Some Aspects of Hankel Matrices in Coding Theory and Combinatorics
Ulrich Tamm Department of Computer Science University of Chemnitz 09107 Chemnitz, Germany [email protected]
Submitted: December 8, 2000; Accepted: May 26, 2001. MR Subject Classifications: primary 05A15, secondary 15A15, 94B35
Abstract Hankel matrices consisting of Catalan numbers have been analyzed by various authors. Desainte- Q i+j+2n Catherine and Viennot found their determinant to be 1≤i≤j≤k i+j and related them to the Q i+j−1+2n Bender - Knuth conjecture. The similar determinant formula 1≤i≤j≤k i+j−1 can be shown 2m+1 to hold for Hankel matrices whose entries are successive middle binomial coefficients m . Generalizing the Catalan numbers in a different direction, it can be shown that determinants of 1 3m+1 Hankel matrices consisting of numbers 3m+1 m yield an alternate expression of two Mills – Robbins – Rumsey determinants important in the enumeration of plane partitions and alternat- ing sign matrices. Hankel matrices with determinant 1 were studied by Aigner in the definition of Catalan – like numbers. The well - known relation of Hankel matrices to orthogonal polyno- mials further yields a combinatorial application of the famous Berlekamp – Massey algorithm in Coding Theory, which can be applied in order to calculate the coefficients in the three – term recurrence of the family of orthogonal polynomials related to the sequence of Hankel matrices.
I. Introduction A Hankel matrix (or persymmetric matrix) c0 c1 c2 ... cn−1 c1 c2 c3 ... cn c c c ... c An = 2 3 4 n+1 . (1.1) . . . . . . . . cn−1 cn cn+1 ... c2n−2 is a matrix (aij) in which for every r the entries on the diagonal i + j = r are the same, i.e., ai,r−i = cr for some cr. the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 1 For a sequence c0,c1,c2,... of real numbers we also consider the collection of Hankel (k) matrices An , k =0, 1,..., n =1, 2,...,where ck ck+1 ck+2 ... ck+n−1 ck+1 ck+2 ck+3 ... ck+n (k) c c c ... c An = k+2 k+3 k+4 k+n+1 . (1.2) . . . . . . . . ck+n−1 ck+n ck+n+1 ... ck+2n−2 So the parameter n denotes the size of the matrix and the 2n − 1 successive elements ck,ck+1,...,ck+2n−2 occur in the diagonals of the Hankel matrix. We shall further denote the determinant of a Hankel matrix (1.2) by
(k) (k) dn =det(An ). (1.3) Hankel matrices have important applications, for instance, in the theory of moments, and in Pad´e approximation. In Coding Theory, they occur in the Berlekamp - Massey algorithm for the decoding of BCH - codes. Their connection to orthogonal polynomials often yields useful applications in Combinatorics: as shown by Viennot [76] Hankel deter- minants enumerate certain families of weighted paths, Catalan – like numbers as defined by Aigner [2] via Hankel determinants often yield sequences important in combinatorial enumeration, and as a recent application, they turned out to be an important tool in the proof of the refined alternating sign matrix conjecture. The framework for studying combinatorial applications of Hankel matrices and further aspects of orthogonal polynomials was set up by Viennot [76]. Of special interest are 1 2m+1 determinants of Hankel matrices consisting of Catalan numbers 2m+1 m .Desainte– (k) Catherine and Viennot [24] provided a formula for det(An )andalln ≥ 1, k ≥ 0incase c that the entries m are Catalan numbers, namely c 1 2m+1 m , ,... For the sequence m = 2m+1 m , =0 1 of Catalan numbers it is Y i j n d(0) d(1) ,d(k) + +2 k ≥ ,n≥ . . n = n =1 n = i j for 2 1 (1 4) 1≤i≤j≤k−1 + Desainte–Catherine and Viennot [24] also gave a combinatorial interpretation of this de- terminant in terms of special disjoint lattice paths and applications to the enumeration of Young tableaux, matchings, etc.. Q i+j−1+c c They studied (1.4) as a companion formula for 1≤i≤j≤k i+j−1 , which for integer was shown by Gordon (cf. [67]) to be the generating function for certain Young tableaux. For even c =2n this latter formula also can be expressed as a Hankel determinant formed 2m+1 of successive binomial coefficients m . c 2m+1 m , ,... For the binomial coefficients m = m , =0 1 Y i j − n d(0) ,d(k) + 1+2 k, n ≥ . . n =1 n = i j − for 1 (1 5) 1≤i≤j≤k + 1 the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 2 We are going to derive the identities (1.4) and (1.5) simultaneously in the next section. Our main interest, however, concerns a further generalization of the Catalan numbers and their combinatorial interpretations. In Section III we shall study Hankel matrices whose entries are defined as generalized c 1 3m+1 Catalan numbers m = 3m+1 m . In this case we could show that nY−1 j j j Yn 6j−2 d(0) (3 + 1)(6 )!(2 )!,d(1) 2j . . n = j j n = 4j−1 (1 6) j=0 (4 + 1)!(4 )! j=1 2 2j These numbers are of special interest, since they coincide with two Mills – Robbins – Rum- sey determinants, which occur in the enumeration of cyclically symmetric plane partitions and alternating sign matrices which are invariant under a reflection about a vertical axis. The relation between Hankel matrices and alternating sign matrices will be discussed in Section IV. Let us recall some properties of Hankel matrices. Of special importance is the equation c0 c1 c2 ... cn−1 an,0 −cn c1 c2 c3 ... cn an,1 −cn+1 c2 c3 c4 ... cn+1 · an,2 = −cn+2 . (1.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . cn−1 cn cn+1 ... c2n−2 an,n−1 −c2n−1
(0) It is known (cf. [16], p. 246) that, if the matrices An are nonsingular for all n, then the polynomials
j j−1 j−2 tj(x):=x + aj,j−1x + aj,j−2x + ...aj,1x + aj,0 (1.8) form a sequence of monic orthogonal polynomials with respect to the linear operator T l l mapping x to its moment T (x )=cl for all l,i.e.
T (tj(x) · tm(x)) = 0 for j =6 m. (1.9) and that
m T (x · tj(x))=0form =0,...,j− 1. (1.10)
In Section V we shall study matrices Ln =(l(m, j))m,j=0,1,...,n−1 defined by
m l(m, j)=T (x · tj(x)) (1.11) By (1.10) these matrices are lower triangular. The recursion for Catalan – like numbers, as defined by Aigner [2] yielding another generalization of Catalan numbers, can be derived via matrices Ln with determinant 1. Further, the Lanczos algorithm as discussed in [13] t yields a factorization Ln = An · Un,whereAn is a nonsingular Hankel matrix as in (1.1), Ln is defined by (1.11) and the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 3 100... 00 a1,0 10... 00 a a ... Un = 2,0 2,1 1 00 . (1.12) . . . . . . . . . . an−1,0 an−1,1 an−2,2 ... an−1,n−2 1 is the triangular matrix whose entries are the coefficients of the polynomials tj(x), j = 0,...,n− 1. In Section V we further shall discuss the Berlekamp – Massey algorithm for the decoding of BCH–codes, where Hankel matrices of syndromes resulting after the transmission of a code word over a noisy channel have to be studied. Via the matrix Ln defined by (1.11) it will be shown that the Berlekamp – Massey algorithm applied to Hankel matrices with real entries can be used to compute the coefficients in the corresponding orthogonal polynomials and the three – term recurrence defining these polynomials.
Several methods to find Hankel determinants are presented in [61]. We shall mainly concentrate on their occurrence in the theory of continued fractions and orthogonal poly- nomials. If not mentioned otherwise, we shall always assume that all Hankel matrices An under consideration are nonsingular. Hankel matrices come into play when the power series
2 F (x)=c0 + c1x + c2x + ... (1.13) (0) (1) is expressed as a continued fraction. If the Hankel determinants dn and dn are different from 0 for all n the so–called S–fraction expansion of 1 − xF (x) has the form
c0x 1 − xF (x)=1− q x . (1.14) − 1 1 e1x 1 − q x − 2 1 e2x 1 − 1 − ... (k) Namely, then (cf. [55], p. 304 or [78], p. 200) for n ≥ 1 and with the convention d0 =1 for all k it is
d(1) · d(0) d(0) · d(1) q n n−1 ,e n+1 n−1 . . n = (1) (0) n = (0) (1) (1 15) dn−1 · dn dn · dn For the notion of S– and J– fraction (S stands for Stieltjes, J for Jacobi) we refer to the standard books by Perron [55] and Wall [78]. We follow here mainly the (qn,en)–notation of Rutishauser [65]. 1 For many purposes it is more convenient to consider the variable x in (1.13) and study power series of the form
the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 4 c c c 1 F 1 0 1 2 ... . x (x)= x + x2 + x3 + (1 16) and its continued S–fraction expansion
c0 q1 x − e − 1 1 q2 x − e − 2 1 x − ... which can be transformed to the J–fraction
c0 (1.17) β1 x − α1 − β2 x − α2 − β3 x − α3 − x − α4 − ... with α1 = q1,andαj+1 = qj+1 + ej,βj = qjej for j ≥ 1. (cf. [55], p.375 or [65], pp. 13). The J–fraction corresponding to (1.14) was used by Flajolet ([26] and [27]) to study combinatorial aspects of continued fractions, especially he gave an interpretation of the coefficients in the continued fractions expansion in terms of weighted lattice paths. This interpretation extends to parameters of the corresponding orthogonal polynomials as stud- ied by Viennot [76]. For further combinatorial aspects of orthogonal polynomials see e.g. [28], [72]. Hankel determinants occur in Pad´e approximation and the determination of the eigenval- ues of a matrix using their Schwarz constants, cf. [65]. Especially, they have been studied by Stieltjes in the theory of moments ([70], [71]). He stated the problem to find out if a measure µ exists such that
Z ∞ l x dµ(x)=cl for all l =0, 1,... (1.18) 0 R dµ(t) P∞ c ,c ,c ,... − l cl . for a given sequence 0 1 2 by the approach x+t = l=0( 1) xl+1 Stieltjes could show that such a measure exists if the determinants of the Hankel ma- (0) (1) trices An and An are positive for all n. Indeed, then (1.9) results from the quality of pj (x) tj x the approximation to (1.16) by quotients of polynomials tj (x) where ( ) are just the polynomials (1.8). Hence they obey the three – term recurrence
tj(x)=(x − αj)tj−1(x) − βj−1 · tj−2(x),t0(x)=1,t1(x)=x − α1, (1.19) where
α1 = q1, and αj+1 = qj+1 + ej,βj = qjej for j ≥ 1. (1.20) the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 5 In case that we consider Hankel matrices of the form (1.2) and hence the corresponding 2 power series ck + ck+1x + ck+2x + ..., we introduce a superscript (k) to the parameters in question. (k) (k) Hence, qn and en denote the coefficients in the continued fractions expansions c c k , k q(k)x e(k)q(k) − 1 x − q(k) − 1 1 1 (k) 1 (k) (k) e x (k) (k) e q 1 − 1 x − q − e − 2 2 q(k)x 2 1 x − q(k) − e(k) − ... 1 − 2 3 2 1 − ... and
(k) j (k) j−1 (k) j−2 (k) (k) tj (x)=x + aj,j−1x + aj,j−2x + ...aj,1 x + aj,0 are the corresponding polynomials obeying the three – term recurrence
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) tj (x)=(x − αj )tj−1(x) − βj−1tj−2(x). Several algorithms are known to determine this recursion. We mentioned already the Berlekamp – Massey algorithm and the Lanczos algorithm. In the quotient–difference (k) (k) algorithm due to Rutishauser [65] the parameters qn and en are obtained via the so– called rhombic rule
(k) (k) (k+1) (k) (k) en = en−1 + qn − qn ,e0 = 0 for all k, (1.21)
e(k+1) c q(k) q(k+1) · n ,q(k) k+1 k. . n+1 = n (k) 1 = for all (1 22) en ck
II. Hankel Matrices and Chebyshev Polynomials Let us illustrate the methods introduced by computing determinants of Hankel matrices whose entries are successive Catalan numbers. In several recent papers (e.g. [2], [47], [54], [62]) these determinants have been studied under various aspects and formulae were given for specialQ parameters. Desainte–Catherine and Viennot in [24] provided the general d(k) i+j+2n n k solution n = 1≤i≤j≤k−1 i+j for all and . This was derived as a companion formula (yielding a “90 % bijective proof” for tableaux whose columns consist of an even number of elements and are bounded by height 2n) to Gordon’s result [36] in the proof of the Q c+i+j−1 Bender – Knuth conjecture [8]. Gordon proved that 1≤i≤j≤k i+j−1 is the generating function for Young tableaux with entries from {1,...,n} strictly increasing in rows and not decreasing in columns consisting of ≤ c columns and largest part ≤ k. Actually, this follows from the more general formula in the Bender – Knuth conjecture by letting q → 1, see also [67], p. 265. By refining the methods of [24], Choi and Gouyou – Beauchamps [21] could also derive Gordon’s formula for even c =2n. In the following proposition we shall apply a well - the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 6 known recursion for Hankel determinants allowing to see that in this case also Gordon’s formula can be expressed as a Hankel determinant, namely the matrices then consist of 2m+1 consecutive binomial coefficients of the form m . Simultaneously, this yields another proof of the result of Desainte – Catherine and Viennot, which was originally obtained by application of the quotient – difference algorithm [77]. Proposition 2.1: c 1 2m+1 m , ,... a) For the sequence m = 2m+1 m , =0 1 of Catalan numbers it is Y i j n d(0) d(1) ,d(k) + +2 k ≥ ,n≥ . . n = n =1 n = i j for 2 1 (2 1) 1≤i≤j≤k−1 + c 2m+1 m , ,... b) For the binomial coefficients m = m , =0 1 Y i j − n d(0) ,d(k) + 1+2 k, n ≥ . . n =1 n = i j − for 1 (2 2) 1≤i≤j≤k + 1 Proof: The proof is based on the following identity for Hankel determinants.
(k+1) (k−1) (k+1) (k−1) (k) 2 dn · dn − dn−1 · dn+1 − [dn ] =0. (2.3) This identity can for instance be found in the book by Polya and Szeg¨o [59], Ex. 19, p. 102. It is also an immediate consequence of Dodgson’s algorithm for the evaluation of determinants (e.g. [82]). We shall derive both results simultaneously. The proof will proceed by induction on n+k. (k) It is well known, e.g. [69], that for the Hankel matrices An with Catalan numbers as (0) (1) entries it is dn = dn = 1. For the induction beginning it must also be verified that d(2) n d(3) (n+1)(n+2)(2n+3) n = +1andthat n = 6 is the sum of squares, cf. [47], which can also be easily seen by application of recursion (2.3). A(k) 2k+1 2k+3 Furthermore, for the matrix n whose entries are the binomial coefficients k , k+1 , (0) (1) ... it was shown in [2] that dn =1anddn =2n + 1. Application of (2.3) shows that d(2) (n+1)(2n+1)(2n+3) n = 3 , i. e., the sum of squares of the odd positive integers. c Also, it is easily seen by comparing successive quotients k+1 that for n = 1 the product in ck (2.1) yields the Catalan numbers and the product in (2.2) yields the binomial coefficients 2k+1 k+1 , cf. also [24]. Now it remains to be verified that (2.1) and (2.2) hold for all n and k, which will be done by checking recursion (2.3). The sum in (2.3) is of the form (with either d = 0 for (2.1) or d = 1 for (2.2) and shifting k to k + 1 in (2.1))
Yk i j − d n kY−2 i j − d n Yk i j − d n kY−2 i j − d n − + +2 · + +2 − + +2( +1)· + +2( 1)− i j − d i j − d i j − d i j − d i,j=1 + i,j=1 + i,j=1 + i,j=1 +
2 kY−1 i j − d n − + +2 i j − d i,j=1 + the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 7 2 kY−1 i j − d n + +2 · = i j − d i,j=1 + ! Qk Qk−1 Qk−1 Qk−1 (k + j − d +2n) · (k − 1+j − d) (j − d +2n) · (k − 1+j − d) j=1 j=1 − j=0 j=1 − Qk Qk−1 Qk Qk−1 1 j=1(k + j − d) · j=1 (k − 1+j − d +2n) j=1(k + j − d) · j=1 (1 + j − d +2n) 2 kY−1 i j − d n + +2 · = i j − d i,j=1 + (2n +2k − d)(2n +2k − 1 − d)(k − d) (2n − d)(2n +1− d)(k − d) · − − 1 . (2n + k − d)(2k − d)(2k − 1 − d) (2n + k − d)(2k − d)(2k − 1 − d) This expression is 0 exactly if
(2n +2k − d)(2n +2k − 1 − d)(k − d) − (2n − d)(2n +1− d)(k − d)− −(2n + k − d)(2k − d)(2k − 1 − d)=0. In order to show (2.1), now observe that here d = 0 and then it is easily verified that
(n + k)(2n +2k − 1) − n(2n +1)− (2n + k)(2k − 1) = 0. In order to show (2.2), we have to set d = 1 and again the analysis simplifies to verifying
(2n +2k − 1)(n + k − 1) − (2n − 1)n − (2n + k − 1)(2k − 1) = 0. £ Remarks: 1) As pointed out in the introduction, Desainte–Catherine and Viennot [24] derived iden- (0) tity (2.1) and recursion (2.3) simultaneously proves (2.2). The identity det(An )=1, c 2m+1 when the m’s are Catalan numbers or binomial coefficients m can already be found (1) (2) (3) in [52], pp. 435 – 436. dn ,dn ,anddn for this case were already mentioned in the proof (4) d(3) dn n+1 of Theorem 2.1. The next determinant in this series is obtained via (4) = (3) .Forthe dn−1 dn−1 d(3) ·d(3) 2 d(4) n+1 n n(n+1) (n+2)(2n+1)(2n+3) . Catalan numbers then n = 5 = 180 2) Formula (2.1) was also studied by Desainte–Catherine and Viennot [24] in the analysis of disjoint paths in a bounded area of the integer lattice and perfect matchings in a (k) certain graph as a special Pfaffian. An interpretation of the determinant dn in (2.1) as the number of k–tuples of disjoint positive lattice paths (see the next section) was used to construct bijections to further combinatorial configurations. Applications of (2.1) in Physics have been discussed by Guttmann, Owczarek, and Viennot [40]. 3) The central argument in the proof of Theorem 2.1 was the application of recursion (2.3). Let us demonstrate the use of this recursion with another example. Aigner [3] could show that the Bell numbers are the unique sequence (cm)m=0,1,2,... such that
the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 8 Yn Yn (0) (1) (2) det(An )=det(An )= k!, det(An )=rn+1 k!, (2.4) k=0 k=0 Pn where rn =1+ l=1 n(n − 1) ···(n − l + 1) is the total number of permutations of n (0) (1) things (for det(An ) and det(An ) see [27] and [23]). In [3] an approach via generating (2) (2) (2) Qn functions was used in order to derive dn =det(An ) in (2.4). Setting dn = rn+1 · k=0 k! in (2.4), with (2.3) one obtains the recurrence rn+1 =(n +1)· rn +1,r2 =5, which just characterizes the total number of permutations of n things, cf. [63], p. 16, and hence can (2) (0) (1) derive det(An )fromdet(An ) and det(An )alsothisway. Q i+j−d+2n 4) From the proof of Proposition 2.1 it is also clear that 1≤i,j≤k i+j−d yields a sequence (k) of Hankel determinants dn only for d =0, 1, since otherwise recursion (2.3) is not fulfilled. As pointed out, in [24] formula (2.1) was derived by application of the quotient – difference (k) (k) algorithm, cf. also [21] for a more general result. The parameters qn and en also can be obtained from Proposition 2.1. (k) (k) Corollary 2.1: For theP Catalan numbers the coefficients qn and en in the continued ∞ 1 2(k+m)+1 xm fractions expansion of m=0 2(k+m)+1 k+m as in (1.14) are given as (2n +2k − 1)(2n +2k) (2n)(2n +1) q(k) = ,e(k) = . (2.5) n (2n + k − 1)(2n + k) n (2n + k)(2n + k +1) 2m+1 PFor the binomial coefficients m the corresponding coefficients in the expansion of ∞ 2(k+m)+1 xm m=0 k+m are (2n +2k)(2n +2k +1) (2n − 1)(2n) q(k) = ,e(k) = . (2.6) n (2n + k − 1)(2n + k) n (2n + k)(2n + k +1) Proof: (2.5) and (2.6) can be derived by application of the rhombic rule (1.21) and (1.22). They are also immediate from the previous Proposition 2.1 by application of (1.15), which (k) for k>0 generalizes to the following formulae from [65], p. 15, where the dn ’s are Hankel determinants as (1.3).
d(k+1)d(k) d(k) d(k) q(k) n n−1 ,e(k) n+1 n−1 . n = (k) (k+1) n = (k) (k+1)
dn dn−1 dn dn £ (k) Corollary 2.2: The orthogonal polynomials associated to the Hankel matrices An of c 1 2m+1 Catalan numbers m = 2m+1 m are
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) 4k +2 t(k)(x)=(x − α(k))t − β t (x),t(x)=1,t(x)=x − n n n−1 n−1 n−2 0 1 k +2 where
the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 9 (k) 2k(k − 1) (2n +2k − 1)(2n +2k)(2n)(2n +1) α =2− ,β(k) = . n+1 (2n + k + 2)(2n + k) n (2n + k − 1)(2n + k)2(2n + k +1)
(k) (k) (k) Proof: By (1.20), βn = qn · en as in the previous corollary and
(k) (k) (2n +2k + 1)(2n +2k + 2)((2n + k)+(2n)(2n + 1)(2n + k +2) α = q + e(k) = n+1 n+1 n (2n + k + 1)(2n + k + 2)(2n + k) 8n2 +8nk +8n +2k +4k2 2k(k − 1) = =2− .
(2n + k + 2)(2n + k) (2n + k + 2)(2n + k) £ Especially for small parameters k the following families of orthogonal polynomials arise here.
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0) tn (x)=(x − 2) · tn−1(x) − tn−2(x),t0 (x)=1,t1 (x)=x − 1, (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) tn (x)=(x − 2) · tn−1(x) − tn−2(x),t0 (x)=1,t1 (x)=x − 2, 2 2 2 (n +1) + n (2) n − 1 (2) (2) (2) 5 t(2)(x)= x − · t (x) − t (x),t(x)=1,t (x)=x − . n n(n +1) n−1 n2 n−2 0 1 2 It is well - known that the Chebyshev – polynomials of the second kind
b n c X2 n − i u x − i x n−2i n( )= ( 1) i (2 ) i=0 with recursion
un(x)=2x · un−1(x) − un−2(x),u0(x)=1,u1(x)=2x come in for Hankel matrices with Catalan numbers as entries. For instance, in this case the first orthogonal polynomials in Corollary 2.2 are
(0) 2 1 x (1) 2 1 x t (x )= u2n( ),t(x )= u2n+1( ). n x 2 n x 2 (k) Corollary 2.3: The orthogonal polynomials associated to the Hankel matrices An of c 2m+1 binomial coefficients m = m are
(k) (k) (k) (k) (k) 4k +6 t(k)(x)=(x − α(k))t − β t (x),t(x)=1,t(x)=x − n n n−1 n−1 n−2 0 1 k +2 where
(k) 2k(k +1) (k) (2n +2k)(2n +2k + 1)(2n − 1)(2n) α =2− ,β= . n+1 (2n + k + 2)(2n + k) n+1 (2n + k − 1)(2n + k)2(2n + k +1) the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 10 (k) (k) (k) Proof: Again, βn = qn · en as in the previous corollary and
(k) (k) (2n +2k + 2)(2n +2k + 3)((2n + k)+(2n − 1)(2n)(2n + k +2) α = q + e(k) = n+1 n+1 n (2n + k)(2n + k + 1)(2n + k +2)
8n2 +8nk +8n +2k2 +4k 2k(k +1) = =2− . (2n + k + 2)(2n + k) (2n + k + 2)(2n + k)
III. Generalized Catalan Numbers And Hankel Determinants p ≥ 1 pm+1 For an integer 2 we shall denote the numbers pm+1 m as generalized Catalan numbers. The Catalan numbers occur for p = 2. (The notion “generalized Catalan numbers” as in [42] is not standard, for instance, in [39], pp. 344 – 350 it is suggested to denote them “Fuss numbers”). Their generating function X∞ pm C x 1 +1 xm . p( )= pm m (3 1) m=0 +1 fulfills the functional equation
p Cp(x)=1+x · Cp(x) , from which immediately follows that
1 p−1 =1− x · Cp(x) . (3.2) Cp(x) Further, it is X∞ pm p − C x p−1 1 + 1 xm. . p( ) = pm p − m (3 3) m=0 + 1 +1 1 pm+1
It is well known that the generalized Catalan numbers pm+1 m count the number of
× Z i, j i, j paths in the integer lattice Z (with directed vertices from ( )toeither( +1)or to (i +1,j)) from the origin (0, 0) to (m, (p − 1)m) which never go above the diagonal
p − x y × Z ( 1) = . Equivalently, they count the number of paths in Z starting in the origin (0, 0) and then first touching the boundary {(l +1, (p − 1)l +1):l =0, 1, 2,...} in (m, (p − 1)m + 1) (cf. e.g. [75]). Viennot [76] gave a combinatorial interpretation of Hankel determinants in terms of dis- joint Dyck paths. In case that the entries of the Hankel matrix are consecutive Catalan numbers this just yields an equivalent enumeration problem analyzed by Mays and Woj- ciechowski [47]. The method of proof from [47] extends to Hankel matrices consisting of generalized Catalan numbers as will be seen in the following proposition. c c 1 pm+1 Proposition 3.1: If the m’s in (1.2) are generalized Catalan numbers, m = pm+1 m , (k) p ≥ 2 a positive integer, then det(An )isthenumberofn–tuples (γ0,...,γn−1) of vertex the electronic journal of combinatorics 8 2001, #A1 11
× Z i, j – disjoint paths in the integer lattice Z (with directed vertices from ( )toeither (i, j +1)orto(i +1,j)) never crossing the diagonal (p − 1)x = y, where the path γr is from (−r, −(p − 1)r)to(k + r, (p − 1)(k + r)). Proof: The proof follows the same lines as the one in [32], which was carried out only for the case p = 2 and is based on a result in [46] on disjoint path systems in directed graphs. We follow here the presentation in [47]. Namely, let G be an acyclic directed graph and let A = {a0,...,an−1}, B = {b0,...,bn−1} be two sets of vertices in G of the same size n. A disjoint path system in (G, A, B)isa system of vertex disjoint paths (γ0,...,γn−1), where for every i =0,...,n− 1 the path γi leads from ai to bσ(i) for some permutation σ on {0,...,n− 1}. + Now let pij denote the number of paths leading from ai to bj in G,letp be the number of disjoint path systems for which σ is an even permutation and let p− be the number of disjoint path systems for which σ is an odd permutation. Then det((pij)i,j=0,...,n−1)= p+ − p− (Theorem 3 in [47]). Now consider the special graph G0 with vertex set
V { u, v ∈ × Z p − u ≤ v}, = ( ) Z :( 1) i. e. the part of the integer lattice on and above the diagonal (p − 1)x = y, and directed edges connecting (u, v)to(u, v +1)andto(u +1,v) (if this is in V,ofcourse). Further let A = {a0,...an−1} and B = {b0,...bn−1} be two sets disjoint to each other and to V. Then we connect A and B to G0 by introducing directed edges as follows
ai → (−i, −(p − 1)i), (k + i, (p − 1)(k + i)) → bi,i=0,...,n− 1. (3.4) Now denote by G00 the graph with vertex set V∪A∪Bwhose edges are those from G0 and the additional edges connecting A and B to G0 as described in (3.4). Observe that any permutation σ on {0,...,n− 1} besides the identity would yield some j and l with σ(j) >jand σ(l)