Kongsberg MineralsVmposium 1999 Norsk Bergverksmuseum Skrift, 15,47-56

Minerals from the the Copper Mines, North

Fred Steinar Nordrum

The Sulitjelma Copper Mines (1891-1991) Mining history ranks as the largest mining enterprise in The first deposit discovered in SUlitjelma Norway in the 20th centrury. DUring the was found by a lapp, Mons Petter, about mining operations and also later, fine 1858. The Swedish consul Nils Persson mineral specimens have been collected in was granted a mining lease in 1886, and the district. after investigations and preliminary mining from 1887 he established a mining Introduction company, the Sulitelma Aktiebolag, in Copper has been mined in Norway for 1891. The Sulitjelma mines became the several hundred years, the first largest mining enterprise in Norway in the documented copper mine being the 20th century, with an estimate of 75 000 Verlohrne Sohn Mine in Kongsberg 1490. man years of labour. The largest number of Several types of copper ore deposits have employees was reached in 1913, been exploited, but the major ore type has amounting to 1 737. The company was been the Caledonian, massive, strata­ reorganized in 1933, under the name of bound sulphide deposits. Vigsnes, Stordl2J, AJS Sulitjelma Gruber, and from 1937 the Folldal, Rl2Jros, Ll2Jkken, and Grong are major shareholders were Norwegians. The other well-known ore districts with deposits mining operations ended June 28, 1991. of this type. In this paper, however, the Sulitjelma district will be focused on. It is Figur 1. Simplified geological map of the situated about 80 km east-southeast of the Su/itjelma area with the location ofthe most town Bodl2J in county. important sulphide deposits (after Cook et al. 1993).

• Kjeldvatn Metadoleriles

D FuruJund Group

l~*fu Orebodies (projected)

~ Sulitjelma Ophiolite

t:::j Furulund Granite :::~.::::::.::::::: ...... 1::::1 Skaiti Supergroup ...... :::r~:: N ...... :::'::'...... '/eI, ·_-Sulitjelma ...... /::~:,:: ::.::~~,::: ...WfII!":~: ... . 5km t 47 ...... Kjeldvatn :...... Sulitjelma was a very isolated mining Elmore processing plant was built in 1909. society, in a remote valley, about 35 km The first of three smelteries was built in from the nearest public road and the coast 1894, and the last one closed down in to the west, and 10 km from the Swedish 1987. The copper smeltery was the first border to the east. The transport took place one ever to be based on copper smelting partly by a railway line (built by the mining by electric power (Quale 1975). company) and partly by boats (on the lakes) from the coast. In the winter some Only about 900 people are now living in supplies were transported by horse Sulitjelma all the year. Many of the old wagons on the ice-covered lakes. The houses serve as holiday homes, while railway was completed in 1956. In 1972, others are used by organizations and after more than 80 years of mining, a road tourist enterprises focusing on wild life was finally finished, and the railway was activities. A small enterprise (Saulo) takes closed down. out drill cores of sulphide ore, using polished ore and brass to make different In the hills around Sulitjelma about twenty gift objects. There is also a small, nice five massive, stratabound copper deposits mining museum (founded in 1977), and a were prospected, and eighteen were part of the Giken mine is open to visitors by worked (see sketch map). The a mine train through the Grunnstoll adit. Jacobsbakken mine (1896-1968), the Since the smeltery closed down in 1987 a largest deposit, produced 4.5 million tons rapid return of vegetation has taken place. of sulphide ore; the Giken I mine (1892­ 1973), the second lagest, produced 3.2 Geology million tons. Altogether 26 million tons of The sulphide deposits are situated at the sulphide ore have been mined in the district contact between submarine basalts and (Ellingsen et al. 1996). overlying sediments of Upper Ordovicium The ore was processed and smelted to age. The deposits are interpreted to have blister copper in Suliljelma. The copper been formed by volcano-exhalative ingots contained about 99% copper and sedimentary processes at sea floor in a 600 grams of silver and 6-8 grams of gold fault-controlled basin during ocean closure. per ton. The mine for many years also The present sequence of basalts, gabbros, produced a zinc concentrate and a pyrite ultramafics and sheeted dykes has been concentrate. The smelting of the copper interpreted as a preserved ophiolite suite sulphide concentrates produced (as a part of an ancient sea floor considerable air pollution in the deep plate)(Boyle 1989). The Sulitjelma gabbro valley. Paint flashed off the houses after a has been dated to about 437 million years short time, and most of the vegetation died. (Pedersen et al. 1991). The rocks and Acidic, polluted water from the mines killed deposits have suffered strong regional the fish population in the lakes and the metamorphism and deformation. The river. SUlphide deposits are classified as The mining, processing and smelting belonging to the Cyprus type. took place in accordance with the most advanced technology, and some The sulphide deposits improvement of the processes were also The Sulitjelma district is about 100 km 2 in developed, e.g. the Knutsen converter in size. About 25 individual ore deposits with the smeltery (1902) which needed much a total sulphide mass of some 35 million less external energy as it used sulphur tons have been discovered. The sulphide from the ore as fuel. The world's largest bodies are tabular and elongated in shape, 48 reaching 1200 m in length and 300 m in Macroscopic minerals width. They rarely exceed 5 m in thickness, the average being about 2 m. Fine ore samples Massive pyritic ore (with some SUlitjelma is famous for its rich chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite and chalcopyrite (+ pyrrhotite) ore with a galena) (60-90% sulphides) accounts for at number of scattered, rounded pyrite least 80% of the total mass of sulphides crystals. Blocks of this ore type are found in (Cook 1996). . many museums. The pyrite crystals are There is also some semi-massive usually around 1-2 cm, but may reach banded ore and disseminated ore, besides several centimetres. Most of this ore also some rich, remobilized pyrite­ comes from the Charlotta-Giken area. pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite ore and massive chalcopyrite ore. Pyrite On an average the mined ores contained Crystals of pyrite are widespread in the about 20% sulphur, 1.8% copper, 0.4% ores and the chlorite schists. Rounded zinc, 0.5 grams per ton of gold and 30 crystals loosened from chalcopyrite ore are grams per ton of silver. up to 10 cm in diameter. Pyrite in cavities Veins are also present, which Cook and in chlorite schists usually have sharp (1996) divides into two types: Chalcopyrite­ edges, and cubes up to 5-10 cm have been pyrrhotite ore veins with the gangue collected. Cube is by far the most common minerals quartz, actinolite, titanite and habitus, but also pentagon-dodecahedrons kyanite, and sUlphate-bearing veins with and (in Ny-Sulitjelma) octahedrons are anhydrite, quartz, calcite and minor present. Some cubic pyrite crystals are celestine and barite. elongated. Some pyrite porphyroblasts A chemically and mineralogically distinct have surrounded other pyrite crystals zone of hydrothermal alteration surrounds during growth. The cobalt content of pyrite each sUlphide body, containing chlorite and has been measured within the range 180­ albite and sometimes biotite andlor 2400 ppm. actinolite. Arsenopyrite Ore minerals Arsenopyrite crystals, often twinned, are The sUlphide ore consists mainly of commonly found as porphyroblasts up to 3 pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and mm in pyritic ore (Cook 1996). They have a sphalerite. Galena, arsenopyrite, cubanite, generally low content of cobalt and a quite molyb-denite and tetrahedrite are present low content of nickel (n.d. to 0.75%). In in minor amounts. Jakobsbakken, porphyroblasts of cobaltian Investigations with reflected light arsenopyrite ("danaite") crystals up to 2 cm microscopy and electron microprobe have occur in remobized ore or ore veins rich in yielded a large number of accessory ore galena, chalcopyrite, and sulphosalts. minerals (Cook 1996). They are almost Cook (1996) reports a cobalt content in the exclusively found in the rich, remobilized range 0.86 - 2.51 weight %. These crystals ores and the veins. These minerals are were first decribed by Stelzner (1891) and usually only visible in microscope by high Fletcher (1904), and later by Ramdohr magnitude and are merely listed here. (1938). Occasionally numerous, Many contain antimony, bismuth, lead, idiomorphic arsenopyrite crystals up to 1­ silver, gold andlor tellurium (Tabel 1). The 1.5 em in length have been found in association between antimony and chlorite rich layers (H.Chr. Olsen pers. goldlsilver is significant (Cook 1992). comm.1998). 49 Quite large crystals have also been clusters of a few crystals, but often as observed from other deposits, e.g. sheeted aggregates occurring at pocket Charlotta and Giken. walls. The crystal size is up to 3 cm in length and 1.3 cm in thickness, and the Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite colour is white to watercoloured. The The two minerals are present in smaller mineral is commonly associated with or larger amounts in most ores, and are calcite, quartz, stilbite and scolecite. It is sometimes found in massive lumps or reported from Giken, Charlotta, Mons aggregates. Chalcopyrite is also found in Petter and Hankabakken. Larsen (1980) cavities, but usually as small irregular analysed three different apophyllites from aggregates. Crystals have not been Sulitjelma and found that the composition reported. varied from approximately 50 mol% to 90 mol% f1uorapophyllite. Native copper The mineral was sometimes found along Stilbite thin fractures, as small plates or dendritic The mineral often occurs as sheafshaped crystal aggregates up to 7 cm in length in crystal aggregates, and sometimes almost the Hankabakken mine. It is most likely of ballshaped. The crystals are usually white supergene origin. and up to 3-4 cm in length. Yellowish white to orange crystals up to 2 cm were found Calcite (in blocks at surface) in 1996, together with The mineral is commonly associated with actinolite and small, watercoloured zeolites and sulphates, usually in quite heulandite crystals. Stilbite is the most small quantities. The crystals most often common zeolite in Sulitjelma. have rombohedral or scalenohedral forms, with size from 0.05 to 3-4 cm, but larger Heulandite crystals have also been found. Sometimes Greyish white to watercoloured the crystals show phantoms. heulandite crystals up to 2.2 cm in hight, 1,5 cm in length, and 1.0 cm in width are Aragonite(?) found associated with stilbite and scolecite. Aragonite has been reported (Garmo 1983), but all X-rayed specimens have so Scolecite far tumed out to be calcite. The mineral is common in the zeolite­ bearing veins, and it is often found in fine Parisite(?) specimens, espesially in Mons Petter. Balls A specimen collected in the Charlotta of radiated crystals up to 2,5-3,0 cm in mine by W.C. Br0gger in 1901 is labelled length, have been collected in pockets parisite (the MGM collection). The mineral together with calcite, apophyllite and stilbite has not been further examined. The crystals. The crystals are from colourless to specimen contains heulanditt, stilbite, white. chalcopyrite, biotite and magnetite, but parisite was not recognized in this study. Okenite The mineral is reported by Vogt (1935, Fluorapophyllite 1938), and the presence has been verified Fluorapophyllite and stilbite are the most by X-ray study at MGM. Balls of radiated common minerals of the zeolite stage of crystals up to 0.7 cm in length have been mineralization in Sulitjelma. Thick tabular obserVed in small pockets together with apophyllite crystals occur single or as apophyllite. At SUlitjelma Mining Museum 50 balls of radiated needles up to 1.5 cm in are sometimes found frozen within diameter occur on a large specimen medium-grained, massive anhydrite, but together with chabazite. they have not been found as free crystals. Most anhydrite is found as fine- to coarse­ Chabazite grained masses. The colour is usually Chabazite from Charlotta has been distinctly violet. It is commonly associated identified by X-ray at MGM. Sulitjelma with quartz, pyrite, actinolite, chlorite, Mining Museum has a platy specimen with calcite, and gypsum. The mineral is an area of about 2 dm2 with chabazite reported by Cook (1996) as a major crystals, with a size of 0.2-0.6 cm, constituent of the sulphate veins. occurring together with okenite. Gypsum Gyrolite The mineral occurs as thin fracture fillings Greyish white, ballshaped crystals up to and larger cavity fillings. It is often very 1.6 cm were collected by T.T. Garmo in coarse-grained, sometimes up to 5 - 10 1985 at waste heaps from Charlotta at the cm. It is white to watercoloured. shore of Langvann, and tentatively labelled gyrolite. This has now been verified by X­ Barite ray diffraction. The mineral occurs together Lumps of massive, bluish barite up to 5-7 with scolecite, f1uorapophyllite, chalco­ cm with small calcite rhombohedrons and pyrite, and chlorite. tiny needles of an antimony sulphosalt has been collected by W.C. Bn1lgger 1901 in Harmotome and laumontite the Giken mine (as found in the collection These minerals are reported by Vogt of Mineralogical-Geological Museum in (1935, 1938) as members of the zeolite Oslo). Vogt (1935,1938) reported corroded stage of mineralization. masses of bluish grey barite within massive thaumasite from a vein in the Giken mine. Thaumasite Cook (1996) reported the mineral as a The thaumasite in Sulitjelma was minor constituent in the sulphate veins. apparently first recognized by Fredrik II Carlson around 1912-1914, and later Celestine identified and described by Vogt Vogt (1935, 1938) reported celestine, (1935,1938) from the Giken, Char/otta and and also Cook (1996) observed the mineral Holmsen mines, as the youngest mineral of as a minor constituent in the sulphate the zeolite stage of mineralization, and veins. evidently younger than barite. Thaumasite is quite common in the veins, as the last Quartz fissure filling, usually occuring in up to Quartz is a major constituent in the veins handsize, white lenses or clusters of and is also a quite common accessory in needleshaped grains and radiated balls, the ores. It is usually massive, but some with needlesize up to more than 1 cm. Vogt rock crystals have been found. (1938) descibed his largest piece of pure thaumasite to be 27x27x18 cm, weighing Albite 7.75 kg, found in a large quartz-anhydrite­ Albite crystals completely covering the gypsum vein in the upper Giken mine. side walls of a 10 cm wide vein in the Giken mine were reported by Vogt (1938). Anhydrite Other minerals in the vein were Crystals up to 5 cm in length of anhydrite thaumasite, barite, pyrite, stilbite, chlorite, 51 I"

and apatite. The pockets also contained calcite Ii A coarsegrained, slightly yellowish brown crystals up to 10 cm and a few, somewhat aggregate associated with quartz and irregular, waterclear quartz crystals up to anhydrite consist of albite, as verified by X­ 30 cm. The largest weighing 22 kg. ray diffraction at MGM. The feldspar is also A few small pockets in road cuts at the found in other specimens, sometimes as Sulitjelma road not far from small, greyish white crystals. contained small siderite, dolomite, calcite, rutile ("sagenite"), quartz, and pyrite Other primary minerals crystals. Reported in association with the ores and During the construction work of water veins are also the silicates: chlorite, power tunnels north of Sulitjelma (Siso actinolite, homblende, amphibole asbestos, water power plants) many years ago, biotite, talc(?), titanite, kyanite, epidote. yellowish green prehnite crystals of very clinozoisite, and almandine gamet, besides good quality were found by the workers. the phosphate apatite. Staurolite, diopside Some of the prehnite was covered by small and tourmaline has not been reported with apophyllite crystals. certainty in association with the ores, although it has been found several places Vein paragenesis in the region. Vogt (1938) states that thaumasite is the youngest mineral in the zeolite stage of Secondary minerals mineralization. Stilbite seems to be older As for most mines in Norway the than the other three common minerals of secondary minerals on the waste heaps the zeolite stage in Sulitjelma: have not attracted much attention, and they f1uorapophyllite, scolecite and heulandite. have not been systematically collected and Okenite is younger than f1uorapophyllite. studied. Goethite is of course widespread. A generation of calcite is younger than Chalcanthite has also been identified the four common minerals of the zeolite (S0yland Hansen, pers.comm. 1997). stage. But calcite probably occurs in more Three secondary minerals are observed on than one generation. Quartz crystallized the native copper; two of them are early, may be earliest of the vein minerals. tentatively identified as cuprite and tenorite, But quartz is quite often not present. while the third has a bluish green colour. Sulphates and zeolite stage minerals are Probably there are several others. rarely present in the same specimens, but from Vogl's descriptions they are often Minerals recently collected at other present in the same veins. Thaumasite localities in the area belongs to the zeolite stage, but contains I A few years ago two pockets were sulphate. discovered side by side within a tunnel of Minor sulphides are commonly present. i':" the SUlitjelma road. They yielded several Chalcopyrite is by far the most common, Ii hundred titanite crystals, many twinned. but also pyrite, galena and trace ore

I, Most of them were lying loose in chlorite minerals are quite often observed in zeolite II, masses, but also fine matrix specimens stage specimens. Visually it has been appeared. The nicest has about 55 difficult to recognize other ore minerals, but crystals, up to about 3 cm long. The a microscopical study would probably yield largest, twinned, single crystal is 6.7 cm many. long. The crystals show colours from yellow

, to brown, and most crystals contain more or less inclusions of chlorite.

I 52 Table 1. List of trace ore minerals recorded from the Sulitjelma copper sulphide deposits (after Cook 1996):

allargentum, Ag'.x,Sbx altaite, PbTe antimony, Sb argentite, Ag2s arsenic, As aurostibite, AuSb, bismuth, Bi bismuthian antimony, (Sb,Bi) bismuthinite, Bi,S3

bornite, CuSFeS4 boulangerite, PbsSb4S" bournonite, PbCuSbS3 breithauptite, NiSb chalcostibite, CuSbS, c1austhaiite(?), PbSe costibite, CoSbS dyscrasite, Ag3Sb electrum, (Au,Ag) empressite, AgTe geocronite, Pb'4(Sb,As)6S23 gudmundite, FeSbS hessite, Ag,Te jamesonite, Pb4FeSb6S'4 jordanite, Pb'4(As,Sb)6S'3 kongsbergite, (Ag,Hg) Ibllingite, FeAs, mackinawite, Fe.S8

meneghinite, Pb 13CuSb7S'4 nisbite, NiSb, pyrargyrite, Ag3SbS3 realgar, AsS seiigmannite, PbCuSbS3 silver, Ag stannite, Cu,FeSnS4 tennantite, (Cu,Ag,Fe,Zn)12As4S13 tetradymite, Bi,Te,S tsumoite, BiTe valieriite,4(Fe,Cu)S3(Mg,AI)(OH),

53 Table 2. Sulitjelma - list of minerals in addition to trace ore minerals: actinolite pyrrhotite' albite' quartz' anhydrite' rutile' apatite' scolecite' aragonite(?) siderite arsenopyrite' sphalerite' barite' stilbite' biotite tenorite calcite' thaumasite cassiterite titanite' celestite2 witherite' chabazite' chalcanthite , verified by X-ray identification chalcopyrite 2 verified by electron microprobe chlorite' (c1inochlore?) clinozoisite' copper' cubanite cuprite diopside' dolomite epidote fluorapophyllite' galena garnet' (almandine) gypsum goethite graphite' gyrolite hematite heulandite' hornblende illite'(?) ilmenite kyanite' laumontite' magnetite molybdenite montmorillonite' muscovite (natro?)jarosite' okenite' parisite(?) phlogopite-2M' pyrite' 54 Table 3. Vein minerals

Sulphates ZeQlites and assQciated minerals

Gypsum, CaSO•. 2H,0 Stilbite, NaCa2AlsSi,30,614H20

Anhydrite, CaSO. *FluQrapQphyllite, KCa.Si.020(F,OH)'BH,0 Barite, BaSO. SCQlecite, CaAI2Si30,.3H20 Celestine, SrSO. Heulandite, (Na,Ca),.3AI3(AI,Si)2Si,303812H20 *Thaumasite, Ca6Si,(C03)iSO.)iOH),224H20 Chabazite, CaAI2Si.0,2 6H20 *Okenite, Ca1QSi,.0.618H20 *GyrQlite, NaCa,6(Si23AI)060(OH)515H20 LaumQntite, CaAI2Si.0,2AH,0 HarmQtQme, (Ba,K),.,(Si,AI).O,66H20

Silicates Sulphides

Quartz ChalcQpyrite Calcite ChlQrite Galena Apatite ActinQlite Pyrite Magnetite Albite SulphQsalts Titanite (PyrrhQtite?) Kyanite (Sphalerite?) BiQtite(?)

Minerals with an astrisk * are nQt classifed as zeQlites.

Concluding remarks Ackowledgement The massive, the semi-massive and the This study greatly benefited frQm papers disseminated pyrite Qres (CQQk 1996) were by and persQnal communicatiQn with Nigel Qriginally depQsited by exhalative­ CQQk (NGU). I am mQst thankful tQ Alf Olav sedimentary processes at sea fiQQr. During Larsen (NQrsk HydrQ, FQrsknings-senteret a periQd Qf regiQnal metamQrphism the PQrsgrunn) fQr many X-ray identificatiQns Qres were defQrmed and recrystallized, and and fQr comments Qn the manuscript, and to some extent remobilized, making py-po­ tQ Harry Evjen at Sulitjelma Mining cp "ore" and massive cp "ore", and growth Museum fQr allQwing me tQ use Qld phQtQS of porphyroblasts of pyrite and arsenopyrite frQm the museum collectiQn and fQr crystals. During retrograde metamorphism infQrmatiQn abQut Sulitjelma. Hans-J0rgen cp-po ore veins and sulphate-zeolite Berg has helpfully printed Qut lists Qf I bearing veins were formed. Sulphur mineral identificatiQns by X-ray diffractiQn isotope studies (Cook et al. 1997) strongly and mineral specimens from Sulitjelma in suggest that the sulphates formed by the cQllectiQn Qf MineralQgical-GeQIQgical oxidation of pre-existing sulphides. The Museum, OsIQ, and Am-Sigurd Halm0Y trace ore minerals (Table 1) mainly occur in has kindly sent me samples Qf yellQwish remobilized ores and veins. stilbite. 55 Literature Chemical Geology 135,307-324. BERG, B. I. & NORDRUM, F. S. (1992): Malmbergverk i Norge. Historikk og ELLINGSEN, H., HUGAAS, K.S., kulturminnevern. Norsk EINSET, F. and EVJEN, H. (1996): I Bergverksmuseum, Skrift 7, 120 p. bergmannens rike. Fotefar mot nord. 28 p.

BJERKE, T (1983/1992): GARMO, TT (1983, 1987, 1995): Norsk Sulitjelmabanen. Norsk Jernbaneklubb. steinbok. Universitetsforlaget. 300 p. 135 p. LARSEN, A.O. (1980): Fluorapofyllitl og ; BOYLE, A.P. (1989): The geochemistry of hydroksylapofyllitl i Norge. Institutt for the Sulitjelma ophiolite and associated Geologi, Universitetet i Oslo, Intern basic volcanics: tectonic implications. In: skriftserie 25, 17 p. RA. Gayer (Editor): The Caledonide geology ofScandinavia. Graham and PEDERSEN, R-B., Furnes, H. and Trotlman, London. 153-163. Dunning, G. (1991): A UlPb age for the Sulitjelma gabbro, north Norway: further CHRISTOFFERSEN, R (1957): Sulitjelma evidence for the development of a I Gruber. Bergverkenes Landssammen­ Caledonian marginal basin in Ashgill­ slutning gjennom 50 ar 1907-1957. 246­ Llandovery time. Geological Magazine 254. 128,141-153.

COOK, N.J. (1992): Antimony-rich mineral QVALE, F. (1975): A/S Sulitjelma Gruber. parageneses and their associations with Bergverk 1975. JUbileumsskrift for Au minerals within massive sulfide Bergingenililrforeningen og deposits at Sulitjelma, Norway. Neues Bergindustriforeningen. 34-39. Jahrbuch f. Miner. Mh. 1992, H. 3, 97­ 106. RAI, K.L. (1978): Micromineralogy and geochemistry of sphalerites from COOK, N.J. (1994): Post-recrystallisation Sulitjelma mining district. Norsk Geologisk phenomena in metamorphosed Tidsskrift 58, 17-31. stratabound sulphide ores: a comment. Mineralogical Magazine 58, 482-486. RAMDOHR, P. (1938): Antimonreiche Paragenesen von Jakobsbakken bei COOK, N.J. (1996): Mineralogy of the Sulitjelma. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 18, sulphide deposits at Sulitjelma, northern 275-289. Norway. Ore Geology Reviews 11, 303­ 338. VOGT, Th. (1927): Sulitelmafeltets geologi og petrologi. Norges Geologiske COOK, N.J., HALLS, C. and BOYLE, A.P. Underslilkelse 121, 560 p. (1993): Deformation and metamorphism of massive sulphides at Sulitjelma, Norw . VOGT, Th. (1935): Origin of the injected Mineralogical Magazine 57, 67-81. pyrite deposits. Kgl. Norske Vid.-Akad. Selsk. Skrifter 1935, 1-17. COOK, N.J. & HOEFS, J. (1997): Sulphur isotope characteristics of metamorphosed VOGT, Th. (1938): Thaumasite from Cu-(Zn) volcanogenic massive sulphide SUlitelri1a, Norway. Norsk Geologisk deposits in the Norwegian Caledonides. Tidsskrift 18. 291-303. 56

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