Becoming Ali: Digital History, Newspaper Discourse, and America’s Most Famous Boxer, 1960–1975 Stephen Townsend Bachelor of Health, Sport and Physical Education (Hons) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2018 School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences 1 Abstract Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. publically changed his name to Muhammad Ali on 6 March 1964. In doing so, he signalled his allegiance to the Nation of Islam – a controversial religious sect that advocated racial separatism and black nationalism – as well as his intention to defy established cultural expectations for black athletes in the United States. Through his name change, he provoked diverse reactions from the media that changed over time. This study analyses the discursive significance of Ali’s two names – Clay and Ali – as a way to analyse complex and shifting journalistic attitudes toward him between 1960 and 1975. To do so, it employs a mix of digital and traditional methodologies: specifically, distant and close reading. As such, this thesis is part of a growing body of digitally driven scholarship that is re-shaping sport history in the new millennium. The foundation of this study is a distant reading of almost 40,000 articles written about Ali between 1960 and 1975 from 13 newspapers. This group of publications was selected to be geographically and culturally diverse, and includes three major white-run dailies and ten black newspapers from across the United States. Distant reading – a form of quantitative analyses that uses graphical representations to visualise trends and themes within large bodies of literature – indicates that rather than moving gradually toward acceptance of his Muslim name and its associated identity, journalists shifted their attitudes toward Ali at three key junctures. In March 1964, journalists overwhelmingly referred to him as Cassius Clay, not Muhammad Ali. This practice continued until September 1967, when newspapers began to print the two names almost interchangeably. The final shift occurred in March 1971, when journalists reversed their earlier rejection of the Muslim name completely and began referring to him almost exclusively as Muhammad Ali. Guided by the shifts identified by distant reading, this thesis then moves to a detailed close reading of individual articles with the aim of uncovering the deep, discursive forces that shaped usage of Ali’s two names. An analysis of articles published between March 1964 and September 1967 reveals that although both black and white newspapers comprehensively rejected Ali’s Muslim name, there were important differences in their motivations. The rejection of the name by white newspapers was symptomatic of their broader refusal to engage critically with racial issues during the mid-1960s. By comparison, the black press rejected the name 2 because it signified Ali’s affiliation with the Nation of Islam, whose program of black nationalism and racial separatism threatened to undermine the integration movement. The relatively interchange way that newspapers used the two names between September 1967 and March 1971 was influenced predominantly by Ali’s refusal to be drafted into the United States Army. Close reading also reveals a number of deeper discursive factors that prompted journalists to display less animosity toward Ali’s Muslim name. Ali’s punishment at the hands of legal and athletic authorities earned him a measure of sympathy from the press. However, close reading indicates that this changing personal narrative was augmented by broader cultural shifts occurring in the United States throughout this period. The rise of radical black power groups and growing criticism of the Vietnam War made Ali’s activism appear increasingly moderate by comparison, and enhanced his appeal to mainstream audiences. The influence of these personal and cultural factors culminated in March 1971, after which journalists referred to him almost exclusively as Muhammad Ali. These trends are then examined within a single publication: the Louisville Defender. Examining journalistic narratives from the Defender – Ali’s hometown black newspaper – enables a more granular examination of the factors that shaped press attitudes toward the boxer. By incorporating analysis of Louisville’s unique racial culture as well as the influence of individual personalities at the Defender, this close reading further reveals the diversity of attitudes toward Ali across the United States. Rather than being swayed by hometown parochialism, the Defender energetically critiqued Ali’s racial and religious beliefs and aligned itself with the attitudes of other black publications around the country. Distant and close readings show that American newspapers did not embrace the name Muhammad Ali until March 1971. At the height of his career, he provoked complex and critical reactions from journalists with a diverse range of racial, religious, political, cultural and geographical backgrounds. Modern cultural memories of the late boxer tend to eschew these aspects of Ali’s cultural identity, favouring more benevolent visions of the late boxer as a peacemaker or civil rights hero. By analysing shifting attitudes toward Ali between 1960 and 1975, and interrogating the complex discursive factors that drove these shifts, this thesis contributes to a more nuanced historical understanding of his cultural significance. 3 Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. 4 Publications included in this thesis Included as Chapter 1: Townsend, Stephen, Gary Osmond, and Murray G. Phillips. ‘Clay vs. Ali: Distant Reading, Methodology, and Sport History.’ Journal of Sport History. In press, date of acceptance: 28 July 2018. Contributor Statement of contribution Stephen Townsend (Candidate) Conception and design (70%) Analysis and interpretation (100%) Drafting and production (70%) Associate Professor Gary Osmond Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (20%) Associate Professor Murray G. Conception and design (15%) Phillips Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (10%) 5 Included as Chapter 2: Townsend, Stephen, Murray G. Phillips, and Gary Osmond. ‘Remembering the Rejection of Muhammad Ali: Identity, Civil Rights, and Social Memory.’ Sport in History 38, no. 3 (2018): 267–288. DOI: 10.1080/17460263.2018.1474129. Contributor Statement of contribution Stephen Townsend (Candidate) Conception and design (70%) Analysis and interpretation (100%) Drafting and production (70%) Associate Professor Murray G. Phillips Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (20%) Associate Professor Gary Osmond Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (10%) 6 Included as Chapter 3: Townsend, Stephen, Gary Osmond, and Murray G. Phillips. ‘“Where Cassius Clay Ends, Muhammad Ali Begins”: Sportspeople, Political Activism, and Methodology.’ The International Journal of the History of Sport. In press, date of acceptance: 30 August 2018. DOI: 10.1080/09523367.2018.1523146 Contributor Statement of contribution Stephen Townsend (Candidate) Conception and design (70%) Analysis and interpretation (100%) Drafting and production (70%) Associate Professor Gary Osmond Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (20%) Associate Professor Murray G. Phillips Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation (0%) Drafting and production (10%) 7 Included as Chapter 4: Townsend, Stephen, ‘From “Pitifully Ignorant” to the “People’s Champion”: Shifting Perceptions of Muhammad Ali in the Louisville Defender, 1964–1971.’ Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 115, no. 4 (2017): 611-644. DOI: 10.1353/khs.2017.0080 Contributor Statement of contribution Stephen Townsend (Candidate) Conception and design (100%) Analysis and interpretation