P 1 P 1 3 3 9 FRNS Balloon To Stratosphere 9 FRNS Balloon To Stratosphere 1 1 LOCATION: Augsburg, Germany | INVENTOR: Auguste Piccard with Paul Kipfer LOCATION: Augsburg, Germany | INVENTOR: Auguste Piccard with Paul Kipfer PODS PODS

1931 1931 FNRS BALLOON TO STRATOSPHERE FNRS BALLOON TO STRATOSPHERE

1943 Auguste Piccard and assistant Paul Kipfer reached the stratosphere for the first time in human history in a hermetically sealed 1943 aluminum gondola suspended from the largest balloon ever constructed.1 The balloon was called FNRS, named after the Belgian incoming solar heat

1949 Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, which funded the experiment. At take-off, the balloon barely contained 50,000 cubic 1949 feet of gas, resulting in an elongated pear-shape, and was just sufficient to lift the aluminum capsule housing the two aeronauts, their equipment, and lead ballasts.2 Once at altitude, the balloon could expand to contain 500,000 cubic feet of hydrogen, making 1952 3 1952 compressed Piccard’s balloon the largest ever built at the time. In order to protect the aeronauts from the near vacuum of the stratosphere, the oxygen suspended gondola was sealed and pressurized to one atmosphere. 1959 1959 To sustain human life in the stratosphere, the sealed gondola had internalized systems for pressurization, temperature control 1960 and air composition. The first two did not pose major challenges, however, Piccard’s first flight did not have sufficient temperature 1960 control and reached uncomfortably cold temperatures.4 Later models were painted a combination of black on the bottom half and 5 1960 white on the top and created a comfortable space, usually of 65’F. The problem of pressurization was addressed through the sealing 1960 of the cabin, and pressure would have remained steady if it were not for a leak that occurred during the ascent. An instrument became dislodged and a whistling of air occurred through an installation hole. Piccard quickly patched the leak and pressure was 2% CO2 max limit 1960 6 1960 regained by pouring liquid oxygen on the floor. Maintaining an air composition suitable for human respiration proved to be the biggest te m 68 F i p n heat loss y challenge. e t t r e i at r l u ior a 1963 1963 re u q ir Air conditioning was less a problem of producing oxygen, but of reducing carbon dioxide. In normal air, carbon dioxide occupies a 19631963 0.03 per cent of the mixture. At eight per cent, humans cannot breathe. Two percent causes no adverse effect, and was thus 19631963 -78 F 7 considered to be the maximum proportion of carbon dioxide allowed in the gondola . Eliminating carbon dioxide was also difficult in human alkali carbon metals respiration dioxide a pressurized system, where air cannot simply be expelled. Instead, Piccard utilized the Draeger apparatus, a compact instrument AIR LEAK (CO2 sink) 1964 1964 1500 - 2000 c.c. formerly used in underwater diving technology. It is composed of compressed oxygen that is released through a blower into a tube per minute filled with granulated potassium hydroxide. The potassium hydroxide has the ability to remove carbon dioxide from the air mix, 1966 maintaining a percentage at or below two percent. 1966

x atm @ 1 atm 1966 Auguste Piccard was the first of a dynasty of balloonists, aeronauts, and hydronauts, including his brother Jean Felix and 1966 i n 51,200 ft. te his wife Jeannette; Jacques and Bertrand, his son and grandson respectively; and his nephew Don. After several experiments with rior 1972 balloons, Auguste Piccard’s interests shifted to undersea exploration. The innovations of the sealed cockpit lead to the design of the 1972 8 a bathyscaphe in 1937. ir p ressure 1972 1972

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“The cabin of the FNRS, with Auguste Landing of first flight to stratosphere on “Charles Kipfer (left) and Auguste Piccard seen through the port- 1975 1975 Piccard at the manhole,” from “Earth, a glacier at Ober Gurgl, Austria,” from hole of the 220-pound aluminum gondola,” from Modern Me- Sky and Sea” by Auguste Piccard, 1956 Suddeutsche Zeitung, “Harte, aber chanics. “10-mile Ascent Paves Way for Stratosphere Planes.” 1975 1975 glukluche Landung”, May 24, 2011 Modern Mechanics, August 1931

View of Piccard metal gondola 1976 1976 RESOURCES: 1 Popular Science. “Ten Miles High in an AIR-TIGHT BALL.” Popular Science, August 1931. 1981 1981 2 Modern Mechanics. “10-mile Ascent Paves Way for Stratosphere Planes.” Modern Mechanics, August 1931.

1982 1982 3 Modern Mechanics. “10-mile Ascent Paves Way for Stratosphere Planes.” Modern Mechanics, August 1931.

4 Piccard, Jeannette. “Some Problems Connected with a Stratosphere Ascension.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 27, no. 2 (1935): 122-128. 1991 1991 5 Piccard, Jeannette. “Some Problems Connected with a Stratosphere Ascension.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 27, no. 2 (1935): 122-128. 1994 1994 6 Ryan, Craig. The Pre-Astronauts: Manned Ballooning on the Threshold of Space. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 1995

2000 2000 7 Piccard, Jeannette. “Some Problems Connected with a Stratosphere Ascension.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 27, no. 2 (1935): 122-128. Paul Kipfer and August Piccard with their ‘stratospheric’ Important facts of the Piccard-Kipfer balloon, from Modern Mechanics, August helmets 1931 8 Ryan, Craig. The Pre-Astronauts: Manned Ballooning on the Threshold of Space. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 1995. 2007 2007

2010 2010 E 3 E 3 4 4 9 Aqualung 9 Aqualung 1 1 LOCATION: France | INVENTOR: Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan LOCATION: France | INVENTOR: Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT

1931 1931 AQUALUNG AQUALUNG

1943 1943 Throughout his career as undersea explorer, researcher, and photographer, Jacques Cousteau sought to further engage man with the ocean world. Along with French engineer Emile 1949 Gagnan, he invented the first aqualung in 1943. At the time of the invention, other devices existed 1949 to enable underwater breathing. However, the significance of the aqualung was its ability for the 1952 diver to stay submerged for much longer periods of time. 1952

In 1943, compressed-air devices already existed in diving technology, notably that of 1959 1959 Captain Yves Le Prieur, who developed an open-circuit compressed-air device in 1925. However, the air supply from the compressed cylinders was not able to be limited and therefore sustained 1960 underwater breathing for only a few minutes.1 During WWII, Gagnan had adapted a demand 1960 regulator that would feed cooking gas to a car’s carburetor in the exact amount the engine 1960 needed. Gagnan’s regulator was then adapted to diving, and the Cousteau-Gagnan aqualung 1960 was patented in 1943. The inclusion of the demand regulator in the aqualung allowed for the flow 1960 of air from the cylinders to be limited, and dive times to be extended to about an hour, depending 1960 on depth.

1963 1963 The aqualung is an open circuit breathing apparatus; a simple system of gas exchange that An early attempt at the aqualung concept releases exhaled oxygen into the water.2 Weighing about 50lbs, the original aqualung consists of 19631963 three cylinders carried on the back of the diver.3 The air in the cylinders, compressed to 150psi at 19631963 sea level, passes through a demand regulator, which lowers the pressure of the compressed air 1964 to that of the surrounding water. The regulator joins to a mouthpiece via two flexible tubes. As the 1964 diver exhales, foul air escapes freely into the water through a one-way exhaust valve. The aqualung 1966 allowed for agile maneuvering underwater and complete inversion, along with deeper descents 1966 and longer dive times, ultimately allowing for greater exploration of the ocean environment. Patent for a divers unit, 1949

1966 1966 The aqualung technology was not an isolated invention. Tailliez, a diving partner of Cousteau, once exclaimed, “each yard of depth we claimed in the sea would open to mankind 1972 300,000km of living space”.4 This begins to explain Cousteau’s position that the aqualung is 1972 one step towards humans’ ability to live underwater. Beyond the aqualung, Cousteau envisioned 1972 a futuristic amphibious man who could operate underwater indefinitely without breathing.5 The 1972 amphibious men would have their lungs filled with a super-oxygenated liquid instead of air. The The demand valve for the aqualung 1972 liquid would be circulated outside the body and through an external re-oxygenating unit attached 1972 to the human, allowing divers to reach estimated depths of 9,000 feet without heavy diving gear. “Someday you may have 50 feet of water over New York City if the icecaps melt,” Cousteau once 1972 1972 said.6 The aqualung is a step towards man’s ability to live sustainably under the ocean surface.

1972 1972

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Patent for a divers unit, 1949 1975 1975

1976 1976 RESOURCES: 1 Colby, Carroll B. Underwater World: Exploration Under the Surface of the Sea (New York: Coward-McCann, 1966) 6-43. 1981 1981 2 Cousteau, Jacques. The Ocean World (New York: H.N. Abrams, 1979) 256-267.

1982 1982 3 Cousteau, Jacques. The Ocean World (New York: H.N. Abrams, 1979) 256-267.

4 Hussein, Farooq. Living Underwater (New York: Praeger Publishing Ltd., 1970) 8-35. 1991 1991 5 “Cousteau Envisions ‘Amphibious Man’,” Los Angeles Times (1923-Current), December 14, 1969. 1994 1994 6 “Cousteau Envisions ‘Amphibious Man’,” Los Angeles Times (1923-Current), December 14, 1969.

2000 2000 Patent for a demand regulator for breathing apparatus, 1963 Patent for a mouthpiece for breathing apparatus, 1964

2007 2007

2010 2010 3 3 6 6 9 Thermoheliodon 9 Thermoheliodon 1 1 LOCATION: Princeton Architectural Laboratory | INVENTOR: Victor and Aladar Olgyay LOCATION: Princeton Architectural Laboratory | INVENTOR: Victor and Aladar Olgyay DOMESTIC LIVING DOMESTIC LIVING DOMESTIC

1931 1931 THERMOHELIODON THERMOHELIODON

1943 1943 Post World War II, before mechanical heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems became widely available and affordable, there was a particular interest in developing a new method to design architecture that responds to its climatic context. At the 1949 Princeton Architectural Laboratory, Aladar and Victor Olgyay were leaders in the subject. Their research focused on methods to test 1949 architectural strategies that place a building specific climate conditions.1 The Thermoheliodon, funded by the National Science 1952 Foundation, was an invention made to be able to test architectural models at a small scale in specific climates to a significant level of 1952 detail.2

1959 1959 The driving force behind the Olgyay brother’s research and the invention of the Thermoheliodon was the belief that the goal Plant for the automatic control of the incident solar flux of architecture should be to create a condition of human comfort, the main criteria of which is thermal temperature.3 In Design With 1960 Climate: A Bio-Climatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism (1963), Victor Olgyay wrote, “the architect’s problem is to produce an 1960 environment which will not place undue stress upon the body’s heat-compensation mechanism”.4 A trained modernist striving for 1960 man’s maximum productivity, Olgyay learned that human physical strength and mental activity are best within a specific climate range. 1960 A method to test architecture for this specific climate zone became a main objective of Olgyay’s work. 1960 1960 TOO HOT The Thermoheliodon creates a closed and simulated environment in which building models can be tested for their thermal 5 1963 performance under a range of temperatures. It consists of two main elements, the testing apparatus and the instrument panel. A 1963 convection lamp moves around a curved path to model the arc of the sun. A set of fans behind an adjustable screen accounts for wind direction conduction and humidity is controlled by a series of jets. Within a Plexiglas dome, the architectural model is placed on soil from the building site 19631963 to make for the most accurate measurements.6 However, achieving an accurate assessment still had problems. Scale of materials 19631963 was not recorded as an issue, allowing accurate models for orientation and shape.7 However, accomplishing dynamic and thermal radiation 1964 similarity had complications that compromised the effectiveness of the device.8 The Thermoheliodon, while failing to create an exact 1964 environment, led to a future of studies on adaptive and efficient design in architecture. evaporation 1966 1966

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radiation 1974 1974 air movement

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1975 1975 Thermoheliodon, images from “Design With Climate”, Chapter 4 Thermoheliodon with inventors Aladar and Victor Olgyay 1976 1976 RESOURCES: 1 Barber, Daniel. “The Thermoheliodon: Climatic architecture at the end of calculation,” ARPA Journal, May 15, 2014. 1981 1981 2 Barber, Daniel. “The Thermoheliodon: Climatic architecture at the end of calculation,” ARPA Journal, May 15, 2014.

1982 1982 3 Olgyay, Victor. Design With Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture Regionalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 4,12-23.

4 Olgyay, Victor. Design With Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture Regionalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 4,12-23. 1991 1991 5 Olgyay, Victor. Design With Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture Regionalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 4,12-23. 1994 1994 6 Olgyay, Victor. Design With Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture Regionalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 4,12-23.

2000 2000 7 Olgyay, Victor. Design With Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architecture Regionalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963) 4,12-23.

8 Barber, Daniel. “The Thermoheliodon: Climatic architecture at the end of calculation,” ARPA Journal, May 15, 2014. 2007 Images from “Design With Climate”, Chapter 2 2007

2010 2010 2 2 7 7 9 Autonomous Dome 9 Autonomous Dome 1 1 LOCATION: Boxtel, The Neatherlands | INVENTOR: Jaap ‘t Hooft LOCATION: Boxtel, The Neatherlands | INVENTOR: Jaap ‘t Hooft DOMESTIC LIVING DOMESTIC LIVING DOMESTIC

1931 1931 AUTONOMOUS DOME AUTONOMOUS DOME

1943 1943 The Autonomous dome was an experimental house built and lived in by Dutch engineer Jaap ‘t Hooft in 1972. It was part of a project called De Kleine Aarde (the Small Earth), an experimental farm in Boxtel, The Netherlands, which was interested in 1949 investigating alternate husbandry, technology and lifestyles.1 The Autonomous dome was designed to be highly self-sufficient and 1949 cheap, while still contributing a living space with necessary amenities and comfort. While most other projects aiming for autonomy at 1952 the time were polarized into high cost, high comfort or low cost, low comfort groups, the autonomous dome explored a compromise.2 1952 While not completely autonomous, the compact house maintained essential amenities and comfort for one or two occupants and had a cost of only $3-4000.3 1959 1959

The construction of the dome was a compact geodesic frame insulated with cork cement. The dome shape was chosen to 1960 optimize heat conservation, as well it was argued by Jaap to perceive as a more spacious interior.4 It had three small, carefully 1960 situated, triangular windows, only one of which opened. As a cost reduction method, the interior was very small with only a 28 square 1960 meter area. However, the space was open concept, except for the bathroom and lobby, and the bed was raised above the floor to give 1960 way to floor space. It was site specific, oriented to a climate similar to that of southern England, but with more sunshine hours and a 1960 colder winter.5 1960

1963 The house reached full autonomy in its water supply, waste treatment, electricity, waterheating, cooking gas and space heating. 1963 However, it was never completely autonomous. Its location on the experimental farm allowed for components to exist outside the main structure of the house, and this ability for nonintegration allowed the design of the house to be unconstrained by the components.6 Exterior of the house, showing the vent, triangular windows, and Image of the rebuilt dome 19631963 19631963 Removed from the main structure of the dome, the project utilized a methane digestor, solar collector and wind generator. In order for sunken doorway the methane digestor to work, it required manure from the neighboring farm’s hogs.7 As well, food production was also done outside 1964 the house, although alleviating this shortcoming is the fact that horticultural farms surrounded the project. 1964

1966 Jaap ‘t Hooft reported several failures while inhabiting the house. The basement filled with water as a result of a leak in the 1966 pipes from the solar collector. As well, the windmill was reported to slow and the battery would die on days in the winter with very low wind. The methane digestor worked for a short period of time before it was purposely stopped, as a leak in the manhole caused the 1966 1966 inability to capture the gas that was produced.8 However, despite its several failures, the autonomous house was firstly an experiment in self-sufficiency. It realized its shortcomings in its conception and contributed in exploring autonomy within a compromise of low cost 1972 while maintaining a concern for human amenity. 1972

1972 1972

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1972 1972 The interior of the autonomous house

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1975 1975 The layout of elements, including the autonomous house, methane digestor, solar collector, and wind generator

1975 1975

1976 1976 RESOURCES: 1 Harper, Peter. The House that Jaap Built 1981 1981 2 ibid

1982 1982 3 Harper, Peter. The Autonomous Houses

4 Harper, Peter. The House that Jaap Built 1991 1991 5 ibid 1994 1994 6 ibid

2000 2000 7 ibid Image of the rebuilt dome 8 Harper, Peter. The House that Jaap Built 2007 2007

2010 2010 EC 2 EC 2 7 7 9 BIOS-3 9 BIOS-3 1 1 LOCATION: Krosnoyark, Russia (former USSR) | INVENTOR: Russian Academy of Sciences LOCATION: Krosnoyark, Russia (former USSR) | INVENTOR: Russian Academy of Sciences EARTH COLONES EARTH COLONES EARTH

1931 1931 BIOS-3 BIOS-3

1943 1943 water BIOS-3 was a controlled ecological life support system light (CELSS) which opened in 1972. The facility was atmospherically human food 1949 sealed, creating a need for oxygenation for the scientists within 1949 the closed system. Initial prototypes from 1965 at the same 1952 facility proved that algae could moderate the oxygen and carbon 1952 dioxide levels in an environment that included human respiration. The system was not completely closed. It required electrical 1959 1959 wheat energy from a nearby hydroelectric facility, and air tanks provided Phytotron 1 pressure to keep the interior atmosphere stable. Solid and liquid 1960 waste from the human crew was also removed from the facility. 1960 y lit vegetables ua q titanium ir 1960 The BIOS-3 complex included four major rooms: one for the 1960 a crew living quarters, one algal cultivator (the room where algae aluminum 1960 would provide oxygen from carbon dioxide), and two phytotrons 1960 toxic waste A model of the layout of BIOS-3, showing the four compartments: crew living accumulation (greenhouses built for the purposes of research). There were area, algal cultivator, and two phytotrons, which grew wheat and vegetables nickel oxygen 1963 three major two month long phases for BIOS-3 from 1972 to 1963 1973. During phase 1, there were two phytotrons and a crew of Algal Cultivator three people. These phytotrons provided wheat and vegetables 19631963 to sustain the crew. In phase 2, one phytotron was removed and 19631963 replaced with the algal cultivator containing the Chlorella species. Phytotron 2 1964 In phase 3, wheat was removed from the remaining phytotron, with 1964 facility only providing vegetables and oxygenated air. The project carbon Living Quarters 1966 1966 was considered a success in the six months of its initial operation. dioxide No crewmembers fell ill or developed pathological problems, and electric energy the plants and algae did not deteriorate over the period. 1966 1966 human The project highlights some of the difficulties with testing respiration 1972 environments within small-scale closed systems. Though the 1972 human consumption phytotrons and the rest of the facility were highly controlled, 1972 trace elements (such as nickel, aluminum, titanium, and others) 1972 From a camera feed, showing a scientist about to go to sleep inside BIOS-3 were detected, but had no adverse effects on the occupants or 1972 the vegetation. Within a small scale, these problems can easily 1972

multiply over a long period of time. The failure of Biosphere-2 highlights the difficulty of sustaining a small-scale operation, regardless human waste human of the control measures in place. The success of BIOS-3 was in its limited scale (it was less than 1700 cubic meters) and its control 1972 1972 of occupancy (3 crewmembers and very specified vegetation/algae growth protocols). Though large scale operations require more capital (as was the case in Biosphere-2), these operations also require more sophisticated systems to deal with unanticipated 1972 problems which become magnified in constrained spaces like CELSS). 1972

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1976 1976 A model of the layout of BIOS-3, showing the four compartments: crew A scientist harvesting vegetables from one of the two phytrons living area, algal cultivator, and two phytotrons, which grew wheat and 1981 1981 vegetables

1982 1982

1991 1991

1994 1994 RESOURCES:

2000 A view of the vegetable phytotron, including a 20kW xenon lamp to A view of a scientist tending to the vegetable phytotron 2000 Frank B. Salisbury, Josef I. Gitelson and Genry M. Lisovsky. “Bios-3: Siberian Experiments in Bioregenerative Life Support.” simulate solar energy and lighting BioScience, Vol. 47, No. 9 (Oct., 1997), pp. 575-585 2007 2007

2010 2010 EC EC 6 6 7 7 9 The Ark for Cape Cod 9 The Ark for Cape Cod 1 1 LOCATION: Cape Cod, MA | INVENTOR: The New Alchemy Institute LOCATION: Cape Cod, MA | INVENTOR: The New Alchemy Institute EARTH COLONES EARTH COLONIES EARTH

1931 1931 THE ARK FOR CAPE COD THE ARK FOR CAPE COD

1943 1943 The Ark for Cape Cod was an experimental exploration of year-round interior agriculture, aquaculture and ideas of passive solar heating.1 It was built in 1976 1949 by a radical environmental and anarchist group called the New Alchemists, lead by 1949 John Todd and William McLarney. Trained in agriculture, comparative psychology, 1952 and ethnology, the New Alchemists emerged from a critical perspective on modern 1952 agriculture and a fear of not surviving their prophecy of Earth’s soon ecological collapse2. Their goals were to avoid famine caused by exploitation of resources, 1959 1959 rampant capitalism and population growth by creating alternative food production systems3. The Cape Cod Ark was one of several ‘Arks’ built. The name ‘Ark’ can be 1960 exchanged with ‘bioshelter’; named to describe biological diversity and autonomy, 1960 and also, the Ark would serve as a lifeboat, like Noah’s Ark, should the existing 1960 agriculture system fail.4 Horticultural section of the Ark 1960 Plan 1960 The Ark of Cape Cod was part of the New Alchemist’s research to test the 1960 possibility of maintaining a healthy livable interior environment within the Cape

1963 Cod climate. The goal was to produce food year-round to support a small colony 1963 of people.5 The Ark consisted mainly of three greenhouse-covered ponds, which together produce a water recycling system. The third pond contained fish for 19631963 protein. Water in the third pond is cycled into the first, which acts as a filter. Within 19631963 the first pond, water passes through crushed shells and bacteria to detoxify waste 1964 and chemicals produced by the fish.6 The second pond contained algae-eating 1964 crustaceans, and water is purified and nutrient rich when cycled back into the third 1966 pond.7 In addition to raising fish for food, the ponds act as a store for solar heat and 1966 supply warm water to agriculture.8 Photograph of southern exposure 1966 1966 Other elements of the Ark’s formal design were intended to reduce energy consumption and to create interior microclimates of light, temperature and 1972 moisture.9 The roof has a steep slope upwards towards the south to maximize 1972 southern solar exposure. The southern facing roof and east-west walls were made 1972 of double-glazed fiberglass to let in diffuse light with minimal heat loss. As well, 1972 Cross section drawing the inside surface of the north-facing roof was painted white to maximized solar 10 1972 reflectivity. The roof peak has opening panels for ventilation in the summer, and the 1972 ponds help regulate moisture and temperature from their thermal mass.11

1972 1972 Though Cape Cod Ark can be measured on its successes, it also had many failures as a sustainable model for agriculture. According to “From Our Experience: 1972 The First Three Years Aboard the Cape Cod Ark” in Journal 6 by the New Alchemists, Aquaculture section of the Ark 1972 the ventilation was poor and in the summer the Ark could heat to above 40 degrees Inside the Cape Cod Ark, photo by John Todd 1972 Fahrenheit. The bacteria in the ponds would die when the wind was low in the winter, since energy from the windmill was not 1972 producing circulation.12 The Ark was relatively high cost and had a short life span: in current prices the Ark would cost about $40 per square foot to build, and the high internal moisture content would cause rotting of the wood structure.13 Resultantly, the Ark could 1972 1972 RESOURCES: not last as a model more than fifteen to twenty years without hefty renovation of the structure.14 1 Barnhart, Earle. “Bioshelter Guidebook: Bioshelter Research by New Alchemy (1971-1991).” 2007 1974 1974 2 Anker, Peder. “The closed world of ecological architecture.” Journal Of Architecture 10, no. 5 (November 2005): 527-552. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed April 7, 2015). 1974 1974 3 Anker, Peder. “The closed world of ecological architecture.” Journal Of Architecture 10, no. 5 (November 2005): 527-552. Avery Index 1975 1975 to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed April 7, 2015).­ 4 Wade, Nicholas. “New Alchemy Institute: Search for an Alternate Agriculture.” Science 187, no. 2178 (Feb. 28, 1975): 727-729 1975 1975 5 Barnhart, Earle. “Bioshelter Guidebook: Bioshelter Research by New Alchemy (1971-1991).” 2007

1976 1976 6 Wade, Nicholas. “New Alchemy Institute: Search for an Alternate Agriculture.” Science 187,

7 Ibid 1981 1981 8 Wolfe, John. “The Latest Year of Research on Bioshelters: A Summary.” New Alchemy Quarterly, 9 (1982): 7-9 1982 1982 9 The New Alchemists. “Bioshelter Primer.” The Journal of the New Alchemists, 4 (1977): 114-122

1991 1991 10 ibid

11 ibid 1994 1994 12 Wade, Nicholas. “New Alchemy Institute: Search for an Alternate Agriculture.” Science 187, no. 2178 (Feb. 28, 1975): 727-729

2000 2000 13 Wolfe, John. “The Latest Year of Research on Bioshelters: A Summary.” New Alchemy Quarterly, 9 (1982): 7-9 The Cape Cod Ark as seen from slightly Miniature ark at the new Alchemy Institute 2007 northwest 2007 14 Wolfe, John. “The Latest Year of Research on Bioshelters: A Summary.” New Alchemy Quarterly, 9 (1982): 7-9

2010 2010 SC 5 SC 5 9 9 9 MELiSSA Pilot Plant 9 MELiSSA Pilot Plant 1 1 LOCATION: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona | INVENTOR: European Space Agency LOCATION: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona | INVENTOR: European Space Agency SPACE COLONIES SPACE COLONIES SPACE

1931 1931 MELISSA PILOT PLANT MELISSA PILOT PLANT

1943 1943 The MELiSSA (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative) Pilot Plant is an artificial closed loop life support system. It is intended for future long-term manned space missions that would require a self-sustaining planetary base on the Moon or Mars. 1949 The project was inaugurated in 1995 at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and belongs to the MELiSSA team of the European 1949 Space Agency. The goal of the artificial ecosystem is to recover food, water and oxygen from waste, in the form of faeces and urine, 1 1952 carbon dioxide and minerals. It should achieve a closed liquid and gas loop fulfilling one hundred percent of oxygen requirements 1952 and at least twenty percent of food requirements for one man.2 The first integration steps began in 2008 and will complete in 2015. The first step was to test the loop with a “crew” of 40 rats, which would simulate the oxygen demands of one human. 1959 1959

The MELiSSA Pilot Plant has five different compartments that are interconnected. Each component contains a set of 1960 processes which surround a central reactor. The crew inhabits compartment 5. Compartment 1 collects the waste produced by the 1960 crew (faeces, urine, paper) and the plant waste and microbial biomass from compartment 4. Compartments 2 and 3 undertake 1960 biotransformation steps, where compartment 2 is devoted to the removal of fatty acids from the liquid, and compartment 3 1960 converts ammonia to nitrate. Compartment 4 is responsible for food generation, oxygen production and water purification. It is 1960 split into two parts, where C4a contains edible blue-green algae and C4b contains higher plant production for food the recovering 1960 of water for human consumption.3 The plants in C4 require the mineral nutrients, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, which are recycled

1963 through the processes from compartment 1. 1963

Each compartment described above first needed to be tested at an individual level. A second step involved the integration of 19631963 all components working together in a complete loop. The MELiSSA Pilot Plant operates at a very high level of challenges. Since the 19631963 MELiSSA Pilot Plant is still in an experimental phase it is difficult to determine conclusive results about the success of the system. 1964 However, it was observed with the rat scenario that it was not possible to meet the one hundred percent oxygen closure objective.4 1964 With every step, elements of the loop are improved. The MELiSSA Pilot Plant is expected to meet its final objective in future pilot 1966 tests without radically changing the system components.5 1966

Compartment IV loop bioreactor in operation General view of the fixed bed used in Close up view of the compartment II bioreactor in 1966 1966 compartment III operation

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MELiSSA team inside laboratory 1974 1974

1975 1975

Scheme of the liquid loop interconnections for the MELiSSA Pilot Plant 1975 1975

1976 1976 RESOURCES: 1 European Space Agency. “MELiSSA.” ESA, last modified November 19, 2007. http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Melissa/ 1981 1981 2 Poughon, L., Farges, B., Dussap, C.G., Godia, F., Lasseur, C. “Simulation of the MELiSSA closed loop system as a tool to define its 1982 1982 integration strategy.” Advances in Space Research 44 (2009): 1392–1403.

3 Godia, F., Albiol, J., Perez, J., Creus, N., Cabello, F., Montras, A., Masot, A., Lasseur, Ch. “The MELISSA pilot plant facility as an 1991 1991 integration test-bed for advanced life support systems.” Advances in Space Research 34 (2004): 1483–1493.

4 Poughon, L., Farges, B., Dussap, C.G., Godia, F., Lasseur, C. “Simulation of the MELiSSA closed loop system as a tool to define its 1994 1994 A view inside the MELiSSA pilot plant at the University Autònoma of Barcelona Laboratory integration strategy.” Advances in Space Research 44 (2009): 1392–1403.

5 ibid 2000 2000

2007 2007

2010 2010