected people 2. .do- -do· -do· 3. There is no fixed .rate Contribution Maintenance of office of subscription from business abd expenditure for communny. general actiVITies. 4. NIL Donation from Office of not apueca The Club has helped in general public building p-ocunng athree wheeler to aphysically handi· capped person from the I\) Govt. ~ 5. Rs. 2per month 1. Subscription 1. Electrlcny charges They are receiving help from members. from Nehru yuvak 2. Donation 2. Magazines and other Kendra and Block devp. general public Newspapers office. They are also from cuttural helping the physically activities like handicapped club. drama etc. 6. Govt. of India Supp~ing books Nehru Yuvak Kendra Ministry of sports for libraries gives guidance/financial and Youth weWare in various clubs help to clubs/organisa tions for buying books, sports Items etc for the clubs. They also sent youths to Govt. depart- ments as apprentices. They are conducting a tailoring class. 7. Financed by Social ExpendHure on we~are Board, and various women welfare department, welfare programmes. Govt. of pondicherry. B. Rs. 3per member Purchase of news per month paper and electricity charges. CHAPTER XII

LEISURE AND RECREATION, SOCIAL PARTICIPATION, SOCIAL AWARENESS, REUGION AND CRIME

Leisure Acitivity takenover the role of providing leisure time activity to a great extent replacing the traditional channels The society in terms of the net work of social like performing shows, bhajans, keerthans etc. As actions adn interactions does not confine itself a corollary, the traditional leisure activity marked only to the processess of subsistence or material by collective partiCipation in groups has now be­ advancement. It also provides for certain activities come highly individualised with a majority of the during leisure time where the people refurbish given population restricting the leisure activity ei­ their exhausted faculties. Leisure activities are so ther to their ownselves or at the most to their family varied in nature and also fall in a pattern that a members. Only in the rural areas it is extended to paradign could be drawn. The leisure activities, the peer groups. In fact this is one of the character­ accodingly can be grouped into individual activi­ istic or urbanisation process and responsible "for ties and those involve plurality of persons cross the de-generation of primary relations. cutting a series of actions starting from simple physical leisures or relaxation to the evolved and Karaikal town is a typical example for this intellectual pursuits of creative expression. How­ phenomena. The survey data shows (See table ever the common premise on which any type of lei­ No. XII.I, XII.II) that the leisure activity at individual sure activity is based is the fact of a physical level is the consumption of mass media viz. rejuvenation through an abstract or physical grati­ reading magazines; listening to radio and viewing fication. It is a cathexis with positive cannotations cinema or Television by respondents from all the from the cognitive perceptions of the actor or age groups. The slight difference is there are a few actors involved. Because of this innate necessity T.V. viewers in the age group of 25 and above and strength and social significance that leisure whereas it is 'nil' below that age group and also activities from times inmemorial are responsible there are a few respondents attending club in age for the creation and sustenance of the simple folk group 60 and above. This leisure activity through lore or yester years to the most sophisticated per­ mass media is otherwise not differential by age or forming and fine arts and the traditional Bullock occupation. cart race to modern games like Tennis as we see today. The by products of the leisure activities are Collective Activities the maintenance of individual health, collective spirit leading to better social cohesion and har­ A already pointed out, the leisure activities at mony. These are significant to the extent that the groups or community level are not seen on daily or leisure activities are institutionalised and promoted weekly basis. However, there are remnants of in order to achieve those by products in return. But tradition in the form of collective partiCipation set to one cannot fail to notice that the disorganised and the recurring occasions of annual nature. They delinquent oriented leisure activities also devolped are mostly religious in ·character and rather com­ and continued leading to personal and social disor­ munity oriented than area specific. However, the ganisation. With this perspective in view, the leisure national festivals. like Republic Day, Independ­ activities of the town are enumerated as follows: ence Day etc. are also used for involving the pub­ lic. The common facet irrespective of the occasion Individual Acitivities is the multi-demensional activity that includes music both classical and vocal dance programmes and In the contemporary period, mass media have even sports and games on such occasions, in 205 addition to philonthropic activities like cloth distri­ have corresponding percentage of 50 and 10 bution, community dinners etc. Another common respeqtively. feature and also which is unique to this town is the active participation of all the residents irrespective Religion-wise distribution is given in Table of religion or community. No. XII.IV, from where it can be seen that the awareness and the practice of Family Planning is Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Welfare very high among Hindus (92% and 30% respec­ Measures tively) compared to the awareness 85% of Chris­ tians with 34% practising and an awareness of Public participation in the welfare policies of 61 %d and practice of 3% among Muslims. That the state is one of the contentions by which the the Muslim community virtually is avoiding family Indian constitution has been paused. Awareness planning indicates the continuing religio-traditional and practice of some of the measures which the approach in this community. Government brings forth in the public carrys the sense of persuasion so that implementation at Among the practicing members, it has also individual level will not only benefit the family but in been found that adoption of permanent methods is collective terms, the entire community as well. In far highter (67%) compared to temporary meth­ the present, report, due to operational constraints, ods, among all religions. This is inspite of the fact only two of such measures have been examined. that there have been post operative complaints from as much as 67% of the practicing females Family Planning compared to hardly 25% of the practicing males.

The country-wide dichotomy between a high Knowledge and Assessment of the Social degree of awareness and very little practice has Legislations found expression in the present sample also. As the Table No. XII."I shows as many as 86% out of From the respondents, the question was asked the 250 informants were found to be aware of the as to the awareness of anyone of the social fact that births can be prevented and that there are legislation measures related to aspects like land methods which can be adopted for that purpose. reforms, dowry act, Hindu marriage act, child As against this awareness, only 27% of the members marriage act etc. It has been found that 52% of that were found to be practicing family planning. Fur­ respondents are aware of one or more of such ther the practicing females have a far higher pro­ legislative measures, the dowry act, the untouch­ portion (69%) compared to males. ability act and the land reforms acts being most prominent. It has also been observed that the Education-wise it is very curious to know that awareness and the economic status/educational the literates upto Matric formed the highest propor­ status are positively associated. tion among those who are aware as well as prac­ ticing (90% and 31 % respectively) compared to As regards assessment majority cutting across those who are Matric and above (100% and 18% religion feel that the present provisions of the respectively). While illiterates as can be expected, respective acts is adeuqte.

206 TABLE NO XII,I

LEISURE TIME ACTIVITf OF WORKERS BY LOCALITY, AGE AND SEX

SI. LocaJity Description Below 15 15·19 20·24 25·34 No. of leisure timeaclMty P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. Three well place street *,$,@ 2. Mariamman Koil street .,$,@,& 2 3 3 10 8 2 • 3. Seniar Kulalhu street *,$,@ 3 3 10 8 2 9 6 3 8 7

4. Market street *,$,@,& - 2 2 5 5 • 5. Jawaharlal Nehru streel .,$,@,& 3 2 7 7

6. Masthanpalli street *,$,@,& 7 7 5 5 I\) 0 7. Bharathiar streel -..J *,$,@,& 3 2 2 2 8. Dr. Ambedkar street *,$,@,&

9. Deilha slrae! .,$,@

10. Selhilal Nagar *,$,@ 2 2 7 5 2 5 5 10 8 2

11. Church streel .,$,@,& 4 3

12. Thomas Arul Pudu street .,$,@ 2 2 2 2

Total 7 4 3 24 19 5 39 31 8 51 46 5

*Reading Newspapers and Magazines $Listening News and Songs in Radio .@ Going to watch Cinema &Attending Clubs TABLE NO. XII.I (Concld.)

SI. Locality 35·44 45·59 60 + Total No. p M F P M F P M F P M F

2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

1. Three well place street 3 3 3 3 9 9 2. Mariamman Koil street 5 4 17 16 39 34 5

3. Seniar Kulathu street 10 7 3 35 34 2 n 63 14

4. Market street 6 6 2 2 4 4 19 19

5. Jawaharlal Nehru street 3 3 11 10 5 5 30 27 3

6. Masthanpalli street 9 8 20 20 5 5 47 46

7. Bharathlar street 2 11 11 20 17 3

8. Dr. Ambedkar street 2 4 2 2 7 4 3 t\) @ 9. Deltha street 3 2 2 6 3 3

10. Seth~al Nagar 8 7 34 25 9 5 4 71 56 15

11. Church street 3 2 20 19 29 25 4

12. Thomas Arul Pudu street 6 6 3 3 14 14

Total 52 43 9 166 149 17 29 25 4 368 317 51 TABLE NO. XII.II

LEISURE TIME ACTIVITY AS RELATED TO OCCUPATION, AGE AND SEX

SI, Occupation 0-14 15-19 20-24 25·34 No, P M F P M F P M F P M F

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1, Unskilled Manual 4 3 20 18 2 11 9 2 19 18 2, Skilled Manual 3, Lowest professional &admn, 1 8 6 2 15 10 5 4, Small business 2 2 9 9 31 29 2 5, Highly skilled and Supervisory manual 2 .1 6, Clerks and shop Assts, 4 3 7, Intermediate professional &related posts, Secondary

I\) teachers etc, 2 0 to 8, Medium Business 3 3 4 4 g, Higher professional and salaried posts 2 10, Owners of factories large shops, etc, 5 5 11. Cuttivators 1 12, Pensioners and retired personnel 13, Beggars and prostITutes

14, Unclas~fied "\ 1 15, Non·workers 408 194 214 154 59 95 113 47 56 119 23 96

Total 412 195 217 179 79 98 146 76 70 206 98 108

1, Reading newspapers/magazines 3, Going to watch cinema 2, Listening news and Musics in Radio; 4, Few of them watch TV (Persons like Medium business, higher professional and supervisory posts, owners of factories and shops), 5, Visning club TABLE NO. XII.II(Concld.)

SI, Occupation 35-44 45-49 60+ Total No, P M F P M F P M F P M F

2 15 16 ~ 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

l. Unskilled Manual 29 26 3 20 17 3 10 8 2 113 97 16 2, Skilled Manual 2 2 4 4 3, Lowest professional· &admn, 20 18 2 15 l3 2 3 3 62 50 12 4, Small business 17 17 15 13 2 5 4 79 74 5 5, H~h~ skilled and Superviso~ manual 3 3 2 2 7 6 6, Clerks and shop Assts, 3 3 2 2 9 8 7, Intermediate professional &related posts, Seconda~ teachers etc, 6 4 2 5 4 13 9 4 8, Medium Business 4 4 4 4 3 3 18 18 II,) 9, Higher professional and 0""" salaried posts 3 3 2 2 7 6 10, Owners of factories large shops, etc, 3 3 11 11 11, Cu~ivators 4 4 3 3 10 10 12, Pensioners and reli red personnel 8 6 2 9 7 2 17 13 4 13, Beggars and prost~utes 14, Unclassffiad 4 2 2 1 3 3 9 7 2 15, Non-workers 76 1 75 8B 9 79 84 18 66 1,042 351 691

Total 168 84 84 171 82 89 121 50 71 1,401 664 737 I TABLE NO. XII. III.

AWARENESS AND PRACTICE OF FAMILY PLANNING BY EDUCATION LEVELS

SI. Educational level of Total Number of Practicing Members No. Informant Informants Aware Remarks Males Females Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Illiterate 30 15 2 3

2. Literates upto Matric 186 167 14 44 58

3. Matric and Above 34 34 5 6

Total 250 216 21 46 67

211 TABLE NO. XII. IV

AWARENESS AND PRACTICE OF PLANNING BY RELIGION

SI. Religion Awareness Total sample Practicing atleast one per household No. households Remarks Permanent Temporary Total

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Hindu 155 169 33 16 49

2. Muslim 20 33

3. Christian 40 47 10 6 16

4. Jalns

Total 216 250 45 22 67

212 CHAPTER XIII

LINKAGES AND CONTINUA

Except in the case of Metropolis of Megapo­ town needs to be studied for 'its linkages and the lis; all habitations are linked to its natural region on socio-economic life lines' with the region of its one hand and the larger administrative unit to location. ·While the historical perspective ot the which it belongs, on the other. The demographic, town provides the dynamics of the town, a review economic and social variations of a given unit, of present structural functional character of the urban or rural over time, are a consequence of this town projects its statics. Both put together provide natural and administrative linkage. The duality of the net work of its linkages with the external, in such linkage sometimes acting in parallel terms concentric circles from the immediate rural hinter­ and some other time, overlapping evolves in par­ land to the distant towns or cities. allel terms and some other time, overlapping evolves a mosaic as it were that defines the character of Historico-Structural Aspects the town. If the unit under study is urban, the influence is both ways. The town is affected as well Karaikal town, as a part of Karaikal djstrict has a function to effect. and the Union Territory of Pondicherry reflects most of the charecteristics of Pondicherry City, the There are many models of regional linkage. administrative capital, and yet presents its own Among the, Central place concept; growth centre unique features-As regards the similarities, Karai­ model and nodal point are the most widely dis­ kal town, or the Karaikal region and Pondicherry cussed for their application to different types of district had the same historal base, being part of urban units (Prakash Aao: 1982). The Central erstwhile Vijayanagar empire and subsequently, place theory emphasises the town or city as locus under the suzernity of Thanjavur State till French and envisages the status of a town in terms of its took over. Both the regions are on the eastern surplus value or regional importance of the town coast and constitute basically a part of Tamil over its local importance. The theory emphasises speaking area of south. Both have the same socio­ the structural attributes of the urban units in ques­ cultural moorings with many a similarities in mores, tion where the town need not necessarily be the customs, traditions, usages, and beliefs. Steeped unit of study but as a part of the region as a whole. in Dravidian ethos, both the regions are marked by partiarchial type of families, patritineal decendence, The growth centre model is applicable to endogamy at group lev~l, basically agrarian and towns where there is a radial or centrifugal growth orthodox in approach. Both being located on coast, of urban unit around the core administrative and are known for excellent trade in fisheries and being marketing establishments, which are basically ini­ in the same natural region, have rich black alluvial tiated by official planning or official necessities. In soil rendering a highly fertile land for the growth of contrast to central place concept, this theory is crops like rice, and surgarcane. Further, both the basically functional it its approach. The nodal point regions have had close linkages in the political theory, envisages industrial or project towns gradu­ struggle for freedom and also during post-libera­ ally urbanizing the rural hinterlands sectorally over tion period. Karaikal was not only the forerunner at a period of time. Thus, the nodal point concept every important stage of history but was equally combines both the structural and functional aspect controlling the political activities at Pondicherry of towns and cities. City, the capital. Out to all these geographical, cultural and political connections, Pondicherry (the It is from this conceptual focus that the Karaikal proper) and Karaikal region, as the two districts of 213 Union Territory, form one homogeneous unit, Baic Features although separated spatially. This unit, for the same reason widely varies from the remaining two The sailent demographic features of Karaikal parts of the Union Territory, viz. Mahe, on the west region (district) as per 1981 Census are provided coast of Arabian sea, a Malayalam speaking area in the inset table numbers XIII-1 and XIII-2. and Yanam, on the Northern coast of Bay of Bengal, a Telugu speaking area. Position of Karaikal in the Union Teritory

However, there are some singular features of In terms of total workers, the position of Karaikal which demarcate its historical past and Karaikal is more or less on the level of the Union economic present from the rest of the regions in Territory of Pondicherry as a whole, and Pondich­ Union Territory. Karaikal from the beginning, ap­ erry district; higher than Mahe and less than Yanam. pears to be more a seat of religious patronage an In terms of male worki_ng force, it stands second, in consequently its social moorings are deeply en­ terms of the females the same. However, the trenched in the e~olisiastical sanctions. Further, female work force in all the urban areas as such is the town had more politi a-economic liaison with quite low. Even in terms of the agriculturally en­ Thanjavur due to proximity and also having been gaged population is concerned, the position of under its rule for long ime compared to Pondich­ Karaikal is second. erry region proper. The innumerable number of temples, the legends connected with the line of From the above information, it is evident that decedency in Shaivite cult, the literary heritage commune-wise differential in the region with re­ and inscriptions found in the Karaikal region amply spect to major socio-economic and demographic testify to Thanjavur's influence compared to Pon­ indices is very marginal. It is obvious since the dicherry region. This is not withstanding the fact area of the region itself is very small in relative that, it got de-linked from Thanjavur region and terms added by the fact that all the villages in the came to be connected with Pondicherry region at district are within a radius of 14 Kms, from the a later stage due to the French occupation that nearest town which inCidently is the Karaikal town, brought the two regions together under common the district Headquarters. Both these factors viz. administration, and consequently, a common po­ the limited spatial dispersal as well as uniform litio-economic umbrella. proximity to district Headquarters must have facili­ tated a near homogenity at sub-regional level. Social and Demographic Features of the Further, the infrastructural development is also on Region near parity since a lesser degree of natural deline­ ation would facilitate more equitable growth of Karaikal forms a part of the Southern macro man made facilities through the administration. and south eastern meso natural region according to the natural divisions of different regions in India. In terms of total workers, the position of Karaikal, a part of the South eastern' meso region Karaikal is more or less on the level of the Union constitutes the eastern coastal plain with black Territory of Pondicherry as a whole, and Pondich­ alluvial soil, basically paddy growing region with erry district; higher than Mahe and less than Yanam. moderate climate and rainfall. Karaikal town, at the In terms of male working force, it stands second, in same time, constitutes the entire urban part of the terms of females the same. However, the females Karaikal district and due to its administrative isolation work force in all the urban areas as such is quite from the immediate natural region is taken as the low. Even in terms of the agriculturally engaged identifiable region for all operational and analytical population is concerned, the position of Karaikal is purposes. second.

214 Intra Regional Linkage secondary education, degree and Post graduate courses. They are drawn from almost all the Karaikal town in administrative terms has the commune (Please see Table XIII.I). However hardly significance of being the district Headquarters but 10% among them belong to scheduled castes has no industrial or porductive base in or around its (see table XI" .11) inspite of the fact that the only jurisdiction and as a corollory of these two chara­ residential hostel meant for students from outside cateristics, is baSically a service town except for its is exclusive to the Scheduled Caste and Backward religio-tourist importance. Therefore, linkages that Communities (see table XIII.III). It is also gathered are expected between the town and rest of the that the general occupation of the parents of the region (hereafter synonymous for district) would non-residents students studying upto higher sec­ be centrifugal where the administrative, institu­ ondary level is agricultural labour, petty-business tional and legal services are rendered to the re­ having educational standards below matric, mostly maining parts of the region. illiterates. (Table XII!.III)

However in conceptual terms, the linkage The parents of those who are studying need to be studied not merely on the basis of the degree/post-graduate classes are engaged in services rendered or utilized but also with regard white collar jobs, business community and land­ to the production-distribution; the trade and com­ lords, having educational qualifications of above merce; existence of transport communications etc. matric. (See table XIII.IV). It may be of interest to Further the relative status of sub-regional over the note that about 1/4th of the students coming from regional headquarters also influence the degree outside the Karaikal town constitute females. Two of interaction between the base town, in the pres­ factors are observed to be the reason for the non­ ent context the very town under study, and the residential nature of external students. First, lack remaining region. The paradign that emerges of any hostel accomodation in the town, second through the bi-dimension linkage leaves an analy­ relative proximity of the communes to the town. sis of two types. First the linkage between the town and the other administrative units in higher and Medical and Health Services lower hirrearchy. Second the socio-economic link~ age which cross cut the administrative hierarchy. Similar to educational institutions, the entire The foregOing analysiS follows this bi-diminsional region has to depend on the town where the medi­ pattern. cal and health facilities are totally centralized. As the table No. XIII.V shows four out of five com­ Administrative Linkages munes with facilities upto primary health centres level where facilities for out patients are available The main services required and provided by although one or two beds exist. It was gathered, the administration to the population within the that only simple ailments apart from the rural MCH jurisdiction are education, health, drinking water, service is only taken care here. At commune level, post and telegraph, transport and communication the remaining patients are referred to Karaikal and food and civil supplies. "'Fable XII1.3 shows that town. In contrast, the town has the headquarters at sub-regional level all the communes have edu­ hospital with a capacity of 280 beds and a conti­ cational facilities upto secondary level. Therefore gent of 58 Medical staff and 83 para medical staff the poplulation generally is expected to come to alongwith 383 from other cadres. The hospital is the district headquarters (Hereafter termed sufficiently equipped to handle major and monor Karaikal) only for the purpose of higher education. surgeries, pathological investigations and mater­ Yet it has been observed that there are consider­ nity, child and family welfare services, in addition able number of outside students pursuing to the clinical services of all the departments. An

215 interesting feature is a separate allocation of beds is basically an area where mostly food crops are for patients outside Karaikal. grown apart from the fisheries exclusively operated from the coastal Kottucherry Commune. With such centralization, there is no surprise Therefore, Karaikal region contributes mostly rice that at any givn point of time, as many as 80% of which is brought t the town and re-distributed the inpatients are from outside Karaikal town (Please within itself. Further a strong commercial link be­ see the Table XIII. VI). As it is not recorded, the tween different communes and towns is sustained corresponding proportion for out-patients colJld through the collection of milk from the commune not be ascertained. In absolute terms, a~out 1500 Headquarters which is brought and re-distributed inpatients are treated for a month an average. The within the town. The Karaikal Co-operative milk so­ commune-wise data in this regard shows that the Ciety conducts this operation who have their own highest proportion comes from the adjoining transport arrangements and delivery staff. It has Thirunallar Commune. been noted from official sources that the co-opera­ tive society collects milk to an order of 8000 Jitres Travel Index By Locality: (per capital'distance of mi Ik a day from district, out of which about 2000 travel) litres are delivered within the town itself with the remaining loft at the commune Head Quarters for Among the 12 localities surveyed, the highest local distribution. In addition, about 20 private index is noted from Jawaharlal Nehru Street, Church vendors from surroun,ding villages are also street, and Three well Place street, in that order reported to supply milk in the town, with cycle as with very low index observed from Thomas Arul transport. Pudu street, Sethilal Nagar and Seniar Kulathu Street with other localities ranging their index in The other items of daily consumption nature between these two groups (See table No. XIII. VII). which came from rural areas to the town include It is already known that the locality with higher local vegetables like brinjal, drumsticks, chillies index comprise mostly higher economic strata and etc. from Tirunallar and Neravy communes and those localities found to have lower travel indices poultry organised by the Karaikal Animal Husban­ comprised by agricultural labourers, daily wages dary Department. Fish and other non-vegetarian workers and other economically backward classes, products, are also sold by private vendors at the (See table No. XIII. VIII). In this way the data market. However Karaikal town is virtually de­ reveals an association between economic status pendent for items like fruits and are transported and interaction with outside. from as far places as Thiruchirapally, Mayiladuthurai, and Thanjavur and Textiles from Madras, Kum­ Trade and Commercial Linkage bakonam, Thanjavur, Madurai and Bangalore. The \ transport deployed varies with the place from So far the rinkage between the town and where the goods are brought into the town. In the other parts of the region have' been studied .... with first place, rail transport is very meagre and is in for central focus on Karaikal town as an administra­ movement of FCI, Govt. goods etc. for commercial tive head quarters. This would be followed by the purpose only. The supply of commodities from the linkage of Karaikal town as a natural urban unit. adjoining commune is usually by vendors on cycle Further it is with reference to not only within the or carried on head baskets. The society run com­ region but outside as well since the basic charecter­ mercial services move the commodities, for ex­ istic being the production distribution systems and ample like milk, poultry products through their own the trade and commercial relation that ensue. vans. The commodities which come from outside the region are by trucks and in few cases through As already noted elsewhere, Karaikal region the public transport.

216 Transport and Communication socio-cultural tradition fully complimented by trade and commercial activities. The continuity of these Karaikal is connected by rail and road. The linkage are confirmed by the fact that the nearest town has a terminal railway station which is con­ town to Karaikal with a population of less than one nected to Mayiladuthurai junction which is .on lakh continues to be Kumbakonam and the town Madras-Ramesw_aram Metre Gauge line. How­ with more than one lakh population remains to be ever, the rail transport to and from Karaikal is Thanjavur. The nearest airport is Thiruchirapalli virtually defund for passenger travel and is used and the sea/river port with a distance of 100 kms is now and then for freight purposes. The only and Nagapattinam. widely used transport for commercial trade and travel purposes is by road. In additi.on to the trade and commercial links of Karaikal town to the above mentioned places Mobility of Population where Karaikal is found to be a good marketing place, the Karaikal town also is found to contribute The major routes that pass through this town to the above towns in ample measures towards are: public services, It has been noted that due to the very liberal administrative policy of Pondicherry a. Madaras-Karaikal-Nagapattinam; administration, the Karaikal town has been attract­ b. Karaikal-Thiruchirapalli (via) Kumbakonam and ing a large influx of migrants into the town from the Thanjavur. surrounding Tamil Nadu region. Attractive incen­ c. Nagapattinam-Kumbakonam (via) Karaikal alJd tives like institutional finance in terms of loans and d. Nagapattinam-Mayiladuthurai (via) Karaikal. subsidies for small enterprises, self employment schemes particularly for Scheduled Castes and In addition to these highways, all the five economically weaker section, have already seem commune Head Quarters are c(?nnected to Karai­ to have brought a high degree of migration, of kal town with daily trips as mentioned in Table No. people from Tamil Nadu. XIII.IX.3. The intra-district routes are managed by private agencies. The table also provides the daily Apart from those who have come and settled movement to and from Karaikal town alongwith the in Karaikal town, there are quite a large number of general purpose of the visits. people who frequently visit Karaikal from Tamil Nadu for availing the institutional services. It has Linkages Outside the Region been noted that among the 1338 students who are coming from oytside and studying in Karaikal The trade and commercial linkage to places town at different levels of education as many as like Kumbakonam, Thanjavur, Thiruchirapalli, Ban­ 227 are from Tamil Nadu region. Another facility galore etc. have already been discussed. How­ that attracts population from Tamil Nadu is the ever, it has been observed that there is a constant health and medical facilities wherein around 200 and regular traffic between Karaikal and Kum­ out of 700 inpatients are admitted in the local bakonam, Thanjavur and Nagapattinam. The link­ hospital for fortnight an average from Tamil Nadu, ages have been continued from ancient times as It has been explanined by an official agency Karaikal was a part of Thanjavur kingdom from that the per capita expenditure by state on food pre-historic times till the French took over and its and medicines for the patients in Karaikal is subsequent merger into Pondicherry Union Terri­ relatively very high compared to the surrounding tory. As already detailed previously, the relations parts of Tamil Nadu State and that could be·the between Karaikal and other parts of the Thanjavur reason for the inflow of patients in such large area have a rich'historical base with an identity of numbers.

217 Shopping Junction - Church Street

218 Impact of Urbanisation to that of the commune as a whole (628).

Karaikal town is the only urban unit in the From the available information it has been entire district. Further, the district jurisdiction, taken noted that there is a constant and daily traffic of for operational purposes as the urban influencing about 450 people between the village and district zone or the hinterland extends to a maximum headquarters with 14 trips of buses plying. Apart radius of 15 kms. only. Because of these two from the people who go for availing the administra­ factors, the urban impact will be expected to be tive, civic or institutional service; Neravy is re­ pervading in all geographical directiQns and very ported to contribute a daily supply of local vege­ marginal rural-urban differentials are expected by tables, milk and rice to the town. any of the usual indicators, as intra-regional level. However, KaraikaJ town being only a service centre 2. Nedungadu and without any industrial base or independent productive forces operating within itself, the grad­ This is also a commune head quarters village ual seepage .of urbanization into hinterland in and j..> at a distance of 10 kms on Karaikal-Kum­ spatial terms cannot be expected much either. bakonam highway. It has population of 2278 per­ This is evident by the fact that during 1961 to 1971 , sons within an area of 210.73 hectares, besides the percentage of urban population in the district basic amenities, also has telegraph and phone decreased from 26.49 to 26.07 and during 1971- facilities. However it has been reported tha~ most 81, although went upto 36.17, was purely due to of the people get their supply of the daily consump­ the inclu.. sion of entire rural part of Karaikal com­ tion commodities like vegetables, groceries, fancy mune in the Karaikal Municipal jurisdiction. In spa­ goods etc. from Kumbakonam at much cheaper tial terms too, since 1961 till 1981 , no other town rates compared to Karaikal town, even though the emerged in the district. Therefore, it can be safely distance between the village and Kumbakonam is concluded that, the rural-urban linkage between about 35 kms. compared to the distance of 10 kms. Karaikal town and the other parts of the district are to the District Headquarters. Neverthless, for insti­ in status quo in qualitative terms. From this per­ tutional facilities such as education, health, etc. spective, ~ list of 4 villages are selected to study Karaikal town is visited. Another reason which the general type of interaction with the town. They maintains close linkage between this village and are selected to represent a gradual increase in the Kumbakonam is the locally cotton grown supplied distant district Head Quarters viz., Neravy, the to large number of spinning mills located at Coim­ commune Hqs village (5 kms); Konnakaveli, Kottu­ batore via. Kumbakonam. cherry Commune 10 kms; Nedungadu (Commune Hqs. 10 kms), and Kannapore (Thirunallar Com­ 3. Konnakaveli mune 15 kms). The selection is also based on these relative dispersal in geographical terms. The This village is in the Kottucherry commune at comparitive details of these villages are provided a distance of 10 kms. from Karaikal town towards in Table No. X1I1.4. north on the coast. The village is right on the sea shore. Although the village is only 10 kms. away 1. Neravy from the town it is not connected by bus or any transport. It is basically a muslim dominated area This village is commune head quarters, and 5 with a population of 250 and an area of 120.42 kms. from Karaikal town. It has an area of 41.32 hectares. The civic amenities consist of only one hectares, with a population of 4312. It has all the primary school, drinking water through wells or basic civic amenities and it is connected by a boring pumps. The people purchase most of the pucca road and is electrified. In comparative terms, commodities from Ayerpadi village from Tamil Nadu the average population size of the village is higher State or go to Mayiladuthurai in Tamilnadu State

219 via Ayerpadi village. The relative backwardness of information received wherein Konnakaveli is said this village stands in striking contrast to its promim­ to be far more backward compared to Nedungadu ity to District Headquarters. which is the Commune Headquarters village. In the absence of variability in the distances of village 4. Kannapur from the town where the range is minimum 5 kms. and maximum 15 kms. other criterial of relative It is a village in Thirunallar commune situated development was resorted for analysis. 15 kms, away from the District Headquarters. It has a population of 168 persons with an area of It can be seen from the table that the hypothe­ 81.74 hectares. It has only one primary school; sis with regard to popuJation size; ratio of house­ drinking water from wells and boring pumps; ap­ holds to houses, and the percentage of workers in proach is a Kutcha road inaccessible during rainly other than primary sector have more or less been season; and is electrified. Similar to Konnakaveii, confirmed. It is absolutely clear when the two vil­ there is no public transport in this village and lages Neravy at a distance of 5 kms. to the urban hardly lhere is any movement of people to district centre is compared with the village Kannapur with , headquarters. The people procure all the con­ a corresponding distance of 15 kms. A slight sumption commodities from the village Nallambal variation to the assumption is found with respect to about 5 kms. away in Tamilnadu State by crossing Nedungadu and Konnakaveli (both having dis­ a rivulet as in the case of Konnakaveli. This village tance of 10 kms). With respect to the percentage also projects a highly backward appearance. of workers in other sectors and also the ratio of households can only be explained due tQ the nUl­ Comparative Picture of the Selected Villages lifying effect of equitable distance that many act as Inspite of the fact that all the selected villages an intervening variable. However, the data totally are within a radius of 15 kms. from District Head­ rejects the hypothesis with regard to the percent­ quarters, the brief characteristics listed above do age of irrigated land. It has to be assumed that warrant a deeper view of the selected villages in irrigation being looked after by the different agen­ comparative terms so as to see the impact of ur­ cies is more related to the geographical situation banization at varying proximities. For this purpose than to the urban influence which is a man-made certain broad indicators are applied which are as phenomenon. follows: As regards the amenities and services, the With regard to the demographic characteris­ general hypothesis is that the nearer the village to tics, the usual hypothesis is that the farther the the urban centre, the greater is their availablity. village from the urban centre (a) the leasser will be The inset Table ~o. XIII.X. provides data with the population size, (b) the lesser will be the ratio regard to availablity ol different institutional facili­ of household to occupied houses, (c) the lesser ties. It can be seen that except the power supply, will be the proportion of workers in secondary and the remaining facilities are more in Neravy the tertiary sectors and (d) the lesser will be the nearest village to the town and gradually recede irrigated land. down to Kannapur which is farthest. This once again substantiates the assumption underying the The data pertaining to these indicators are hypothesis. However, the popular assumption that given in the table X111.4. It may be noted that the more the proximity the more will be the literacy although the villages Nedungadu and Konnakav­ rate is found to be totally null and void. Perhaps the eli are at an equitable distance from the District availablity of primary schools in all the villages Headquarters or nearest urban centre, the relative might have led to the redundency of this indicator placement of village 3 after 2 is based on the in contemporary times.

220 Inset Table No. XIII.1

Demographic features of Karaikal District (Census.'81)

SI. Commune/Dist/State Population Population Percentage of urban No. (1981) (1971 ) population (1981)

2 3 4 5

1. Pondicherry U. T. 604,471 . 471,707 52.28 2. Karaikal District 120,010 100,042 36.17 3. Karaikal (M) 43,408 26,080 4. Tirunallar Commune 24,751 20,445 5. Neravy Commune 12,587 11.117 6. Nedungadu Commune 11,580 9,846 7. Kottucherry Commune 13,703 10,949 8. T.R. Pattinam Commune 13,981 11,583

SI. Commune/Dist/State Percentage Decadel Density Average Average No. of urban Growth rate of popu- population areasiZ9 population (1971-81 ) lation size of of village (1971 ) (per sq. km) villages

2 6 7 8 9 10

1. Pondicherry U.T. 42.04 + 28.15 1,229 988 2. Karaikal District 26.07 + 19.96 750 696 3. Karaikal (M) + 20.07 2,285 4. Tirunallar Commune + 21.06 540 651 1 5. Neravy Commune + 13.22 628 968 2 6. Nedungadu Com mune + 17.61 448 351 7. Kottucherry 90mmune + 25.15 498 856 2 8. T.R. Pattlnam Commune + 21.23 662 1,398 2

221 KARAIKAL REGION

INSET TABLE NO. XIII. 2

COMMUNE WISE PARTICULARS AS PER 1981 CENSUS

Name of the Distance Density literacy Percent Percent Remarks Commune of commune of popu- rate age of age of H.qrs. to lation Main agricul- Karaikal (per sq. workers tural Town km.) to total active population population to total popu- lation

2 3 4 5 6 7

1 . Karaikal 2,285 63 26 5 2. Thirunallar 5 540 52 31 22 3. Neravy 5 626 53 30 20

4. Nedungadu 10 447 51 35 .26 5. Kottucherry 6 498 48 29 17

6. T.R. Pattinam 6 663 55 29 16

7. District (Total) 750 56 29 15

8. State (Total) 1,229 55.85 28.60 11.64

or29 or 12

222 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES: (CENSUS 1981)

TABLE NO. XIII. 3

Name of the Distance Primary Middle Secondary Higher Commune oftownl School School Secondary Commune H.qr. to KKL

2 3 4 5 6

1. Karikal town 26 15 8 2 2. Thirunallar Commune 5 27 10 3. Neravy 5 13 3 4. Nedungadu 10 14 3 5. Kottucherry 6 14 5 2 6. T.R. Pattinam 6 12 4 2 Karaikal District 106 40 15 3 U.T. of Pondicherry 467 179 73 20

Name of the College Law Adult Others Village/T own Commune (Graduate College Literary with no edu· + above) Centre cation facility

7 8 9 10 11

1. Karaikaltown 2 9 2. Thirunallar Commune 38 2 9 3. Neravy 18 4. Nedungadu 29 8 5. Kottucherry 30 6. T.R. Pattinam 17 Karaikal District 2 141 4 20 U.T. of Pondicherry 8 471 22 55

223 TABLE NO. XIII.4

PARTICULARS OF SELECTED VILLAGES FOR LINKAGE STUDY

SI. Name of the Distance Population Ratio of Percentage of Percentage No. Village to townl households to workers in irrigated land Dt. Hqrs. houses secondary and to total land Tertiary sectors

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Neravy 5 kms. 4,312 1.07 34.63 60.78

2. Nedungadu 10 " 2,278 1.02 44.91 84.06

3. Konnakaveli 10 " 250 1.08 24.68 88.72

4. Kannapur 15 • 168 1.00 17.39 78.76

N.B. : In col. No.6 the workers in secondary and tertiary sectors are other than cultivators and Agricultural labourers.

TABLE NO. XIII.I

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF STUDENTS COMING FROM OUTSIDE AND STUDYING IN KARAIKAL TOWN IN CLASS AND SEX-WISE

Name of the Commune Secondary Higher Secondary

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Karaikal Town 201 201 165 127 292

2. Thirunallar 2 2 6 6 12

3. Neravy 10 10 24 18 42

4. Nedungadu 4 4 15 8 23

5. Kottucherry 9 9 38 11 49

6. T.R. Pattinam 38 16 54

Others (Tamil Nadu) 4 4

Total 226 226 290 186 476

224 TABLE NO XIII.I (Concld.)

Name of the Commune Degree Post Graduate Total

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1. Karaikal Town 119 43 162 21 21 506 676 170

2. Thirunallar 43 17 60 10 10 61 23 84

3. Neravy 24 10 34 59 28 87

4. Nedungadu 36 9 45 4 4 59 17 76

5. Kottucherry 32 10 42 2 2 81 21 102

6. T.R. Pattinam 17 13 30 2 2 57 29 86

Others (Tamil Nadu) 207 207 16 16 227 227

Total 478 102 580 56 56 1050 288 1338

TABLE NO. XIII.II

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SCHEDULED CASTES STUDENTS STUDYING IN KARAIKAL TOWN FROM RURAL AREAS OF THIS DISTRICT

Name of the Area No. of Scheduled Castes Students

Secondary Higher Degree P.G. Total Secondary

2 3 4 5 6

1. Karaikal Town 16 7 20 2 45

2. Trirunallar Commune 3 5 10

3. Neravy .. 4 6 11

4. Nedungadu .. 3 8 12

5. Kottucherry .. 4 9 13

6. T. R. Pattinam ..

Others 31 32

Total 18 21 79 5 123

225 TABLE NO. XIII.1I1

NUMBER OF STUDENTS COMING FROM OUTSIDE AND STUDYING AND STAYING IN THE RESIDENTIAL HOSTEL AT KARAIKAL

Name of the Area Scheduled Economically Total Remarks Caste weaker section

2 3 4 5

1. Karaikal Town 34 7 41 I. Occupation of their parents/ Guardian

2. Thirunallar Commune 11 2 13 1. Agricultural labourer

3. Nearavy Commune 2 3 2. Coolies

4. Nedungadu Commune 3 3 3. Rickshaw puller and ShO(l-maker

5. Kottucherry Commune 4 5 II. Educational background of their parents/Guardian

6. T.R. Pattinam Commune

Others (Pondicherry region) 8 8 1. Illiterate 2. Below Matric

Total 55 19 74

226 TABLE NO. XIII.IV

TABLE SHOWING STAGE WISE EDUCATION AND OCCUPATION AND EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF THEIR PARENTS/GUARDIAN

Type of Education Occupation Educational (i.e., Educational level)

1 2 3

Secondary/Higher 1. Agricultural Below Matric Secondary labour 2. Coolies Illiterate 3. Business 4. Govt. servant

Degree 1. govt. servants Below Matric 2. Bank officials Upto Matric 3. Business M atric and above 4. Land lord 5. Others

Post-Graduate 1. Govt./Bank Upto Matric Officials 2. Business man Upto Degree 3. Land lords Degree and above 4. Properties of large scale shopsl Establishments.

227 TABLE NO. XIII.V

MEDICAL FACILITIES AS PER 1981 CENSUS

Name of the Area Distance of Dispensary Hospital Maternity PHC Town/Commune and Child H.qr. to Welfare Karaikal Centre

2 3 4 5 6

1. Karaikal Town 1 2. Thirunallar Commune 5 2 5 5 3. Neravy 5 1 4. Nedungadu 10 1 5. Kottucherry 6 1 3 6. T.R. Pattinam 6 1 1 District Total (Karaikal) 7 2 11 4 U.T. of Pondicherry Total 33 9 21 12

Table No. XIII.V (Concld.)

Name of the Area Fartlily Plan- Primary Community Others T.B. Town/ ning Centre Health Health Centre Village sub- works with no centre facilities

7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Karaikal Town 1 2. Thirunallar Commune 4 26 3. Neravy .. 2 1 10 4. Nedungadu .. 4 27 5. Kottucherry .. 2 9 6. T.R. Pattinam .. 2 7 District Total (Karaikal) 13 2 3 79 U.T. of Pondicherry Total 13 38 16 26 2 192

228 TABLE NO. XIII.VI

SHOWING NUMBER OF PATIENTS PER FORTNIGHT FROM OUTSIDE TO THE DISTRICT HEAD QUARTER HOSPITAL I.e., G.H. KARAIKAL

Name of the Area No. of patients Common Disease treated admitted per fortnight

1 2 3

1. Karaikal Town 271 1. Heart Diseases

2. Thirunallar Commune 76 2. Anemic (weakness)

3. Neravy .. 57 3. Deliveries (Normal and complicated)

4. Nedungadu .. 39 4. Skin Diseases

5. Kottucherry .. 58 5. Surgery cases like (Hydnousal operation, Hernia- other abxass and boils)

6. T. R. pattinam .. 38 6. Ulcer- peptic and duodenum

7. Others (Tamil Nadu) 186 7. Fever- Rhym~tic virus fever, influenza

Total 725 8. Paediatric cases-Fits, Cold Fever 9. Poison' cases 10. Optholmology- Cataract of eye 11. T.B. 12. . Dysentery/Diarrhoea

229 TABLE NO. XIII. VII

TRAVEL INDEX OF PERSONS, MALES AND FEMALES OF THE TOWN BY LOCALITY

Locality Travel Index (in Kms.) Remarks

Persons Males Females

1 2 3 4 5

1. Three well place street 1021.40 1202.35 903.08

2. Mariamman Koil St. 869.16 754.18 978.19

3. Seniarkulathu St. 351.24 381.63 322.94

4. Market Street 653.49 979.05 342.73

5. Jawaharlal Nehru street 1525.48 1967.25 1216.85

6. Masthanpalli Street 645.00 791.05 504.64

7. Bharathiar Street 961.56 1340.61 677.27

8. DT. Ambedkar St. 991.79 1014.62 972.00

9. Deitha Street 867.71 1532.86 424.29

10. Sethilal Nagar 271.58 270.70 272.59

11. Church Street 1471.30 1496.90 1450.25

12. Thomas Arul Pudu Street 214.09 215.00 213.00

230 TABLE NO. XIII. VIII

TRAVEL INDEX OF PERSONS, MALES AND FEMALES BY OCCUPATION CATEGORY

SI. Occupation Travel Index (in kms.) No. Persons Males Females

1 2 3 4 5

1. UnskHled manual 301.57 313.00 224.00

2. Skilled manual 626.67 626.67

3. Lowest professional and Administrative 508.02 476.52 634.00 (eg. primary teacher)

4. Small business 660.46 692.25 209.00

5. Highly skilled and Supervisory manual 938.18 996.00 360.00

6. Clerks and Shop Assistants 725.00 792.22 120.00

7. Intermediate professional and related posts, 1,519.16 1,870.00 466.67 secondary teachers etc.

8. Medium business 1,335.56 1,335.56

9. Higher Professional and salaried posts 1,668.57 1,846.67 600.00

10. Owners of tactories, large shops, etc. 2,068.18 2068.18

11. Cultivators 1,628.50 1,628.50

12. Pensioners and retired personnels 7,323.16 6,960.00 8,110.00

13. Beggars and prostitutes

14. Unclassified 1,777.33 2,216.57 240.00

15. Non-workers 654.54 704.67 632.98

Total 782.05 882.78 690 ')<1

231 TABLE NO. XIII.IX

KARAIKAL TOWN STUDY - RURAL LINKAGE

Name of the Daily Trips- No. of people Purpose of Commune from five communes to their visit to Head quarters. Head quarters (Le. KKI town) No. of No. of people visited Trips to the Headquarter

2 3 4

1. Thirunallar 37 600 1. Official work

2. Neravy 14 450 2. Court work, Bank works etc.

3. Nedungadu 27 200 3. Purchasing of commodities.

4. Kottucherry 23 500 4. Attending office, school, college

5. T.R. Pattinam 78 800 5. To attend Headquarter Hospital (G.H.)

6. Consulting private doctors/ Advocates.

7. Business

8. Social and other religious purposes.

232 INSET TABLE NO. XIII.X

INSTITUTIONAL AMENITIES IN SELECTED VILLAGES

SI. Name of the Distance to town! Literacy Amenities No. Village Dt. Hqrs. Rate Educational

2 3 4 5

1. Neravy 5 56.49 P = (2) M = (2) H = (1) AC = (4)

2. Nedungadu 10 58.82 P = (2) M (1), A (1) AC = (5)

3. Konnakaveli 10 37.60 P (1), AC (1)

4. Kannapur 15 66.67 P = 1

SI. Name of the Amenities No. Village Health Drinking P&T. Approach Power water Road supply

2 6 7 8 9 10

1. Neravy PHC, RP TW PTO PR,KR EA,ED CHW TW,W Phone HP

2. Nedungadu PHC T,W PTO PR,KR EA,ED TK, Phone HP

3. Konnakaveli NO W, HP No PR, KR ED

4. Kannapur NO W, HP NO KR ED, EAG.

233

CHAPTER XIV

CONCLUSIONS

Urbanization could be viewed as a sub-proc­ of past glory. Once port towns humming with ess within the larger social evolution in a liner time vesslas, ships and adventure turned into fisher­ scale. Indeed, the social mutations taking place in man's colonies. Only the religious shrines retained various societies, are mainly reflected in the chang­ their urban character. Thus, the second stage of ing socio-economic contours of the urbanization transition in the concept of urbanization marked process, particularly in India. the natural factor replaced by man made environ­ ment. It also intiated the transgression of the Urban settleme~ts started appearing with iso­ urbanization as a positive indice of human devel­ lated or small groups of I~e, where the nature was opment into an evil that foster competition and at her bountiful best, places where the water is congestion, poverty and pollution and sqllalor and plenty, land is fertile and grass is perinnial for slums. Even as the academic and planning fields cattle. Communities became small towns and very are debating to diffuse this situation, the process is soon turned into capitals of Rulers and Kings. entering a threshold of yet another transition. Ancient Aryavrata on the Indo-Gangetic plains in Question on as to "how much urban are urban north to the Vijayanagar on the banks of Thun­ centres and how rural the rural units' is being gabadra in south marked the development of such asked. The rural-urban dichotomy is termed urban units. As the civilizations grew, the trade and dubious. The relatively recent nature of polarisa­ commerce became the backbone of economic tion of socio-economic attributes that made the activity. Rivers and waters provided necessary urban distinct with the rural is fast receding with the navigation facilities leading to the development of same pace as it came. The reason is the develop­ Port towns. Simultaneously, religious Shrines at­ ment of instant communications and transport, in­ tracting huge tourist population became yet an­ creased economic and commercial interaction be-. other type of urban units. Of course, the external tween the regions on one hand and the individual aggressions and invasions turned many kings of socialization replaced by global socialization proc­ establish fort towns in formidable hilly areas at a ess on the other, both affecting each other leading later stage. In all these places, underneath the to erstwhile homogenous societies replaced by apparent facet of large human habittions, the hetrogenous habitations. invisible inducing factor was the geographical congeniality. Growth of urban units on these lines In short, the role of science and technolgy in where nature's role was dominant was the first the life of man cut across not only time and space stage in the urbanization process. but the hitherto existing socio-economic diversity represented by rural-urban units. Space explora­ The industrial revolution and emergence of tion to shuttle diplomacy are no more the topics of industrial based economy brought a new facet of discussion exclusive to urban dwellers. They are uran growth. While large scale industries were a debated with equal intent before a Community cause in European Countries, the growth of cities Television set in a remote tribal village. Conse­ was an effect of colonial interest in India. Metropo­ quent to this psychic-physical mobility, the con­ lis of today were the garrisons of foreigners yester­ cept of urbanization is b04,nd to transcend its day. Subsequently, urban growth became syn­ acquired and rigid socio-economic characteristics chronous with the places where the industries are to the wider realms of acculturation and assimila­ located. Once flourishing .capitals of Kings and tion process. The relative variation or the degree of Emperors became towers of silence and rem ants spatial and regional differences in this respect is

235 going to decide the urban character of an inhabi­ by nature and history and at the same time stands tation. Very soon, it may be expected that the alienated from adjoining Tamil Nadu State for, it is concept of 'rural' becomes an obselete term. Al­ of late become one of the administratively con­ ready, the earlier monolithic character ot' urban, as trolled units of Pondicherry Union Territory. There­ separate from rural has acquired a relative nature. fore, the effect of the both of the factors, one of the natural and the other, administrative affected the The present policy of the' diffusion of po­ town's character in many respects. larised urban growth, and balanced regional de­ velopment; modernization oftowns and villages in Demographic structure respect of amenities, transport, communication and employment generation; are all meant for an Karaikal has been an urban unit from prehis­ eventual dispensation of the urban-rural dichot­ toric times. It was one of the flourishing sea-trade omy. And its signs are evident by the amoebic centre having a port on to the Bay of Bengal and an growth of Urban Agglomerations and Standard adjoining navigational river but retrogressed with Urban Areas by swallowing surrounding and smaller the advent of mechanized navigation. yet Karaial habitations by each successisve censuses. continued to be town during the French time in 18th and 19th centruries and later under inde­ While that is the change observed in the pendent India. The population records do not conceptual frame, the urbanization on the unleash show any rapid growth till 1971. Between 1961-71, became cause for its own internal decay. "The the population registered an increase from 22,252 picture that emerges is one of pockets and zones to 26,080 at a rate of 17%. In 1981 the entire rural of backwardness invariably encolsed by areas of component of Karaikal commune (Eqnal to Tehsil) property and side effect". (Mitra: 1961). was included in Karaikal Municipality in 1981. Thus the urban area of 6.9 sq. kms. upto 1971 was It is in this twilight zone of spatial polarisation added an additional area of about 12 sq. kms., in on one hand and man made efforts towards its 1981 resulting an increase of population to 43,408 diffusion on the other that many urban units in at a growth rate of 66%. Thus the Karaikal town India are lying. would have a normal growth but for the jurisdic­ tional addition of a large rural area. That the Karaikal, as one could read from the preced­ density of population has come down from 3,835 ing report, is a town that bxemplifies this transi­ in 1971 to 2,285 in 1981 is a reflection ofthis factor. tional stage. But its distinction lies in a sort of The sex-ratio has been steadily decreasing from freeze situation at some unknown point of time. 1,095 in 1961 to 1,057 in 1971 and still further The salient features that lead u~ to this general down to 1 ,040 in 1981 , although siggler enough, it perspective is detailed in this Chapter. Precisely has been more than all India average all along. the study on Karaikal, a 'survey' in stricter terms, is to examine the socio-economic features of the Thus, the only significant demographic fea­ town and how much urban it is now. ture of the town has been the jurisdictional changes in 1981, leading to an artificial increase of popula­ The town as an ecological unit tion and decrease of density. But for this, the core town remains as it was noted by the physical Karaikal has an unique feature of being an observation alJd sample investigation. Naturally, artifical island where it is isolated from the sur­ the change in the area or the population character­ rounding natural, and socio-culturallandscape for istics, there of per 5e have no visual or spatial administrative reasons. Thus, it is a' part of the impact on the socio-economic structure or the, Tamil speaking, Dravidan oriented, coastal plain ecological contours of the town.

236 Economic Structure tion, caused by more than one factor. First, the ad­ ministive policy of the Pondicherry Union Territory The town has one fourth of the population had thrown open bountiful opportunities like free and about half of the total males as workers. There house sites, attractive financial assistance to self­ has been a steady decrese of work participation employment scheme to lower economic strata rate between 1961-71 and 71-81 i.e., from 31.84 provided they are residents for more than 5 years. (1961),26.86 (1971) and 26.22 (1981). Whether This had led to a migration boom immediately after this decrease can be purely attributed to the defini­ the merger of Pondicherry Union Territory in In­ tional change of 'worker' during the censuses of dian Union in 60's and 70's from neighbouring 1961, 1971 and 1981 is question needs to be Tamil Nadu; who came and settled as labourer, answered, since the quantitative influence of inter­ rickshaw pullers, cobblers etc. Among the 12 lo­ vening variables like population growth, changes calities intensively studied, 3-4 are dominated by in age structure emigration etc. could not be ascer­ these working classes constituting 25% of the tained for want of data. Nor is it within the purview population. Further better educational opportuni­ of the present study. Interesting is the f~ct that ties, and health services also draw large floating there has been no perceptible 'occupational shift population with the town from adjoining states. It between the primary, secondary and tertiary sec­ can be said that due to this migration and fringe tors. However, there has been a drastic reduction settlement, the erstwhile planned physiognomy of of proportion (percentage) of cultivators during the town has definitely acquired a nebulous struc­ 1961-71 but shot up during 1971-81. While no ture with slums and blighted areas sprouting all factual reason could be ascertained for the slump round the periphery of the town. That the Town in land owning class during 1961-71, the positive Planning authority declared as many as 45 locali­ trend during 1971-81 could be due to the large ties as slum in such an obscare class III town could scale gulf money flowing into the town after the be attributed largely to the migration factor. Al­ return of overseas employees. though could not be statistically proved, informal discussion reveal that e larger number of emmi­ The town has 92% of employment depth with grants have been returning and -settling in this aUeast one person employed per household in the town as they find it safe to be with the Muslim sample studied. While age or household strength community as well as the lands available to is not bound to have significant association with purchase. empl9yment depth, the maximum educational qualification among most of the employer Wa$ Social structure and social organisation formed to be matric. While the town thus project few tiouseholds without income, the occupational Karaikal town retains its bas.ic traditional and diversity, or the lack of it, neverthless shows most social structure inspite of the inroads made by the of the workers with low educational or specialist French culture during 19th century and the qualifications. As regards agronomy, moderniza­ modern attributes of the later 20th century into its tion of agriculture in terms of tools, methods and ascribed status oriented and role defined awareness, is in operation among the agricultur­ character. Caste-wise hierarchy is found to be ists and the extent of modernization appears to be weaning at societal level from occupational, positively associated with the educational levels. educational and political point of view but the inter-sub-caste distance is observed at normative Migration levels in terms of endogamy, eating habits, place of residence etc. Further the caste affliation The economic structure of the town is found and caste identity are strong and explicit at family to be closely linked or largely affected by migra- level.

237 Social organisation, similarly projects an elite default since the town has to import from outside structure of power and prestige ~utting across the district virtually everything except staple food. caste or religious identities but the orthodox patri­ Finally, as an environmental irony, the town being archial, Pathilineal, and accidental character, typi­ on the bank of river and on coastal belt, the cal of South Indian family system continues to be drinking water is totally disease born and all stops the order. Strong kinships bonds, well sustained by the Government are unable to ret rive the situ­ interaction between consanginual relations or peer ation. groups although staying separately also substan­ tiate an unaffected inner wall of the social organ­ With this functional or the lack of such charac­ isation. ter, the town at best, can be described as a delivery point to itself. What all trade and com­ However, the disintegration of joint or collat­ merce operating in the town is noted to be to that eral families in complete and nuclear family sys­ effect. Even the usual m!3dium of serving the tem is all pervading, reflecting one of the urban surrounding rural hinterland is found to be con­ traits. stricted as 2 out of 5 commune depend upon neighbouring towns of Tamil Nadu for consump­ Functional, trade and commercial status tion and other goods.

In 1971, the town was functionally termed The only redeeming factor that some how Services-cum-Trade and Commerce. In 1981, it entitles the town to be a 'central place' is the insti­ continues to be so. Many a town in India do so and tutional and adminis\rative incentives if offers lo­ are merely service towns, by virtue of their admin­ cally as well as the adjoining Tamil Nadu State. In istrtive status. Those which were towns earlier but fact, this is the only aspect that is sustaining the lost this vital status have either degenerated or stature of Karaikal as a urban unit or its glorified simply vanished from the urban map. But, the historical shadow. As such, the dynamics of the position of Karaikal can not be over simplified nor town are defined within itself and with no radial slotted in such common place. effects of the function of the town in spatial terms. Nor, the limited trade and commerciaf links exist­ Some Reflections ing with bigger town like Kumbakonam and Thanjavur have any scope to pave a more diversi­ The town, is a contradiction within itself. The fied and complex yet mutally receprocating rela­ rich fertile land has no sources of irrigation of its tionships. Thus, the town cannot be termed a own and depends upon adjoining states. Thus the growth centre or nodal point now, or expected to agriculture is at once a profitable proposition but be in near future. Its administrative isolation will on conditions. The town has rich public and gulf not help it either. money but not even a single minor industry estab­ lished to date. This is notwithstanding the all out To sum up, Karaikal town did come along with efforts of the Government including a 5 years tax the time like other urban units in casting off certain holiday, about 80% of financial assistance with a inherent rural characteristics, but fell way side 25% subsidy to medium and major industrial en­ some where and remained stagnant. It represents trepreneurs. It was officially stated that, the invest­ very broad and advanced mode of civic and reli­ ment, on the other hand is on the purchase of land gious life but the orthodoxy and tradition retains and freezing them so much so that the cost of land the hold at individual and family level. It has all the of late, has gone up to astronomical proportions; modernizing traits in the field of agriculture but in­ the trade and commerce, is however thriving by dividual farmers are unable to diversify their crop

238 patterns. There is plenty of savings to invest in today, the town reminices a canvas unused and industry but motivation and entrepreneurship is unpainted. The town remains to thrive on external totally lacking. Migration for livelihood into the breathers having no organic stimuli of its own. town can be matched with any metropolis but the opportunities are as good as in a large size village. The town slumbers. It needs awakening. It is an urban unit with a rural character. As on Rather a ressurgence to its earlier glory.

239