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JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD All, and THE ABSTRACT HISTORY WOOD, AUGUSTUS C. B.A. MOREHOUSE COLLEGE, 2007 THE SIXTH FINGER: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN SPORTS Committee Chair: Richard A. Morton, Ph.D. Thesis dated December 2012 This study examines both the mentality of black race heroes in American sporting history and the surrounding atmospheric influences on personality, mentality, masculinity, and global perspective on said heroes, using the case studies of iconic boxers Jack Johnson and Muhammad Au as the primary focus. This study was based on the premise that both boxers initiated a conscious effort of racial pride, black agency, and global hegemony through their consistent success both inside and outside the ring. The researcher found that in almost blind adoration, African Americans chose two unconscious, self-righteous, and raceless blacks who utilized their gifted abilities as boxers to only capture full masculinity in the forms of wealth and power. In response to their considerable inferior treatment at the hands of the majority, blacks actively sought dominant representations of success and defiance of the norms to carry their dreams of black pride. However, both Jack Johnson and Muhammad Ali repeatedly rejected their anointed statuses of “race men” for the chance at true wealth and power in the commercialization and exploitation 1 of their masculinity. In addition, the background environments of both figures are essential to the true analysis of the mentality and perception of the boxers. The conclusions drawn from the finding suggest that both individuals rejected their hometown communities’ ideals of agency and activism and instead opted to embrace the more lucrative ideals of independence (Johnson and Galveston) and interdependence (Ali and Louisville). As the black community witnessed both Jack Johnson and Muhammad Au continuously thrive and capture success in a predominantly white and commercial environment, they also saw the potential to showcase the greatest aspects of the American black race not just nationally, but also globally to other black groups. Therefore, race consciousness would both intensify and spread if powerful, masculine icons continued to dominate in societal contests like sports. Because of these desires, blacks across the nation supplied insurmountable support and sustenance to these figures throughout their careers. In fact, to most blacks throughout the nation, both pugilists possessed superhuman qualities, or a “sixth finger.” As the twenty first century thrives, blacks continue the practice of selecting sporting representatives of the race to showcase dominance in athletics, society, and unconscious racial pride. 11 THE SIXTH FINGER: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN SPORTS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY iN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS BY AUGUSTUS CLARK WOOD III DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY ATLANTA, GEORGIA DECEMBER 2012 ©20 12 AUGUSTUS CLARK WOOD III All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is dedicated to Allyson Wood, Dorcas Wood and Augustus Clark Wood II, three very, special people. I am heartily thankful to my supervisor, Richard Morton, and mentor, Alton Homsby Jr., whose encouragement, guidance, and support from the initial to the final level was essential to the quality of the work. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all those who supported me in any respect during the completion of this project, especially committee members, Drs. Stephanie Evans and Charmayne Patterson, the Atlanta Fulton Public Library System, and the Auburn Avenue Research Library, which was the cornerstone of my research. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . ii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION: I SHOT AN ARROW INTO THE AIR: BOXING AND THE SEARCH FOR MASCULINITY AND RACE CONSCIOUSNESS TN AMERICA 1 2. THE ARCHITECTS OF FEAR: BLACK SELF-DETERMINATION AND REDEMPTIONIST POLITICS IN URBAN TEXAS, 1850-1900 23 3. THE MONSTERS ARE DUE ON WALNUT STREET: BLACK AGENCY AND SELF-DETERMINANT ACTIVISM IN LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, 1865-1980 47 4. BEYOND THE INVISIBLES: THE RISE OF JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN SPORTS 74 5. I SING THE BODY ELECTRIC! THE GLOBAL RESPONSE TO JACK JOHNSON, 1907-1912 114 6. “JACK JOHNSON’S GHOST IS WATCHING YOU!” THE GLOBAL RESPONSE TO THE MUHAMMAD ALl ENIGMA, 1960-1964 144 7. CHILDREN OF PANIC: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALT, AND SYMBOLS OF DISORDER IN AMERICAN SOCIETY 194 8. NINETY YEARS WITHOUT SLUMBERING: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE COLLAPSE OF MASCULINITY 238 EPILOGUE 294 BIBLIOGRAPHY 302 III CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I SHOT AN ARROW INTO THE AIR: BOXING AND THE SEARCH FOR RACE CONSCIOUSNESS AND MASCULINITY IN AMERICA There was a moment in time when those who were brilliant and powerful were also sportive and playful. When they took recess from their exhausting and magnificent strides towards glory, they replenished their darker passions with a myriad of “fun and games.” The Ancient Egyptian, Roman, and Greek societies embraced brutish games that served as both an indentation from the harsh realities of life and as an assessment of individual authority and influence. In this multicu1t~iral and exceptionally diverse world, such pastimes have since been civilized, and drained of all but their last few drops of blood. In fact, the violent and destructive games of yesteryear have been replaced with more moderate contests today that personify the exceedingly profitable and productive elements of entertainment, commercialization, and sectionalism. Accompanying these elements are underlying social factors, particularly varying degrees of racial hierarchal practices, which have devastatingly affected the atmosphere of sports. Indeed, racial hierarchies have existed throughout international sports history, but the distinguishing factor in recent memory suggests the increased individualization in sports. Originally hailed as a team of heroes for major American cities like New York and Boston, a gradual shift to singular iconic worship in twentieth century sporting has resulted in major social and cultural ramifications worldwide. 1 2 This research simultaneously explores, analyzes, and dissects these implications specifically in the area of boxing, one of America’s most popular pastimes. Prizefighting’s first attempts at modernization and popularization began in 1719 when James Figg, the first bare knuckles boxing champion in history, travelled around England showcasing exhibition fighting.’ At first, the English were unimpressed as they considered sporting amusements to be both crude and counterproductive. As the Revolutionary Era approached and prizefighting extended to the American colonies, both Puritans and Republicans spread anti-sporting propaganda equating athletics to the oppressive nature and decadent monarchies of Europe.2 More religious groups, especially Protestant sects, followed suit, citing the Sabbatarian restrictions against gambling, amusements, and drinking.3 However, similar to the decline in white middle class male manliness in the twentieth century, the economic shifts in prosperity and transforming thought patterns on society ushered in a golden age of sporting at the turn of the nineteenth century. The sport’s popularity exploded with the coming of Jack Broughton, called the “father of boxing rules” because he introduced a prohibition on eye gouging and attacking a fallen opponent. Broughton exemplified the demographics that dominated the pugilist sport for centuries: white, working class males with intent to settle a dispute or earn money. In addition, Broughton added an entertainment value to the sport. Bare knuckle brawling was brutal and violent, but Broughton’s charisma and untouchable defense added intrigue that drew supporters. In fact, by the 1 820s, industrialization had brought an influx of immigrants to the nation, prompting more citizens to desire sporting and its facets of amusement and gambling to offset the tiresome work days. Historian 3 Dale Somers noted that, “as the tempo of industrialization and urbanization accelerated, America became a mass society composed of people whose lives were governed increasingly by the machine and time clock.”4 In similar fashion to the conquerors in history, Americans’ desire for “fun and games” effectively muted the previously thunderous voices in opposition to sports. Regardless of the boom in popularity for prizefighting to the public, Northern politicians convinced the judiciaries to continuously rule boxing illegal. In effect, supporters devoted the larger part of the nineteenth century dodging police, bribing law officials, and holding lucrative fights in secluded areas like barns and abandoned shipyards. As the objectors correctly predicted, gambling immediately took control of pugilism, which many viewed as a major facet of an immoral society. Bookmaking, according to protestors, gradually leads to more degenerative practices in a society like vagrancy, debt and prostitution. Plus, along with excessive gambling came violent riots, which prompted state legislatures to pass concrete laws outlawing any simple example of fistfighting at any time. Political objectors wasted no time in celebrating these measures and looked to spread the message harshly. By 1849, in connection with their Puritan past, Massachusetts in particular set the precedent by upholding numerous convictions of their anti-prizefighting laws.5 On May 30, 1880, Irishman Paddy Ryan defeated Englishman Joe Goss in Colliers, West
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