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Africa for Africans: Métissage, Assimilation, and French West Africa’S Cultural Evolution

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Africa for Africans: Métissage, Assimilation, and French West Africa’S Cultural Evolution Africa for Africans: Métissage, Assimilation, and French West Africa’s Cultural Evolution Katherine Elizabeth Lakin-Schultz Mathews, Virginia M.A., University of Virginia, 2007 B.A., Duke University, 2003 A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of French Language and Literature University of Virginia August 2014 II Abstract This dissertation explores and traces the evolution of the role of cultural métissage as a philosophical response to colonialism in French West Africa (AOF). I use the West African press and select literary texts to show how and why assimilation and métissage emerged as a central debate, primarily in the 1930s and 1940s, with some attention given to the 1950s and the build up to African Independences (1960). Changes in colonial policy in the 1930s provoked heightened interest in the subject from the educated African elite and divergent camps formed with some rejecting assimilation (led by Léopold Sédar Senghor) while others promoted selective assimilation or cultural métissage (led by Ousmane Socé). The press and primarily, Paris-Dakar and later Dakar-Jeunes, became a platform for rich discussion between 1937 and 1942. In my first chapter, I show how Ousmane Socé emerged as a vocal champion of cultural métissage in French West Africa. He used his novels and the press to promote métissage as the key to African cultural, economic, and social development. He was not in favor of replacing African culture with a French model, but was open to some outside cultural influence. Senghor, however, first sought to focus on cultural authenticity and my second chapter traces his philosophical evolution from his rejection of métissage in the 1930s to his embrace of the philosophy in the late 1950s, exemplified through his conception of la Civilisation de l’Universel. Chapter 3 explores how the symbolic rivalry between Socé and Senghor, established after 1937, pushed Socé to launch a debate on cultural métissage in 1942 in the Vichy-sponsored newspaper, Dakar-Jeunes. I explain how this culturally-focused publication could exist in a period marked by reduced III liberties in AOF, hosting a rich exchange on the topic with the participation of West African intellectuals including Socé, Abdoulaye Sadji, and Mamadou Dia. Lastly, my fourth chapter examines the role Sadji had in the métissage debate, focusing on his more nuanced approach. He never took Socé’s or Senghor’s side, but was active in the press, often using folklore to promote the value African cultural authenticity. My ultimate conclusion is that the dominance and duration of the debate on assimilation and cultural métissage in AOF points to Africans’ desire to determine their own cultural future and have more autonomy. IV Table of Contents Dedication…………………..…………………………………………………………...VI Introduction……..………………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1, Ousmane Socé: The Steady Champion of Cultural Métissage in French West Africa…………………………………………………………………………………….24 Chapter 2, From Negritude to “La Civilisation de l’Universel:” The Philosophical Evolution of Léopold Sédar Senghor…………………………………………………….73 Chapter 3, An Unlikely Host: Dakar-Jeunes, Cultural Métissage, and Vichy’s National Revolution………………………………………………………………………………106 Chapter 4, Culture, Language, and Folklore: Abdoulaye Sadji’s Nuanced Approach to Métissage…………………………………………………………………….…………153 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..187 Appendix: Selection of Rare Texts………………………………………………….…198 I. Abdoulaye Sadji. “Mirages de Paris: Préface.” Paris-Dakar 12 June 1937...…....…198 II. Mamadou Dia. “Fine analyse de la crise de conscience d’une génération.” Paris- Dakar 20 July 1937………………………...…………………………………………...199 III. “La conférence de M. Diop Ousmané Socé a remporté un succès triomphal à la Chambre de Commerce.” Paris-Dakar 3 August 1937…...........………………………199 IV. Ousmane Socé. “Impressions d’Europe.” Paris-Dakar 3 August 1937…………...200 V. Léopold Sédar Senghor. “Le problème culturel en A.O.F.” Paris-Dakar 8 September 1937 (Omitted from Liberté I)………………………..…………………….………..…205 VI. Denis Blanche. “Préface” Congrès international de l’évolution culturelle des peuples coloniaux: Rapports et compte rendu (1937)………………………...…………...……206 VII. Léopold Sédar Senghor. “La résistance de la bourgeoisie sénégalaise à l’école rurale populaire” Congrès international de l’évolution culturelle des peuples coloniaux: Rapports et compte rendu……………………………...……………………………….210 VIII. Fily Dabo Sissoko. “Les Noirs et la Culture.” Congrès international de l’évolution culturelle des peuples coloniaux: Rapports et compte rendu………………...……...…213 IX. Ousmane Socé. “Le Danger.” Paris-Dakar 29 September 1937……...……………218 V X. Abdoulaye Sadji. “Utopie et Réalité.” Paris-Dakar 6 October 1937…...………..…219 XI. Ousmane Socé. “Autour du Congrès de l’Évolution des peoples coloniaux.” Paris- Dakar 4 January 1939……………………………….……………………………….…220 XII. Fily Dabo Sissoko. “Réponse à Ousmane Socé: A propos du Congrès de l’Évolution Culturelle des peuples coloniaux,” Paris-Dakar 27 January 1939…………………..…223 XIII. Ousmane Socé. “Les noirs et la culture: Réponse à M. Fily Dabo Sissoko.” Paris- Dakar 8-10 February 1939……………………………….……………………………..227 XIV. Ousmane Socé. “L’évolution culturelle de l’A.O.F.” Dakar-Jeunes 29 January 1942…………………………………………………...……………………………...…230 Bibliography……………………………………………………………...…………....232 VI To Elsie, Lucie, Andrew, and my mother Linda Introduction Nous nous trouvons mêlés, tout d’un coup à la vie universelle. C’en est fait des vieilles traditions dans tout ce qu’elles contiennent d’incompatible avec le monde nouveau qui se crée; nous nous métissons, tous les jours, dans tous les domaines de l’activité humaine. Et de ce métissage, va naître, en terre africaine, un monde nouveau.1 By the end of 19th century, France had emerged as a global imperial powerhouse. The Berlin Conference of 1884 – 1885 guaranteed French control of a huge land mass in West and Central Africa, firmly establishing the nation’s colonial presence from Mauritania to French Congo. The forced contact that resulted served to change the cultural, economic, and political landscape of the continent forever. As Africans tried to negotiate the many divergent influences that colonialism introduced, hybrid cultural identities also developed. This mixing or métissage defined simply by Le trésor de la langue française as “le croisement entre individus appartenant à des races différentes,” permeated all levels of society, impacting urban areas more profoundly than rural ones due to increased contact with French colonizers and European institutions.2 The key lies in the notion of “croisement,” which implies crossing or intersection and the absence of an adjectival qualifier allows for several interpretations. Best translated as hybridity, hybridization, or even mixing, métissage allows for the necessary extension of meaning beyond physical or biological métissage to that of culture, society, and language. I will therefore use the French terminology as the foundation for my dissertation investigating the evolution of the philosophy of cultural métissage in French West Africa (AOF).3 1 Ousmane Socé Diop, Mirages de Paris (Paris: Nouvelles Éditions Latines, 1937) 148-9. 2 Le trésor de la langue française informatisée: http://atilf.atilf.fr/tlf.htm. 3 In French, Afrique Occidentale Française or AOF, the abbreviation that will be used throughout this study. 2 The question of cultural métissage can be relevant to any study of the effects of colonization on colonized peoples, as some degree of manifested hybridity is an inescapable result of the kind of forced contact that defined the system. In French- controlled territories, French was introduced as the language of commerce and erudition, and written literature was first produced in the language of the colonizer, not Wolof, Bambara, or one of countless other native tongues. Though this new reality was indeed a hybrid one, it was not necessarily by conscious choice. Cultural métissage, in turn, evolved from the unavoidable result of the colonial culture clash to a dialectally important philosophical response to colonialism. The concept emerged in AOF in the 1930s during a period that was favorable to the participation of colonial subjects in public discussions on culture. Journalistic writings communicate that Africans were proactively looking towards the future, hoping to ensure a more constructive role in determining the cultural framework of their respective nations. In its earliest demonstrations, the terminology ‘cultural métissage’ was used sparingly, and bled frequently into debates addressing the role of assimilation in West African society. However, if referenced explicitly as métissage or in terms of assimilationist or anti-assimilationist views, the source of the argument was the same. How did colonial subjects reconcile the opposing cultural forces acting on their lives? How could the lessons and dogmas acquired through the French colonial education system coexist with traditional African cultural and societal norms? What traditions should be reformed? What European contributions should be rejected or adopted? These questions were frequently addressed in both literary and journalistic texts with cultural métissage emerging as a common approach for promoting African progress in a colonial 3 and soon-to-be post-colonial world. Proponents of cultural métissage believed in a middle ground where Africans could preserve the foundations
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