DOCSLIB.ORG

Chicken Skin Fat As Raw-Material for Modifying Lipids to High Value Diacylglycerol Rich in Pufa

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Chicken Skin Fat As Raw-Material for Modifying Lipids to High Value Diacylglycerol Rich in Pufa III Symposium on Agricultural and Agroindustrial Waste Management March 12-14, 2013 - Sao Pedro, SP, Brazil CHICKEN SKIN FAT AS RAW-MATERIAL FOR MODIFYING LIPIDS TO HIGH VALUE DIACYLGLYCEROL RICH IN PUFA Vivian Feddern1*; Leonor Almeida de Souza-Soares2; Xuebing Xu3 1Embrapa Suínos e Aves, Concórdia-SC-Brasil. * [email protected] 2Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, FURG, Rio Grande-RS-Brasil [email protected] 3University of Aarhus, Aarhus-Denmark [email protected] ABSTRACT: As one of the main chicken meat producers and exporters, Brazil has also high waste generation, which includes chicken skin, a low value residue rarely utilized or underutilized. Skin fat may be extracted and reacted with different sources of lipids, acids or alcohols through interesterification reactions. Chicken skin in rich in oleic and palmitic fatty acids, the former may be kept or increased through this reaction in the modified lipids obtained, while the last may be decreased, turning this source more applicable nutritionally or technologically. In the present work, chicken skin fat and branched-chain fatty acids undergone lipase-catalyzed interesterification reaction through Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCDR), varying enzyme concentration (5-15%), water addition (0-10%), substrate molar ratio (2:1-6:1 branched fatty acids: chicken skin fat) and time (8-24 h) in order to produce modified lipids rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. The interesterified samples were applied on thin layer chromatography plates, extracted, methylated and injected into gas chromatograph. Different lipids as diacylglycerols (DAGs) rich in oleic and linoleic fatty acids were obtained. In modified DAG, around 6% of oleic acid was achieved when water was added in the reactional medium and also 2.5% of essential linolenic acid was observed when branched compounds were increased. Thus, chicken skin interesterification may be an alternative to increase unsaturated fatty acids with application onto technological purposes with improved nutritional value. Keywords: branched-chain fatty acids, interesterification, lipid profile INTRODUCTION Brazil is the world leader in chicken meat exports (3.9 million tons) and the third large producer comprising 13.0 million tons of poultry in 2011 (UBABEF, 2012). Thus, high amount of residues, including chicken skin are being generating, knowing that each broiler carcass contains around 15% skin (Hayse & Marion, 1973, cited by Sheu & Chen, 2002), a low value residue rich in oleic and palmitic fatty acids (FAs) is being lost or underutilized. The former FA is known for its benefits by lowering blood cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Lopez-Huertas, 2010), while the last is usually referred as a risk factor to cause this types of diseases (Labarthe, 2011). The nutritional, technological and physical properties of triacylglycerols can be modified by lipase-catalyzed interesterification (Kourist et al., 2010; Xu, 2003). Through this type of reaction, low-grade skin fat can be transformed into high-grade modified lipid, with specific and desired properties. In a given oil/fat is possible to maintain desire monounsaturated fatty acids as oleic and reduce saturated ones using sn-1,3 specific lipase. This enzyme is known to be regiospecific, acting only in sn-1 and sn-3 positions in the triacylglycerol backbone, preserving sn-2 position where usually the essential and other unsaturated fatty acids are. These reactions are carried out under milder conditions (temperature lower than 70 ºC, III Symposium on Agricultural and Agroindustrial Waste Management March 12-14, 2013 - Sao Pedro, SP, Brazil atmospheric pressure) with higher selectivity, while chemical reactions are performed around 180 ºC and originate dark products (Teng et al., 2009; Xu, 2003). The specific distribution of FAs in the triacylglycerol backbone plays a key role in lipid digestion and absorption. Branched fatty compounds are of commercial significance because the branching may cause changes in physical properties. For instance, a broader liquidity range and low surface tension is interesting for low-temperature applications and spreadability. These compounds are used in surfactants, lubricants, cosmetics, and as polymers additives, defoamers and wood protecting agents (Behr & Laufenberg, 1991, cited by Knothe et al., 2007). As far as we know, there are no reports regarding interesterification reaction combining chicken skin fat with branched-chain fatty acids. Thus, the purpose of this work was to react these substrates in order to produce modified lipids rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and lower the saturated ones in the final products. MATERIAL AND METHODS Raw-material Ckicken skin was donated by a chicken-processing industry of the south region of Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, and a mixture of branched fatty acids, named 18-MEA (18- Methyl Eicosanoic Acid), a derivative of lanolin was produced by Croda, Malmo, Sweden. Lipozyme® RM IM, a 1,3 specific lipase from Rhizomucor miehei was donated by Novozymes A/S (Bagsværd, Denmark). Standards of fatty acids, as well as mono, di and TAG were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. All chemical solvents were of analytical grade. Fat was extracted from chicken skin according to Bligh & Dyer (1959) method, following some modifications (Christie, 1982; Smedes & Thomasen, 1996). The mixture of branched fatty acids had the following lipid profile: C14 1.8%, C16 6.7%, C18 3.8%, C18:1 0.9%, C18:2 11.9%, C18:3 15.9%, C20 2%, C20:2 12%, C24 0.8%. Chicken skin fat lipid profile: C14 0.53%, C16 23.5%, C18 6.1%, C18:1 34.8%, C18:2 28.3%, C18:3, 2.3%. Interesterification Reaction Interesterification reactions type acidolysis were carried out at 60 ºC in water-jacket reactors using hexane as solvent and Lipozyme® RM IM as biocatalyst. Four variables at three levels were studied: enzyme concentration (5-15%), water addition (0-10%), substrate molar ratio (2:1-6:1 branched fatty acids: chicken skin fat) and time (8-24 h), according to a Central Composite Design (CCD) with 27 experimental runs. Thin layer chromatography (TLC), Methylation and Gas Chromatography Interesterified samples were isolated and applied on Silica gel 60 TLC plates (20x20 cm, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) with hexane/diethyl ether/acetic acid 70/30/1(v/v/v) as developing solvents in a closed chamber for 90 min. Following spraying with 1% ethanolic solution of 2,7-dichlorofluorescein, the bands were visualized under UV light. The bands containing diacylglycerols (DAGs) were scraped off and extracted with chloroform: methanol (2:1), evaporated under nitrogen and subjected to methylation. The fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) were prepared according to Feddern et al. (2010). A gas chromatograph (Thermo Scientific DSQ II - TRACE GC ULTRA, USA) with an auto sampler injection system (Thermo Scientific triplus ™ Autosampler), a flame ionization detector (FID) and a fused silica capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 µm) were used to separate DAG fraction. Carrier gas and conditions used followed the same abovementioned authors. The peaks were identified by comparing the samples retention times with the standards, using Xcalibur software (version 2.0.7) of Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (Waltham, MA, USA). III Symposium on Agricultural and Agroindustrial Waste Management March 12-14, 2013 - Sao Pedro, SP, Brazil RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Modified DAGs obtained through enzymatic reactions presented different FAs, but the main are shown in Table 1, which are of interest, namely palmitic (C16:0), oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2) and linolenic FAs (C18:3), being the last two essential ones. Although saturated FAs are referred as risk causing factor and should be low in the diet, Cintra et al. (2006) pointed out that negative effects of high saturated FAs content present in chicken skin diet can be counter balanced by the positive effects of its MUFA content. Table 2 depicts the main effects of the significant variables (P<0.05), namely C18:1 and C18:3. For C18:1, the more water was added in the reactional medium, more monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), up to 6%, were incorporated into DAG. On the opposite, when increasing branching compounds, less MUFA were incorporated (-6% for substrate alone and -7.4% for substrate x time interaction). Regarding C18:3, increasing branching compounds (from 2:1 to 6:1) into the system, an increment (2.5%) of this essential FA in DAG was observed. It depends of what property or nutrient the industry or professional is looking for, it’s possible to direct the formation of different structured lipids. CONCLUSION The research presents an alternative to reuse chicken skin and utilize it for technological and nutritional purposes, depending on the desire property or fatty acid to be incorporated through enzyme interesterification. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Aarhus University staff where the work was developed, CAPES/PDEE Scholarship (process number 1104-09-8) given to the first author and Novozymes are thanked. REFERENCES Bligh, E. G., Dyer, W. J. A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, v.37, n.8, p.911-917, 1959. Christie, W. W. Lipid analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Chromatographic and spectroscopic analysis of lipids: general principles. Ch.3, p. 25-49, 1982. Cintra, D. E. C., Costa, A. G. V., et al. Lipid profile of rats fed high-fat diets based on flaxseed, peanut, trout, or chicken skin. Nutrition, v.22, n.2, p.197-205, 2006. Feddern, V., Xu, X., Souza-Soares, L. A., Badiale-Furlong, E. Modified triacylglycerol production through acidolysis from chicken skin fat and branched chain fatty acids. In: 4º Congresso Internacional de Bioprocessos na Indústria de Alimentos. Curitiba, PR. São Paulo: TecArt, 2010. Knothe, G., Kenar, J. A., Gunstone, F. D. Chemical properties. In: GUNSTONE, F. D., Harwood, J. L., Dijkstra, A. J. (3rd. ed.). The Lipid Handbook with CD-ROM. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2007. p.535-590. Kourist, R., Brundiek, H., et al.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Chinese Express Ingredients and Allergen Information
    Asian Ingredient and Allergen Information Item Name Ingredient Statement Allergen Statement Appetizers Chicken Egg Roll (Cabbage, Enriched Bleached Flour [{Wheat Flour, Niacin, Reduced Iron, Thiamine Mononitrate, Riboflavin, Folic Acid}, Calcium Propionate, Malted Barley Flour], Water, White Meat Chicken, Carrots, Onion, Textured Soy Flour, Celery, Enriched Durum Flour [Wheat Flour, Niacin, Ferrous Sulfate, Thiamine Mononitrate, Riboflavin, Folic Acid], Contains 2% or less of: Vegetable Oil [Soybean, Cottonseed, Corn, and/or Canola Oil], Salt, Autolyzed Yeast Extract, Modified Food Starch, Sugar, Garlic, Dried Whole Egg, Soy Sauce Powder [Soy Sauce {Wheat, Soybeans, Salt}, Maltodextrin, Salt], Wheat Gluten, Spice, Cornstarch. Fried in Vegetable Oil [Soybean, Cottonseed, Corn, and/or Canola Oil]), Soybean Oil (Hydrogenated Soybean Oil Chicken Egg Roll with TBHQ and Citric Acid added as preservatives, and Dimethylpolysiloxane added as an anti-foaming agent). Contains Egg, Soy, Wheat. Vegetable Egg Roll (Cabbage, Enriched Flour [{Bleached Wheat Flour, Niacin, Reduced Iron, Thiamine Mononitrate, Riboflavin, Folic Acid}, Calcium Propionate, Malted Barley Flour], Water, Carrots, Broccoli, Water Chestnuts, Enriched Durum Flour [Wheat Flour, Niacin, Ferrous Sulfate, Thiamine Mononitrate, Riboflavin, Folic Acid], Brown Rice, Celery, Bamboo Shoots, Contains 2% or Less of: Salt, Modified Food Starch, Onion, Yeast Extract [Yeast Extract, Sunflower Oil], Toasted Sesame Oil, Flavoring [Yeast Extract, Salt, Maltodextrin, Natural and Artificial Flavor], Vegetable Oil [Cottonseed and/or Canola Oil], Dried Garlic, Wheat Gluten, Sugar, Spice, Eggs, Cornstarch. Fried in Vegetable Oil (Cottonseed and/or Canola Oil), Soybean Oil (Hydrogenated Veggie Egg Roll Soybean Oil with TBHQ and Citric Acid added as preservatives, and Dimethylpolysiloxane added as an anti-foaming agent). Contains Egg, Wheat.
    [Show full text]
  • Evaluation of Soft Spreadable Margarine Properties Produced by Lipase-Catalysed Interesterification of Chicken Fat and Corn Oil
    International Food Research Journal 19 (3): 801-806 (2012) Evaluation of soft spreadable margarine properties produced by lipase-catalysed interesterification of chicken fat and corn oil 1*Afida, T. and2 Mamot, S. 1Department of Chemistry , Jalan Sultan 46661, Petaling Jaya, Selangor 2Food Science Programme, School of Chemical Sciences and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia Abstract: Chicken fat is a potential bioresource that can be developed into a commercial product. In this study, chicken fat, which is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, including oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2), was enzymatically interesterified with corn oil to produce a soft spread. Two interesterified products, sample 16 (4% enzyme, 4:1 mole ratio of chicken fat to corn oil, 50°C and 42 h of the interesterification process) and sample 17 (4% enzyme, 2:1 mole ratio of chicken fat to corn oil, 30°C and 42 h of the interesterification process), were selected based on the highest SFC at 30oC which were close to SFC values ​​of commercial product. A morphological study showed that the final products had smaller and less dense fat particles, which explained the lower melting temperatures and solid fat content (3.2 and 3.5% for samples 16 and 17, respectively, at 20°C) compared to the commercial products (9.7, 6.8 and 7.7% for products A, B and C, respectively, at 20°C). However, both sample 16 and 17 had similar thermal properties to a vegetable-oil-based commercial product, with melting enthalpies (ΔH) of 58.45 J/g and 71.40 J/g, and were fully melted at 31.40°C and 35.41°C, respectively.
    [Show full text]
  • Fat and Fatty Acid Content of Selected Foods Containing Trans-Fatty Acids
    Fat and Fatty Acid Content of Selected Foods Containing Trans-Fatty Acids Special Purpose Table No. 1 NOTE: The samples analyzed for this table were collected between 1989 and 1993. As the formulations for these products may have changed, caution should be exercised when using these values. Prepared by: Jacob Exler, Linda Lemar, and Julie Smith U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center Nutrient Data Laboratory 10300 Baltimore Ave. B-005, Rm. 107, BARC-West Beltsville, MD 20705 Tel. 301-504-0630 FAX: 301-504-0632 This table provides analytical data on selected foods containing trans-fatty acids. All of the data presented were obtained under USDA contract. The samples were analyzed by capillary gas-liquid chromatography, and the studies were monitored for quality control. More detailed information on the analytical methodology and quality control can be obtained from the authors at the above address. Codes indicating the source of the data, descriptions of food items, and listings of the fat added as declared on the food labels are given in file below. Codes for sources of data are given for each item. Generic descriptions are provided for all food items reported. The items are arranged by major food category that correspond to the sections of Agriculture Handbook No. 8. A list of the categories is given below. For a given food description, all items bearing the same alphabetic brand designation are the same brand name item. The letter "h" in the fat added field indicates that the fat was either hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated.
    [Show full text]
  • Differentiation of Lard from Other Edible Fats by Gas Chromatography- Flame Ionisation Detector (GC-FID) and Chemometrics
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Journal of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences J.Food Pharm.Sci. 2 (2014): 27-31 Avalaible online at www. jfoodpharmsci.com Research Article Differentiation of Lard from Other Edible Fats by Gas Chromatography- Flame Ionisation Detector (GC-FID) and Chemometrics Omar Dahimi1, Mohd. Sukri Hassan1, Alina Abdul Rahim1*, Sabo Mohammed Abdulkarim2, and Siti Mashitoh A.1 1Institute of Halal Research and Management (IHRAM), Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, 71800, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia 2Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT The presence of lard or its derivatives in any food products is a serious Received 05 December 2012 religious issue among Muslim and Judaism. Thus, the objective of this study Revised form 27 December 2012 was to investigate the use of gas chromatography with flame ionisation Accepted 02 January 2013 detector (GC-FID) coupled with chemometrics techniques such as Principle Available online 12 May 2013 Components Analysis (PCA) and K-mean cluster analysis to differentiate lard adulteration at very low concentrations in beef and chicken fats. The measurements were made from the pure lard, beef tallow, pure chicken fat; and beef tallow (BT), chicken fat (CF) adulterated with different concentrations of lard (0.5%-10% in BT and CF). The data were first scaled into standardisation before PCA is performed to each of the scaled data using Unscrambler software. The Scores plots and loadings plots of each scaled data were compared and studied. The results showed that lard contains higher fatty acid (FA) of C18: 2cis and low C16:0 FA, but oppositely for beef tallow and chicken fat.
    [Show full text]
  • Ingredient Book 11-4-2020.Pdf
    The following is a list of ingredients used in various recipes that are served to clients of Meals on Wheels as dictated through our menus. Regular and modified menus are approved by a registered dietitian to ensure proper nutrition for older adults. It is the client’s responsibility to ensure physician’s recommendations are followed. Every effort will be made to provide the selected menu, but occasionally there may be a substitution served due to circumstances beyond our control. Menus are subject to change. In addition, substitute ingredients may be used due to circumstances beyond our control with vendors. Exact serving sizes and detailed nutrition information is available upon request. For questions or concerns about the menu or for the most up to date ingredients please call Amber Goines at 740-681-5050. 11/4/2020 Beef BEEF, STRIP FAJITA SEASONED COOKED FROZEN SMARTSERVE INGREDIENTS BEEF, WATER, SEASONING [SALT, MALTODEXTRIN, SODIUM PHOSPHATE, GARLIC, SPICES, DISODIUM INOSINATE AND DISODIUM GUANYLATE, PAPAIN], VEGETABLE PROTEIN PRODUCT [SOY PROTEIN CONCENTRATE, ZINC OXIDE, NIACINAMIDE, FERROUS SULFATE, COPPER GLUCONATE, VITAMIN A PALMITATE, CALCIUM PANTOTHENATE, THIAMINE MONONITRATE B1, PYRIDOXINE HYDROCHLORIDE B6, RIBOFLAVIN B2, CYANOCOBALAMIN B12], CONTAINS 2 OR LESS OF THE FOLLOWING CANOLA OIL WITH TBHQ AND CITRIC ACID, DIMETHYLPOLYSILOXANE], BLACK PEPPER, DEXTROSE, SODIUM PHOSPHATE, YEAST EXTRACT, NATURAL FLAVOR. CONTAINS SOY BEEF, TOP INSIDE ROUND PACKER INGREDIENTS NOT AVAILABLE AT THIS TIME BEEF, PATTY GROUND STEAK 78/22 4:1 HOMESTYLE RAW FROZEN CLOUD THE CLOUD BEEF BEEF, BREADED STEAK COUNTRY FRIED LOW SALT COOKED FROZEN ADVANCE FOOD HEARTLAND BEEF BEEF, SALT, POTASSIUM AND SODIUM PHOSPHATE. BREADED WITH: ENRICHED BLEACHED WHEAT FLOUR ENRICHED WITH NIACIN, FERROUS SULFATE, THIAMINE MONONITRATE, RIBOFLAVIN, FOLIC ACID, SPICES, SALT, LEAVENING SODIUM ALUMINUM PHOSPHATE, SODIUM BICARBONATE, TORULA YEAST, SOYBEAN OIL, ONION POWDER.
    [Show full text]
  • What Are “Oils”?
    What are “oils”? Oils are fats that are liquid at room temperature, like the vegetable oils used in cooking. Oils come from many different plants and from fish. Some common oils are: • canola oil • corn oil • cottonseed oil • olive oil • safflower oil • soybean oil • sunflower oil Some oils are used mainly as flavorings, such as walnut oil and sesame oil. A number of foods are naturally high in oils, like: • nuts • olives • some fish • avocados Foods that are mainly oil include mayonnaise, certain salad dressings and soft (tub or squeeze) margarine with no trans fats. Check the Nutrition Facts label to find margarines with 0 grams of trans fat. Most oils are high in monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats, and low in saturated fats. Oils from plant sources (vegetable and nut oils) do not contain any cholesterol. In fact, no foods from plants sources contain cholesterol. A few plant oils, however, including coconut oil and palm kernel oil, are high in saturated fats and for nutritional purposes should be considered to be solid fats. Solid fats are fats that are solid at room temperature, like butter and shortening. Solid fats come from many animal foods and can be made from vegetable oils through a process called hydrogenation. Some common solid fats are: • butter • beef fat (tallow, suet) • chicken fat • pork fat (lard) • stick margarine • shortening How are oils different from solid fats? All fats and oils are a mixture of saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. Solid fats contain more saturated fats and/or trans fats than oils. Oils contain more monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fats.
    [Show full text]
  • RENEWABLE DIESEL Tallow Filtration Applications
    RENEWABLE DIESEL Tallow Filtration Applications Renewable diesel is an advanced biofuel About one-third of the fats and oils produced in the United States are animal fats including beef tallow, pork lard, that is biodegradable. It is a cleaner-burning, and chicken fat. Animal fats are attractive feedstocks for renewable diesel because their cost is substantially lower drop-in replacement to petroleum diesel fuel than the cost of vegetable oil and animal fat feedstocks can and can be used in vehicles and heating be made into high-quality diesel. systems. Renewable diesel is primarily Because it has the same chemical structure as petroleum diesel, renewable diesel can be used in engines that are produced from animal fats, inedible corn oil, designed to run on conventional diesel fuel —with no blending required. and vegetable oils. Waste fat from animal carcasses are removed and then made into an oil using a rendering process. Rendering consists of grinding the animal by-products to a fine consistency and The Benefits of an optimized filtration cooking them until the liquid fat separates and pathogens are system include: destroyed. • Improve operation efficiency by delivering cleanest Solid bone meal contaminants, phospholipids, or gums and possible feedstock to your hydrotreater other contaminants need to be removed to provide clean • Protect downstream equipment feedstock for the hydrotreater. This is a highly temperature • Lower operating and maintenance costs and extend life sensitive process that can make it challenging. of catalyst • Improved heat transfer and process controls • Ability to meet final product sales specification Truck Unloading Tallow Filtration 3 L. P.
    [Show full text]
  • Cooking to Thrive
    COOKINGOILS TO THRIVE Oils are NOT a food group but they provide essential nutrients, such as fatty acids and Vitamin E. Therefore, oils are included in recommendations for what to eat; however, only small amounts of oils are recommended. About oils: ▶ Oils are fats that are liquid at room temperature. ▶ Some commonly eaten oils include the following: canola oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, safflower oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, walnut oil, and sesame oil. ▶ Some foods are naturally high in oils, like nuts, olives, some fish, and avocados. ▶ Most oils are high in monounsaturated fats (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fats (PUFA). Most of the fats you eat should be MUFAs or PUFAs. ▶ The MUFAs and PUFAs found in fish, nuts, and vegetable oils do not raise LDL (bad) cholesterol levels in the blood. How are OILS different from SOLID FATS? ▶ Solid fats are fats that are solid at room temperature, like butter and shortening. ▶ Solid fats can come from animal foods and can be made from vegetable oils through a process called hydrogenation. ▶ Examples of solid fats include the following: butter, milk fat, beef fat (tallow, suet), chicken fat, pork fat (lard), stick margarine, shortening, and partially hydrogenated oil. ▶ Solid fats contain more saturated fats and/or trans fats than oils. Saturated fats and trans fats tend to raise LDL cholesterol levels in the blood, which can increase the risk for heart disease. Tips: ▶ Eat fewer foods that are high in solid fats to help lower the risk for heart disease. ▶ Switch from solid fats to oils when preparing food.
    [Show full text]
  • EQUIVALENTS, MEASUREMENTS and YIELDS Compiled by Nola Johnson Cockerham
    EQUIVALENTS, MEASUREMENTS and YIELDS Compiled by Nola Johnson Cockerham NOTE: "=" means equals "-" means minus "+" means plus tsp. = teaspoon T. = tablespoon C. = cup oz. = ounce soda = baking soda MEASUREMENTS: pinch = 1/16 tsp. dash = 6 drops or 1/8 tsp. 1/4 T. = 3/4 tsp. 3 tsp. = 1 T. 1/8 C. = 2 T. = 1 fl. oz. 1/4 C. = 4 T. = 2 fl. oz. 1/3 C. = 5 T. + 1 tsp. 1/2 C. = 8 T. = 4 fl. oz. 3/4 C. = 12 T. = 6 fl. oz. 1 C. = 16 T. = 1/2 pint = 8 fl. oz. 2 C. = 1 pint = 16 fl. oz. 4 C. = 2 pints = 1 quart = 32 oz. 16 C. = 4 quarts = 1 gallon 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel 1 liter = 1 quart plus 3 oz. 2 oz. = 1/8 pound 4 oz. = 1/4 pound 8 oz. = 1/2 pound 16 oz. - 1 pound CAN SIZE AMOUNT USES #1/4 1/2 C. Meat spreads #1/2 1 C. Salmon #300 1 3/4 C. (14-16 oz.) #1 tall (303) 2 C. (16-17 oz.) Salmon and fruit cocktail #2 2 1/2 C. (20 oz.) Vegetables, fruits and juices #2 1/2 3 1/2 C. (29 oz.) Fruits, tomatoes, beets, pumpkin #5 6 C. (46 fluid oz.) Juices #10 12-13 C. Institutional and preparedness 1 At times it is necessary to use a substitution for a recipe ingredient. The substituted food may not perform exactly as the original food. Each ingredient has specific functions in a recipe and a substitute may alter the flavor, color, texture or volume, but still result in an acceptable finished product.
    [Show full text]
  • Schmaltz by Dan Gill, Ethno-Gastronomist
    Schmaltz By Dan Gill, Ethno-Gastronomist The word schmaltz is of High German origin and simply means [rendered] animal fat. Technically, lard and beef tallow are schmaltz, but the word was adopted by early Ashkenazi or European Jews and applied to poultry fats in general and specifically to chicken, duck or goose fat. Since lard is forbidden and butter restricted, schmaltz became the cornerstone of traditional Jewish cuisine and an essential ingredient in many authentic dishes, such as matzo balls and potato pancakes. Prior to the widespread use of vegetable oils and fats during the twentieth century, schmaltz was used in place of butter and lard for frying and as a spread for bread. It adds a depth and richness to most dishes that cannot be obtained with vegetable fats. In fact, there are few authentic Ashkenazi recipes that don’t call for schmaltz. In America, schmaltz also means “overly sentimental” or “mushy”. Chicken fat was held in such high regard by Jewish immigrants that merely the mention of schmaltz evokes an emotional response and fond childhood memories. Jewish comedians and performers popularized the term during the early days of radio and television. When compared to beef tallow or lard, chicken and turkey schmaltz is lower in saturated fats and higher in beneficial monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and essential fatty acids and is therefore healthier. Several years ago, I researched frying oils and came to the conclusion that, when heated and especially when used for frying, animal fats are actually safer and less detrimental to our health than vegetable fats (in general) because they are more stable and don’t break down into dangerous components as readily.
    [Show full text]
  • Rendering Fats the Products, Byproducts & Process of Rendering
    Mr. Joanis’ Science Class! Name: ________________ Period: ____ Rendering Fats The Products, Byproducts & Process of Rendering Rendering is a process that converts animal tissue (parts of an animal’s body) into two materials: a rendered fat and a protein meal. Typically, the main purpose of rendering any animal tissue is to produce a rendered fat like lard (purified pig’s fat), tallow (purified beef fat), or schmaltz (purified chicken fat). Different animal tissues can be used to produce rendered fats with unique qualities; for example, the taste, smoke point and melting point of schmaltz are all different compared to lard’s. Rendered fats are more stable than the unrendered fat tissue on an animal, meaning rendered fats will last longer on a shelf or in a fridge than whole cuts of meat before going bad. Because of this, rendering tissue that would otherwise not be cooked to eat (like a pile of chicken fat, pictured right) is a good way to get lots of use out of every part of a slaughtered animal. Rendered fats from any kind of animal can be used in some recipes as a substitute for items like butter, vegetable oil, or shortening. Fat can also be rendered from the intramuscular fat (fat that exists within the muscles, or “meat” of any sample of animal tissue) and intermuscular fat (fat that exists between muscle groups) when any cut of meat is cooked. For example – bacon grease that is left at the bottom of a pan after cooking bacon is a form of rendered fat! The byproduct of rendering unrefined animal fat tissue is protein meal – a solid and crunchy “shell” that gets left behind when most of the fat liquefies and the moisture (water) is driven off.
    [Show full text]
  • Differentiation of Lard, Chicken Fat, Beef Fat and Mutton Fat by GCMS
    Journal of Oleo Science Copyright ©2013 by Japan Oil Chemists’ Society J. Oleo Sci. 62, (7) 459-464 (2013) Differentiation of Lard, Chicken Fat, Beef Fat and Mutton Fat by GCMS and EA-IRMS Techniques Nina Naquiah Ahmad Nizar1, Jalaldeen Mohamed Nazrim Marikkar1, 2＊ and Dzulkifly Mat Hashim1 1 Halal Products Research Institute and 2 Department of Biochemistry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor D. E., Malaysia. Abstract: A study was conducted to differentiate lard, chicken fat, beef fat and mutton fat using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Elemental Analyzer–Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (EA-IRMS). The comparison of overall fatty acid data showed that lard and chicken fat share common characteristics by having palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid as major fatty acids while beef and mutton fats shared common characteristics by possessing palmitic, stearic and oleic acid as major fatty acids. The direct comparisons among the fatty acid data, therefore, may not be suitable for discrimination of different animal fats. When the fatty acid distributional data was subjected to Principle Component Analysis (PCA), it was demonstrated that stearic, oleic and linoleic acids as the most discriminating parameters in the clustering of animal fats into four subclasses. The bulk carbon analysis of animal fats using EA-IRMS showed that determination of the carbon isotope ratios (δ13C) would be a good indicator for discriminating lard, chicken fat, beef fat and mutton fat. This would lead to a faster and more efficient method to ascertain the source of origin of fats used in food products. Key words: animal fats, food authentication, lard, GC-MS, EA-IRMS, PCA 1 INTRODUCTION technique is that it demands higher sorting time for the Authenticity is an important issue for the food industry identification of individual components as there would be due to legal compliance, economic reasons, guarantee of a too many peaks to be detected by the MS.
    [Show full text]