INNOCENTI DIGEST

No.7 - March 2001

EARLY MARRIAGE: CHILD SPOUSES EARLY This Digest focuses on early marriage – the marriage of children and young people under the age of 18 – from a human rights per- spective. Research into early marriage has tended to concentrate only on specific aspects of its impact such as the effects on repro- MARRIAGE ductive health and school drop-out. There has been little exami- nation of the practice as a child rights violation in itself. The Digest examines the extent of early marriage, its context, causes and its impact on every aspect of the lives of those affected – par- ticularly young girls – and on wider society. It outlines strategies to help those who have been married at an early age, and for the pre- CHILD SPOUSES vention of early marriage through education, advocacy and alliance-building. The Digest concludes with a call for more rights- based research on an issue that has far-reaching consequences. OVERVIEW HOW COMMON IS EARLY MARRIAGE? EARLY MARRIAGE: THE CAUSES AND CONTEXT THE IMPACT OF EARLY MARRIAGE TAKING ACTION THE NEED FOR RESEARCH IN CONCLUSION LINKS REFERENCES

UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Piazza SS. Annunziata, 12 50122 Florence, Italy Tel.: +39 055 203 30 Fax: +39 055 244 817 E-mail (general information): [email protected] E-mail (publication orders): [email protected]

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ISSN: 1020-3528 EARLY MARRIAGE CHILD SPOUSES

CONTENTS EDITORIAL

EDITORIAL 1 Throughout the world, marriage is regarded as a moment of celebration and a milestone in adult life. Sadly, as this Digest makes clear, the practice of early marriage gives no such OVERVIEW 2 cause for celebration. All too often, the imposition of a marriage partner upon a child Neglect of the rights perspective 2 means that a girl or boy’s childhood is cut short and their fundamental rights are com- Scope of the Digest 3 promised. Over the last thirty years with UNICEF in Asia, I have encountered the phenomena HOW COMMON IS EARLY MARRIAGE? 4 of child marriage and early marriage on numerous occasions. While much of the impact EARLY MARRIAGE: remains hidden, it is absolutely clear that millions of children and young people – par- THE CAUSES AND CONTEXT 5 ticularly girls – suffer negative consequences. This Digest looks at the reasons for the perpetuation of early marriage, and its possi- Early marriage as a strategy for economic ble increase in populations under stress. A key factor is poverty, with the marriage of survival 6 children often seen as a strategy for economic survival. In addition, it is perceived as a Protecting girls 6 way to protect girls and to provide some stability in situations where societies are under Contemporary pressures and early marriage 7 extreme pressure. This Digest also examines the harmful impact of the practice. I have received count- Sanctions against early marriage: less reports of complications and even death in pregnancy and childbirth of wives too the legal context 7 young to safely bear children. I have seen child wives who should be in school or play- Consent: law and practice 8 ing, working in near slave-like conditions in the homes of their in-laws. I have reviewed education statistics revealing the large numbers of children, particularly girls, who drop THE IMPACT OF EARLY MARRIAGE out of school because of early marriage. And I have heard so many married women of all ON CHILDREN AND ON SOCIETY 9 ages lament the fact that they cannot even read because they had to leave school early Psychosocial disadvantage 9 to be married. Adolescent health and reproduction 9 Finally, the Digest offers positive guidelines to end the practice of early marriage. We must work to change attitudes in families and in societies at large, extend opportunities The denial of education 11 for childhood learning and education, offer appropriate support to families and children, Violence and abandonment 12 and seek to have all children – girls and boys – recognised as valuable members of soci-

TAKING ACTION 12 ety rather than economic burdens. Our intention is to raise awareness of the situation and, where necessary, to stimulate THE NEED FOR RESEARCH 16 action. Where there is insufficient data on the practice and repercussions of early mar-

IN CONCLUSION 17 riage, researchers and officials in both government and civil society are encouraged to initiate research in this area. In some countries, similar local ‘Digests’ could be useful WORKING TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY tools for raising awareness. The field offices of UNICEF and other international organi- IN MARRIAGE zations are also encouraged to use this publication to raise awareness, to advocate for

by Dr Nafis Sadik, Executive Director, UNFPA 18 action and to contribute to the formulation of concrete plans of action. We are indebted to Mehr Khan, the former Director of the UNICEF Innocenti LINKS 20 Research Centre, who paved the way for this Digest. REFERENCES 25 Stephen H. Umemoto, Acting Director UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre

Innocenti Digest no. 7 9 A 1 ers in the 11 Thus, early 13 century, early mar- century, th showed that 44 per 2 or to pass the economic bur- In this context, the custom of 12 primarily as a contributory factor to early child-bearing. And sometimes, even in this context, its role is overlooked: the phrase ‘teenage pregnancy’ is typically understood to mean pregnancy outside marriage. Yet far more adolescent or teenage pregnancies occur within marriage than outside it. 10 During the past decade, the movement the situation of children recently, Very for ‘Education for All’ has stressed the need to enrol more girls in school and to keep them from dropping out before com- pletion. in need of special protection, notably girls vulnerable to sexual abuse and HIV/AIDS, suggests that early marriage is being used as a strategy to protect girls from sexual exposure, early marriage is acknowledged as one of the reasons for girls’ exclusion from school, especially in cultural settings where girls are raised for a lifetime con- fined to household occupations and are expected to marry very young. Despite the efforts of reform den for their care to others. riage has received scant attention from the rights and children’s modern women’s rights movements. There has been virtual- the mass solemnization of marriages between the mass solemnization marriage lingers on as a culturally and socially sanctioned practice according to some traditional sets of values and, among some highly stressed populations, it may even be on the rise. early part of the 20 7 8 3 and influ- Akha Teej, 4 6 Examples of Early Marriage Examples of Early The custom survives of giving very children away in marriage. small Many Bangladeshi girls are married soon after puberty, partly to free their puberty, Many Bangladeshi girls are married soon after Early marriage extends a 5 Families in rural areas, reduced to abject poverty by the post-Communist Families in rural areas, reduced to abject poverty than twice their age. Parents and heads of families make marital choices for daughters and sons with little regard for the personal they look upon mar- implications. Rather, an eco- riage as a family-building strategy, nomic arrangement or a way to protect girls from unwelcome sexual advances. Albania: Bangladesh: However, from a demographic and However, More recently, advocates of safe moth- More recently, young boys and girls is performed. From the parents’ point of view, this is the tried and is performed.young boys and girls From the parents’ point of view, within the family. the passing on of property and wealth tested way of organizing Rajasthan, India: of On the auspicious day transition, encourage their daughters to marry early in order to catch potential and to avoid the threat of of work, in search husbands before they migrate to the cities kidnapping on the way to school. parents from an economic burden and partly to protect the girls’ sexual purity. Where a to protect the girls’ sexual purity. parents from an economic burden and partly is very family or poor or she has lost her parents, she may be married as a third girl’s role of sexual and domestic servant.fourth wife to a much older man, to fulfil the Concern with the special health needs of adolescents has also recently been grow- ing in a world where young people are particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. Neglect of the rights perspective Social reformers in the first part of the 20th century were concerned about early marriage, especially in India, erhood have turned their attention to this issue. Pregnancies that occur ‘too early’ – body is not fully mature – when a woman’s constitute a major risk to the survival and future health of both mother and child. health perspective, early marriage is seen A recent study by UNICEF in six West African countries in six West A recent study by UNICEF woman’s reproductive span, thereby con- woman’s tributing to large family size, especially in the absence of contraception. enced the UDHR and other human rights conventions of the 1950s and 1960s. In interest the latter part of the 20th century, centred on the behavioural determinants fuelling rapid population growth, for obvious reasons. Niger: cent of 20-24 year old women in Niger were married under the age of 15. The need to women in Niger were married under the cent of 20-24 year old protect girls from ties among or between communities, and follow tradition, reinforce communities studied, all were the main reasons given. In the out-of-wedlock pregnancy made by the fathers. of marriage and the choice of spouse are decisions on the timing small but significant proportion of the children involved are under age 10, and some are of the children involved are under small but significant proportion or three-years-old. mere toddlers of two

VERVIEW

Yet many societies, primarily in Africa Yet While early marriage takes many differ-

Some are forced into marriage at a very The assumption is that once a girl is

Birth, marriage and death are the standard Birth, marriage and death lives. most people’s trio of key events in – is a matter of But only one – marriage exercise that choice choice. The right to principle of law even was recognized as a has long been estab- in Roman times and human rights instru- lished in international and a smaller num- many girls, ments. Yet without any ber of boys, enter marriage their right to choose. chance of exercising O early age. Others are simply too young to make an informed decision about their marriage partner or about the implications of marriage itself. They may have given what passes for ‘consent’ in the eyes of consent but in reality, custom or the law, to their binding union has been made by others on their behalf. married, she has become a woman – even where a boy is if she is only 12. Equally, he is now a man and must made to marry, put away childish things. While the age of marriage is generally on the rise, early marriage – marriage of children and ado- lescents below the age of 18 – is still wide- ly practised. ent forms and has various causes, one issue is paramount. Whether it happens to a girl early marriage is a violation of or a boy, human rights. The right to free and full consent to a marriage is recognized in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in many subsequent human rights instruments – consent that cannot be ‘free and full’ when at least one partner is very immature. For both girls and boys, early marriage has profound physical, intellectual, psychological and emotional impacts, cutting off educational opportunity and chances of personal growth. For girls, in addition, it will almost certainly mean premature pregnancy and childbearing, and is likely to lead to a life- time of domestic and sexual subservience over which they have no control. and South Asia, continue to support the idea that girls should marry at or soon after Their spouses are likely to be a few puberty. years older than they are, but may be more

Innocenti Digest 7 – Early Marriage

2 Main issues Main Main issues ly no attempt to examine the practice as a human rights violation in itself. Children International Human Rights Instruments and Early Marriage and teenagers married at ages well below A number of human rights instruments lay down norms to be applied to marriage, the legal minimum become statistically covering issues of age, consent, equality within marriage, and the personal and property rights of women. The key instruments and articles are as follows (paraphrased invisible as ‘children’.14 Thus, in the eyes for clarity in some cases): of the law, an adult male who has sex with Article 16 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states: (1) Men a girl of 12 or 13 outside marriage may be and women of full age … have the right to marry and found a family. They are entitled regarded as a criminal, while the same act to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall within marriage is condoned. be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending parties. Similar provisions are included in the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and To date, most studies on the effects of Cultural Rights and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. early marriage have focused on premature Article 1 of the 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave sex and pregnancy and school drop-out. Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery includes in the institutions and Much work remains to be done, therefore, practices similar to slavery: Article 1(c) Any institution or practice whereby: (i) A to analyse the full impact of this practice. woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family … A shift in focus is beginning. The Articles 1, 2, and 3 of the 1964 Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for groundbreaking work of the Forum on Marriage and Registration of Marriages state: (1) No marriage shall be legally entered Marriage and the Rights of Women and into without the full and free consent of both parties, such consent to be expressed by Girls is one example of this shift. The them in person … as prescribed by law. (2) States Parties to the present Convention shall … specify a minimum age for marriage (“not less than 15 years” according to the non- Forum, which is the only international binding recommendation accompanying this Convention). No marriage shall be legally inter-agency network on this topic, pub- entered into by any person under this age, except where a competent authority has lished Early Marriage: Whose Right to Choose? granted a dispensation as to age, for serious reasons, in the interests of the intending in May 200015 – a key resource for this spouses … (3) All marriages shall be registered … by the competent authority. Digest. The Forum also worked with Article 16.1 of the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women prescribes equally for men and women: (a) The same right to enter into UNICEF to organize a workshop on this marriage; (b) The same right freely to choose a spouse and to enter into marriage only issue during the UN Special Session on with their free and full consent; … Article 16.2 states: The betrothal and the marriage of Women (Beijing+5) in June 2000. a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action, including legislation, shall be This Innocenti Digest is a contribution taken to specify a minimum age for marriage. Article XXI of the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child states: Child marriage and the betrothal of girls and to this changing focus in the dialogue on boys shall be prohibited and effective action, including legislation, shall be taken to early marriage, and to efforts to repair a specify the minimum age of marriage to be eighteen years. glaring omission in human rights analysis and action. It stresses the urgent need for pone marriage and foster ‘full and free place under the age of 18 – the upper age more studies – particularly rights-based consent’ – the right of every human being. limit for protection under the 1989 studies – on this issue. More research is Convention on the Rights of the Child also needed to identify ways to help those (CRC). It examines early marriage from the affected by the practice, and pinpoint the Scope of the Digest human rights perspective in order to offer wider changes required in society to post- This Digest focuses on marriages that take guidelines for much-needed analysis and action. The CRC and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Early Marriage and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) The CRC has been ratified by all countries with the exception of the United States and provide the foundation for such a perspec- Somalia. Virtually every provision of the CRC is of some relevance to the issue of early marriage. Among the most pertinent, however, are the following (paraphrased for tive, which requires a holistic approach to clarity in some cases): early marriage. This means examining Article 1: A child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, every implication of the practice, from its under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. limitation upon personal freedom to its Article 2: Freedom from discrimination on any grounds, including sex, religion, ethnic or impact upon health and education. social origin, birth or other status. Article 3: In all actions concerning children … the best interests of the child shall be a There is also a deliberate attempt to primary consideration. focus on unions that are recognized either Article 6: Maximum support for survival and development. in statutory or customary law as mar- Article 12: The right to express his or her views freely in all matters affecting the child, riages, rather than informal or consensual in accordance with age and maturity. unions. This Digest looks at the binding- Article 19: The right to protection from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or Innocenti Digest 7 – abuse, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of ness of marriage and what this means for parents, guardian, or any other person. those who are married too young, against Article 24: The right to health, and to access to health services; and to be protected their best interests, and without their from harmful traditional practices. effective consent. Articles 28 and 29: The right to education on the basis of equal opportunity. Early Marriage Article 34: The right to protection from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. While boys are affected by early mar- Article 35: The right to protection from abduction, sale or trafficking. riage, this is an issue that impacts upon Article 36: The right to protection from all forms of exploitation prejudicial to any aspect girls in far larger numbers and with more of the child’s welfare. intensity. In many societies, adolescence 3 Main issues

means an opening up of opportunity for or physically harmful as it is for girls. As This unequal division of power in mar- boys, whereas for girls it often means a the table on married adolescents below riage is likely to be exacerbated where the closing down of opportunity and personal shows, even in those societies where early husband-wife age gap is wide. This Digest freedom.16 The experience for boys is, marriage is common, very few boys under focuses mainly therefore, on the implica- therefore, less likely to be as exploitative age 19 enter marriage compared to girls.17 tions of early marriage for girls. HOW COMMON IS EARLY MARRIAGE?

The practice of marrying girls at a young marriage at a very young age is more wide- In some African countries, notably age is most common in Sub-Saharan spread than country data suggest. National Botswana and Namibia, few girls marry in Africa and South Asia. However, in the statistics often disguise significant rates of their teens. However, cohabitation is rela- Middle East, North Africa and other parts very early marriage in some regions and tively common. While the trend towards of Asia, marriage at or shortly after puber- among some sub-populations. In the later marriage is clear for the continent as ty is common among those living tradi- Indian state of Rajasthan, for example, a a whole, there are some countries, such as tional lifestyles. There are also specific 1993 survey of 5,000 women revealed that Lesotho and Mozambique,26 where the parts of West and East Africa and of South 56 per cent had married before age 15, and trend has been in the other direction. Asia where marriages much earlier than of these, 17 per cent were married before There are also cases where the stress of puberty are not unusual, while marriages they were 10.19 A 1998 survey in Madhya conflict or HIV/AIDS seems to be con- of girls between the ages of 16 and 18 are Pradesh found that nearly 14 per cent of tributing to early marriage. common in parts of Latin America and in girls were married between the ages of 10 pockets of Eastern Europe. and14.20 In Ethiopia and in parts of West Asia One problem in assessing the preva- Africa, marriage at seven or eight is not Marriage patterns are much more diverse. lence of early marriages is that so many uncommon. In Kebbi State, Northern The extreme cases are Afghanistan and are unregistered and unofficial and are not Nigeria, the average age of marriage for Bangladesh, where 54 per cent and 51 per therefore counted as part of any standard girls is just over 11 years, against a nation- cent of girls respectively are married by age data collection system. Very little country al average of 17.21 18.27 In Nepal, where the average age at first data exist about marriages under the age Plenty of marriage data exist for those marriage is 19 years,28 7 per cent of girls are of 14, even less about those below age 10. aged 15-19, mostly in relation to repro- married before they are 10 years old and 40 An exception is Bangladesh, where the duction or schooling. DHS data also per cent by the time they are 15.29 In China, Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) allow some analysis of the proportion of the proportion of early marriages fell by 35 of 1996-97 reported that 5 per cent of 10- women currently married who married per cent in the 1970s, but rose from 13 per 14 year-olds were married.18 below age 18. Small-scale studies and anecdotal infor- Percentage of Women Aged mation fill in the picture. They imply that Sub-Saharan Africa 25-29 Married before Age 18 Latin America Married Adolescents: Trends have been exhaustively examined courtesy of World Fertility Survey and Guatemala 39 Percentage of 15-19 year-olds married Dominican Republic 38 Sub-Saharan Africa boys girls DHS data. Analysts have detected two Paraguay 24 Dem. Rep. of Congo 5 74 groups of countries: those where marriage Niger 4 70 age is rising, such as Kenya, Uganda, South Central Congo 12 56 and Southeast Asia Zimbabwe and Senegal, and those where Bangladesh 81 Uganda 11 50 there is little change, including Cameroon, Mali 5 50 Nepal 68 Cote d’Ivoire, Lesotho, Liberia and Mali.22 Pakistan 37 Asia In several countries, over 40 per cent of Indonesia 34 Afghanistan 9 54 young women have entered marriage or a Bangladesh 5 51 Sub-Saharan Africa Nepal 14 42 quasi-married union by the time they reach Niger 77 the age of 18.23 By contrast, in only two Mali 70 Middle East Burkina Faso 62

Innocenti Digest 7 – countries are more than 10 per cent of boys Iraq 15 28 Mozambique 57 24 Syria 4 25 under 19 married. Early marriage is gener- Malawi 55 Yemen 5 24 ally more prevalent in Central and West Cote d’Ivoire 44 Cameroon 43 Latin America and Caribbean Africa – affecting 40 per cent and 49 per Benin 40

Early Marriage Honduras 7 30 cent respectively of girls under 19 – com- Cuba 7 29 pared to 27 per cent in East Africa and 20 Middle East and North Africa Guatemala 8 24 per cent in North and Southern Africa.25 Yemen 64 Source: UN Population Division, Department of Economic Many of these young brides are second or Egypt 30 4 and Social Affairs, World Marriage Patterns 2000 third wives in polygamous households. Source: Population Council Main issues cent in 1979 to 18 per cent in 1987.30 In Timing of Marriage and Level of Education many Asian countries, such as Vietnam and Indonesia, there are vast differences among %15-19 Av. age % of women with 7+ yrs school married at 1st marriage m. before 20 m. at 20 or older regions, states or islands; some in line with Sub-Saharan Africa ethnographic patterns. Meanwhile some Botswana (1988) 6 25 55 71 countries have managed to raise the age of Cameroon (1991) 44 19 27 77 marriage significantly. In Sri Lanka, for Mali (1987) 75 16 6 19 example, the average age at first marriage is Niger (1992) 59 18 1 17 Uganda (1988/89) 41 19 20 43 25, compared to 19 in neighbouring India. Latin America Guatemala (1987) 26 21 9 34 Middle East and North Africa Mexico (1987) 20 22 32 72 Early marriage is less common in this region than in South Asia or Sub-Saharan Middle East Egypt (1992) 14 22 25 60 Africa. Data are scarce, but we know that Yemen (1991/92) 25 21 6 21 55 per cent of women under 20 in the United Arab Emirates are married, while in Asia 31 China (1987/88) 5 22 28 60 Sudan the figure is 42 per cent. In a num- Indonesia (1991) 20 22 18 58 ber of countries, averages may again dis- Pakistan (1990/91) 25 21 8 25 guise major disparities. A Ministry of Source: Sexual Relationships and Marriage Worldwide, Alan Guttmacher Institute 1995 Health field study in Upper (southern) Egypt in the late 1980s discovered that 44 marry before age 18; only 4 per cent do so and highly traditional countries. Virtually per cent of rural women married in the in the USA and 1 per cent in Germany, for everywhere, poor women in rural areas previous five years had been under the example.35 But in some parts of Central tend to marry younger than those in urban legal age of 16 at the time.32 and Eastern Europe, early marriage sur- areas, and educational levels also play a vives; notably among the Roma people36 critical role. An examination of the timing Caribbean and Latin America and in Macedonia where 27 per cent of of marriage and the level of education, In this region, UNICEF reports that 11.5 the women who married in 1994 were illustrated in the table above, shows con- per cent of girls aged 15-19 are married. aged between 15 and 19.37 In most of sistently higher percentages of women These figures also mask diversity, with Eastern Europe and the CIS,38 average age with at least seven years of schooling mar- much higher ages in the Caribbean, and at marriage is in the low to mid-20s, rying at age 20 or above. lower ages in countries such as Paraguay, implying some proportion in the teens (in The striking feature of the figures for Mexico and Guatemala.33 Marriage age the Kyrgyz Republic, 11.5 per cent).39 the 15-19 age group in this table is the among rural indigenous peoples is typical- Throughout Oceania, the average age very existence of such data – captured in ly much lower than that of the urbanized of marriage for women is over 20. existing collection exercises, with the population, in keeping with traditional However, in Kiribati, Marshall Islands, caveat that the upper age limit for the data patterns. In the Dominican Republic, the Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, is 19 rather than 18. While some com- proportion of early marriages actually at least 18 per cent of women are married mentators believe that the practice of rose during the early 1990s from 30 per between 15 and 19.40 early marriage is under-reported, this cent to 38 per cent.34 Globally, it is important to note that table shows that such data can be found. early marriage, and early childbearing, The data are extraordinarily thorough North America, Europe, Oceania have been more or less abandoned by the compared to those linked to many other In industrialized countries, few women wealthiest sections of society, even in poor areas of child rights violation. EARLY MARRIAGE: THE CAUSES AND CONTEXT Customs surrounding marriage, including marriages have historically taken place ed a place of their own and had generally

the desirable age and the way in which a later in life. Average age at marriage for saved some resources to start family life. Innocenti Digest 7 – spouse is selected, depend on a society’s 16th century women in Europe (other than Later marriage in Europe has had an view of the family – its role, structure, among a small landowning elite) was 24 important impact on attitudes to consent. pattern of life, and the individual and col- years (26 for men), rising to 27 by the 18th Because women and men marry as adults 42

lective responsibilities of its members. century (30 for men). At that time, the with experience of life, it is alien to accept Early Marriage The idea and function of ‘family’ varies family was the unit of economic produc- unquestioningly a parental choice of across the world and is in a state of con- tion, as it is in many agrarian societies spouse. The free consent of both partners stant evolution.41 today. But households were usually sepa- to a marriage has been legally requisite In Western Europe and North America, rate, not combined; the newly-weds need- since Roman times.43 This consent, and 5 In conflict-torn These practices are all 60 59 57 The same thing has happened to 58 Parents may genuinely feel that their Parents may genuinely One important impetus for marrying Early marriage deprives a girl of her Protecting girls Protecting that a is one way to ensure Early marriage under or placed firmly wife is ‘protected’, to her that she is submissive male control; in-laws’ works hard for her husband and she bears are household; that the children bonds of affection ‘legitimate’; and that not undermine the between couples do family unit. daughter will be better off and safer with daughter will be better a regular male guardian. girls at an early age is that it helps prevent premarital sex. Many societies prize vir- ginity before marriage and this can mani- fest itself in a number of practices designed to ‘protect’ a girl from unsanc- they In effect, tioned sexual activity. amount to strict controls imposed upon be for example, the girl herself. She may, secluded from social interaction outside can She may be told what she the family. In North-East Africa and and cannot wear. con- parts of the Middle East in particular, trol may also include the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) – surgi- cally restricting entry to the vagina (infibulation) or removing the clitoris (excision), to restrict sexual pleasure and temptation. In some societies, parents withdraw their girls from school as soon as they begin to menstruate, fearing that exposure to male pupils or teachers puts them at risk. girls in Somalia in the course of that coun- conflicts. try’s intended to shield the girl from male sex- ual attention, but in the eyes of concerned parents, marriage is seen to offer the ulti- mate ‘protection’ measure. adolescence. In many traditional societies, the idea of an adolescent period between puberty and adulthood is alien. A girl who menstruates can bear a child, and is there- fore ‘a woman’. This sits awkwardly with the fact that the CRC covers everyone up to age 18 and regards childhood as a process of development – one that does not end with a definitive physical maturi- ty marker. Northern Uganda for example, some fam- Northern Uganda for daughters to militia ilies marry their young members in order to defend family honour or secure ‘protection’ for themselves and the girl. 54 52 53 51 48 55 In West Africa as a In West 49 A recent study of five A recent 46 Wherever the incidence of rape, In Bangladesh, poverty-stricken family may receive cattle from the groom, family may receive cattle brideprice for as the family, or the groom’s their daughter. 56 47 Men are postponing marriage because Other pressures can promote early mar- Some countries in the grip of on-going In Nigeria, which is currently facing In Nigeria, which is 50 , Reports from Iraq indicate that early mar- riage is rising there in response to poverty sanctions, inflicted by the post-Gulf War and in Afghanistan, war and militarization have led to an increased number of forced marriages of young girls. Evidence suggests that in such situations, early marriage is on the rise. Families in refugee camps in Burundi, for example, protect their honour by marrying their daughters off as early as possible. civil conflict show acute symptoms of child-related social stress: increasing child slavery and trafficking, rising numbers of children on the streets, very young prosti- tutes and labourers, and high levels of child neglect and abandonment. economic difficulties and political instabil- economic difficulties and in age at marriage has barely risen, ity, the average age the north of the country has fallen since 1990. riage in societies under stress. Fear of HIV infection, for example, has encouraged men in some African countries to seek young virgin – and therefore uninfected – partners. of lack of resources, and parents have become anxious about the danger of their daughters becoming pregnant outside marriage. Thus any early opportunity for marriage may be seized upon. There are also reports from HIV/AIDS researchers in Eastern Africa that marriage is seen as one option for orphaned girls by caregivers who find it hard to provide for them. parents are persuaded to part with daugh- parents are persuaded of marriage, or by ters through promises are used to lure the false marriages, which abroad. girls into prostitution trafficking, domestic violence, sexual servi- tude and child abduction is rising, it seems reasonable to ask whether early marriage is also making a comeback. very poor villages in Egypt found young villages in Egypt found very poor older men married off to much girls being via Middle Eastern countries from oil-rich brokers. whole, a recent UNICEF study shows that economic hardship is encouraging a rise in early marriage, even among some popula- tion groups that do not normally practise it. 44 paterfamilias In the familist model, fertility is 45 The basic difference in family patterns During the 1970s, concern about pop- During the 1970s, concern One important difference between One important difference Poverty is one of the major factors under- pinning early marriage. Where poverty is acute, a young girl may be regarded as an economic burden and her marriage to a much older – sometimes even elderly – man, a practice common in some Middle Eastern and South Asian societies, is a and may even be family survival strategy, seen as in her interests. In traditional soci- eties in Sub-Saharan Africa, the bride’s Early marriage as a strategy for economic survival These demographic studies extended into a historical examination of marriage and Europe. childbearing in Western the relative independence it gives to mar- independence it gives the relative unions is absent from riage partners, the house- girl is absorbed into where the the role in-laws and takes on hold of her protégé and helper. of the mother-in-law’s ulation growth, and perplexity about the ulation growth, and of contraceptive widespread rejection couples in develop- technology by most efforts by social ing countries, led to demographers to understand the reasons for what they saw as ‘odd’ behaviour. identified was between the traditional ‘familist’ system and the modern ‘individu- alist’ systems. The traditional system is characterized by extended families, com- munal households, plural mating, authori- tarian exercise of power by the young age at marriage, spouses chosen by elders, absorption of the newly-wed into an existing household, no non-household role or identity for women. In the ‘individ- ualist’ system, which is the norm in indus- trialized countries, the opposites generally apply. marriage customs in many developing marriage customs in in the industrial- world societies and those these cus- former, ized world is that in the high fertility even toms tend to support levels are falling. where overall fertility deliberately maximized by marrying girls The family is immediately after puberty. the unit of economic production and is the only source of wealth, social status and security for its members. New children (especially boys) are needed to run the status. household and maintain the family’s The need to maximize reproduction is reinforced where infant mortality is high.

Innocenti Digest 7 – Early Marriage

6 Main issues Main Main issues

In some societies, the independent tion, while new circumstances make only by their father, or in his absence by his sense of self that a girl may develop dur- gradual inroads into actual practice.64 The older brother, or failing him, by the head ing adolescence is seen as undesirable. resilience of traditional practices and cus- of the family”.67 In Suriname, the legal While women may be revered in such toms is illustrated by the situation of minimum age of marriage is 15 according societies, they are also required to be sub- British girls from families of South Asian to the Civil Code; but under the Asian servient to the wishes of fathers, hus- and Middle Eastern origin sent on a visit Marriage Act, which codifies practice for bands, and sons – for their own protective ‘home’, only to discover that they are to a particular group, the minimum age for good. It follows that if they are not, they be forcibly married to a stranger.65 Since girls is 13.68 deserve retribution; in Kenya for example, older women are more likely than men to Although most countries have laws violence against disobedient wives is be excluded from new ideas, they are that regulate marriage, both in terms of widely sanctioned.61 often the last to abandon the ideas that minimum age and consent, these laws may In many societies, a girl is raised to framed their own lives. not be applied and few prosecutions are show the self-control and deference to men Marriage patterns – alongside other ever brought against lawbreakers – par- that will be expected of her throughout aspects of family formation – are subject ents, officiators or spouses. Some laws do life. By the age of five, a girl in rural to acute ‘development’ pressures such as not prescribe sanctions; the only outcome Pakistan has learnt to ‘go outside’ as little as declining incomes from the land, rapid of a case would be to declare the marriage possible, and adopt ‘an attitude of care and urbanization, population mobility, and invalid, leaving the wife without legal service towards men’.62 Obviously, in the volatility of global markets, all of protection. Moreover, such laws usually Pakistan as elsewhere, the younger the which are currently causing profound do not apply to customary marriages. bride, the more chance of conditioning her social upheaval and economic marginal- In some countries, the legal minimum into the appropriate subservient behaviour. ization. The outcome for families is age of marriage set for boys and girls is increasing fragmentation and the erosion clearly aspirational. Thus, the minimum of their extended structure. age in two countries with a high preva- Contemporary pressures Families in the process of transition lence of HIV/AIDS – Uganda, where 50 and early marriage may, therefore, be caught between tradi- per cent of girls aged 15-19 are married, The theory of ‘demographic transition’, tional and modern values. Men in search and Zambia, where the figure is 27 per which has governed population policies of work may join the individualist world cent – has been set at 21 for both males since the 1970s, assumes that societies in town; while the women they married in and females.69 eventually abandon the strategy of high their teens, and their children, continue In most cases where a minimum age is fertility when mortality declines due to their traditional lives in the countryside.66 set, it is 18 or above for both males and health improvements, and under the pres- This pattern is particularly common in females. In 15 countries, it is 16. A num- sures of urbanization and modernization.63 Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus the impact of ber of countries nonetheless allow mar- The extended family begins to break up early marriage may be reinforced in the riages to take place at much younger ages into nuclear components, and some cou- shorter term by the very process the with parental consent. ples leave for the towns. Individual wage world calls ‘development’. In cases where there is a discrepancy labour replaces family-based production between the minimum age of marriage for and instead of being an economic necessi- boys and girls, it is consistently lower for ty, children become a ‘cost’. Women may Sanctions against early girls.70 However, at least 20 countries join the labour force, and receive an edu- marriage: the legal context either do not have legislation to regulate cation beyond that needed for household In many countries, early marriage falls marriage, or do not set any minimum age management. In these circumstances, mar- into what amounts to a sanctions limbo. It for either girls or boys. riage and childbearing may be postponed. may be prohibited in the existing civil or There is considerable discrepancy Many developing countries are part common law, but be widely condoned by between the legal age of marriage and the way through the ‘demographic transition’: customary and religious laws and practice. actual age of marriage for many girls. witness recent declines in fertility. Parts of This is common where marriages typical- Indeed, in a number of countries, the aver- any national population – better-educated ly take place according to customary rites age age at marriage is almost the same as, and better-off urban dwellers – may adopt and remain unregistered. or even lower, than the legal age. In a few the norms of the industrialized world, The situation is further complicated in – Afghanistan, Chad, Democratic including later marriage and child bear- countries where legislation was intro- Republic of Congo (DRC), Mozambique,

ing. However, other groups may continue duced by the colonizing power on the Niger – the only reason that the average Innocenti Digest 7 – in the old patterns. Extended and nuclear understanding that many customary prac- age is not lower than the legal age is families may exist side by side, even in the tices would continue even if they were because the latter is not set or is set very same generation. Where average age of inconsistent with new laws. Some were low. In DRC, for example, the average age

marriage appears to be rising, this may even codified to make them legal. In at marriage is 16.6 and the legal minimum Early Marriage disguise the fact that very large sub-popu- Benin, for example, Article 68 of the 1931 age is 15.71 lations are still marrying very young. ‘Coutumier du Dahomey’ regulating cus- The situation is exacerbated by the fact Old beliefs, customs and moral codes tomary marriage states that: “A marriage is that birth registration is so irregular that tend to persist during demographic transi- not settled by the interested parties, but age at marriage may not be known. In 7 81 85 80 the law 84 82 Here, as in other countries 83 and women. As such provisions assume and women. As such have a different incorrectly that women from men, rate of intellectual development physical and intellec- or that their stage of is immaterial, tual development at marriage be abolished.” these provisions should In a number of countries, it takes only Furthermore, while in many countries a In 1997, the Committee on the Rights It could be argued that even older chil- It could be argued that consider early marriage to be one of the “traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children” cited in article 24(3) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Indeed, one of the key messages contained in this Digest is that both the physical and psychological impacts of early marriage may have serious implica- tions for the well-being of those married. dren cannot be said to give informed con- dren cannot be said to damaging prac- sent to such a potentially tice as early marriage. issues Beyond the any of maturity and non-discrimination, to consent ability argument for a child’s undermined by the to marriage is further to his or her risk that marriage represents bodies well-being. Many international of the Child protested a similar situation in Algeria. the parents’ consent to override the legal girl or boy may have reached the legal age of sexual consent at the age of 15 or 16, this should not be taken to mean that they are ready to enter marriage. A lack of legislative clarity over the different implications of consent to sexual activity and consent to marriage can result in strange anomalies. In Maryland, USA, the state law defines statu- tory rape as sex with a child younger than 14 by someone four or more years older. children another law allows However, under 16 (with no minimum) to marry with proof of pregnancy and parental permis- sion, and this provision is sometimes used – in one notorious case to allow a 29-year-old girl. man to marry a 13-year-old such as Chad, Costa Rica, Lebanon, Libya, Romania and Uruguay, allows a perpetrator of rape, including to be excused of statutory rape of a minor, his crime if he marries his victim; a judge simply legitimizes the union. This has also happened in California in cases of under- age pregnancies where the man is willing to ‘stand by’ the girl. In effect, the state welfare agency supports what is seen as a viable partnership as an alternative to costly state care for mother and child. 78 In 77 ceremonies The Committee Akha Teej 79 But in a large number of But in a large number 76 The question of marital consent In the case of marriages under the age The more important practical issue is, The more important Similarly, in marriages at or around puber- Similarly, ty – from roughly ages 10 to 14 – ‘consent’ cannot be said to have been given since, at such an early age, a child cannot be expected to understand the implications of accepting a lifetime partner. Consent: law and practice Consent: of a rights issue at the heart The second of con- early marriage is that approach to that con- picture is similar to sent. The majori- age: in the vast cerning minimum grants women the ty of countries the law in Cameroon, right to consent. Only are and Yemen Jordan, Morocco, Uganda granted by law the women specifically not informed consent’ to right to ‘full, free and their marriage. of 10, consent – other than to dress up and play a game – is not a consideration. married at Toddlers in Rajasthan cannot ‘consent’. Nor is con- sent given in the cases of young girls from very poor homes in the Indian city of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, sold as wives to rich men in the Middle East. therefore, whether or not the idea of con- sent is socially rated. Difficult questions arise around the age a child should be before he or she can ‘consent’ as a mature, cognisant and independent being to sexu- al relations or marriage, but where no clear consent has been given by one or other the marriage is clearly forced. partner, becomes more difficult at age 15 or 16, by which stage a girl may have reached the legal age of sexual consent. In the CEDAW that the recommendation Committee’s minimum age for marriage of both men and women should be 18, it commented that, they “When men and women marry, assume important responsibilities. marriage should not be per- Consequently, mitted before they have attained full matu- rity and capacity to act.” countries, these legal provisions are mere- countries, these legal ly symbolic. also observed that, “Some countries pro- vide for different ages for marriage for men Gojam, Ethiopia, marriages may be imposed from birth, with the girl sent to home at around the her future husband’s age of seven to begin her integration into Here again, consent her marriage family. by the girl does not enter the picture. Some gov- , 1929 stemmed 73 While the Act did 72 75 and suggested by the Recognition of Customary The Forum on Marriage echoes of 1998 sets 18 as the mini- 74 1990 African Charter on the Rights Thus, the use of law as a means of reg- of law as a means Thus, the use In their observations on States Parties’

addition, many marriages go unregistered; addition, many the problems in the marriage, if there are means of legal redress. wife has no way suffi- marriage is in no ulating early that legal does not mean cient. This sought. The Indian reform should not be Act Child Marriage Restraint helped reposition from a campaign that and childbearing women, family life, within modern India. reports, the CEDAW and CRC reports, the CEDAW Committees have both consistently rec- ommended that states adopt higher mini- mum ages of marriage and ensure that these are the same for boys and girls. The CRC Committee also takes the view that, in cases where girls are considered adults before the law upon marriage, they would be deprived of the comprehensive pro- tection of the CRC.

this position. The Inter-African Committee (IAC) The Inter-African In keeping with the spirit of the CRC,

not declare child marriages invalid, it not declare child marriages for change. In 1978 helped pave the way inhibit marriage of it was strengthened to and boys until age girls until the age of 18 of prosecutions the number 21. However, under the Act did not exceed 89 in any year between 1994 and 1998. bearing”. responsibilities of marriage and child- psychologically ready to shoulder the the girl is physically, physiologically, and physiologically, the girl is physically, ried out below the age of 18 years, before that early marriage is: “Any marriage car- Health of Women and Children states Health of Women on Traditional Practices Affecting the on Traditional needs special support and protection. consensus that the period of adolescence This standard responds to the growing Rapporteur on Violence against Women. Rapporteur on Violence set by the mendation 21 and by the UN Special imum age at 18 years – the standard also of the Child and Welfare Committee in its general recom- CEDAW an increasing number of laws fix the min- their registration. South Africa’s South Africa’s Marriages Act mum age for such unions and requires protect those in customary marriages: or have passed legislation designed to customary law and civil or common law, ernments have taken steps to unify their

Innocenti Digest 7 – Early Marriage

8 Main issues Main Main issues age of marriage – a judge is not required. In and the younger the bride or groom the of young wives being locked up by their Colombia, the legal age is 18, but with par- less real chance there is to exercise this husbands in India, and in Zimbabwe it is ents’ permission girls of 12 and boys of 14 right. Both types of marriage indicate the often forbidden for a young bride to visit can be married. In the Dominican Republic degree to which many societies view mar- her own family until she goes there to there is no minimum age in exceptional cir- riage as a family affair in which the views give birth to her first child.88 In one tragic cumstances and with parental consent.86 of people other than the couple are given case in Nigeria, a 12-year-old girl unhap- The UK Home Office Report into priority. Parents’ views will override chil- py with her new husband ran away so forced marriages of British girls of South dren’s, and men’s will override women’s – often that he cut off her legs to prevent Asian parentage distinguishes between even taking precedence over the law. her absconding. She subsequently died.89 ‘forced’ and ‘arranged’ marriages. In Cases of runaway brides highlight the The CRC Committee has focused on arranged marriages, the initiative is taken issue of consent – or lack of it. In Pakistan, laws and customs in its observations to a by the parents of the couple, but consent the Commission on the Status of Women number of countries. Its most common is required from both partners and either reported in 1989: “Men are constantly complaints are low minimum age for girls has the right to withdraw. However, the fighting to retrieve their women because and disparate – therefore discriminatory – pressures from parents may be very high, they have run away”.87 There are reports marriage ages for girls and boys. THE IMPACT OF EARLY MARRIAGE ON CHILDREN AND ON SOCIETY Young girls may endure misery as a result as the effect of a girl’s loss of mobility and along with their children, are often denied of early marriage and the number of those her confinement to the home and to house- property rights, and a range of other who would seek help, if they thought it hold roles. Obviously there is a marked lack human rights. In parts of Africa, a widow is existed, is impossible to calculate. Until of data in these areas, and social researchers remarried to a brother-in-law, a custom more is known about their situation there have failed to examine the impacts of early known as levirate, originally intended, in can be no reliable estimates of the scale of marriage in this context. part, to provide economic and social sup- their predicament, or of the social damage Most girls who are unhappy in an port. If the widow resists, she may be cast that is carried forward in the upbringing imposed marriage are very isolated. They out by the family. Child widows with little they give to their own children. have nobody to talk to as they are sur- education and no means of earning are One thing is clear: the impact of early rounded by people who endorse their sit- especially powerless. At a 1994 marriage on girls – and to a lesser extent on uation. In Ethiopia, Inter-African Conference in Bangalore, India, partici- boys – is wide-ranging. Within a rights per- Committee researchers were struck by the pants told of being married at five and six spective, three key concerns are the denial lack of interest from elders in the traumas years old, widowed a few years later, and of childhood and adolescence, the curtail- suffered by young girls as a result of early rejected by their in-laws and their own ment of personal freedom and the lack of marriages, premature sex and childbear- families.92 These widows are, quite simply, opportunity to develop a full sense of self- ing. These traumas were regarded as an left with no resources and nowhere to go. hood as well as the denial of psychosocial “unavoidable part of life”.90 Girls who run and emotional well-being, reproductive home to their parents may be beaten and health and educational opportunity. sent back to their husbands. Distress is Adolescent health Early marriage also has implications for generally endured in silence. and reproduction the well-being of families, and for society Indian researchers on child marriage in as a whole. Where girls are uneducated Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh state that The notion of good reproductive health and ill-prepared for their roles as mothers girl spouses suffer more than boys: covers all aspects of the reproduction and contributors to society, there are costs “Inadequate socialization, discontinuation process – including a satisfying and safe to be borne at every level, from the indi- of education, great physiological and experience of sexual relations, the capabili- vidual household to the nation as a whole. emotional damage due to repeated preg- ty to reproduce, and the freedom to decide nancies devastates these girls.” If the hus- if and when to bear a child.93 The right not

band dies, even before consummation, the to engage in sexual relations and the right Innocenti Digest 7 – Psychosocial disadvantage girl is treated as a widow and given in nata to exercise control over reproduction may The loss of adolescence, the forced sexual to a widower in the family. Officially she both be violated by early marriage. relations, and the denial of freedom and is then his wife, but in fact under the prac-

personal development attendant on early tice of nata she becomes the common Sexual relations Early Marriage marriage have profound psychosocial and property of all the men in the family.91 In the case of girls married before puberty, emotional consequences. The impact can The child bride who is widowed very the normal understanding between fami- be subtle and insidious and the damage hard young can suffer additional discrimina- lies is that there will be no sexual inter- to assess. It includes such intangible factors tion. Widows suffer loss of status and they, course until first menstruation. In Gojam, 9 ) This 106 107 105 course and first pregnancy, the higher the the higher first pregnancy, course and of HIV infection. incidence As far as preparation of both girls and of both girls As far as preparation There are still a number of countries Pregnancy and childbirth The risks of early pregnancy and child- birth are well documented: increased risk of dying, increased risk of premature low complications during delivery, labour, boys for sexual and reproductive life is and reproductive boys for sexual resistance there has been deep concerned, sex edu- countries to in many developing for fear of pro- cation in the classroom threat of The moting promiscuity. this opposition to HIV/AIDS has reduced is little prospect at some extent, but there education on present of girls receiving their rights in what to expect, or about or reproduction. terms of marriage does not classroom education Moreover, not in school. For reach children who are data from Sri Lanka example, according to one-third of young published in 1990, adults between ages 16 and 24 did not know the duration of a normal pregnancy. Less than 5 per cent had discussed repro- ductive health with their parents. where reproductive health services are barred to adolescents, or require them to have reached a certain age. excludes many married adolescents in countries such as Zambia or Bangladesh where age limits are in force – another of the anomalies surrounding early marriage. 104 In almost all Asian In almost all In Cameroon, Mali In Cameroon, 101 102 Nepali Children’s Views on Early Marriage Views Nepali Children’s The girls’ right to have any say The girls’ right to have husbands’ opposition. 103 he girls were aware that early marriage was dangerous from a health perspective; “My sister was married at 14 years old. She appealed to the school to stop the “My parents married me to a man in Lekh. I had to work very hard but my parents- pressure. I gave birth to a son, yet my family members “I married due to my father’s T refusal to accept Asked to give reasons for early marriage, the girls mentioned society’s The girls felt that their value and status were low because they would belong to their Teenage girls are also more susceptible girls are also more Teenage From report of research conducted by Irada Gautam for Save the Children (UK) in Surkhet, Nepal, From report of research December 1998-January (www.savethechildren.org.uk/development/reg_pub/nepalgenderreport.htm 1999. During research commissioned by Save the Children Fund (UK), girls aged between 14 During research and 17 from different ethnic groups and castes in two villages in Surkhet District, Nepal, made the following observations on early marriage: marriage, but to no avail.” 14 year old girl like to go to his house recognise this. My husband beat me, so I don’t in-law didn’t even though he will come to take me. I want to go to school.” 14 year old girl. family encouraged me to go to school. I study more than others do. So my husband’s members respect me.” 17 year old girl. husband’s family and because daughters do not inherit parental property. They all said family and because daughters do not inherit parental property. husband’s they had been happy until the age of 10 because they could play as they liked without Now they wanted to continue their studies any work or restrictions on their mobility. but found it hard to do so due to their heavy household workloads. unmarried pregnancies and sex outside marriage; failing school exams; neighbours’ gossip; the heavy workload in their parents’ home and the dream of love, good food, nice clothes and seeing new places after marriage. Many girls felt that marriage and and better status. a sense of security motherhood would provide them with safety, that early pregnancy could threaten the health – even the lives – of mother and baby. that early pregnancy could threaten the health – even the lives – of mother and baby. than more mature women to sexually- transmitted infections (STIs), including This is the result of both biological HIV. factors, such as hormonal fluctuations and the permeability of vaginal tissue, and social factors, such as skewed power relations between women and men that make it difficult for girls and young women to negotiate safe sex. STIs can case of HIV, and in the lead to infertility, the outcome is premature mortality and risks of transmission to the foetus. In a recent study in Rwanda, 25 per cent of girls who became pregnant at 17 or younger were infected with HIV, although many reported having sex only with their husbands. According to the the younger the age at sexual inter- study, over when and if they should become over when and if they and their pregnant is unacknowledged, are high. chances of early pregnancy indicates that the Analysis of DHS data within 14-26 first birth usually occurs although it may be months of marriage, age of marriage is slightly longer where as in Bangladesh. very low, and Nigeria, the modern contraceptive and Nigeria, year olds among married 15-19 usage rates 0.6 per cent respec- are only 1.5, 2.4 and tively. countries the family exerts strong pressure family exerts strong countries the to begin couple on the newly-married quickly. childbearing 98 99 consensual. 96 And while an 97 a priori However, this protection may this protection However, Indeed, in many societies, child- 95 100 This is also true in West African true in West This is also 94

Pain and trauma are enhanced where For the vast majority of under-educat- For the vast majority

Very few girls in early marriages in devel- Very oping countries have access to contracep- tion; nor would delayed pregnancy neces- sarily be acceptable to many husbands and in-laws. Access to contraception and reproductive health advice Ethiopia, husband and wife may grow up and wife may Ethiopia, husband of his par- in the house playing together must case, the mother-in-law ents. In this by her girl from any advances protect the son. girls have undergone some form of FGM, especially where this has been undertaken and especially in the case of recently, infibulation which is designed to make penetration difficult. Problems may be exacerbated after childbirth. In many societies, and in many millions of individ- ual cases, women have no choice but to resume sexual relations within two or three days of childbirth, even if there has and been vaginal cutting during delivery, regardless of the pain it causes. ed rural adolescent girls in the developing ed rural adolescent girls the likely context world, marriage remains for sexual intercourse. Researchers have tended to focus on countries. bearing soon after marriage is integral to a 11 per social status. In Yemen, woman’s cent of wives aged 15-29 stated that they did not use contraception because of their

fail, especially where the husband is much fail, especially where of forced inter- older than the girl. Cases and physically fully course by much older with wives as young developed husbands as eight have been reported.

sexual violence, they were ignored. bands of their unwillingness to endure these young wives informed their hus- in marriage. In 80 per cent of cases where were highly vulnerable to sexual violence below the age of 15, and that this group found that half had been married at or A 1997 study among women in Calcutta sex within marriage is adolescents; the assumption prevails that about sexual experience among married means that there are only limited data ried and unmarried adolescents. This have made no distinction between mar- adolescent sexuality outside marriage, or her married sister may find it impossible. cult to resist unwanted sexual advances, unmarried teenage girl may find it diffi-

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

10 Main issues Main Main issues birth-weight, and a higher chance that the untreated.117 A girl with the condition is riage can be said to have profound social newborn will not survive.108 usually ostracized as unclean, and is often and economic consequences for society as Pregnancy-related deaths are the lead- divorced. In Nigeria, where the condition a whole. These consequences are rein- ing cause of mortality for 15-19 year-old affects around 150,000 women, 80-90 per forced by the fact that the children of girls (married and unmarried) worldwide. cent of wives with VVF are divorced by young and illiterate mothers tend to face Mothers in this age group face a 20 to 200 their husbands;118 in Niger VVF is the rea- the same cycle of childhood deprivation per cent greater chance of dying in preg- son for 63.3 per cent of all divorces.119 and damage experienced by their mothers. nancy than women aged 20 to 24. Those under age 15 are five times as likely to die Infant and early childhood care as women in their twenties.109 The main The health problems linked to early mar- The denial of education causes are haemorrhage, sepsis, pre- riage not only affect the pregnant mother Early marriage inevitably denies children eclampsia/eclampsia and obstructed labour. and the foetus, but also continue after of school age their right to the education Unsafe abortion is the other major risk for childbirth. Evidence shows that infant they need for their personal development, teenage women – most of those affected mortality among the children of very their preparation for adulthood, and their are unmarried.110 Some specific local stud- young mothers is higher – sometimes two effective contribution to the future well- ies show worse outcomes for the very times higher – than among those of older being of their family and society. Indeed, young mother: in Zaria, Nigeria, maternal peers.120 A stronger likelihood of low married girls who would like to continue mortality among women younger than 16 birth-weight in the infant has been schooling may be both practically and was found to be six times higher than for recorded among adolescent mothers than legally excluded from doing so. women aged 20-24, and similar findings among older peers. This is mainly associ- The interaction between the number have been reported from Cameroon and ated with poor maternal nutrition, rein- of years of a girl’s schooling and the post- Ethiopia.111 For every woman who dies in forcing the point that adolescents are ponement of marriage is firmly estab- childbirth, 30 more suffer injuries, infec- ‘unready’ for childbirth. Low birth-weight lished by demographic and fertility stud- tions and disabilities, which usually go babies are 5-30 times more likely to die ies. On average, women with seven or untreated and some of which are lifelong. than babies of normal weight.121 If a moth- more years of education marry four years Part of this heavy toll has more to do er is under 18, her baby’s chance of dying later and have 2.2 fewer children than 126 with poor socio-economic status and lack in the first year of life is 60 per cent high- those with no education. However, the of ante-natal and obstetric care than phys- er than that of a baby born to a mother precise nature of the interaction between 112 education and marriage is not always evi- ical maturity alone. However, physical older than 19.122 A 1993 survey among dent. Are girls withdrawn from school to immaturity is the key risk for the under women married young in Rajasthan found marry, or is lack of schooling for girls part 15s. High rates of Vesico-Vaginal Fistula that 63 per cent of their children under of the pattern of traditional expectations (VVF) are clearly identified with marriage four were severely malnourished.123 and roles? The situation in Bangladesh, and childbearing in the 10-15 year-old age The immaturity and lack of education of however, is clear – a girl will be with- group; in one study in Niger, 88 per cent of a young mother undermines her capacity drawn from school if a good marriage women with fistula were in this age group for nurture. Even children are able to work prospect arises.127 DHS data also show a at marriage.113 Mothers whose pelvis and this out: it was one reason given by Nepali clear link in some other countries, includ- birth canal are not fully developed often children for avoiding early marriage, as ing Nepal, Kazakhstan and Indonesia. endure very prolonged labour.114 Unless the 124 shown by Save the Children research. Although attitudes towards the educa- mother receives emergency obstetric care, tion of girls have begun to change even in relentless pressure from the baby’s skull can Future maternal health traditional societies, many parents still damage the birth canal, causing breakages and childbearing believe that investment in a girl’s educa- in the wall, allowing uncontrollable leak- Finally, early marriage extends a woman’s tion is wasted when she is simply going to age from the bladder into the vagina. The potential childbearing capacity, which be married and work in another house- same problem may also occur in relation to itself represents a risk to mothers.125 Not hold. The costs of the investment in edu- the rectum, with leakage of faeces (recto- until the ‘demographic transition’ is rela- cation reinforce the impetus towards the vaginal fistulas, or RVF). tively advanced, child survival adequately girl’s withdrawal from school. Fistula conditions are permanent with- assured, and education valued, do families In rural areas, secondary education often out surgical intervention to re-seal the tis- see the births of many children as a drain means that a girl must leave home to live in sues,115 such intervention may not be on resources rather than an asset. Until a school dormitory. Parents fear that this

sought or may be hard to access. There is that time, women are under pressure to may expose her to risks including premari- Innocenti Digest 7 – some evidence from Nigeria that FGM produce large numbers of children. tal sex and pregnancy. In Northern Nigeria, practices that damage the vagina may also Population and family planning policies for example, girls are often kept out of increase the likelihood of VVF.116 The since the 1970s have tried to reduce large school for this very reason.128 Even where

prevalence of VVF/RVF is not fully family size, focusing on the social, eco- girls can live at home while attending Early Marriage known, but WHO estimates that there are nomic and environmental costs to coun- school, fears about their possible sexual two million women living with fistulas tries that lack the resources to ensure a activity, about sexual harassment, or about and an additional 50,000-100,000 new good quality of life for their rapidly grow- insecurity on the journey to and from cases every year, many of which go ing populations. In this light, early mar- school, discourage their attendance. 11 135 141 Violent 137 138 Those who 136 140 A study in Jordan, A study in 134 data from Egypt has found that 29 per cent data from Egypt has found have been beaten of married adolescents husband and others), by their husband (or have been beaten and of these 41 per cent during pregnancy. national and international policy-makers and rights advocates is essential in order to change the policy and programme cli- mate. Over the entire action spectrum, a wide variety of actors must be engaged, including teenagers themselves, adult women and men, community leaders, politicians, policy-makers, academics, researchers, lawyers, the media, and A study in Calcutta found that sex- 139 Divorce or abandonment often Early marriage is often linked to wife Thus early marriage contributes to the ‘feminization of poverty’ and its resulting impact on children. Some girls in brutal marriages become des- Some girls in brutal marriages away. perate enough to run plunges a woman into poverty, as she usu- plunges a woman into poverty, ally assumes sole responsibility for depen- dent children. If she married young, is and has few income-gen- under-educated erating skills, her poverty may be acute. Studies of young mothers in Latin America and the Caribbean found that they are more likely to be disadvantaged later in life; in Mexico they are six times more likely to be living in poverty than those who postponed childbearing. abandonment, as shown by its association with divorce and separation. ual violence in marriage is associated with a greater likelihood of separation than physical violence alone. published in 2000 found that 26 per cent published in 2000 found domestic violence of reported cases of wives under 18. were committed against do so, and those who choose a marriage do so, and those who of their parents, partner against the wishes even killed by their may be punished, or the so- These girls run the risk of family. that occur in called ‘honour killings’ Jordan, Lebanon, Bangladesh, Egypt, and elsewhere. Pakistan, Turkey behaviour towards a wife, including coer- cive sex, plays a major role in marital breakdown. In Java, it has been found that girls who marry early are three times more likely to be divorced than those married later. 131 Many cases of self- 133 Marriage age is part of a 132 But work itself can have a positive But work itself can that they are aware of its true implica- tions and empowered to resist it. The role of government and civil society institutions is to develop and implement suitable systems to prevent or discourage the practice. impact on delaying marriage. A study in impact on delaying found that those Penang Island, Malaysia, before marriage women who worked 2.5 years later tended to marry almost worked at all. than those who had never While the main actors helping those Most available information on violent Where work and education opportuni- Where work and education Violence and abandonment Violence The UK working group on forced mar- riage found that many of the victims of this practice suffered from prolonged domestic violence, but felt unable to leave the marriage because of economic pres- sures, lack of family support and other social circumstances. directly affected will operate at household and community level, the involvement of ties have opened up for women, this has ties have opened up parents’ had the effect of encouraging education. support for their daughters’ of girls in school and Increased enrolment completion higher levels of educational shown to produce have been conclusively family well-being, improvements in reduced increased use of contraception, advantages infant mortality and economic for society. abuse is anecdotal, consisting of interviews with girls who have suffered trauma as a DHS result of their marriages. However, wider picture of interaction between eco- nomic advance and increased participa- tion of women in education. harm and suicide among British women of South Asian origin were thought to be linked to forced marriage. If a woman did feel able to challenge the situation, it often took her years to do so. If this is happening in a society where forced mar- riage is not the norm, it is safe to assume that such a challenge is far less likely from a girl in an environment where early and forced marriages are commonplace. but few young – an association CTION 129 130 A

Lack of schooling also means that The most important implication of this The most important The removal from school of a young from school of a The removal

AKING

A range of policy and programmatic actions are needed to reduce early mar- riage and its impact. Actions to fulfil or restore the rights of those already mar- ried should go hand in hand with pre- In ventive actions aimed at wider society. either case, the aim should be to inform parents and young people currently com- plicit in the practice of early marriage so those girls and women who must work to earn a living have no qualifications or skills. Illiterate women who are aban- doned, widowed or divorced, or who are are victims of growing urban poverty, forced into commercialized versions of their work as wives: cleaning, cooking, child-minding. They may even enter the commercial sex trade. In many Latin American countries (and elsewhere), there is a strong link between very poor, women-headed households in urban areas and menial occupations girl to marry, or to work in her parents’ or or to work in her parents’ girl to marry, for mar- in preparation another household to devel- her opportunities ried life, limits out on She also loses op her intellect. her making friends outside socializing, other useful skills. family circle, and many of developing This reduces her chances Indeed, in identity. her own independent this is an impor- the old patriarchal view her away. tant reason for taking

loss is that the girl grows up with no sense loss is that the girl grows own point of view of the right to assert her in articulating one. – and little experience of a sense of owner- Lack of self-esteem or ship of her own body expose a woman to unwanted pregnancy and make her vulner- able to HIV infection. A typically submis- sive wife in, for example, Eastern Africa is not in a position to refuse sex to her hus- band, even if he has other sexual partners and she suspects that he may be infected A woman has the right to refuse with HIV. sex in any circumstances, T

levels are raised. that will only diminish when educational

their marriage to assert such a right. dence or self-esteem during the course of brides will ever gain enough self-confi- Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

12 Main issues Main Main issues national and international non-govern- mental and intergovernmental bodies. Teenage Health information Service, Uganda While prevention measures are essen- When the Nuguru Teenage Health Information Service began in Kampala, Uganda, in tial, efforts must be made to ensure that all 1994, its main concern was teenage pregnancy. It quickly became clear that young of the following interventions are avail- people need other sexual and reproductive advice and that the service was revealing a real need: it was deluged by clients aged between 10 and 24-years-old. able to married, as well as unmarried girls. Their most common concern has been how to avoid STIs including HIV. But a high proportion of young people simply want to talk about changes in their bodies or Support for physical well-being matters of personal hygiene – acne for example. Counselling about relationships is also This is primarily intended to maintain sex- in demand, as is information about contraception. ual and reproductive health, starting by Nuguru runs a weekly radio programme focusing on topics they know to be of high interest to their young audience. The daily clinic is packed with clients, 30-40 of whom ensuring that both girls and boys learn are newcomers. Trained teenage volunteers provide most of the back-up staffing. about sex, reproduction and the related Such a service may only rarely be of use to girls threatened with early marriage, risks at an early age. Information should many of whom are beyond its reach. But it illustrates young people’s desire for replace ‘ignorance plus early marriage’ as information and help as they journey through their sexual development. the child sexual protection strategy. Source: Project visit, Maggie Black, September 2000. Proposals that adolescents – male and female – should be given sex education married and unmarried youngsters of both Education for empowerment and have access to reproductive health sexes. Life skills education for sexual health and intellectual development services, have often been greeted with and negotiation needs to be provided in The key to girls’ progress is education and resistance. In a number of African and the classroom, in youth clubs and through learning. Persuading parents to keep their Asian cultures, there is reticence about, or newsletters and radio programmes. The daughters in school and ensuring that they an actual taboo on, the discussion of sex. experience of the Nuguru Teenage Health receive a basic education, as is their right, This feeds fears that sex education will Information Service in Kampala, Uganda, is important for a number of personal and encourage early sexual relations and preg- shows the appetite of young people for family, as well as wider social and eco- nancy. The work of UNAIDS has demon- information about sex-related problems. 144 nomic, reasons including postponement of strated such fears to be unfounded, and In many developing countries, lack of marriage. Both Sri Lanka and the state of that sex education does not lead to resources makes contraception and repro- Kerala in neighbouring India have rela- promiscuity. All the same, such miscon- ductive advice inaccessible. This situation tively high age of first marriage. They also ceptions take time to overcome. may be exacerbated by religious beliefs have something else in common that has Evidence shows that silence about sex that disapprove of artificial birth control contributed to this phenomenon: both does not inhibit teenage pregnancy in methods. The result is that many adoles- have given high priority to education for countries where old-style sexual protec- cents, both married and unmarried, find it women as well as men. This has changed tion systems are breaking down and HIV difficult to locate, or even seek, help about the way men and women perceive their now poses a serious threat to the lives of sexual matters. There may be few facilities roles and potential, and has led to greater girls. More than half of new HIV infec- offering such support, particularly in support for the rights of women than is tions occur in 15-24 year olds, but girls remote rural areas. The poorest often lack found in many other parts of this region. become infected at twice the rate of the resources to travel to these facilities Where girls have lost out on formal boys.142 More countries are now willing to and any fees charged for the services on education, non-formal programmes can include sex and family life education in offer would push them even further out of help them catch up on the intellectual and the school curriculum as a means of com- reach. In some cases, the ante-natal clinic is personal growth offered by schooling. bating HIV, and this growing acceptance the only place where a young woman can Such programmes can have a direct needs reinforcing, as do youth-focused obtain reproductive advice, but pregnancy impact on early marriage: a programme programmes on this issue. is a pre-condition. Contraception may not from the 1990s among the people of the However, concern with teenage vul- be offered to married women until they Samburu district in Kenya led to a fall in nerability to HIV has centred on those have borne a child. There is an urgent need early marriage and helped women assert who are in school or leading lives that for ‘youth friendly’ health services, as ado- themselves.146 expose them to risky sexual activity. This lescents are unlikely to seek help about While there has been a recent drive to invariably excludes girls who are married. sexual matters from a service that is unsym- increase participation of girls in basic edu- Yet they, too, are vulnerable, and need to pathetic to their needs and anxieties. cation, the more significant gender gap is at be able to adopt systems of self-protec- Girls aged 15 to 19 give birth to 15 the secondary level. Throughout the devel- tion where they fear their husbands are million babies a year.145 Many of these oping world, with the exception of Latin Innocenti Digest 7 – infected or could be exposed to HIV. girls give birth without attending an ante- America and the Philippines, boys have Unlike most of their unmarried peers, natal clinic or receiving the help of a pro- higher rates of secondary school enrolment. married girls are exposed constantly to fessional midwife. It is essential to devise The decline of girls’ enrolment and atten- 143 sex, and may be more prone to STIs. programmes to reach girls in and out of dance after age 12-13 is most marked in Early Marriage In these circumstances, there is an marriage with reproductive advice and sub-Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, for exam- urgent need to transform attitudes and services – a particular challenge in the ple, enrolment of girls and boys is equal at approaches towards adolescent health care remote rural areas where most early mar- age 12-13 but by the age of 16-17 girls’ and provide services that are accessible to riages are to be found. attendance is only 71 per cent of boys’.147 13 150 The Effects of Schooling Incentive Programs on The Effects of Schooling Girls who run away from unhappy Policy Research Division Working Paper No. 133, Division Working Policy Research at least the age of 19. Because support from men is required, boys and husbands have been invited to take part in solidari- ty groups in a joint gender programme. Support for psychological well-being and emergency assistance girls and often, the only option for Very women in situations of extreme marital In countries such as stress is to run away. Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India and Kenya, many runaways end up in poor urban communities, including brothel communi- ties. Some local NGOs working in this field have begun to assist such girls and women, but their efforts are generally confined to towns and cities. marriages need emergency support, as do those running away from parents forcing them into an unwanted marriage, or pun- ishing them for entering a partnership without their permission. In Kenya, for example, an enterprising Maasai woman helps such girls find refuge in the board- ing school she has created in the town of Kajiado. Their rescue is often organized with the help of mothers who are willing to brave the stigma of supporting them. One 149 Non-formal Education: Egypt’s New Horizons Programme Egypt’s Non-formal Education: Formal Education: Bangladesh Secondary Bangladesh Formal Education: School Scholarships In Bangladesh, NGOs working with The programme, designed by curriculum specialists and local NGOs, consists of 100 The programme, designed by curriculum enthusiasm to learn to read and Girls involved in the programme have expressed Fees and free books were provided for the students, and their parents were given and their parents were for the students, books were provided Fees and free postponement, as results was a sudden increase in marriage One of the most striking instability than in the past. Empowering young people to run their own lives is at the heart of the life skills approach. both school-going and out-of-school youth include adolescent rights in their course content, as well as reproductive marriage health, early marriage, dowry, registration and divorce processes. Source: Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA), Washington for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA), Centre Source: Source: Arends-Kuenning, Mary Sajeda Amin: and Source: Allocation in Bangladesh, Household Resource 2000. York, Population Council, New of formal education because their parents Many rural girls in Egypt have no chance was developed in 1997 to give want them to work. The ‘New Horizons’ programme and life skills. these girls a chance to gain self-esteem, confidence about life skills – rights and carefully structured sessions to provide information reproductive health, adolescence, marriage responsibilities, nutrition, health, first aid, uses simple materials and methods and violence against women. The local educator including posters, song, drama and discussion. towards the respective value of boys their parents have become supportive. Attitudes rates of girls in primaryand girls have begun to change, and enrolment school have and have taken their new ideas home to their risen. Nearly 15,000 girls have benefited, mothers, helping them to discover their rights. On the assumption that financial constraints were the main reason for parents keeping main reason for parents constraints were the that financial On the assumption secondary out of school, a their daughters girls was programme for school scholarship early 1990s. in Bangladesh in the introduced work. and household of their daughters’ agricultural for the loss some compensation shorter. was also adjusted so that school days were The school timetable not marry to sign a bond that their daughters would parents were required before age that daughters with a to the incentives, partly because they knew 18. Parents responded marrybetter education would men who are better providers. innovative programme run by the Centre for Mass Education in Science (CMES) offers girls life-oriented education to enable them to recapture the adolescence they have lost. After graduation, they are encouraged to attend meetings, develop leadership skills, and avoid marriage until , so that girls Involving Boys in Pakistan Promoting Children’s Participation in Democratic Decision-Making, Promoting Children’s in situ This illustrates an 148

Where such efforts are made, resis- Other strategies to increase girls’ Other strategies to Attempts to close gender gaps in educa- close gender gaps in Attempts to

Source: Innocenti Insight: Source: Centre 2001 Gerison Lansdown, UNICEF Innocenti Research An innovative project in Pakistan empowers adolescent boy scouts to promote and right to education – a key defence against rights, including the girl’s protect children’s the early marriage. The project encourages them to take action to promote and protect rights of others, particularly girls, increasing their understanding of social responsibility. After training, each boy collects data from 10 neighbouring households on health, sanitation and the educational status of the children. In return, they provide each for household with information on various issues, including the importance of education in girls. They then monitor the progress of each household. The project is being piloted one province. If successful, it is hoped that 10,000 boy scouts will eventually reach 100,000 households and more than 500,000 people.

tance to girls’ education can crumble sur- even in highly traditional prisingly easily, environments. In the Baluchistan province of Pakistan, where the female literacy rate is only 4 per cent, 300 new village schools have enrolled 14,000 girls, and a mobile teacher training unit trains women with 8- 10 years of education and their new female teachers do not have to leave their villages. tion have included approaches to make included approaches tion have These include girl-friendly. schools more so close to communities building schools their are less worried about that parents female safety; employing more daughters’ the relevance of the teachers; improving quality of teaching; curriculum and the allow girls to meet flexible schedules to in-school child- domestic responsibilities; for male teachers care facilities; penalties and separate san- who seduce girl students; and girls. itary facilities for boys incentives for par- schooling include cash in school; the ents to keep their daughters education for girls expansion of non-formal the involvement of who have left school; communities in running schools; and con- ducting communication campaigns on the importance of girls’ education. In schools and in non-formal education

much greater political and economic alcohol, drugs, freer sexual codes – and world with new risks and temptations – with the skills they need to cope in a skills curricula aim to equip young people negotiate personal relationships. Life on ‘life skills’ to equip girls and boys to programmes there is a growing emphasis cumstances. economic, geographical and cultural cir- approach that matches particular social, essential pre-condition for success: an

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

14 Main issues Main Main issues

Community-based and women’s groups provide the best services, but they often Postponing Marriage in India lack support from traditional institutions, An ambitious programme is underway to increase the value placed on girls in India, and are poorly funded, and may have to oper- thereby indirectly increase their age at marriage. The governments of Rajasthan, ate in secrecy – attacked for undermining Karnataka and Haryana have established an incentive programme for low-income families. In Haryana, for example, a small sum of money (Rs.2,500, or US$78) is set 151 cultural values. While women and girls aside in a savings account for a girl at her birth. At the age of 18, if she is still facing violence and abuse in industrialized unmarried, the girl is eligible to collect the accumulated sum of Rs. 25,000. countries may have access to refuges, This economic incentive to keep girls alive and postpone their marriage is counselling and other kinds of support, supplemented by support for girls’ education. The intention is to encourage parents to these services are rare in countries such as postpone marriage until daughters reach 18 and can use the grant for their dowry. Ethiopia, Bangladesh or Pakistan. Source: The Uncharted Passage: Girls’ Adolescence in the Developing World, Barbara S. Mensch, However, some organizations do exist in Judith Bruce, Margaret E. Greene, The Population Council, 1999. the developing world to offer shelter and delayed and consensual marriage, a sum of unregistered, depriving women of their counselling to women who have run away E£500 (US$132.45) is offered to any girl rights in marriage, including their rights from violent marriages. In Zimbabwe, for who defers her marriage until age 18, and over property. Programmes to promote example, the NGO Musasa provides coun- who enters marriage of her own free will.154 birth and marriage registration, via com- selling, temporary refuge, employment At the wider social level, increased fam- munity structures and religious leaders, support and helps women establish their ily income contributes to the reduction of should be promoted. In parts of Indonesia, own independence.152 early marriage. A better standard of living for example, registration of marriage is Many girls, of course, do not run away. releases resources for girls’ education, and dependent on evidence that the marriage But those girls and young women who reduces dependence on daughters for is neither forced nor polygamous and on remain in their marriages can benefit from labour. The promotion of employment attendance at a session on reproduction.156 the support of others through peer coun- opportunities for women in non-servile Governmental action is required to selling, local women’s groups and so on. occupations also helps to promote girls’ review customary and civil law in the light education and postpone marriage. The of internationally agreed human rights Support for improved economic status development of community structures for standards on marriage. For example, Early marriage is closely associated with, managing basic services, such as health, restrictive laws concerning an adolescent’s and contributes to, poverty. Some inter- helps to erode traditional practices related access to services such as reproductive ventions on behalf of adolescent girls to women. In Niger, for example, these health should be removed. have focused on improving their eco- have been used as a mechanism for cam- Existing laws should be enforced, and a nomic situation as a means of granting paigning against FGM and early marriage. rights culture fostered by providing them higher status and more control over appropriate training for the judiciary, law- their lives – including their options in Legal change makers and the police. marriage. Approaches may include train- Every year, around 40 million births – one At the international level, both the ing in livelihood skills, support for third of the world total – go unregis- CEDAW and CRC Committees should teenagers in the labour market and ensur- tered.155 Without a birth certificate, a continue to focus on age of marriage and ing that marriage is not a pre-condition child has no defence against age-related consent, and insist that laws prohibiting for eligibility for schemes such as micro- rights abuses. In countries where the law early marriage be enforced. Attention credit programmes and savings clubs. on legal minimum age at marriage is should also be given to early marriage in In Bangladesh, young women’s entry ignored, the inadequacy of birth registra- follow-up work to the 1995 Fourth World into the export garment industry has tion systems reinforces early marriage. Conference on Women, held in Beijing, the boosted their value in the eyes of their Similarly, thousands of marriages go 2000 UN Special Session on Women families and potential husbands. Despite long working hours and harsh conditions, Legislation and Change in Sri Lanka most garment workers can negotiate some autonomy with their own families as a In Sri Lanka, where age at marriage has traditionally been low, average age at marriage is result of earning, while expecting to marry now 25 years. This country’s success in raising marriage age has been driven by the introduction of legislative reforms requiring that all marriages be registered and that the in due course. Later on, their experience of consent of both marriage partners be recorded. Moreover, Sri Lankan courts have ruled financial self-reliance gives them greater that specific cases of non-consensual marriages arranged by parents on behalf of their confidence as wives.153 children are invalid. Underpinning these broad initiatives, which apply to Sri Lankan

A programme in Egypt for the girls of citizens of any religion, is a legal argument that Islamic law recognises the importance of Innocenti Digest 7 – the Maqattam garbage settlement outside consent to marriage. There are texts in Islamic law that indicate that parental authority in relation to the marriage of a daughter does not permit complete disregard of the child’s Cairo has enhanced their income-earning welfare, and that accept the requirement of obtaining a child’s consent to marriage. The capacity while helping them to resist early positive impact of these legislative changes have been supported by social policies on marriage. Rug-making, paper recycling, health and education (including free education from primary to university level) to create Early Marriage and embroidery projects allow them to an environment in which the practice of early marriage is in steep decline. escape from garbage sorting and gain skills, Source: Children, Law and Justice. A South Asian Perspective, Savitri Goonesekere, UNICEF-ICDC, an income and self-esteem. To encourage Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p 117 & 324 15 Forced Marriage, Forced Sex: Marriage, Forced Forced Existing demographic data may be dis- aggregated and used in ways that tell us more about the prevalence of early mar- riage. But special studies are also needed to examine trends, extent, impacts, and effec- tive responses. There are grounds for believing that the practice is under-report- ed in areas where it is known to occur, especially for children under 14, who are munication channels to emphasise access female rights, including equality, to education, and freedom from exploitation and discrimination; However, the lessons learned from ini- However, International organizations, both inter- Working with men to promote attitudi- Working nal change. tiatives on other sensitive issues, such as FGM, is that they are most effectively addressed at a local level. International activity is primarily useful for coordinat- ing, comparing and synthesizing country activities, and for networking. External assistance is best channelled through local activities and it is important that sensitiv- ities are respected. Heavy-handed advo- cacy by outsiders with different outlooks and customs – even those of the same nationality – can be counter-productive. governmental and NGO, can and do sup- port such advocacy programmes through funding and technical advice in the various specialist areas. But there are still relatively few initiatives of this kind and more are treaty needed. The CRC and CEDAW bodies should monitor early marriage in a so that organizations using systematic way, these treaties as programme and policy benchmarks could draw on their observa- tions to support policy change and enhance their own programmes. Gender and Development, Vol. 6, No. 3, Oxfam. Vol. Gender and Development, Burkino Faso: Finding Refuge Burkino Faso:

National advocacy campaigns can take trends or its impact on wives, husbands, These gaps families, or the wider society. since data must need to be filled urgently, inform policies and programmes and pro- Parents vide a basis for effective advocacy. confronted with the kind of evidence gathered in the UK working group study cited above, for example, may begin to view the practice differently.

protect and support the adolescent peri- od, especially by keeping girls in school. Governments should be encouraged to create a policy climate that supports later marriage, through scholarship provision, legal reform, and affirmative policies and programmes on behalf of women. Efforts to improve participation of women and girls in civic and public life and to give them equal access to training and employ- ment opportunities, can enhance their sta- tus and thereby decrease the likelihood of early marriage. various forms: Working with the media and other com- with the media and other Working Promoting an effective system of regis- tration of births, marriages and deaths; Setting up small-scale studies into the implications of early marriage and pub- lication of the findings of such studies; Using national and international Days to raise awareness; via Women’s social mobilization involving women’s networks, opinion leaders at the national level, politicians and community leaders; Campaigning to raise the legal age of marriage; or – more importantly – ensuring implementation of the legal age of marriage, building on recommen- dations made at the 2000 UN Special (Beijing+5); Session on Women From: Ouattara, Mariam, Purna Sen and Marilyn Thomson (1998), From: Ouattara, Mariam, for Girls, the Perils of Childhood Around Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso, three Catholic religious centres shelter Catholic religious of Burkina Faso, three the capital Around Ouagadougou, in Many of the girls escape early marriage. run away from forced girls who have during centres, hiding in trees for days to reach the conditions, travelling dangerous situation their and psychologically, Both economically and walking at night. daylight hours support; without moral or financial them so they are families usually disown is grave. Their they take refuge. may pressure them to join the orders where and the religious sisters provide the girls with in Burkina Faso, works with the centres to Puksata, a local NGO mediates between the families and the girls. vocational training, and

157

HE NEED FOR RESEARCH Public education campaigns must rein- A survey conducted by the UK work- Creating the circumstances in which At present, there is a serious lack of data on all aspects of early marriage. As this Digest has underlined, the sources of information that do exist have examined early marriage in terms of demographic and educational attain- trends, fertility, ment. There are as yet very few studies that have examined the practice from a human rights perspective, in terms of Marriage is regarded as a private, even sen- Marriage is regarded as societies in Asia and sitive subject. In many been unthink- in Africa, it has traditionally even between able to discuss sexual relations changing However, husband and wife. epidemic have begun lifestyles and the HIV Adolescents are to erode these taboos. to know about, and demanding the right talk about, intimate matters. Advocacy (Beijing+5) and in international proposals and in international (Beijing+5) against to prevent violence for legal action should be on early marriage women. Action Action for the National Plans of included in at the the commitments made follow-up on 1990s. conferences of the numerous world force activity in schools and health facili- ties. Emphasis should be on the need to

such subjects can be addressed, especially in traditional rural societies and ethnic groups where early marriage is common, is a vital pre-condition for hastening its end. Advocacy is needed at all levels of and but particularly at household society, community level, to influence attitudes. The benefits of postponing marriage for wives, husbands, families and communi- ties need to be shared with religious and community leaders, while those who exert role model influence, as well as govern- ment personnel, need to be engaged. ing group on forced marriage, for exam- ple, found that one of the main motiva- tions of parents who force their daughters into marriage was the desire to strengthen families and protect their cultures. In fact, the evidence indicates that the opposite often occurs, with families breaking apart and children turning against their cultural background. T

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

16 Main issues Main Main issues virtually invisible in standard data record- adolescents, participate. The absence of encing the age of marriage, particularly ing. And there are grounds for believing data on the psychosocial impact of early those that cause it to rise. Comparative that it is rising in highly stressed popula- marriage on children, and the ways in case studies of situations where early mar- tions – contrary to general trends. More which this interacts with wider social, riage is declining instead of increasing indicators may be needed for use in stan- political and economic consequences, is will help to identify these determinants. dard surveys; and existing research in particular need of remedy. Other Evaluation of the impact of early mar- methodologies should be assessed for their aspects of early marriage requiring riage: psychosocial effects on the early usefulness in capturing necessary data. research include: married; social and economic impact on New methodologies may also be need- Prevalence, especially among sub- families and societies. ed to enable NGOs with access to rural groups whose marriage characteristics Early marriage in high stress situations communities and to communities under are submerged in national data, disag- brought about by war, HIV/AIDS, acute stress to conduct small-scale qualitative gregated by age and sex. urban and rural poverty, and among research, in which local people, including Social and economic determinants influ- refugee and displaced populations. IN CONCLUSION Early marriage of girls and boys impairs participation in civic life, nullifies the women’s and children’s rights campaigners the realization and enjoyment of virtually meaning of the CRC’s core protections for in recent decades. It is hoped that it will every one of their rights. The imposition those concerned. Unless measures are provide an incentive for a campaign to of a marriage partner on children or ado- taken to address early marriage, it will prevent early marriage and end the silent lescents who are in no way ready for mar- continue to be a major stumbling block to misery of millions of girls in many coun- ried life, and whose marriage will deprive the achievement of human rights. tries around the world, to open up new them of freedom, opportunity for person- This Digest is intended merely as a horizons for them, and contribute to the al development, and other rights includ- starting-point, drawing attention to a development of policies, programmes and ing health and well-being, education, and practice that has been neglected by both advocacy to bring this about. Innocenti Digest 7 – Early Marriage

17 Discussion site WORKING TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY IN MARRIAGE by Dr Nafis Sadik, Executive Director, UNFPA. Early marriage represents a major threat to couple signals an effective end to their childbearing. At the same time, adoles- a child’s well being. While the practice childhood or adolescence, and exposes a cence must be supported; both boys and affects both girls and boys, the most funda- young wife to the grave risks associated girls need life skills and other means of mental rights of a child bride – to survive, with the physical dangers of early preg- self-protection to negotiate the passage to develop – are undermined. She is left nancy and childbirth. In turn, the impact from childhood to adulthood safely. with little or no opportunity to influence of early marriage and early pregnancy is The right to make choices about one’s her own sexual life or the number, timing visited upon her children: babies born to own reproductive health is particularly and spacing of her children. It is only young mothers face much higher than important within the institution of mar- through the development of gender equali- average levels of morbidity and mortality. riage. It is a right that is shared by the ty, both inside and outside marriage, that Around 15 million young women aged couple; a right that is sometimes contest- such rights violations can be overcome. 15-19 give birth each year, accounting for ed by tradition or claimed by others. Early In some developing countries, half or more than 10 per cent of all babies born more of all women marry or start a union marriage severely undermines the ade- worldwide.5 Girls aged 10 to 14 are five before they reach age 18, and 70 per cent quate exercise of this right. times more likely to die in pregnancy or A number of strategic actions are need- or more do so by the time they are 20. 6 Sizable proportions even form unions childbirth than women aged 20 to 24, ed to address the phenomenon of early before they are age 15.1 And early mar- while girls aged 15-19 are twice as likely marriage: to die.7 Many, if not most, of these deaths riage generally means early motherhood. Improving Data In many developing countries, at least 20 take place within marriage. Back in 1990, world leaders at the Although early marriage is a matter of per cent of women – and in some about 50 great concern, there is far too little con- per cent – have had their first child by the World Summit for Children pledged to crete information on its prevalence or its time they are 18 years of age.2 work to halve maternal mortality rates – The good news is that the age of mar- then standing at around 500,000 each impact. Consequently, the first require- riage appears to be rising – most rapidly in year – by the year 2000. Despite this ment in addressing early marriage must be Asia and in North Africa. In eight Asian commitment, some 585,000 women are more research and more understanding. countries, for example, data published in now thought to die each year as a result of More effective advocacy and program- 1997 found that while 57 per cent of pregnancy or childbirth.8 The reasons for ming will follow. women aged 40-44 were married by age the lack of progress are complex, but One important strategy must be to 20, only 37 per cent of those aged 20-24 undoubtedly include the status of women improve data collection. Actions must be were. In Northern Africa, the correspond- in society, their economic disadvantage informed by knowledge, and for this rea- ing figures were 66 and 34 per cent. In and the lack of respect for women’s basic son, an essential first step is to ensure that Sub-Saharan Africa, where the prevalence human rights.9 existing data collection programmes – be of teenage marriage remains high, the fig- As well as threatening her right to life they run by national governments, interna- ures were 73 and 59 per cent respectively.3 itself, early marriage almost inevitably tional organizations, or NGOs – are sensi- The bad news is that such statistics may marks the end of a girl’s schooling. Her tized to the issue of early marriage. They disguise the continued practice of early opportunity for individual development should be encouraged to provide full infor- marriage in certain areas or among certain and growth is stifled, and her potential to mation on the marital status of children and population groups. And it seems that early become an autonomous, informed and young people, disaggregated by age and marriage is increasing among populations empowered adult is compromised. gender. Comprehensive data such as these under severe stress – in conflict situations, Moreover, a girl may be exposed to oppres- are essential for making significant progress confronted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, or sion and violence (sexual and non-sexual) in understanding the risks associated with, facing extreme poverty. and the dynamics of, early marriage. At UNFPA we believe that ‘population’ within marriage, but almost inevitably, she has no voice with which to protest. is about more than numbers and statistics. Changing Legislation It is about people. It is about helping The legal situation on early marriage is young women fulfil their potential, ensur- complex. Marriage is legally regulated in ing their access to schooling, to reproduc- Meeting the challenge all countries, but national legislation may tive health care, to a fair and equal chance Moving Towards Gender Equality bear no relation to the ages at which par- in the workplace. It is about involving in Marriage ents can and do marry off their children in men in programmes to encourage respon- practice.10

Innocenti Digest 6 – Marriage should be a voluntary choice for sible behaviour, including joint decision- both partners. Equality is simply not pos- Changing legislation is, nevertheless, making by spouses and male support for an important strategy. Legislation on its their female partners’ choices. It is, essen- sible when choice is absent. Choices that own may have only limited impact, but tially, about gender equality and equity.4 are in the best interest of the couple usu- ally benefit from the maturity that comes the very process of legislative examination

Domestic Violence with age. Raising the age of marriage will and reform, together with related advoca- The perpetuation of help both men and women arrive at more cy efforts, is an essential step towards last- satisfying and successful married relation- ing change. It is important, for example, inequality in early marriage ships, as well as reduce the girls’ repro- that governments revise or enforce legis- 18 The imposition of marriage upon a young ductive span and vulnerability to risky lation regarding minimum age of mar- Discussion site riage. This includes a serious examination age of 20 had completed primary school, It is important that adolescents are of customary marriages that contravene compared to 83 per cent of those married involved in designing, implementing and existing legislation. Too often, for exam- at age 20 or older, according to research evaluating programmes intended for their ple, harmful traditional practices are in the mid-1990s. A similar story was benefit.17 allowed to continue in spite of laws that found in other countries, such as Kenya, forbid them. Legislation needs to be re- Indonesia, Peru and Morocco.14 Conclusion In my own country, Pakistan, girls still get assessed and enforced in the interest of It is clear that the promotion of educa- married early and many start having chil- the rights and health of young people. tion is a strategy with potential for a far- dren while they are still in their teens. The international precedent comes reaching impact on early marriage. Girls This is a threat to their health and their from two key human rights treaties: the who attend school become educated women and, in turn, contribute in human lives; maternal mortality is unacceptably Convention on the Rights of the Child, high and the greatest danger is to the ratified by 191 Governments and the and economic terms to society in a way that goes far beyond their capacity for youngest women. Convention on the Elimination of All Early marriage is a powerful disincen- Forms of Discrimination against Women, child bearing and domestic work. School systems can and should be adapted to be tive to their educational opportunities; it ratified by the Governments of 165 is a threat to their reproductive health; countries. more sensitive to girls’ needs and more responsive to family concern about the and it is highly risky for both mother and All countries that have ratified these child, for adolescent girls are physically, safety of their girls. treaties are obligated to modify their laws mentally and emotionally unprepared for Experience shows that it is possible to accordingly. In addition, countries that childbirth. Our common aim should be to introduce some of the most important adopted the Programmes of Action agreed make it unacceptable in a social as well as concepts surrounding sexuality and repro- at the World Summit for Children in a legal sense, to men as well as to women; duction into education without arousing 1990, the International Conference on and to promote actions that will enhance controversy. These include respect for Population and Development (1994) and the physical and mental development of others; self-esteem; the importance of the Fourth World Conference on Women young girls and boys and their human postponing the first pregnancy; and the (1995) are expected (although not bound) rights as a whole. ability to withstand peer pressure.15 to bring their legislation in line with these We want to promote an atmosphere in 11 The long-term impact of such ‘popula- agreements. which couples are free to make choices, tion education’ has not been studied, but The International Conference on firmly grounded in maturity, and to wait there are indications that it has an impact Population and Development (ICPD), for until they are ready for marriage. Working on behaviour. In China, for example, pilot example, affirmed the right of couples and together to change attitudes and legisla- school projects reported that following individuals “to make decisions concerning tion, improve data collection and promote exposure to population education, stu- reproduction free of discrimination, coer- education, we can achieve this goal. cion and violence, as expressed in human dents who had agreed to postpone mar- rights documents.”12 riage were sticking to their agreement.16 Schooling is also an important means Changing Attitudes by which boys can learn the importance Changing attitudes is the strategy that of respect for girls’ rights, and can devel- underpins all other efforts to end early op the positive attitudes that influence marriage. Real progress will come from their behaviour through life. There is far 1 UNFPA, Early sexual unions can undermine well-being, introducing and promoting initiatives to (www.unfpa.org/modules/intercenter/hopes/ea more to be learned about how to influ- rly.htm) change attitudes towards the gender roles ence boys’ attitudes, to help them develop 2 Ibid of girls and boys in general, and towards into responsible, healthy young men. 3 UNFPA (1997), State of World Population. the practice of early marriage in particu- Research institutions need to combine 4 UNFPA (2000), Population Issues Briefing Kit. lar. This means that societies must re- forces with the education sector to over- 5 UNFPA (1997), Annual Report. examine traditional gender roles. come this problem. 6 UNFPA (2000), op-cit. Marriage is a sensitive issue, but action on 7 UNFPA (1997) Annual Report. 8 UNICEF (1996), The Progress of Nations. other sensitive issues, such as education Partnerships for Change Finally, the formation of partnerships is a 9 Progress Report on follow-up to the World Summit for for HIV/AIDS prevention, provide mod- Children, UNICEF Executive Board Annual els for action and indicate strategies for strategy that increases the chances of suc- Session (2000), E/ICEF/2000/11, para 28. successfully raising the age of marriage. cess in addressing this problem. To end 10 UNFPA (1997) State of World Population. It is important, for example, to work the practice of early marriage, resources 11 UNFPA (1997), UNFPA and Adolescents. with the ‘social gatekeepers’, such as reli- must be mobilised at all levels, within a (www.unfpa.org/icpd/round%26meetings/ny coordinated and cooperative structure. All _adolescent/reports/adoles.htm) gious leaders, policy makers and parents – 12 Report of the International Conference on those who actually make the decisions – actors have a role to play – families, com- munities, health providers, education ser- Population and Development: in attitudinal change. Programme design- A/Conf.171/13: Report of the ICPD ers need to respect and work with these vices, religious leaders, local and national (94/10/18). influential adults, whose concerns – and government, and international organiza- 13 UNFPA (1997), UNFPA and Adolescents, Innocenti Digest 6 – the reasons for them – should be under- tions. NGOs can provide valuable lessons op-cit. from the field, and offer a means of estab- 14 UNFPA (1997) State of World Population stood and evaluated in a search for areas 15 Sikes, O.J., Palacio, J. and Kerr, B. Key Non- of consensus around the overall goals.13 lishing new initiatives. The media has a crucial role to play in terms of changing Controversial Concepts of Population Education in

International Review of Education, Vol. 39, Domestic Violence Promoting Education attitudes and raising awareness amongst Nos. 1-2, March, 1993, Unesco Institute for In every region girls who receive less these different actors. It can promote Education, Hamburg. schooling are more likely to marry young. arguments against early marriage, raise 16 UNFPA (1997), UNFPA and Adolescents, In Zambia, for example, only 44 per cent awareness of the potential of girls and op-cit. of women aged 20-24 married before the women, and depict positive role models. 17 Ibid. 19 ). Floor th see International and Tel.: +41 22 791 2718 +41 22 791 Tel.: Fax: +41 22 791 4881 E-mail: [email protected] DAW conducts research, develops DAW policy options and provides gender policy advisory services to enhance the participation of women in developing countries. The Division also publishes research and data on women and gender issues and works and non- closely with inter- governmental organizations. It assists the Commission on the Status of on (CSW) and the Committee Women the Elimination of Discrimination Activities UNESCO undertakes research, training, technical cooperation and information exchange to fulfil its mandate of promoting collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication. The organization places particular emphasis on promoting girls’ education in Africa. www.unesco.org Website: the Division for United Nations (DAW) of Women Advancement 2 UN Plaza, DC2-12 Activities to give four main functions: WHO has in the field of worldwide guidance standards for health; to set global with health; to cooperate governments in strengthening and to national health programmes; appropriate develop and transfer information and health technology, a partner with standards. WHO is Friendly UNICEF in the Baby and support Initiative to promote is also a member breastfeeding, and Inter-Agency of the Safe Motherhood Group ( Regional Networks www.who.ch Website: Educational, United Nations Scientific and Cultural (UNESCO) Organization 7 Place de Fontenoy 75007 Paris France +33 1 45 68 1813 Tel.: Fax: +33 1 45 68 5626/28 Contact: Koto Kanno E-mail: [email protected] New York New York NY 10017 USA Fax: +1 212 963 3463 E-mail: [email protected] Activities (see ). UNFPA supports ). UNFPA women’s access to and use of access to women’s rights international human the machinery and mainstreaming activities. subject in UN system-wide World Health Organization World (WHO) CH-1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland International and Regional Networks measures to empower women, including universal education for believes girls and women. UNFPA that promoting the well-being of children, especially girl children, is a development goal in itself. www.unfpa.org Website: 220 East 42 Street New York NY 10017 USA +1 212 297 5020 Tel.: Fax +1 212 557 6416 Contact: Oscar J. Sikes E-mail: [email protected] Activities works in three main UNFPA programme areas: Reproductive Health, Family Planning and Sexual Health, and Population and Development Strategies. It is a member of the Safe Motherhood Group Inter-Agency Website: www.undp.org Website: (RBLAC): Website www.undp.org/rblac/gender Population United Nations Fund (UNFPA) 1 UN Plaza New York NY 10017 USA +1 212 906 5558 Tel.: Fax: +1 212 906 5001 Activities governments of UNDP works with the developing countries to promote policies that protect the rights of the especially women, and help poor, them gain access to financial, social and legal services. As part of its contribution to the UN Inter-Agency Human Campaign on Women’s Regional Bureau for Rights, UNDP’s Latin America and the Caribbean (RBLAC) has developed a website containing information materials from partner agencies including own country offices. UNDP’s Website: www.unifem.undp.org Website: Development United Nations (UNDP) Programme see floor th Street, 15 ). th

his section contains information his section of the major intergov- about some inter- organizations, and ernmental

UNIFEM has made women’s rights UNIFEM has made women’s the centrepiece of its empowerment approach to programming. rights Strategies to support women’s include strengthening the advocacy capacity of national and regional organizations, increasing women’s 304 East 45 Website: www.unicef.org Website: Development United Nations (UNIFEM) Women Fund for Activities UNICEF promotes the equal rights of children and women, guided by the action through CRC and CEDAW, and advocacy programmes at international, regional, national and local level. It works with governmental and non- governmental partners to empower young people with improved life skills and increase their access to health and education facilities. UNICEF is also a member of the Safe Group ( Motherhood Inter-Agency E-mail: [email protected] International and Regional Networks 3 UN Plaza New York NY 10017 USA +1 212 326 7000 Tel.: Fax: +1 212 888 7465 United Nations Children’s United Nations Fund (UNICEF) UNITED NATIONS AND UNITED NATIONS ITS AGENCIES SPECIALIZED T national and regional NGOs working on regional NGOs working national and These to early marriage. issues related to other serve as links contacts should organizations, particularly types of NGOs, professional national and local academic and community organizations, government bod- and other institutes and to the issue of ies, whose work is relevant adolescent health, early marriage and/or and voca- education (formal, non-formal It is advocacy. tional) and human rights comprehensive list- not intended to be a or rank the orga- ing, nor does it prioritize nizations listed.

Activities E-mail: [email protected] Fax: +1 212 906 6705 Tel.: +1 212 906 6400 +1 212 906 6400 Tel.: USA NY 10017 New York New York

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

20 Links Links against Women (CEDAW) in their E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +1 202 477 2256 mandated tasks. Fax: +1 202 522 3234 Website: Activities E-mail: [email protected] www.un.org/womenwatch/daw The ESCAP Population Division issues the quarterly Asia-Pacific Population Activities Journal, focusing on the policy and The World Bank is the word’s largest United Nations programme implications of population source of development assistance, High Commissioner research in the ESCAP region. This providing nearly $16 billion in loans for Human Rights (UNHCHR) refereed professional journal contains annually. Areas of programme OHCHR-UNOG articles, papers and notes that cover a 1211 Geneva 10 cooperation include HIV/AIDS, broad range of population issues of Switzerland poverty reduction, human rights, girls’ interest to readers in the Asia and Tel.: +41 22 917 9000 education, health, nutrition and Pacific region. Fax: +41 22 917 9016 population. The World Bank is also a Website: E-mail: [email protected] member of the Safe Motherhood Inter- www.unescap.org/pop/journal Agency Group (see International and Activities Regional Networks). The Office of the United Nations High Website: www.worldbank.org Commissioner for Human Rights OTHER UN AGENCIES plays the leading role on human The work of a number of other United rights issues, promotes international INTERNATIONAL AND cooperation for human rights, Nations agencies is relevant to REGIONAL NETWORKS undertakes preventive human rights various aspects of the issue of early action and carries out human rights marriage, including the International field activities and operations. Labour Organization (ILO), the Joint Forum on Marriage and the Website: www.unhchr.ch United Nations Programme on Rights of Women and Girls HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), and the United CHANGE Nations High Commissioner for 106 Hatton Square United Nations Population Refugees (UNHCR). For information 16 Baldwins Gardens Division about these organizations, visit their London EC1N 7RJ Department of Economic and Social web sites as follows: UK Affairs ILO: www.ilo.org Tel.: +44 20 7430 0692 United Nations UNAIDS: www.unaids.org Contact: Susan Ramsay 2 UN Plaza, Room DC2-1950 UNHCR: www.unhcr.ch E-mail: [email protected] New York Forum: NY 10017 [email protected] USA OTHER INTERGOVERNMENTAL Tel.: +1 212 963 3179 ORGANIZATIONS Activities Fax: +1 212 963 2147 Founded in 1998, the Forum is the only Pan American Health network of international agencies and Activities NGOs currently focusing specifically on The Population Division is responsible Organization (PAHO) rd the issue of early marriage. The Forum for providing the international 525 23 Street, NW Washington DC 20037 sees marriage as a sphere in which community with current and women and girls have inalienable scientifically objective information on USA Tel.: +1 202 9743458 rights. It aims to improve understanding population and development. It of early and forced marriage and its provides guidance to the UN General Fax: +1 202 9743143 consequences, and to promote efforts to Assembly, Economic and Social E-mail: [email protected] address the practice. It advocates for Council and the Commission on the rights of women and girls including Population and Development on Activities social rights, reproductive and political population and development issues. PAHO, the regional office of WHO in The Division undertakes regular studies Latin America and the Caribbean, rights, the rights to full inheritance and on population trends, estimates, works closely with grassroots and the to choose to marry or not. Forum projections and policies, and population right national organizations on the members share information on models and development interrelationships. issue of women’s and girls’ health in 10 of good practice and carry out joint Website: countries across the region. At the advocacy activities for the greater www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.htm local level, it creates coordinated realization of these rights. community networks including the health and legal systems, churches, The Inter-African Committee United Nations Economic NGOs, and community-based groups. (IAC) on Traditional Practices Innocenti Digest 7 – Commission for Asia At the national level, it strengthens and the Pacific (ESCAP) institutional capacity and promotes Affecting the Health Population and Rural and Urban adoption of legal norms and policies. of Women and Children c/o Economic Commission for Africa Development Division (PRUDD) Website: www.paho.org United Nations Building P.O.Box 3001 Rajdamnern Avenue Addis Ababa Early Marriage Bangkok The World Bank Ethiopia Thailand 1818 H Street NW Tel.: +251 1 51 58 26 Tel.: +66 2 288 1512 Washington DC 20433 Fax: +251 1 51 22 33 Fax +66 2 288 1009 USA E-mail: [email protected] 21 with partner organizations around with partner as child the world on such issues and labour and the trafficking women and enslavement of men, includes an children. The website to other extensive list of links in the field. organizations working Website: www.cwgl.rutgers.edu www.cwgl.rutgers.edu Website: and Development for Centre Activities Population (CEDPA) 1400 16th Street NW Suite 100 DC 20036 Washington USA Website: www.crlp.org Website: Women’s Center for Global Leadership Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey Lane 160 Ryders New Brunswick NJ 08901 USA +1 732 932 8782 Tel.: Fax: +1 732 932 1180 E-mail: [email protected] Activities The Center develops and facilitates leadership for human rights women’s and social justice world-wide, global leadership through women’s institute sessions, strategic planning activities, international mobilization campaigns, UN monitoring, global education endeavours, publications and its resource centre. Website: www.antislavery.org Website: Reproductive Center for (CRLP) and Policy Law Street 120 Wall New York NY 10005 USA 637 3600 (917) Tel.: Fax: (917) 637 3666 E-mail: [email protected] Activities The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy (CRLP) is a legal and policy advocacy organization promoting rights. CRLP’s reproductive women’s domestic and international programmes in litigation, policy analysis, legal research, and public equality in education seek women’s society and their universal access to appropriate reproductive health services. The International Program of the CRLP works in partnership with communities around the world to promote laws and policies that guarantee these rights. INTERNATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL REGIONAL NGOs International Anti-Slavery Thomas Clarkson House The Stableyard Broomgrove Road London SW9 9TL +44 (0) 20 7501 8920 Tel.: Fax: +44 (0) 20 7738 4110 Contact: M. Ouattara E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Activities Anti-Slavery has a comprehensive programme of information gathering, working lobbying and advocacy, Website: www.girlsrights.org Website: Working Groups on Girls (WGGs) Groups Working c/o UNICEF 3 UN Plaza New York NY 10017 USA +1 212 824 394 Tel.: Fax: +1 212 824 6482 E-mail: [email protected] Activities Groups on Girls The Working comprise over 80 international and national NGOs working in more than 100 countries at the grassroots level. Their activities support three main objectives: to build an international network of grassroots NGOs to advocate for girls’ rights; to promote the role of girls as agents of change in their own lives, families, communities and societies; and to urge governments to honour their commitments to girls. WLUML is a network of women WLUML is a network grassroots and working at both the Muslim world to national levels in the contacts share information, knowledge, years since its and data. In the 16 endeavoured to creation, WLUML has the efforts coordinate and encourage of women in Muslim countries to analyse their situation and formulate workable strategies for change. Women Living Under Muslim Living Women sous (WLUML)/ Femmes Laws lois musulmanes solidarity network/ International de solidarité Réseau international 23 Boîte postale 34790 Grabels Montpellier France Activities Website: www.wildaf.org.zw Website: Activities WILDAF promotes and strengthens strategies linking law and development to increased women’s participation at the community, national and international levels. It offers networking opportunities through workshops and seminars, produces publications including a conducts quarterly newsletter, training, provides technical assistance for capacity building and is involved in advocacy at the regional and international levels. 2nd Floor Zambia House Box 4622 Harare Zimbabwe +263 4 751189/752105 Tel.: Fax: +263 4 781886 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.safemotherhood.org Website: and Development in Law Women in Africa (WILDAF) The Safe Motherhood Inter-Agency the UNICEF, Group includes UNFPA, International Confederation of Midwives, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, the International Planned Parenthood Federation, the Population Council, the Regional Prevention of Maternal Mortality Network (Africa), the Safe Motherhood Bank and Network of Nepal, the World WHO. It aims to improve maternal and new-born survival and well- being by promoting and supporting the implementation of cost-effective interventions in the developing world through policy support and dissemination of best practices and other information. Activities Secretariat: Family Care Secretariat: Family International Suite 503 588 Broadway, New York NY 10012 USA 941 5300 +1 212 Tel.: Fax: +1 212 941 5563 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.iac-ciaf.ch Website: Motherhood The Safe Inter-Agency Group Activities of on the elimination IAC focuses practices, harmful traditional female genital mutilation including networking, (FGM) through and advocacy. workshops

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

22 Links Links

Tel.: +1 202 667 1142 Family Care International (FCI) and opportunities, principally in Fax: +1 202 332 4496 588 Broadway, Suite 503 developing and transition countries. New York A current research programme in Activities NY 10012 collaboration with four Indian In cooperation with partners in 128 USA research institutions focuses on rural countries around the world, CEDPA Tel.: +1 212 941 5300 and urban, married and unmarried assists reproductive health Fax: +1 212 941 5563 adolescent girls and boys. sprogrammes, women’s and girls’ E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.icrw.org literacy projects and economic empowerment programmes. The Activities Better Life Options programme International Planned FCI addresses urgent health issues addresses the needs of adolescent Parenthood Federation (IPPF) including sexual and reproductive girls in access to education, Regent’s College health. It works with governments, reproductive health information and Inner Circle, NGOs and international agencies on services and vocational training. Regent’s Park CEDPA’s annual workshop for youth programmes of technical assistance in London NW1 4NS leaders from Africa, Asia, Latin Africa, Asia and Latin America and UK America and Eastern Europe covers promotes advocacy world-wide. The Tel.: +44 (0) 20 7487 7900 such topics as peer-to-peer organization acts as the secretariat for Fax: +44 (0) 20 7487 7950 approaches, gender issues, family the Safe Motherhood Inter-Agency E-mail: [email protected] life education and networking. Group (see International and Website: www.cedpa.org Regional Networks). Activities Website: www.familycareintl.org IPPF is the world’s largest non- governmental organization working in CHANGE: Non-consensual sex the area of sexual and reproductive in marriage programme (NCSM) Alan Guttmacher Institute 120 Wall Street health and rights, including family P.O. Box 18333 planning, through more than 150 London EC1N 7XG New York NY 10005 national Family Planning Associations UK worldwide. IPPF seeks to promote and Tel.: +44 20 7430 0692 USA Tel.: 212 248 1111 defend the right of women, men and Fax: +44 20 7430 0254 young adults to decide the number E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 212 248 1951 E-mail: [email protected] and spacing of their children, and the right to the highest possible level of Activities sexual and reproductive health. It is This worldwide programme, based at Activities also a member of the Safe Motherhood CHANGE, seeks to challenge the AGI’s mission is to protect the Inter-Agency Group (see International widespread reluctance to realize reproductive choices of all women and and Regional Networks). women’s rights within marriage. men in the USA and throughout the NCSM aims to support, inform and world. Its domestic and international Website: www.ippf.org facilitate actions to increase women’s projects and activities aim to foster sexual and reproductive health and self-determination in control over International Women’s Rights rights; promote the prevention of their bodies within marriage. The Action Watch (IWRAW) unintended pregnancies; achieve website contains information on its Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of healthy pregnancies and births; worldwide survey on marriage. Public Affairs secure societal support for parenthood Website: www.ncsm.net at the University of Minnesota and parenting; and promote gender 301 19th Avenue South equality. Minneapolis Empowering Widows Website: www.agi-usa.org in Development MN 55455 36 Faroe Road USA London W14 0EP International Center for Tel.: + 1 612 625 5093 UK Research on Women (ICRW) Fax: + 1 612 624 0068 Tel/Fax: +44 020 7603 9733 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, NW E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Suite 302 Washington DC 20036 Activities Activities USA IWRAW is an international network of Empowering Widows in Tel.: +1 202 797 0007 activities, scholars and organizations Development was founded in 1996 to Fax: +1 202 797 0020 that focus on the advancement of raise awareness and understanding Contact: Kathleen Kurz women’s human rights, and is served of the problems encountered by E-mail: [email protected] by a resource and communications widows in developing countries and E-mail: [email protected] centre based at the University of Innocenti Digest 7 – assist national NGOs that support Minnesota’s Humphrey Institute of widows fighting for their rights. It Activities Public Affairs. This provides technical works in partnership with national The Center gathers information and assistance and research support for and international NGOs and provides technical assistance on women’s human rights projects such intergovernmental organizations and women’s productive and as law reform, policy advocacy and Early Marriage highlights the situation of child reproductive roles in the family and monitoring government performance widows and the children of widows. society and advocates with on international human rights treaties, Website: www.oneworld.org/ governments and multilateral particularly CEDAW. empoweringwidows agencies to advance women’s rights Website: www.igc.org/iwraw 23 Links

International Women’s Rights Alliance and was a founding information about children’s rights to Action Watch Asia Pacific member of the Forum on Marriage promote the CRC and to improve (IWRAW-AP) and the Rights of Women and Girls policy and practice. The website includes bibliographic references, 2nd Floor, Block F, Anjung Felda (see International and Regional Jalan Maktab, off Jalan Semarak Networks). databases, a calendar of events and 54000 Kuala Lumpur Website: links to child-focused sites. Malaysia www.savethechildren.org.uk Tel.: +60 3 291 3292 Fondation du Present (FdP) Fax: +60 3 298 4203 Sisterhood is Global Institute www.fdp.org E-mail: [email protected] (SIGI) FdP supports and manages the 1200 Atwater, Suite 2 GENDER-AIDS forum dedicated to Activities Montreal gender issues in relation to HIV/AIDS. IWRAW-AP is a collaborative QC The forum can be accessed at programme to facilitate and monitor Canada H3Z 1X4 www.hivnet.ch:8000/topics/gender- the implementation of CEDAW, with Tel.: +1 514 846 9366 aids. Postings may be sent to gender- projects in 13 Asian countries. Fax: +1 514 846 9066 [email protected]. Website: E-mail: [email protected] www.womenasia.com/iwraw The Global Reproductive Activities SIGI is an international NGO Health Forum South Asia Population Council www.hsph.harvard.edu/grhf/SAsia/ dedicated to the support and New York Headquarters forums promotion of women’s rights. With Population Council The Forum’s website at Harvard members in 70 countries and a One Dag Hammarskjold Plaza provides access to current research network of more than 1,300 New York originating from South Asian individuals and organizations world- NY 10017 organizations and universities with wide, SIGI works to empower women USA annotated bibliographies, listings of Tel.: +1 212 339 0500 and develop leadership through relevant organizations and other Fax: +1 212 755 6052 human rights education. resources as well as a discussion site. E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.sigi.org Issues covered include child marriage, the girl child and dowry. Activities Womankind Worldwide The Council focuses on research on a Viking House broad range of population issues - rd Human Rights Web 3 Floor www.hrweb.org demographic studies, research, 5-11 Worship Street technical assistance and the Human Rights Web contains an London EC2A 2BH extensive range of resources on development of new contraceptives. Tel.: +44 (0) 20 7588 6096 In addition, it helps to improve the human rights including newsgroups, Fax: +44 (0) 20 7588 6101 mailing lists and links to research capacity of reproductive E-mail: [email protected] and population scientists in international, regional and national organizations working in the field. developing countries through grants, Activities fellowships, and support for research Womankind Worldwide supports centres. The Population Council is grassroots programmes in Africa and Project Diana also particularly concerned with the Latin America in such areas as http://diana.law.yale.edu reproductive health and well-being health and gender relations within An international archive of human of the one billion adolescents in the the household, violence against rights legal documentation, developing world. women, income generation and maintained at Yale Law School Website: www.popcouncil.org microcredit. It also supports the under the guidance of the Orville H. Western Cape Network in South Schell, Jr. Center for International Save the Children Fund (UK) Africa. Human Rights. 17 Grove Lane Website: www.womankind.org.uk London SE5 8RD Qweb Sweden: A Women’s UK ADDITIONAL WEB RESOURCES Empowerment Base Tel.: +44 (0) 20 7703 5400 www.qweb.kvinnoforum.se Fax: +44 (0) 20 7703 2278 A global communication network for Contact: M. Thomson AVIVA the exchange of knowledge, E-mail: [email protected] www.aviva.org experience and ideas on women’s E-mail: [email protected] AVIVA provides website facilities with health and gender studies. Issues Innocenti Digest 7 – a free listings service for women’s covered include society and women’s Activities groups to promote worldwide health, adolescents and the SCF works in 70 countries, networking. trafficking of women and girls conducting research on children’s issues, supporting practical projects Early Marriage that involve children and their CRIN - Child Rights families and advocating for changes Information Network to benefit children both at home and www.crin.org overseas. SCF is a member of the CRIN is a global network of 24 International Save the Children organizations exchanging Information sources

References 22 Westoff, Charles F. (1992), ‘Age at Marriage, Age at First Birth, and Fertility in Africa’, World Bank Technical Paper No. 169, The World Note on the data: The sources include data on marriage published by Bank, Washington DC. the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, notably the World 23 Alan Guttmacher Institute (1998), Into a New World: Young Women’s Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, and The World’s Women, a volume Sexual and Reproductive Lives, New York. of trends and statistics which has been published in 1990, 1995 and 24 World Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, UN Department of 2000. Another wallchart, Reproductive Rights 2000, published jointly by Economic and Social Affairs the International Planned Parenthood Foundation (IPPF) and the 25 Statistics from UN sources quoted in a UNICEF WCARO Meeting of International Women’s Rights Action Watch (IWRAW), has also been a Gender Focal Points, February 1998. useful synthesized source, as have country-based Demographic and 26 Bledsoe, Caroline H. and Barney Cohen, eds. (1993), Social Health Surveys (DHS). However, some individual country and smaller- Dynamics of Adolescent Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa, National scale studies give figures which sometimes appear inconsistent with Academy Press, Washington DC. the synthesis compendia; for example, on the average age of marriage 27 World Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, UN Department of in a certain country. 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Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2. 29 Learning from Experience, SCF UK, www.savethechildren.org. 1 Saxena, Shobha (1999), ‘Who Cares for Child Marriages?’ Pioneer, uk/development/lfe/girlsrights.pdf 29/1/99: www.hsph.harvard.edu/grhf/Sasia/forums/childmar 30 ‘Demographers Appeal for Solution to Early Marriage and Early 2 Assani, Aliou (2000), Etude sur les mariages précoces et grossesses Childbearing’ in China Population Today 1991, Oct; 8(5): 3-4. précoces au Burkina-Faso, Cameroun, Gambie, Liberia, Niger et 31 UNICEF Amman (1995), ‘Ending Gender Disparities in the Arab Tchad, UNICEF WCARO, Abidjan. World: A Profile on the Situation of Girls in the Region’. 3 The World Bank (1999), Albania: Filling the Vulnerability Gap. World 32 El-Hamamsy, Laila Shukry (1994), Early Marriage and Reproduction Bank, Washington DC in Two Egyptian Villages, The Population Council/UNFPA, New York. 4 Nair, Janaki (1995), ‘Prohibited Marriage: State Protection and Child 33 Westoff, Charles, F., Ann K. Blanc and Laura Nyblade (1994), Wife’, contribution to Indian Sociology, January-December 1995 ‘Marriage and Entry into Parenthood’, DHS Comparative Studies No. 5 Macfarlane, Alan (1986), Marriage and Love in England: Modes of 10, Calverton, M.D.: Macro International Inc. Reproduction 1300-1840, Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd. 34 DHS surveys, CESDEM: Poblacion y Sociedad, Ano III, no. 17, Sept- 6 Adlakha, Arjun, Mohamed Ayad, and Sushil Kumar (1991), ‘The Role Oct 1997 of Nuptuality in Fertility Decline: A Comparative Analysis’. In 35 World Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, UN Department of Proceedings of the Demographic and Health Surveys World Economic and Social Affairs Conference, Washington DC, 1991, Vol 2. Columbia, Maryland: 36 Deprivation and Discrimination: Children of Minorities (1995), IRD/Macro International, quoted in Westoff, Charles, F., Ann K. 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(2000) Early Marriage: Whose Right to Choose? Forum on Marriage 52 Black, Maggie (2000), Growing Up Alone: The Hidden Cost of Early Marriage and the Rights of Women and Children, London. Poverty, UNICEF UK. 21 ‘Final Report on National Baseline Survey of Positive and Harmful 53 World Vision International (1996), ‘The Effects of Armed Conflict on Traditional Practices Affecting Women and Girls in Nigeria’ (1998), Girls’, A Discussion Paper prepared for ‘The Impact of Armed Centre for Gender and Social Policy Studies, Obafemi Awolowo Conflict on Children’, Report of Graça Macel, Expert of the University, Ile-Ife. Secretary-General of the United Nations. See also: Black, Maggie 25 , Anti- Women’s , Servile Marriage: A Pioneer Vol. 12 no. Vol. Progress of , Anti-Slavery International, , London Race and Housing Center for Reproductive Law in , l’Afrique fran- , Etude sur les mariages précoces et , Vol. 6, No. 3, Oxfam. , Vol. , Anti-Slavery International, London. Servile Marriage: A Definition, a Survey, and Servile Marriage: A Definition, a Survey, Asia Pacific Journal , Zed Books, London, 1996. In Focus – Reaching Newlywed UNICEF WCARO, Abidjan; Romania: The Hidden Struggle , July 1999. quoted in: Outtara, Mariam, Purna Sen and Gender and Development A World of Widows A World Rights in Romania: A Shadow Report, Slavery International, London. the Practices Affecting Committee on Traditional to the Inter-African and Children, Addis Abeba. Health of Women and Policy and the Society for Feminist Analysis (AnA), Bucharest; and Policy and the Society for Feminist Analysis Adolescent Girls: other countries: Bruce, Judith (2000), ‘Married Numerous but Unknown’, Presentation for Beijing+5. Population Council 2000. 9 September, Times, Pregnancies’, article in the New York cation, October 2000 Debbie (1993), Taylor, Government of Pakistan, 1989; quoted in: and the Start of a Servile Marriage: A Definition, a Survey, Campaign for Change the Start of a Campaign for Change London. Debbie (1993), Research Unit, quoted in: Taylor, for Change and the Start of a Campaign Definition, a Survey, Children’s Rights; the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Rights; the 1990 African Charter on Children’s of the Child (Art. 21); the Committee on the Rights of the Welfare 27-28, para 97, 1996); the 1986 Report of the Child (CRC/C/58, pp Practices Affecting the Health of on Traditional Group Working of Children; the Subcommission on Prevention and Women of Minorities of the Commission on Discrimination and Protection of Nigeria in its Initial Report on the Human Rights; the Government of the Child; and the Government of Niger Convention on the Rights the Subcommission on Prevention of in its 1996 report to of Minorities of the Commission on Discrimination and Protection Human Rights. Programme (NCSM), London 18 June 1997. Child; Algeria; CRC/C/15/Add.76, Gambie, Liberia, grossesses précoces au Burkina-Faso, Cameroun, Niger et Tchad, A Basket of Resources: Women’s Resistance to Domestic A Basket of Resources: Women’s 90 Berhane-Selassie, Tsehai (1993), ‘Early Marriage in Ethiopia’, Report Berhane-Selassie, Tsehai 90 91 85 Ayres, B. Drummond (2000), ‘Marriage Advised in Some Youth B. Drummond (2000), ‘Marriage Ayres, 85 communi- UNICEF Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, personal 86 of the Pakistan Commission on the Status of Women’, ‘Report 87 Debbie (1993), Taylor, 88 Mama, A (1989), 89 81 the First Regional Convention on These international bodies include: Sex in Marrage Newsetter (2000), Non-Consensual Change 82 Committee on the Rights of the Concluding Observations of the 83 Africa: Assani, Aliou (2000), 84 West New York. . 1996, UNICEF, New York. New York. 1996, UNICEF, , The Population Council, New York. , The Population Council, New York. , The The Uncharted Passage: Girls’ Adolescence in the Developing World Maco International, Inc. reported in and Married Adolescents Adolescents in the ESCAP Region’, 3, 1997. New Development (Cairo, 5-13 September 1994) A/Conf/171/13:Report of the ICPD (18/10/94). Practices Affecting the Committee on Traditional to the Inter-African and Children, Addis Abeba. Health of Women Programme (NCSM), London The Uncharted Passage: Girls’ Adolescence in the Developing World Nations Violence in Calcutta, Violence Marilyn Thomson (1998), ‘Forced Marriage, Forced Sex: the Perils of Childhood for Girls’, cophone’ Saxena, Shobha (1999), ‘Who Cares for Child Marriages?’ Saxena, Shobha (1999), ‘Who Cares for Child 29/1/99: www.hsph.harvard.edu/grhf/Sasia/forums/childmar Centre pour le droit et les politiques en matière de santé et de reproduction (CRLP) and Groupe de recherche femmes et lois au Sénégal (GREFELS) (1999), ‘Les femmes à travers le monde: lois et politiques qui influencent leur vie reproductive . 92 Owen, Margaret, Report of the International Conference on Population and 93 (1993), ‘Early Marriage in Ethiopia’, Report Berhane-Selassie, Tsehai 94 95 Change Newsetter (2000), Non-Consensual Sex in Marrage 96 Mensch, Barbara S., Judith Bruce and Margaret S. Greene (1998), 97 98 Sen, P (1997), Adamson, Peter (1996), ‘A Failure of Imagination’ 99 S., Judith Bruce and Margaret S. Greene (1998), Mensch, Barbara 100 102 Jones, Gavin W., ‘Population Dynamics and Their Impact on Jones, Gavin W., 102 101 Demographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey 1997: Yemen, War: The War: , Academic , Academic , Academic , in People and the People and BBC News Report, in Forum on Marriage UN Department of UN Department of , , Minority Rights Group, International Planned International Planned The Timing of Marriage The Timing UNICEF Dhaka. l’Afrique francophone’ , Vol 31, 1 , Vol , , Zed Books, London; also Kabir, , Zed Books, , 29 (1-2). (1998), NGOs Report from the Field on Report from the Field (1998), NGOs Minority Children of Somalia Theory of Fertility Decline, Population and Theory of Fertility Decline, Population and Theory of Fertility Decline, Population and , Anti-Slavery International, London. , Vol. IV No. 4-5, Oct-Dec 1993, Child Labour IV No. , Vol. (1997), A Human Rights Watch and Amnesty and Watch (1997), A Human Rights Kenya Tackles Wife Beaters, Wife Kenya Tackles (28/06/2000). CRC/C/15/Add.130. A World of Widows A World , UNICEF, 1998, New York-Geneva, p11 1998, New York-Geneva, , UNICEF, p11 1998, New York-Geneva, , UNICEF, Journal of Population Studies Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights Adolescent Girls in Bangladesh, Adolescent Girls in Bangladesh, Early Marriage: Whose Right to Choose? , vol 7, no 3, London. , vol 7, no 3, Social Structure: Advances in Historical Demography Social Structure: Advances in Historical Demography Government of Pakistan, 1989; quoted in: Taylor, Debbie (1993), Taylor, Government of Pakistan, 1989; quoted in: and the Start of a Servile Marriage: A Definition, a Survey, Campaign for Change and Children’, Fact Sheet no. 23. Affecting the Health of Women Geneva. Reproductive Rights 2000 Wallchart, Practices Affecting the Committee on Traditional to the Inter-African and Children, Addis Abeba. Health of Women Impact on Minority and Indigenous Children Impact on Minority and UK. India. Vellore, Christian Medical College, 3 November 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk, Press, London. Press, London.. and Children, London. and the Rights of Women Rights Parenthood Foundation (IPPF) and International Women’s Minnesota. (IWRAW), Action Watch Rights Bulletin Child’s Action Network (CLAN), New Delhi. of the Child of the Child Sheikh Mohamed, (1997), Sheikh Mohamed, (1997), International Report. The Scars of Death: Children Abducted by the Lord’s Resistance Abducted by the Lord’s The Scars of Death: Children Army in Uganda Abstinence in Determining Fertility: A Study of the Yoruba in Fertility: A Study of the Yoruba Abstinence in Determining Nigeria’, R (1998) Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Concluding Observations of the Committee Child: Suriname. York. World Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, Marriage Patterns 2000 Wallchart, World Reproductive Rights 2000 Wallchart, Reproductive Rights 2000 Wallchart, Wallchart, Marriage Patterns 2000 World Public Health Models and the Child Marriage Act of 1929’, Contributions to Indian Sociology Economic and Social Affairs Rights Women’s Parenthood Foundation (IPPF) and International Minnesota. (IWRAW), Action Watch Economic and Social Affairs Ministry of Home Affairs on website: www.hsph.harvard.edu/grhf /Sasia/resources/childmar/statistics.html (2000), Social Structure: Advances in Historical Demography duction (CRLP) and Groupe de recherche femmes et lois au Sénégal duction (CRLP) and Groupe de recherche femmes lois et politiques (GREFELS) (1999), ‘Les femmes à travers le monde: qui influencent leur vie reproductive Press, London. Clearing a Path for Girls Clearing a Progress since the fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing. on Women, Conference the fourth World Progress since Geneva. and Girls, New York Group on NGO Working Planet (1998) ‘Girls and War: An Extra Vulnerability’ An and War: (1998) ‘Girls ‘A Choice by Right: The Report of the Working Group on Forced ‘A Choice by Right: The Report of the Working www.homeoffice.gov.uk Marriage’ (2000), UK Government, Home Office; 60 Richard, J. and P.S.S. Sundar Rao (1999), Richard, J. and P.S.S. 60 61 Muthengi, Alice, Commission on the Status of Women’, ‘Report of the Pakistan 62 Caldwell, John C., (1982), 63 Caldwell, John C., (1982), 64 65 Practices Traditional UN Centre for Human Rights (1995), ‘Harmful 75 76 Farooq, Omer (1993), ‘Why Arabs Marry Hyderabadi Girls’ in 77 (1993) ‘Early Marriage in Ethiopia’, Report Berhane-Selassie, Tsehai 78 in 79 Cited 80 Cited in 80 Cited 59 Stockman, Lorne and Catherine Barnes with Mohamed Hamus Stockman, Lorne and Catherine 59 58 57 Caldwell, John C. and Pat Caldwell (1977), ‘Role of Marital Sexual Caldwell, John C. and 57 68 69 70 71 Whitehead, Judy (1995), ‘Modernizing the Motherhood Archetype: 72 73 ‘Crime in India 1996, 1997 and 1998’, National Crime Records Bureau, quoted in Somerset, Carron IAC Newsletter No. 15, December 1993. 74 67 en matière de santé et de repro- Centre pour le droit et les politiques 66 Caldwell, John C., (1982), 66 55 Pourzand, Niloufar (2000), UNICEF Kabul, personal communication. Niloufar (2000), UNICEF Pourzand, 55 M (1996), Owen, 56 54

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26 Information sources Information Information sources

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Progress Of Nations 1998, UNICEF New York. 128 Early Marriage in Nigeria, in ‘Final Report on National Baseline 156 Angarita, Ana and OJ Sikes. ‘Review and Analysis of Survey of Positive and Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting Premarital/Newlywed Education Activities in Mexico, Indonesia Innocenti Digest 7 – Women and Girls in Nigeria’ (1998), Centre for Gender and Social and the Philippines’, UNFPA (1990), Review and Analysis of Policy Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Premarital/Newlywed Education Activities, The Population 129 Change Newsetter (2000), Non-Consensual Sex in Marrage Council, 1987. Programme (NCSM), London 157 ‘A Choice by Right: The Report of the Working Group on Forced

130 Rocha, Lola, M.C. Gomes and A. Acosta (1990), ‘Consolidating Marriage’ (2000), UK Government, Home Office; www.homeof- Early Marriage Income-Generating Projects for Women’, UNICEF Programme fice.gov.uk Division, New York; quoted in Maggie Black (1996), Children First, OUP and UNICEF. 27 IGESTS D Bernard & Co, Siena - Italy Child bride. W. Nepal © Peter Barker; Panos Pictures, London Nepal Child bride. W.

NNOCENTI Miller, Craig & Cocking, Oxfordshire - UK Miller,

I Arti Italy Siena - Grafiche Ticci,

Ombudswork for Children Children and Violence Juvenile Justice Intercountry Adoption Child Domestic Work and Girls against Women Domestic Violence Angela Hawke

With special thanks to Nafis Sadik, Executive Director, UNFPA. The Centre is particu- UNFPA. Executive Director, special thanks to Nafis Sadik, With of international experts who attended the This Digest has also benefited from the input guidance of Nigel Cantwell and Maryam The Digest Series is prepared under the overall for his overall support, and to Claire Special thanks are also due to Michael Miller, Previous Digests have addressed: these and other publications, please visit the For further information and to download contact [email protected] order publications, To This issue of the Innocenti Digest was prepared principally by Maggie Black, Consultant Digest was prepared principally by Maggie This issue of the Innocenti Extracts from this publication may be freely reproduced, provided that due acknowledgement is given to the Extracts from this publication may be freely reproduced, provided that due acknowledgement is given to HE to the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, with the assistance of researchers Victoria Research Centre, with the assistance to the UNICEF Innocenti New York. Nicolette Moodie, Consultant, UNICEF Haeri, Consultant, and and Girls for its support on Marriage and the Rights of Women larly grateful to the Forum and to the many UNICEF Country Offices who throughout the preparation of this Digest, thanks are also due to Srilakshmi Gururaja and provided information and advice. Grateful and of UNICEF Abidjan Flora Sibander-Mulder Marilen Danguilen of UNICEF New York, Oscar Sikes of UNFPA. the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Consultation on Early Marriage held at H. Clark, Caroline den Dulk, Wesley Kiran Bhatia, 2000: Gladys Acosta Vargas, October, Kate Fatma Khafagy, Snehendu Kar, Kapoor, Muhammad Ibrahim, Koto Kanno, Sushma Lifanda and Catherine Mbengue. Farzanegan. for the Digests. Akehurst, who provides administrative support website at www.unicef-icdc.org The UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence, Italy, was established in 1988 to was established Italy, Centre in Florence, Innocenti Research The UNICEF and Fund (UNICEF) Children’s of the United Nations the research capability strengthen (formally known as the for children worldwide. The Centre to support its advocacy research current and futu- Centre) helps to identify and International Child Development understanding prime objectives are to improve international work. Its re areas of UNICEF’s of the rights and to help facilitate the full implementaion children’s of issues relating to industrialized and develo- on the Rights of the Child in both United Nations Convention to provide reliable and Digests are produced by the Centre ping countries. The Innocenti on specific child rights issues. accessible information T Printed by March 2001 Editor: Cover design: Layout and phototypesetting: Front cover picture: source and to UNICEF. We invite comments on the content and layout of the Digest and suggestions on how it We source and to UNICEF. could be improved as an information tool. The Centre’s publications are contributions to a global debate on child rights issues and include a wide range of The Centre’s or opinions. For that reason, the Centre may produce publications that do not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies in order approaches on some topics. The views expressed are those of the authors and are published by the Centre to stimulate further dialogue on child rights.

Early Marriage Innocenti Digest 7 –

28 Clipboard INNOCENTI DIGEST

No.7 - March 2001

EARLY MARRIAGE: CHILD SPOUSES EARLY This Digest focuses on early marriage – the marriage of children and young people under the age of 18 – from a human rights per- spective. Research into early marriage has tended to concentrate only on specific aspects of its impact such as the effects on repro- MARRIAGE ductive health and school drop-out. There has been little exami- nation of the practice as a child rights violation in itself. The Digest examines the extent of early marriage, its context, causes and its impact on every aspect of the lives of those affected – par- ticularly young girls – and on wider society. It outlines strategies to help those who have been married at an early age, and for the pre- CHILD SPOUSES vention of early marriage through education, advocacy and alliance-building. The Digest concludes with a call for more rights- based research on an issue that has far-reaching consequences. OVERVIEW HOW COMMON IS EARLY MARRIAGE? EARLY MARRIAGE: THE CAUSES AND CONTEXT THE IMPACT OF EARLY MARRIAGE TAKING ACTION THE NEED FOR RESEARCH IN CONCLUSION LINKS REFERENCES

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