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Appendix

New in ' Tale of &

In the foregoing discussion, I have divided subplots into the two categories of fictive and factual performances, In this appendix I intend to show the affinities of Apuleius' tale of Cupid & P!Jche with New Comedy plots. My selection of Apuleius' comic novel, the Melamoprhoses may seem arbitrary, but in fact it is only meant as an example of a theatrical reading in genres related to or showing a strong influence from New Comedy. The connection of the Apuleian novel with the genre of New Comedy in tum allows us to consider the old woman's tale of Cupid & Psyd» asfabula, «comedy,» intended as her literary response to the young bride's tale of her abduction by the robbers on her wedding night, which Charite explicitly defines as scaena, «tragedy» (scaenam meae calamitatis 4.26: 94.20-21).

* * * In the Cupid & Psyche tale (Apuleius Mel. 6.22: 145.1) the young god Cupid goes to to seek his help because he fears the intensity of his mother ' wrath. Jupiter reproaches Cupid for inflicting passion in him and thus forcing him to assume various disguises (snake, flame, swan, and bull), in order to seduce his victims and satisfy his lust. Jupiter, however, promises to help Cupid in his present difficulty, but demands repayment for this services, namely that the next beautiful girlon earth should be his. Cupid, then, who in the tale's first part takes on the appearance of an invisible husband and unites with Psyche in his palace, disobeying his mother's order to punish her severely, can be seen in the same light as Jupiter who assumes several appearances, undignified as he admits, and then violates moral laws, in particular the Lex Julia de adulleriis coercendis. Thus Cupid's appearance as an invisible husband in Cupid & P!Jche can be seen to mirror Jupiter's taking on different guises to seduce his victims and therefore suggests Cupid's assumption ofthe role ofa lover in New Comedy. 146 Plots and Subplots

In the tale Cupid disobeys his mother Venus' order to punish her rival in beauty, Psyche, and unites with the latter in the mountain retreat without allowing her to see him. Cupid's withholding his appearance from Psyche can be interpreted as a theatrical mask designed to conceal his secret union in the mountain palace and thus avoid his mother's wrath for going against her wishes. Cupid treats his union with Psyche simply as wedlock, despite the fact that Roman wedding formalities have not been observed.Ft In theatrical terms, Cupid acts as an improviser within a script his mother Venus imposes on him in order to punish her rival. Psyche's sisters, who construct a fictive scheme to break up Psyche's marriage to the god and enact it in staged terms, counter-theatricalize Cupid's ruse, exposing the illusion of his improvised drama and therefore revealing its affiliation to New Comedy plots. This exposure puts an end to Psyche's felicity and further provokes Venus' wrath towards her son for disobeying her orders and uniting with her rival. The angry Venus attempts to take control of the situation by punishing Psyche herself but she fails miserably, because Cupid takes on the role ofimproviser and undermines his mother's plans. In the simultaneous enactment of the two subplots, Psyche carries out all of Venus' harsh tasks, obeying to the instructions of Cupid's agents, in a way which contrasts with her earlier disobedience to Cupid's warnings not to penetrate his forbidden identity. Thus Venus fails to «rewrite» Cupid's plot. The only lover who sympathizes with Psyche's sorrow and comes to her aid is Venus' son Cupid. Jupiter'S intervention at the end resolves the tension between mother and son. The supreme god immortalizes Psyche and thus enables the marriage of the couple to take place at the end of the tale.176 Clearly,Jupiter's intervention bears similarities to the appearance of a deus ex macbina in a Euripidean-style play.!" The supreme god makes Psyche immortal and overcomes Venus ' objections regarding the inequality of the couple. In the archetypal pattern of New Comedy plots, Psyche's may be seen in relationship with the convention of anagnorisis. The adulescentes of New Comedy plots can formally marry the girls they , when their citizenship credentials are firmly established. In her attempt to terminate the union between the immortal Cupid and the mortal Psyche Venus appears as a champion of law and order in contrast to the male gods: Jupiter admits to breaking (moral) laws, while Cupid disobeys his mother's orders and then treats his union with Psyche at the palace as

175 Kenney 1990, 203. 176 See Konstan 1993, 139-144, for a lucid and clear-cut distinction between wives and courtesans in Menander and New Comedy in general. 177 S.J. Harrison draws to my attention a similarity with Eur. Andr. 1246 and the command to marry. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & P!Jche 147 wedlock. Venus' other objection to the wedding regarding the issue of beauty is overcome when Psyche succeeds in bringing her the box of 's divine ointment from the underworld, and fulfills the last of Venus' tasks demanded of her. The tale concludes with the account of the wedding in the divine theatre on Mount Olympus mirroring the archetypal pattern of New Comedy plots which often end with marriage, acknowledgement of children, and sons reconciled to irate fathers. Scholars often direct attention to the presence of comic elements in Cupid & PsycheP8 The tale's association with New Comedy plots, however, remains to be explored. In what follows I intend to demonstrate this affiliation by examining the various schemes which characters construct like scriptwriters and improvisors and then attempt to impose as authoritative within the tale. Jupiter resolves the tension that is created from this interplay of subplots. He legalizes Cupid's drama and thus clears the way for the divine marriage in a way comparable to comic plays that end in a wedding. The performance of Cupid's subplot emerges triumphant because it falls within acceptable codes of behavior as a young and unmarried adult.

178 Walsh 1970, 198-199, divides the tale's action into five Acts, thus offering a structural scheme for the tale that is akin to drama: Act 1 IraVeneris 4.28-35;Act 2Amor Cupidinis 5.1-24; Act 3 Psyd» errant 5.25-6.8; Act 4 Psyd» apud Venem» 6.8-21; Act 5 Felix Coniugium 6.21-24. Walsh's tragic scheme was criticized by Stabryla 1973, 266, on the grounds that there is no literary catastrophe here and that the action progresses throughout «with pretty much the same emotional tension» Kenney 1990, 24, adopts Walsh's division into five acts with some alterations in the titles. Schiesaro 1988, 143-148 examines the tale's relatively autonomous opening in relation to tragic models. The presence of comic elements in the tale is well documented . Winkler 1985, 200-202, traces the presence of Plautine motifs in the prologue to the . See now Harrison 1996,510. Schlam 1992,40-47 devotes a chapter to the comic elements observed throughout the novel. More recently, Konstan 1994, 137-138 makes an extremely interesting observation with regard to the tale's comic substratum, but does not develop it in greater detail (similarcomments in Konstan 1994,135, note 81): «[upiter obliges, and reconciles Venus to the marriage of the pair, as in the early stages of the affair between Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe, whose families are hostile to the union, or of that between Clitopho and Leucippe in Achilles Tatius's novel, though the conversion of the parent as blocking figure in the denouement of the drama, like Venus's overriding concern with the inferior status of Psyche, is more in the spiritofNewCometfy» [emphasis is mine). 148 Plots and Subplots

METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

First, some words about methodology are in order. In the prose of the novel the use of such terms as drama and counter-drama may be considered far-fetched. My use of the term performance is closer to sociolinguists who employ the term «narrative performance» to describe a type of particularly involved and dramatized narrative. As Toolan observes.F? «To perform a story is to furnish one's addressees with a more vivid and involving experience of that story, while exploiting special performance features as resources for highlighting the story's mainpoint» There are a number of reasons that warrant the tale's interpretation from a theatrical perspective: (1) the presence of vocabulary that is associated with theatre; (2) the comic theme of the young Cupid, falling in love and meeting the opposition of his angry mother, which brings to mind the stereotypical development of New Comedy plots where the adulescentes fall in love and meet the opposition of their harsh fathers; (3) the fabrication and enactment of deceptive schemes, which in their original setting of New Comedy are carried out as plqys within the plqy; and (4) the organization of the tale's discourse in terms of«dramatic programs» (DIP), coined after Greimas' «narrative programs» (NIP), which in the development of the action are undermined and/or turned into their opposites.ISO All these reasons encourage the reading of Cupid& Psyche as a regular New Comedy plot recast into prose. My use of such terms as drama, theatre and counter-drama is meant to be understood metaphorically. In this metaphorical sense it can be reasonably argued that various characters take on roles that are not actually their own and construct schemes, attempting to impose them onto the tale's narrative and thereby alter its development.

CUPID AS COMIC LOVER

Cupid's assumption of the role of comic lover best emerges from his farewell address to his wife Psyche after she has disobeyed his orders and disclosed his forbidden appearance (5.24: 122.1-12):

179 Toolan 1991, 166, and further bibliography there. 180 Greimas 1990, 45-6. According to Greimas «a polemical structure (here, of course, the term is not accompanied by any value judgement) itself takes two forms (ultimately to be combined). Sometimes it represents a syntagrnaticdoubling of the cognitive discourse, presenting, in succession, the story of a failure, then the story of success» (p. 45). For a fruitful analysis of Aeschylus' Agamemnon from the perspective of Greimas' «narrative programs» (NIP) see Philippides 1984. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & P{Yche 149

«ego quidem, simplicissima Psyche, parentis meae Veneris praeceptoIUtn immemor, quae te miseri extremique hominis devinctam cupidine infimo matrimonio addici iusserat, ipse potius amator advolavi tibi. sed hoc feci leviter, scio, et praeclarus ille sagittarius ipse me telo mea percussi teque coniugem meam feci, ut bestia scilicet tibi viderer et ferro caput excideres meum, quod istos arnatores tuos oculos gerit. haec tibi identidem semper cavenda censebam, haec benivole remonebam. sed illae quidem consiliatrices egregiae tuae tam perniciosi magisterii dabunt actutum rnihi poenas, te vero tantum fuga mea punivero,» In this lengthy passage Cupid expresses his regret for taking lightly his mother's orders to punish Psyche by instilling in her a passion for the worst of mankind. Instead, Cupid saw the lovely Psyche and turned his arrows against himself, an act which led to his own enamourment. The actual description of Cupid's wounding is not presented in the text. This absence ofdetails involving Cupid's self-imposed wound is taken by scholars as evidence for Apuleius' stitching together two different stories.P! I depart, however, from this view and interpret the suppression of detail as indicating action that has taken place off-stage and subsequently led to Cupid's assuming the persona of an invisible husband. In this respect, then, Cupid can be said to have conned a theatrical mask. Although the details of Cupid's self-inflicted wound are not presented in the text, the audience can visualize this experience from the account of Psyche's own self-inflicted wound with the god's arrows upon her disclosure of his forbidden appearance, given the thematic connections between them. With this self-imposed wound Cupid has kindled his own passion for his mother's rival.182 His regret becomes stronger in light of the fact that his wife has thought of him as a beast and then attempted to kill him. The turning of the god's arrows against himself belongs to the nonscripted elements ofVenus' orders to him.Tn his speech to his wife, then, Cupid presents details that can be imagined to have taken place off-stage and subsequently led to his improvisation of his mother's script. Struck by the extraordinary beauty of Psyche, Cupid forgets his mother's orders and wounds himself, thereby taking on the role of a regular lover in New Comedy plots. The absence of any mortal suitor seeking Psyche in marriage, after Venus ' explicit orders to her son to inspire in her rival love for the worst of mankind, is the most obvious indication of Cupid's undermining Venus' subplot and his attempt to impose his own improvised «act» onto the tale's action: nee quisquam, non rex, non regius, nee de plebe saltem cupiens eius nuptiarum petitor accedit (4.32:100.5-7). Cupid then takes Psyche to his mountain retreat as his wife, but does not disclose his appearance to her.

181 Konstan 1994, 135. 182 James 1988, 118. 150 Plots and Subplots

In the context of this proposed interpretation, then, the mountain estate functions as an inner stage where the performances of Cupid's improvised subplot and the rival subplot of Psyche's sisters take place. The theatrical dimension in the description of Cupid's palace is emphasised by the repeated use of verbs that direct attention to seeing which is at the heart of the theatrical experience: videt (5.1: 103.10; 11); videre (5.1: 103.15); videatur (5.1: 104.11); visionis (5.2: 104.15) ; conspicit (5.2: 105.17); and visenti (5.2: 104.21). The theatrical dimension of Cupid's affair with Psyche also becomes clear later, at 5.31: 128.3-4, where Venus refers to the union at the mountain estate with the literary term fabula, which, in addition to meaning «tale,» is also the tecbnicus terminus for a play.183 Cupid then takes on the role of an auctor from his mother, «rewriting»her subplot and then acting it out according to his own will. The exposure of Cupid's drama redefines his assumption of an invisible identity as a kind ofpersona, and the interlude at the mountain retreat as a form of adultery: montana scortatu (5.28: 125.15). The disparity in status between the immortal Cupid and the mortal Psyche and the marked absence of the usual formalities attending Roman weddings support the interpretation of the union at the mountain palace as adultery. Furthermore, marriage as a social institution demands parental consent. These reasons may explain why Cupid decides to conceal his identity from Psyche preventing her from seeing his face. With the exposure of his invisible identity Cupid tells Psyche that he will punish her sisters for their evil advice to penetrate his «mask,» Cupid punishes Psyche by simply flying away from her. The breaking of the illusion of Cupid's improvised subplot re-establishes the «reality» of events, as presented before Cupid's assumption of the persona ofan invisible husband.

THE FABRICATION OF THE SISTERS' FAUACL4

The dramatic illusion ofCupid's act is dispelled upon the sisters' third visit to his palace. On earth, the illusion of Psyche's marriage to a beast is firmly established. The sisters can be viewed as posing a serious threat to Cupid's drama. They are the only human characters who come in contact with Psyche at the mountain retreat after her exposure by her parents at the rock to be carried away by her unknown husband. On the occasion of Psyche's wedding a day of public mourning is declared in the town, due to the townsfolk's misguided impression that Psyche is wedded to the beast ofApollo's oracle: «sic adfectae domus triste ]atum cuncta etiam civitas congemebat luctuque publico conJestim congruens edicitur iustitium»

183 OLD, s.v.fabula 3,6. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & Psyche 151

(4.33: 101.14-16). In the procession to the rock Psyche courageously addresses her grieving parents (4.34: 101.25-102.14): «Quid infelicemsenectam fletu diutino crociatis? quid spiritum vestrum, qui magis meus est, crebris eiulatibus fatigatis? quid lacrimis inefficacibus ora mihi veneranda foedatis? quid laceratis in vestris oculis mea lumina? quid canitiemscinditis? quid pectora, quid ubera sancta tunditis? haec erunt vobis egregiae formonsitatis meae praeclarapraemia. Invidiae nefariae letali plaga percussi sero sentitis. cum gentes et populi celebrarent nos divinis honoribus, cum novam me Venerem ore consono nuncuparent, tunc dolere, tunc flere, tunc me iam quasi peremptam lugere debuistsis. iam sentio, iam video solo me nomine Venerisperisse.ducite me et cui sors addixitscopulo sistite. festino felices istas nuptias obire, festino generosum ilium maritum meum videre, quid differo, quid detrecto venientem, qui totius orbis exitio natus est?» In these lines, Psyche shows her strength as she tries to dispel her parents' sorrow as well as indicates that she detects Venus' hand in her present misery. Her entire speech also reveals the triumph of illusion as created by in his oracle that Psyche is going to be wedded to a beast-husband. After Psyche's exposure at the rock, her parents and townspeople leave for their houses. The sisters then pose a serious threat because they visit Psyche and thus can disrupt the illusion of Cupid's improvised drama. Cupid's secret will then be exposed. Eventually, his mother finds out about it and threatens to punish him severely for disobeying her orders . At 5.5: 106.17-19, Cupid informs Psyche of the sisters' plan to come to the rock in order to discover her whereabouts and warns her not to come into contact with them. Psyche agrees but soon changes her mind and plunges into deep sorrow. When Cupid arrives at the palace, she begs him to allow her to see her relatives. Cupid gives in to his wife's pleas, but warns her not to listen to the sisters' evil advice «to explore his appearance:» de forma mariti quaerat (5.6: 107.22-23). This warning is designed to protect Cupid's theatrical mask as a comic lover from the sisters' attempt to «remove» it. Technically, Cupid's assumption of the role of an invisible husband becomes possible through his avoidance of daylight and appearance to his wife only at night. Cupid, however, gives in to Psyche 's desire which ironically leads to the exposure of his improvised act and the explosion of his mother's wrath. When Psyche's sisters arrive at Cupid's palace and see the wealth, their concern for their sibling is quickly displaced by envy. One of the sisters asks about her husband, and Psyche, mindful of her husband's instructions, contrives the fiction that he is a young man whose beard is just growing. She then loads them with jewels and summons the wind Zephyros to carry them away. 152 Plots and SUbplots

In the exchange between them at 5.9: 109.23-5.10: 111.19-20 the sisters compare the good fortune of their younger sister to their own. In retrospect, their growing envy redefines their performance of the role of concemed relatives during their first visit to Psyche. Cupid then wams his wife that the sisters are about to visit her for a second time and that their motive this time is to persuade her to explore his appearance: meos explorare vultus (5.11: 112.6-7). Furthermore, the god tells his wife that she is carrying his child in her womb, which he promises will be immortal if she manages to guard the secret of their family. Structurally speaking, this attempt at a deal between anticipates the deal struck between Cupid and Jupiter at the end of the tale. The comparison reveals an illuminating contrast, because Psyche eventually fails to keep her promise to her husband. Cupid's scheme then turns against him because the secret of his marriage to Psyche at the mountain estate rests entirely in her hands. In the context of this interpretation, Cupid's pleas to his wife may be interpreted as an attempt to <

THE PERFORMANCE OF THE FALLACL4

The enactment of the sisters' fallacia takes place the following morning in sharp contrast to the performance of Cupid's identity as invisible husband which takes place at night. The sisters act out the role of concerned relatives. The reference to pressing the eyelids and forced tears emphasises the theatrical aspect of their performance: laaimisque pressura palpebramm coactis (5.17: 116.11).184 The sisters suspect that Psyche is wedded to a god. In the fabrication of their fa/lacia, however, they exploit the «fiction» of events and present them as «reality» They relate to Psyche the story that she is wedded to a snake-husband: nee te, sodae scilicet dolons casusque tui, celare possumus immanem co/ubmm mu/tinodis vo/uminibus serpentem, teneno noxio co/Ia sanguinantem hiantemque ing/uvie profunda tecum noctibus latenter adquiescere (5.17: 116.15-19). The sisters also remind her of Apollo 's oracle, which instructed their father to place her on the rock because she was to marry a beast-husband: nunc recordare sortis Pythicae, quae te truas bestiae nuptiis destlnatam esse clamavit (5.17: 116.19-21). Their account is designed to evoke the description of Cupid in Apollo 's oracle which the king received, when he sought to find out about the identity ofhis daughter's future husband (4.33: 100.23-101.4):

184 Compare also the sisters' ability to perform a role after their first visit to Cupid's palace. The sisters construct their malum consilium, in order not to withhold the news from Psyche's blessed fortune to their parents and then come back to punish their relative. Immediately following this, the performance of the consili1lm takes place. The sisters pull their hair, beat their brow and begin to weep (5.11: 111.21-24): totisque illis tam pretiosis muneribus absconditis comam trahentes et proinde ut merebantur ora lacerantes simulatos redintegrant fletus. The emphasis on facial expressions underlines the assumption of a theatrical role. The sisters succeed in their act as they manage to renew their parents' grief. Then they hasten to their homes to devise a plan that willbring about Psyche's downfall. 154 Plots and Subplots

nec speres generummortali stirpe creatum, sed saevumatque ferumvipereumque malum, quod pinnisvolitans super aetheracuncta fatigat flammaque et ferro singula debilitat, quod tremit ipse Iovis,quo numina terrificantur fluminaque horrescunt et Stygiae tenebrae. In this oracle Apollo presents Cupid as a flying beast. Apollo's oracular utterance, like most in the genre , admits two possible interpretations, the less obvious of which in most cases proves to be the correct one. The king interprets the oracle literally and plunges into deep sorrow. On the appointed day of the marriage the ceremony changes into a funeral procession and Psyche's parents and townspeople lead her to the rock to become prey to the celestial monster.18S The oracle's ambiguity suits well Cupid 's plans to keep his affair secret from his mother and thus avoid her wrath.186 In this instance Apollo, like Jupiter and the rest of the gods, shows his fear of Cupid's power and does not reveal to Psyche's father the true identity of his daughter's future husband. The wind Zephyros transports Psyche down the slope and gently deposits her on the turf in a new location. Psyche's anxiety is dispelled, because she sees a nearby palace which she correctly identifies as the abode of some god for his dealings with mortals: dei euillspiam IlIeulentllm et amoenllm oidere te dioersorium (5.1: 103.14-15). Later, at 5.13: 113.20, she acknowledges the divinity of her husband: sacrosanctae imaginis tuae. This new location functions as an inner stage where Cupid'sfabllla takes place. Still, to make their allegations more persuasive the sisters refer to the eye-witness account of hunters and neighbors who claim that they have seen a snake in the evening returning from pasturing. This snake they claim will devour her along with her unborn child, when her pregnancy reaches full-term: cum primllm praegnationemtllam plenlls maturaterit IItems, opimiore fmctll praeditam devoratllmm (5.18: 117.2-3). The sisters' speculations seem designed to answer Psyche'S questions as to why the beast has not yet eaten her and besides offering evidence for her husband's bestial nature. They also establish an association of Cupid with Jupiter who takes on the disguise of a snake in order to satisfy his passion. The sisters' fictive scheme relies for its success on Psyche's ignorance of her husband's actual appearance. Psyche, who has previously acknowledged her husband's divinity, now reinterprets his concealed identity as a sign of his bestial nature. Thus she gives in

185 For a discussion of Psyche's wedding and its transfonnation into a funeral see Szepessy 1972,341 -357. 186 See Winkler 1985, 93, who places before the Olympian and Stygian deities, presumably following Hes. Tbeog. 116-22. New Comedy in Apuleius ' Tale of Crpid & 155 to the «fiction» of her relatives and seeks their help. The sisters then succeed in converting Psyche from a supporter of Cupid's drama to its enemy. This notion becomes clear when she asks for their advice on how to penetrate the invisibility of her beast-husband and kill him. They advise her to take a razor (novaculom 5.20: 118.12) and a lamp (Iucernam 5.20: 118.14), penetrate his invisible appearance and kill him in his sleep. Then they will arrange her marriage with a mortal. This development establishes a parallel with Venus, when she takes her son to the town where Psyche dwells and shows him her rival. Just as Venus wanted to avenge Psyche by marrying her to a wretched mortal, so too the sisters wish to destroy Psyche's union with the god and marry her to a mortal: «ootiois nuptiis hominem teiungemus homini» (5.20: 119.2-3).187 The sisters give Psyche directions and depart, afraid to remain near the scene of the crime. Their departure also serves as an indication that they are unable to conceive of their plan failing and of Psyche escaping death. When the sisters depart Psyche is wrecked by conflicting emotions (5.21: 119.9-15): «at Psyche relicta sola, nisi quod infestis Furiis agitata sola non est, aestu pelagi simile maerendo fluctuat et, quamvis statuto consilio et obstinato animo, iam tamen facinori manus admovens adhuc incerta consilii titubat multisque calamitatis suae distrahitur affectibus. festinat differt, audet trepidat, diffidit irascitur et, quod est ultimum, in eodem corpore odit bestiam,diligit marirum,» The image of Psyche tossed about like the waves of the sea contrasts with the immediately preceding description of the calm sea, as the sisters travel homewards by boat after having offered their nefarious instructions to her: «re fuga proripiunt statimque conscensis navibus abeunt» (5.21: 119.7-8). Their departure by sea establishes a distant connection with Venus, because they travel in the realm where Venus' authority remains unchallenged. Their common desire to destroy Psyche casts the sisters in the role of Venus' earthly representatives. The sisters can be said to take the place of Venus, after she gives her instructions to Cupid to punish her rival and then withdraws into the sea, for they also depart for their homes after offering their evil instructions to Psyche. It should be kept in mind that Psyche was already burdened by this dilemma before her sisters' speech: (dam prorsus ardentis» (5.21: 119.4-5). In a theatrical context the description of Psyche in torment dramatizes in a superb way the crucial moment, when she is about to turn from a supporter ofCupid's drama to its adversary. The following night Psyche tries to put the sisters' plan into action, bringing herself to the point of committing the nefarious crime. The light of the lamp

187 For the connections between Psyche's sisters and Venus see Frangoulidis 1994 (a), 67-72. 156 Plots and Subplots lightens the dark room and reveals the hidden appearance of the sleeping god, thus re-establishing fictional reality within the tale's action. Psyche then wishes to commit suicide by burying the razor in her chest, but tragedy is averted because the razor flies from her trembling hands. The desire to commit suicide reflects Psyche's self-hatred for assuming the role of an opponent of Cupid's drama, but the attempt is not materialized. The sight of Cupid's extraordinary beauty soothes Psyche and, as the tale's narrator observes, is such that Venus would not regret begetting her son. The humor of the scene emerges when Venus later explicitly states her desire to disown her son and adopt one of her slaves, to whom she will then bestow her weapons oflove. The emphasis in the description of Cupid's beauty falls on the restlessness of the feathers of the sleeping god, as if to foreshadow his imminent flight when he wakes up. This description also recalls Psyche's extraordinary beauty at the opening of the tale and thus brings the two characters closer together, a closeness which seems to be underlined by the description in which Psyche begins to play with the god's arrows, lying at the foot ofthe bed. Psyche takes an arrow from the quiver of the sleeping god and accidentally pricks her finger. At that moment Psyche formally falls in love with her husband. The wounding of Psyche mirrors her earlier attempt to commit suicide by turning the razor against herself. In contrast to her earlier failure, here Psyche accidentally wounds herself and in so doing re-enacts Cupid's own experience when he sees her immortal beauty for the first time and shoots himself with his weapons, thereby falling in love with her.188 Just as Cupid disobeys his mother's orders to implant passion in Psyche for the worst of mankind and instead falls in love with her, so Psyche touches one of the god's arrows and falls in love with him instead of a mortal as she agreed with her sisters. In this manner Cupid and Psyche can be seen as parallel to one another, both going against the will ofVenus and the sisters in their respective experiences within the tale's action. The details of Cupid's self-inflicted wound are not presented in the tale, but the tale's listener can visualize this experience from the description of Psyche as she unintentionally wounds herself with the god's weapons after beholding his concealed appearance. Psyche then imparts wanton and passionate kisses to her sleeping husband. The lamp, however, spurts forth a drop ofhot oil and burns the sleeping Cupid. In the description of the revelations of Cupid's hidden identity the lamp plays a crucial role. One might say that the lamp assumes the role of a rival to Cupid who in his own divine radiance overshadows its brilliance. The lamp then begins to burn more brightly and releases a drop of hot oil which wounds the sleeping god. Psyche then bemoans the lamp's role as a traitor, having wounded

188 James 1987, 151. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & Psycb« 157

Cupid and thus having broken the rule of the discovery by the lover, in order to enjoy a little longer the object of his desire during the night. Viewed in another way, the wounding of the god may be read as a reflection of the painful «reality» that wakes Cupid up from his deep slumber. The lamp's role as a traitor forms a parallel with Psyche who in the same scene acts as a would-be traitor to Cupid's drama. The fortuna saeoior then comes about when Cupid's subplot and the rival subplot of the sisters «intersect» The confrontation of these two performances exposes Cupid's invisible appearance and wounds him in his sleep. Cupid immediately wakes up and, realizing his wife's betrayal of trust, pulls away from her embrace. Structurally, Psyche's disobedience to her husband's orders not to uncover his concealed identity artfully recreates the incident of his own disregard for his mother's «text» to punish her rival. Cupid then, before his departure, pauses momentarily and delivers his farewell speech to his wife, expressing regret for foolishly disobeying his mother's orders and his uniting with Psyche. His disobedience to his mother, he claims, will cause trouble for him now that his identity has been exposed and his secret will become known to the world. He tells Psyche that he will punish her by flying away from her and vows to take revenge on her sisters for their monstrous advice. The sisters are duly punished for their act with death. Their severe punishment forms a rare exception to the cornie convention in which schemers enjoy immunity from punishment because of their license as «creators»within the work. The exposure of Cupid's real identity disrupts the illusion of his unseen appearance in his union with Psyche at the palace. This dispelling of illusion is possible because Cupid is depicted as sleeping and cannot defend himself from Psyche's attempt to «remove» his mask. By resorting to role-playing Cupid can conceal the secret of his union with his wife and avoid the consequences of his mother's wrath for altering her plot. The description of the explosion of Venus' wrath against Psyche at the beginning of the tale anticipates the intensity of her anger towards her son in the tale's second half. Thus the audience can sympathize with Cupid whose invisibility can be read as a theatrical mask designed to keep his affair secret from his mother and avoid the consequences of her wrath. His desire to keep his affair secret recalls the New Comedy motif of young adulescentes who try to keep their affairs concealed from their fathers in order to avoid their disapproval. The enactment of the sisters' rival subplot then re-establishes fictional reality within the tale, redefining Cupid's invisible identity as apersona. 158 Plots and Subplots

THE TALE AND ITS FRAME

With Cupid's flight the desperate Psyche decides to commit suicide by throwing herself into the river, but the river, fearing the power of the god of Love, gently deposits her on its banks in case the heat of love dries out its waters.P? The whole world readily acknowledges Cupid's power, with the exception of his mother and those who associate with her. On the river's bank Psyche encounters the old and rustic god , holding his beloved Echo in his lap and teaching her sweet melodies. Pan judges from Psyche's facial expression that she is desperately in love. The rustic god calls her near and urges her to abandon her thoughts of committing suicide and to try earn the honor of the god ofLove through prayers and pious services: «utpote adolescentem delicatum luxunosumque blandis obsequiis promerere» (5.25: 123.8-9).190 Structurally speaking, the advice of the rustic god establishes a connection between him and the old woman. Charite, in the narration of the tale of her abduction, asks the nurse to show some compassion in her old age and be willing to «see» the tragedy of her present calamity: scaenam meae calamitatis (4.26: 94.20• 21). After the narration of Charite's tragic tale and her sorrowful dream the old nurse proceeds to relate to her the story of Cupid& Psycbe in order to comfort her in her present sorrow. Like the rustic god Pan who, holding his beloved Echo in his lap, puts Psyche on the right path towards love, the old woman holds Charite by the hand and goes on to relate to her the enchanting tale of Cupid & Psycbe. It is interesting here to observe that the old woman who relates to the young Charite a story about love is on the border between life and death. In generic terms then the old woman 's tale of Cupid & Psyd» functions as a fabula, «comedy,» intended as her (literary) response to the girl's tragic story of her abduction and her dream defined as tragedy: scaenam meae calamitatis (4.26: 94.20-21). Considered from the perspective of the aware audience, the tale acquires the didactic function of instructing the captive Charite on how to behave when her own groom, the young Tlepolemus, arrives at the cave disguised as a thief in order to liberate his bride. Charite has been abducted by brigands on the eve of her wedding night to Tlepolemus and is being held captive in their cave. The brigands form a structural parallel with the sisters who destroy Psyche's happiness in her union with Cupid. Viewed as drama, the nurse's entire narration of Cupid& Psyche can be seen as a «script» meant to instruct the tale's listener Charite to assume the proper role towards her own lover, when he arrives at the cave in

189 Helm 1968 (b), 219, note 126. 190 James 1987, 154. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid& Psyche 159 order to liberate her. Indeed, in the tale ofTlepolemus/Haemus Charite performs in a manner opposite to that of Psyche. Unlike Psyche's reaction towards her invisible husband, Charite receives the tale's message and co-operates with Tlepolemus when he arrives at the cave disguised as the notorious criminal Haemus and does away with the robbers who are responsible for ruining her happiness. Pan's instructions to Psyche then serve as a mirror-image of the old woman's tale of Cupid & Psyche. Pan's encounter with the girl takes place when she is deprived of her own husband, just as the old woman relates the tale of Cupid & P[Jche to the captive Charite who is away from her groom Tlepolemus.

THE EXPOSURE OF ILLUSION

Pan plays the crucial role ofinstructing Psyche the proper attitude towards Cupid, for after this encounter Psyche shows devotion to her husband and thus re-enacts Cupid's own role as devoted husband in their union at the mountain estate. In this new role Psyche travels the earth in search for her husband who has abandoned her.l?'

191 While searching for her husband, Psyche accidentally arrives in tum at each of the towns where her married relatives dwell and meets with each of them. The notion of the travelling Psyche subdy reverses the earlier pattern when the sisters undertook their trips to visit their sibling and bring her down from prosperity. In her encounter with each of her relatives Psyche constructs her own fictive subplot. She tells each of her sisters that Cupid has divorced her because she penetrated his forbidden identity, and that he now wants to marry them in confarreatis nuptis (5.26: 124.8-9). Clearly, here Psyche is engaged in play-acting because she deliberately misinforms her relatives that Cupid desires to be wedded to them. This change in the heroine's persona from a simple-minded figure to a vengeful heroine is understandable, given her earlier meeting with the god Pan who instructs her the proper way to earn Cupid's favor through prayers and benevolent services to him. It further offers clear-cut evidence of the service Psyche offers Cupid, precisely as Pan instructs her. Upon hearing Psyche's speech the sisters rush to the rock to be transported by Zephyros to Cupid's palace. The audience knows that Cupid lies sick at his mother's palace. In their haste to unite with Cupid, the sisters fail to keep in mind the god's identity as a flying beast, which they effectively exploited earlier in their own scheme against Psyche. They rush to join with Cupid, but they fall from the rock, becoming prey to savage birds and beasts. The sisters then forget the interpretation of Psyche's husband as beast which they relate to Psyche in order to bring about her fall In this sense they meet the savage fate that allegedly awaits Psyche, precisely as related by Apollo in the oracle given to Psyche's father. In theatrical terms, Psyche in her stratagem brings to «realityi the «fiction» of events, as represented by the sisters in their counter-drama against that of Cupid. It further serves as evidence for Psyche's devotion to Cupid in contrast to her reaction against him in the tale's first part. The sisters curiously fail to notice the relationship between Psyche's scheme and their own. This failure is understandable if one considers that the 160 Plots and Subplots

The reappraisal of Cupid's «marriage» to Psyche as an illicit affair of New Comedy plots begins with gavia. This bird plunges to the depths of the sea and informs Venus about events on earth. The bird tells Venus of Cupid's wound as well as of the disastrous effects, resulting from the absence of the two gods' services to the world (5.28: 125.12-20): «indicat adustum £ilium eius, gravi vulneris dolore maerentem, dubium salutisiacere iamque per cunctorum ora populorum rumoribus convieiisque variis omnem Veneris familiam male audire, quod ille quidem montano scortatu, tu vero marino natatu secesseritis ac per hoc non ulla, non gratia, non lepos, sed incompta et agrestia et horrida cuncta sint, non nuptiae coniugales, non amicitiae sociales, non liberum caritates, sed ... enormis eluvies et squalentiumfoederuminsuave fastidium» Cavia defines Cupid's affair in the mountain retreat as montano scortat» (5.28: 125.15),192 and relates the terrible state of events on earth that originate

deception takes place outside the «theatre» of Cupid's palace, where the performance of their own falloria earlier took place. In this new environment the sisters cannot maintain their roles. Psyche, who directs her relatives to the rock in order to unite in a «solemn- wedlock with Cupid, confarrtatis nuptis (5.26: 124.8-9), can be seen to mirror her sisters who persuaded her to reveal the appearance of her snake-husband and kill him. In the context of this interpretation, the sisters who one by one rush to the rock and fall prey to savage birds and beasts can be figuratively interpreted as joining in «sacred- wedlock to Cupid in his identity as a flyingbeast. S.]. Harrison directs to my attention that the sisters die as a result of their lack of wings, as they are presented almost «flying» in their efforts to unite with the winged god. They thus can be said to meet the fate which the oracle allegedly relates as awaiting Psyche. Moreover, their death takes place on the summit of the rock where the oracle had previously directed the father to leave his daughter for her marriage to the flying beast. The sisters' «sacredi wedlock to Cupid in his identity as a flying beast points to and sharply contrasts Psyche's sacred marriage to Cupid in his identity as a powerful god in the celestial theatre on Mount Olympus at the end of the tale. With her part in the death of her sisters Psyche shows her devotion to Cupid in spite of his abandoning her after she exposed his forbidden identity. In contrast to the sisters then, Cupid emerges as the supreme auctor because he effectively drives the sisters to their death as a punishment for their role as enemies of his own scheme within the world of the tale's action. The sisters' subplot, however, exposes the illusion of Cupid's hidden appearance and reveals the secret of his union with his mother's rival, and therefore his subplot in the role of an invisible husband . For a discussion of this episode from an intratextual perspective see Frangoulidis 1995 (a), 140-144; also Panagyotakis 1996,70-75. 192 Evans-Grubbs 1995, 203 provides the following definition ofadultery and ofstupmm:

<(3. man could be accused of adultery if he had sexual relations with a married woman or of stupmm if he had sexual relations with a vidua (a widow or divorcee or unmarried virgin) of respectable status, but this was because of his lover's status, not because he was married,» New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & P!Jche 161 from the absence of the two gods. The role ofgavia as an informant forms a rare exception to the behavior of almost all animate and inanimate beings, who show their respect towards Cupid and his power and are careful not to blame him, although the young god is seriously wounded and lies sick at his mother's palace. Furthermore, it forms a contrast with Cupid because the bird remains loyal to Venus. The bird's conduct can be explained as follows: Cavia is a sea-bird and thus can be seen in connection with Venus' retinue of sea deities, when she plunges to the bottom of the sea after giving instructions to her son to punish her rival. The bird's association with the sea helps establish an association with the sisters when they are travelling by boat to reach their homes after giving their advice to Psyche to expose her husband's forbidden identity. Moreover, this bird seems to be on intimate terms with Venus. Cavia seems able to approach and converse with the goddess in the second person singular (til vero). The bird also tells Venus the girl's name with whom Cupid is passionately in love. In a theatrical context, the bird exposes the illusion of Cupid's affair with Psyche at the mountain estate and stirs up Venus' violent wrath. The disparity between the immortal Cupid and the mortal Psyche accounts for the re-identification of Cupid's «marriage» as a love-affair of New Comedy plots. This exposure of illusion also redefines Venus. At 5.28: 126.9 the goddess ironically identifies herself as lena, the madame of an upper class brothel, as she introduces her son to Psyche, thus making her rival «available» to him.193 After the end of the bird's account, the goddess rushes furiously to her palace and vehemently reprimands her son who is lying sick. Venus severely scolds him for disobeying her orders and threatens to beget another child, or even adopt one from her retinue and give to him her instruments oflove. In Roman society, the child's freedom of action begins when he acquires things of his own, in a way comparable to slaves who can buy their freedom with their own peculillm. This limit of a boy's freedom is conveyed in linguistic terms by the ambiguity of the term pllerwhich denotes both boy and slave.l'" As we saw in chapter 3, Demipho's treatment of his son in Plautus' Mercator, when he discovered his affair with a meretrix at Athens and then sent him on his profit-making journey, serves as an interesting example in this respect. Later, when the son buys with his own hard-earned money the freedom of a Rhodian girl, his father takes her away from him. Cupid, by contrast, has nothing of his own. All of his instruments of power belong to his mother. Thus Venus

193 Apollo's oracle, which directs Psyche to the rock to marry Cupid whom Apollo identifies as her beast-husband, should not be seen as an obstacle to this interpretation. Its veracity is shown when Psyche is formally wedded to Cupid at the tale's end. 194 OLD, s.v. puer1 and 5. 162 Plots and Subplots legitimately exercises her parental authority over her son for his reckless conduct. The humor in Venus' outburst becomes clear when one considers that she is unable to conceive a child, in contrast to her rival Psyche who is already pregnant by Cupid. In the tale Venus is presented as a middle-aged matrona, unable to bear a child, although she ironically styles herself as a generative force in nature. The goddess also berates Cupid for his conduct towards the god of war Mars, inciting passion in him for other women, thus causing her distress for having to provide him with mistresses . The detail is significant because it shows Venus committing adultery. As Kenney aptly observes, Venus is one of Mars' several mistressesll'" The goddess vows to take vengeance on her son for his conduct and give him a bitter lesson for his union which she sarcastically defines as marriage (5.30: 127.9-10): «sed iam faxo te lusus huius paeniteat et sentias acidas et amaras istas nuptias,» Here Venus describes her son's conduct using the term lusus (5.30: 127.9), which means either a game or public entertainment, a show.196 In the latter sense, the term helps associate Cupid's union to Psyche with comedy. Cupid's conduct is designed to ridicule Venus: nunc inrisui habita (5.30: 127.11). This expression has also a theatre-specific meaning, intended to make Venus, who normally treats herself as the organizer of love-affairs, a laughing stock. In fact, Venus cannot cause these love-affairs to take place without the help of her son. In the episode with Psyche, Cupid first amends his mother's «text» and then carries it out as an improvised performance. Thus Venus , at 6.13: 138.5, is correct in identifying her son as an auctor adulterinus. In short, Cupid «invades» his mother's territory and takes on the role of an auctor, «rewriting» her plot and carrying it out like an actor on a stage.

CERES AND

Unable to carry out her harsh threats Venus considers resorting to her enemy Sobrietas (5.30: 127.17-24): «illa mihi prorsus adhibenda est nee ulla alia, quae castiget asperrime nugonem istum, faretram explicetet sagittas dearmet,arcum enodet, taedam deflammet, immo et ipsum corpus eius acrioribus remediis coherceat, tunc

195 Kenney, 1990,185. 196 OLD, s.v, lusus1,2 and 4. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid& P!)'che 163

iniuriae meae litatum crediderim, cum eius comas, quas istis manibus meis subinde aureo nitore perstrinxi, deraserit, pinnas,quas meo gremio nectarei fontisinfeci, praetotonderit.» This passage seems to evoke the description of Cupid's beauty, when Psyche has penetrated his invisible appearance and disclosed his secret identity, and also seems designed to «correct» it, depriving the god of those features that inspired Psyche's love for him. Venus then rushes out of the house to meet Sobrietaswho is to carry out her harsh threats. There is a play here with the audience's expectations, in that they anticipate Venus' encounter with Sobrietas, but instead the goddess meets and Juno. This change perhaps anticipates the role the two goddesses will assume, when they advise Venus to show moderation since they appear in Sobrietas' place. The two goddesses notice Venus' anger and seek to find out more about it. Venus asks for their help in finding Psyche, because she presumes that they must be aware by now of the famosa fabula of her family and the conduct of her son (5.31: 128.1-4): «sed totis, oro, uestris viribus Psychen illam fugitivam uolaticam mihi requiritenee enimuos utiquedomus meae famosa fabula et non dicendi filii mei factalatuerunt,» Here Venus identifies Psyche as a fugitiva, «runaway slave,» a characterization which traditional interpretations treat as awkward, perhaps suggesting a rejected line of the plot. 197 It may, however, be designed to draw attention to Psyche's mortal status in contrast to the immortal Cupid, thus bringing to the fore the illegitimacy of their «marriage» at the palace. In a literary context it points to Psyche's role as a fugitive in Venus' plot. Still, Venus characterizes her son's action in the mountain retreat using the word, fabula, the technicus terminus for a play. The dispelling of the illusion of Cupid's invisible identity redefines his «marriages in the mountain estate as an affair in a New Comedy plot. Ceres and Juno have reasons to support Venus and blame Cupid. Cupid had shot with his arrows, who then abducted Ceres' daughter Proserpina and took her to the underworld. Ceres in her distress withdrew the crops from the earth, until a settlement was reached and she was finally allowed to see her daughter for half of the year. Venus later resorts to Proserpina in the underworld and borrows some of her beauty. Juno, too, is the proverbial uxor irata because Cupid regularly inflicts passion in her husband for mortal girls. Later Jupiter

197 Schlam 1992, 83; also Konstan 1994, 137 and passim, who advances the idea of the conflation of two different stories in the tale's composition. 164 Plots and Subplots himself admits to committing adulteries. Ceres and Juno then represent two distinct aspects ofVenus as mother and dishonored wife respectively. Ceres and Juno react in exactly the opposite way to that ofVenus, taking Cupid's side and appealing to his mother for moderation. The reference to cereals in the narrative of Venus' first trial imposed on Psyche serves as another indication of Ceres having overcome her distress. The two goddesses remind Venus of her son's youth and entreat her to pardon him for his actions, evoking the standard theme of New Comedy, «let youth have its fun,» Moreover, they identify Cupid's actions with the term for a show, lusus and also point to Venus' paradox in criticizing and restricting her own arts and delights in her son: tuas aries tuasque delicias informonso filio reprebendes?(5.31: 128.15-6). In the comic stereotype, Venus' reaction reminds us of those harsh fathers in Plautus and Terence who have forgotten what is like to be young and in love, as their sons are, and prevent them from having love-affairs. The two goddesses also acknowledge Venus as responsible for spreading love: «quis autem te deum, quis hominum patieturpassim cupidines populis disseminantem» (5.31: 128.16-17). This detail recalls Venus' own demand for worship for her procreative role in nature: en rerum naturae prisca parens, enelementorum origo initialis, en orbis totius alma Venus (4.30: 98.7• 8).198 They remind her, however, of the intolerance of both gods and men to her spreading love while restricting the delights of her art in her own household. In their appeal to Venus then, the two goddesses assume the role of defenders of Cupid's «comedy,» but their appeal proves ineffective because Venus cuts them short and withdraws into the ocean. Structurally speaking, in their advice to Venus the two goddesses re-enact the pattem of Psyche's two sisters who similarly offer Psyche their counsel, but in sharp contrast to Psyche's sisters Ceres and Juno are unable to persuade Venus.

PSYCHE'S SURRENDER

Venus is determined to arrest her rival and thus change her son's aborted mission to incite passion in Psyche for the worst of mortals. The emerges from our recollection that Venus is technically unable to kindle this love without Cupid's co-operation. Venus goes to Jupiter and seeks the service of Mercury to track down Psyche because she is unable to find her. In her wanderings in search for Cupid Psyche does try twice to hide herself in the temples of Ceres and Juno, but meets

198 On the Lucretian echo of the passage see Kenney 1990, 121. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & P!'che 165 with both goddesses' opposition, out of respect for their family ties with Venus. This rejection contrasts with the sisters who promise Psyche their help and refuge in figurative terms after she has committed the crime of exposing her husband's forbidden identity. Venus' inability to find Psyche contrasts with Venus' fore-knowledge of Psyche's whereabouts, when she led Cupid to her with the mission of afflicting her with a love for a conunon wretch. The structural parallel of events in the tale's second half with those in the tale's first half anticipates Venus' failure to punish her rival. Jupiter grants his daughter his consent to use the service of Mercury. Venus' resorting to the herald in order to punish Psyche recalls her earlier appeal to Cupid at the beginning of the tale to take revenge on Psyche for usurping her divine beauty. Venus appeals to Mercury to make a public proclamation of her reward of seven sweet kisses and a «French» kiss from her tongue for anyone who divulges information that would lead to the apprehension of her «runaway slave ,» In a way, Mercury, who carries out Venus' instruction, replaces Cupid in Venus' scheme to punish Psyche in the tale's first half. Mercury's proclamation stirs up the zeal of mortals and further shows Venus behaving as meretrix.199 The eager response of the people to Venus' reward comically contrasts with their reaction in the tale's first half, when they would come from distant places to worship Psyche as Venus altera altogether ignoring Venus' cult. Moreover, in contrast to the mortals who are obviously aware of Psyche's whereabouts, the goddess is comically unable to find her and resorts to Mercury's help. Mercury's proclamation, however, does not achieve the desired objective. Psyche has already decided to surrender to Venus after both Ceres and Juno refused her refuge in their temples (6.5: 132.2-12):

«iam quae possunt aliameis aerumnis temptari vel adhiberi subsidia, cui nec dearum quidem, quamquam volentium potuerunt prodesse suffragia? quo rursum itaque tantis laqueis inclusavestigiumporrigam quibusque tectis vel etiam tenebris absconditamagnaeVenerisinevitabiles oculos effugiam? quin igitur masculum tandem sumis animum et cassaespeculae renuntias fortiter et ultroneam te dominae tuae reddis et vel sera modestia saevientes impetus eius mitigas? qui scias, an etiam, quem diu quaeritas, illic in domo matris repperias?» Psyche's decision to submit to Venus offers her the hope of finding Cupid at his mother's palace. The description in this passage recalls Psyche's earlier appeal to

199 This notion becomes clear from the topographical reference to the me/ae Mlirliae (6.8: 133.20-1), which was a well-known place for prostitutes in Rome. See Kenney 1990, 199-200; Schlam 1992,85. 166 Plots and Subplots her parents during the procession to the rock to fulfill the oracle. In that appeal Psyche tried to give courage to her parents and alleviate their sorrow thinking that she was about to be devoured by the beast. In the present case, Psyche summons up courage as she is about to submit to Venus, aware that the meeting is likely to bring destruction to herself. In this respect, Psyche's initiative ofgiving herself up to Venus undermines Venus' plans to find her opponent. The cruelty, with which Venus' maid Consuetudo utters her loud exclamation as Psyche nears the doorway, seizes her by the hair and drags her before the goddess for questioning when she arrives at the palace, shows that Venus' servants behave in the same harsh manner as their mistress. The entire encounter between Venus and Psyche recalls the stereotypical encounter between masters and slaves in New Comedy plots after the discovery of the misbehavior of the latter by the former. Ironically, Psyche has not misbehaved in the fashion of rogue slaves of New Comedy plots. And whereas comic slaves are rarely punished for their misbehavior, Psyche is harshly punished by her mistress in the continuation of the tale's action. Venus orders her maids Consuetudo and Tristities to punish Psyche with the lashes, and then laughingly tells Psyche her opinion about her pregnancy and her marriage (6.9: 134.21-135.1-5): «et ecce,» inquit, «nobis turgidi ventris sui lenocinio commovet miserationem, unde me preaclara subole aviam beatam scilicet faciat. felix vero ego, quae in ipso aetatis meae flare vocabor avia et vilis ancillae filius nepos Veneris audiet, quanquam inepta ego frustra filium dicam; impares enim nuptiae et praeterea in villa sine testibus et patre non consentiente factae legitimae non possunt videriac per hoc spurius iste nascetur, si tamen partum omnino perferrete patiemur,» In this passage the goddess reveals to Psyche what she regards as «reality» of events surrounding the illegitimacy of her expected child, as well as the illegality of her marriage brought about through Cupid's improvised drama. Venus bases her claims about the illegality of the marriage on three grounds: (1) the unequal status of the couple; (2) the failure to observe the formalities ofRoman weddings; and (3) the absence of consent from Cupid's father. In the stereotype of New Comedy, the girl's pregnancy presages her lawful marriage in the end. In addition, no young man lives for long with his mistress before discovering that he can lawfully marry her after all. In Roman comedy, on the other hand, love-affairs with meretrices are bound to end. Thus Cupid's secret involvement with Psyche in the mountain retreat becomes associated with New comedy plots, moving towards legitimacy and providing for a lawful marriage in the end. Venus, however, treats Psyche as a meretrix. This notion is suggested by the ambiguity of the term lenocinium which, in addition to blandishment, also New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & Psyd» 167 implies meretricious embellishment. zoo Viewed in relation to the tale's frame, Venus' implicit characterization of Psyche as meretrix points to the tale's listener, Charite, whom the ass wrongly characterizes as a whore when he sees her responding to the passionate kisses of her groom. The latter has come to the cave disguised as the notorious criminal Haemus in order to liberate his captive bride: «nee te conscientia stimulat, sedadjectione calcata interlanaas etgladios istos scortari tibi libet?» (7.11: 162.30-1). The parallel here reveals a contrast between Charite and Psyche. Whereas Charite immediately recognizes her groom and co-operates with him in order to overcome the gang of the robbers, Psyche fails to recognize her husband and then exposes his concealed identity, thus bringing about her own downfall. In the tale Venus herself behaves like a meretrix, for she is involved in an extra-marital affair with Mars which she presents as a lawful marriage. At 6.4: 131.21 Juno identifies Venus as her daughter-in-law because she is officially married to her son «

200 OLD, s.v, knocinium 2c and 3. 201 Kenney 1990, 203. 168 Plots and Subplots young god comes to Psyche as her lover disobeying his mother's instructions to kindle passion in her for the worst ofmortals. The ever increasing difficulty of the trials highlights Venus' earlier failure to eliminate her rival through Cupid and his arrows.

CUPID AS A UcrORADULIERINUS

Cupid will once again assume the role of an improviser when his mother assigns to his wife the completion of four difficult tasks. His reassumption of this role becomes clear only gradually. In the first three tasks Cupid assists his wife through various animate and inanimate agents, each time highlighting the dangers involved and rendering them easy to complete. These agents either carry out Venus' tasks themselves or offer their advice. In the account of the fourth task, the young god intervenes directly and saves his wife from certain death. Thus Cupid alters his mother's plan to destroy his wife for a second time, and in the end renders it ineffective. In so doing, Cupid may be seen as fulfilling his role as an auctor adulterinus, precisely as his mother identifies him to Psyche after her completion of the second task (6.13: 138.5). In the first task, Venus orders Psyche to separate a pile of mixed cereal grains before nightfall (6.10: 135.13-15): «discerne seminum istorum passivam congeriem singulisque granis rite dispositis atque seiugatis ante istam vesperam opus expeditum approbato mihi,» Psyche stands dumbfounded at the enormity of the task. An ant, however, sympathizes with her great sorrow and issues a pathetic call to his «colleagues» to come and assist Cupid's helpless wife. In this appeal the ant identifies Psyche as Cupid's wife, in contrast to Venus who refuses to acknowledge Psyche as her daughter-in-law. The army of ants who respond to the call complete Venus' job and quickly disappear from view. When Venus comes back, she attributes the completion of the task to Cupid's hands: «nequissima, neetuamm manuum istudopus, sed iI/ius, cui tuo, immo et ipsius malo p/acuisti» (6.11: 136.8-9). Here Venus senses Cupid's «intervention» in Psyche's completion of her task, despite the fact that he is still lying in bed, in pain from his wound and thus could not have participated directly in it. The ants then may be seen as performing a role in Cupid's drama. The successful completion of the task by Psyche infuriates Venus. The following morning, the goddess assigns to her opponent the task of obtaining locks of the ram's golden wool from a grove across the river. In despair, Psyche decides to throw herself into the river and commit suicide, but she is saved just in time by a talking reed which gives to her instructions on how to gather the wool New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Cupid & Psycb« 169 left by the rams on the shrubs in the neighboring grove (6.12: 137.7-19). The reed's instructions serve the putpose ofcircumventing the dangers ofVenus' trial. The reference to the gold is designed to lure Psyche and thus bring about her death, but by following the reed's instructions Psyche is able to successfully complete Venus' second task. In theatrical terms, the reed, like the ants previously, can be seen as a performing agent in Cupid's drama. Venus perceives Cupid's hand in the completion of the task and identifies her son as an auctor adulterinus, a «false prompteo) of the task, because Cupid alters his mother's plans again through an agent of his (6.13: 138.5). This notion of Cupid's involvement in his mother's plot in an attempt to «rewrite» her plans and save his wife emerges more clearly in the narrative of the third task, in which Psyche must climb to the top of the mountain and fetch water from the spring which feeds the rivers and . In desperation Psyche goes to the mountain top to carry out Venus ' trial and meet the death that inevitably awaits her. Structurally speaking, Psyche's determination to go to the summit and meet her death recalls her earlier resolution to climb the rock and be wedded to her beast-husband, thus fulfilling the oracle. The talking waters of the spring, however, advise Psyche to leave. In this difficult moment Jupiter's royal bird rushes to her aid (6.15: 139.11-15): «namsupremi lovis regalis alesiliarepente propansis utrimque pinnis affuit rapax aquila memorque veteris obsequii, quo ductu Cupidinis lovi pocillatorem Frygium substulerat, oportunam ferens opem deiquenumen in uxorislaboribuspercolens...» In this passage, the eagle flies to Psyche's assistance for two reasons: (1) to payoff Cupid's service to Jupiter in the abduction ofjupiter's cupbearer Ganymedes; and (2) to act on Cupid's command to save his wife. As Kenney puts it, «Cupid's off• stage role is now made explicit.»202 Furthermore, the difficulty of the trial is emphasised by the appearance ofjupiter's regal bird to offer assistance to Psyche in comparison with the help Psyche received from the tiny ants and the talking reed in the first and second trials respectively. The eagle takes the jar from Psyche's hands, flies towards the mountain and succeeds in filling it with the water from the spring. The account of the eagle's success in performing the task draws attention to his skill in play-acting (6.15:140.7-6.16: 140.9): «commentus ob iussum Veneris petere eiquese praeministrare, quare paulo facilior adeundi fuit copia» The bird tells the dragons that he is acting on Venus ' instructions, as part of his role in Cupid's drama to rescue his wife upon the eagle's return. Psyche gladly

202 Kenney 1990, 210. 170 Plots and Subplots receives the jar from the bird, filled with the water. Thematically, Psyche's delight upon receiving the jar sharply contrasts with her sorrow upon receiving Venus' instructions to fill the pitcher with water from the spring. Venus in her anger calls Psyche a sorceress for carrying out her difficult trials. In theatrical terms, this characterization may be «read» as a comment on Psyche's taking advantage ofthe various agents in Cupid's drama. Finally, Venus assigns to Psyche the task of descending into the underworld in order to fetch Proserpina's beauty-box, because she plans to attend the assembly of the gods. In this last trial, Venus directs her victim to death itself in order to get rid of her. Venus, a self-styled procreative force in nature, again ironically engages in an activity associated with death, thus contradicting her claims. She claims she has spent her own ointment in caring for her sick son, which shows that she relies on artificial means to maintain her beauty. The extraordinary beauty of Psyche, a mortal girl, highlights Venus' inferiority complex regarding her own beauty. The enormity ofVenus' last task causes Psyche to give up hope altogether and attempt to commit suicide. She thinks that Venus has now dropped her mask and is ordering her to die (6.17: 141.5-7): «tunc Psyche vel maxime sensit ultimas fortunas suas et velamento reiecto ad promptum exitium sese compelli manifeste comperit,» The heroine contemplates plunging headlong from a rock. The prophetic tower, however, diverts her from these thoughts and further proceeds to give her instructions on how to reach the underworld alive and return safely. In his speech the personified tower emphasises the dangers of the trial in order to entrap her permanently in the underworld, and explicitly identifies Venus as the perpetrator of these entrapments: «omnia tibi et multa alia de Veneris insidiis onentut» (6.19: 142.19-20). All of these dangers have been especially designed for Psyche. Finally, it stresses Psyche's curiositas and warns her explicitly not to open the beauty-box (6.19: 143.8-12): «sed inter omnia hoc observandum praecipue tibi censeo, ne velis aperire vel inspicere illam, quam feres, pyxidem vel omnino divinae formonsitatis abditum arbitraricuriosius thensaurum.» By following the tower's instructions Psyche successfully completes Venus' last task. However, she is again possessed by her curiosity and opens the box of Proserpina's ointment when she returns back to earth, perhaps thinking that all dangers have been overcome with her safe return to the earth's surface. Structurally, the opening of the box, forbidden to Psyche recalls her earlier disobedience to Cupid's warnings not to penetrate his forbidden identity. Psyche decides to open the box and apply a drop of the ointment in order to appear more New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Crpid & Psyche 171 attractive to her husband. Contradicting Venus who believes that Psyche can attract lovers through her hard labor, Psyche attempts to seduce Cupid through her beauty. The tower's emphasis on the necessity of keeping the box shut becomes understandable. A deadly odor escapes from the box which would certainly have killed Psyche had not Cupid intervened.V' Cupid's direct intervention at this stage into the subplot parallels the behavior of his mother who in her last task to Psyche «removes» her mask and orders her to descend into the underworld in the hope of entrapping her permanently there. At this stage Cupid, in addition to his role as auctor, becomes also an actor. There are several reasons that explain Cupid's intervention in Venus' scheme here.204 Firstly, Cupid has by this time recovered from his wound and thus is physically able to intervene directly. Secondly, Psyche is overcome by her insurmountable curiositas and opens the box of Proserpina's beauty in order to appear more attractive to her husband and thus earn his sympathy (6.20: 144.5-8). Finally, Psyche has carefully followed all of the tower's instructions and almost completed successfully Venus' final trial. The god wakes Psyche from her deathIike sleep with the harmless prick of his arrow. The manner in which he does this recalls the way Psyche stirred him from his slumber after penetrating his forbidden identity. A comparison of the two incidents reveals the sharp contrast between them. Unlike Psyche, who wounds the god with the lamp's hot oil, Cupid here restores Psyche to life with a harmless and life-saving touch of his arrow. The completion of the tasks marks the ultimate failure of Venus' plan to cause the worst of mortals to fall in love with Psyche, because the only lover who sympathizes with Psyche's sorrow and rushes to her aid is her own son Cupid.

SKEWED SYMMETRIES

In Venus ' scheme to punish Psyche, various agents of Cupid's drama help his wife carry out her difficult tasks. In the first and third trials the ants and the eagle respectively carry out the tasks imposed on Psyche. In the narrative of the second and fourth trial, on the other hand, Psyche completes the labors by

203 There is a noticeable difference in Psyche's attitude here compared to her behavior in the tale's opening. Psyche through her blandishments manages to persuade Cupid to allow her to see her sisters. Here, however, she obeys all instructions she received on the way and thus successfully carries out all ofVenus' perilous labors. 204 James 1988, 119 points out Cupid's help to Psyche in carrying out Venus' trials but does not interpret them as part ofVenus' scheme to inflict passion for the worst of mankind on Psyche. 172 Plots and Subplots herself, following the instructions of the talking reed and the prophetic tower, respectively. The arrangement of Venus' trials is artfully organized in ring and chiastic form. All of these animate and inanimate agents effectively deconstruct the difficulties ofVenus' harsh tasks, circumventing the danger latent in them. Psyche's stance in the second half of the tale when compared to the tale's first half also reveals an illuminating contrast. In the first part, Psyche accepts her sisters' monstrous allegations, disregarding all of Cupid's warnings not to penetrate his concealed identity. In the tale's second half, however, Psyche obeys all the instructions she is given by Cupid's agents and successfully carries out Venus' difficult tasks. Psyche's change of behavior is also brought out by the structural arrangement of the two episodes. In the episode with the sisters, Cupid warns Psyche four (4) times about the evil attempts of her sisters to bring about her downfall. The sisters then visit Psyche three (3) times. In the episode with Venus, on the other hand, Psyche receives instructions from various animate or inanimate agents three (3) times and carries out four (4) difficult tasks. Thus the structural pattern between the tale's two halves follows the schema: 4 - 3 :: 3 - 4 In the narrative of the fourth task, Cupid having completely recovered from his wound, intervenes in person and saves his wife from certain death, when Psyche opens the box of Proserpina's beauty. This is the most difficult trial and, moreover, the box of beauty and the dangers it implies serve as a brilliant metaphor for Psyche's sufferings at the hands of Venus due to her extraordinary beauty. Finally, Cupid's drama in the tale's second part takes place in broad daylight, in contrast to the performance of his role as an invisible husband which takes place at night, and thus technically makes possible the concealment of his identity. Venus' sorrow at the failure of her scheme is revealed later when Jupiter, in the ensuing divine assembly on Mount Olympus, comments explicitly on her downcast appearance (contnstere 6.23: 146.6). Cupid's passion for his wife is renewed once more (amore nimio peresus 6.22: 145.1), and the god's physical pain is replaced by his love for his wife. This renewal of passion is presented with fire imagery. Ironically, the god of fire is on fire himself. Structurally speaking, the god's figurative burning forms a parallel with his actual burning by the lamp's hot oil upon Psyche's exposure of his forbidden identity. Furthermore, it accounts for the resumption of his active involvement within the tale and signals his return to his former self (adarmillum redit 6.22: 145.2-3). His new scheme involves resorting to Jupiter for his help because only the supreme god can enforce his decision on his daughter Venus. His appeal to Jupiter recalls his mother who resorted to Jupiter for Mercury's help to attest her rival in beauty. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of Crpid & P!Jche 173

JUPITER IN PERFORMANCE

In Cupid's encounter with Jupiter the supreme god acknowledges the role of the young god who often pierces him with his arrows, forcing him to take on various disguises to satisfy his lust (6.22: 145.6-19): «licet tu,» inquit, «domine fili, numquam mihi concessu deum decretum servaris honorem, sed istud pectus meum, quo leges elementorum et vices siderum disponuntur, convulneraris assiduis ictibus crebrisque terrenae libidinis foedaveris casibus contraque leges et ipsam Iuliam disciplinamque publicam turpibus adulteriis existimationem famamque meam laeseris in serpentes, in ignes, in feras, in aves et gregalia pecua serenos vultus meos sordide reformando, at tamen modestiae meae memor quodque inter istas meas manus creveris, cuncta perficiam, dum tamen scias aemulos tuos cavere ac, si qua nunc in terris puella praepollet pulchritudine, praesentis beneficii vicem per earn mihi repensare te debere,» In this passage Jupiter addresses the young Cupid as domine fili, a lord, perhaps emphasising the superiority of Cupid's power over him. Jupiter also admits to have assumed various disguises to satisfy his lust. These metamorphoses damage his reputation. jupiter's transformations acquire the function of a mask and in retrospect help define Cupid's assumed invisibility as a persona. Like Jupiter who hides his true appearance in order to conceal his affairs from his wife Juno and avoid her wrath, Cupid does not show his appearance to Psyche at the palace and thus manages to keep, albeit temporarily, his own affair secret from his mother. Furthermore, in his assumption of various disguises Jupiter comically admits to breaking the Julian law against adultery. Jupiter promises to help the young god, but demands repayment for his services: the next beautiful girl on earth should be his (6.22: 145.17-19). In so doing, Jupiter implicitly shows his approval of Cupid's conduct, expressing his desire to follow Cupid's example and be involved in an affair with a beautiful mortal girl.205 jupiter's favorable treatment of Cupid contrasts with Venus' attitude towards her son which, in retrospect, explains Cupid's decision to resort to Jupiter and try to gain his sympathy in his love difficulties. It must be said, however, that bothJupiter and Venus are much alike, both committing adulteries without regard for the consequences. Theatrically, Cupid, who appeals to Jupiter for help, can be seen as handing over control of the plot to him. The theatrical dimension of Jupiter's

205 Cf.James 1988,119, who tentatively advances the notion that Jupiter, by chaining Cupid, conquers his own «Cupid» or desire, thereby putting an end to his undignified transformations, 174 Plots and Subplots subsequent actions are apparent from the speech he delivers to the divine assembly in the celestial theatre in which he announces his decision to marry Cupid to Psyche (6.23: 145.25-146.1-5): «Dei eonseripti Musarum albo, adoleseentem istum quod manibus meis alumnatus sim, profeeto scitis omnes. cuius primae iuventutis ealoratos impetus freno quodam eohereendos existimavi; sat est eotidianis eum fabulis ob adulteria cunetasque eorruptelas infamatum. tollenda est omnis oeeasio et luxuria puerilis nuptialibus pedicis alliganda. puellam elegit et virginitate privavit: teneat, possideat, amplexus Psyehen semper suis amoribusperfruatur.» In his speech Jupiter relates how Cupid's activities are ruining his reputation with the daily episodes of adultery that they provoke. Thus he decides to restrain Cupid's youthful impulses by marrying him to Psyche. The comedy of the situation emerges from our recollection that Jupiter in his private conversation with Cupid admits to have been involved in adulterous escapades himself and even demands, as repayment for his present favor, that the next beautiful girl should be his. jupiter's plan succeeds because the other gods are ignorant of the secret deal struck between the supreme god and Cupid. In comparison with Cupid's earlier performance in the mountain retreat, Jupiter'S act aims at restoring Cupid's reputation, damaged by his assumption of the role of a comic lover. Jupiter characterizes Cupid's daily adventures as well as his affair with Psyche with the theatrical term,fabula, which, as we have already noted, in addition to «story,» connotes «play,» In this sense, Jupiter can be said to identify Cupid's activities as well as his interlude at the mountain retreat as drama. Jupiter's reaction towards Cupid strikingly contrasts with that of Venus towards her son. The comparison is facilitated by the fact that both Venus and Jupiter are presented as having raised Cupid. Venus is Cupid's biological mother, but treats him harshly, refusing to accept the fact that her son is now a young adult whereas Jupiter, who presents himself as having raised Cupid and is therefore his foster father, endorses his conduct in his affair with Psyche. jupiter's approval of Cupid's marriage to Psyche fulfills the requirement of Roman wedding ceremonies which demand parental consent. In spite of this apparent contrast, father and daughter are much alike: both gods publicly denounce adultery but in reality practise it. Jupiter turns to his daughter and states that he will make the union legal (6.23: 146.5-8): «nee tu,» inquit, «filia, quiequam eontristere nee prosapiae tantae tuae statuque de matrimonio mortali metuas. iam faxo nuptias non impares,sed legitimas et iure civili eongruas.» New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of C1iJ>id & P!yche 175

Here Jupiter relates his intention to legitimize Cupid's union with Psyche in the mountain retreat, thus countering Venus' objections regarding the inequality of the marriage between the immortal Cupid and the mortal Psyche. Venus' other objection to Psyche apropos beauty has already been met, since Psyche successfully retrieved and delivered to her Proserpina's divine ointment from the underworld. In her opposition to the union of her immortal son with the mortal Psyche, Venus appears as an upholder of law and order. In this respect, Venus resembles Juno who shows similar respect for law and order having refused to give Psyche refuge in her temple, in her search for her husband after he flew away from her: «tunc etiam legibus, quae servos alienos perfugas invitis dominis vetant suscipi, prohibeom (6.4: 131.22-24). The attitude of the goddesses brings them in sharp contrast to the behavior of the male gods: Jupiter confesses to have broken laws when he refers to his undignified disguises, while Cupid secretly unites with Psyche, disobeying his mother's order to punish her rival. The difference may be considered superficial due to the fact that Venus merely uses the law to legitimize her vices and is thus no better than Jupiter. In the tale's subsequent development Jupiter fulfills his promise to his daughter. He orders Mercury to fetch Psyche to Mount Olympus. The entire section that begins with Mercury's mission in search ofPsyche is tied together in a neat circle. Jupiter offers Psyche a cup of , thus making her immortal: «sume» inquit, <

CONCLUSION

Cupid improvises on his mother's plot to instill in Psyche passion for the worst of mankind and instead shoots himself, thereby falling in love with his mother's rival. In this respect Cupid acts as a regular comic lover and then carries out his fabula in keeping with his role: he unites with Psyche in the palace, but does not reveal his appearance to her. In so doing, Cupid can keep his affair

206 Panagyotakis 1996, 106-113, explains Venus' reaction in the tale in terms of her old age and further establishes a connection between trickery and old age. New Comedy in Apuleius' Tale of O,pid & P!Jche 177 secret from his mother. In this sense Cupid's invisibility can be seen as a persona. The exposure of his fabula takes place with the enactment of the sisters' fictive scheme to cast Psyche down from her good fortune. The «encounter» of these two performances exposes Cupid's actual appearance and redefines his assumption of an invisible identity as the performance of a role. Clearly, the success of the sisters' fa/lacia depends on Psyche's ignorance of her husband's real identity. This «removal»ofCupid's theatrical mask puts an end to Psyche's blessed union with her husband and marks the beginning of her wanderings and troubles at the hands ofVenus. When Venus learns ofher son's «marriage»to her rival, she becomes furious and attempts to put an end to it by assigning to her rival four trials, which she hopes will stir up the passion of some mortal for her. Venus fails miserably in her plans; for the only lover who sympathizes with Psyche's sufferings and comes to her aid is Cupid himself. This «corruption» of Venus' «text» is brought about by Cupid's assumption of the role of auctor in the enactment of his subplot to save his wife from his mother's wrath. Unlike her performance in the first half of the tale, here Psyche performs admirably. She carries out Venus' difficult tasks by faithfully following the instructions ofvarious agents sent by Cupid. The alert audience and/or readers anticipate Venus' failure to «rewrite» her son's failed mission because she cannot in fact arouse passion without the use ofher son's arrows. Cupid resolves to go to Jupiter, here the senex lepidus of New Comedy plots, in order to seek his help and eliminate his mother's opposition to his «marriage» The supreme god complies. In his grand performance at the end of the tale Jupiter legitimizes Cupid's marriage and, by analogy, his drama by removing all of Venus' objections to the union. Jupiter can be seen as a Euripidean deus ex machina, enabling the marriage to take place. With the removal of all her objections to the union, Venus finally gives her consent to the marriage, in a way comparable to the irati senes of New Comedy plots, who end up endorsing the marriage of their sons with the girls they love when the latter's citizenship credentials have been firmly established. After all, marriage as an institution requires parental consent. Just as comic plays regularly end with marriage, legitimate children and sons in harmony with their parents, the tale concludes in a spirit of joy and celebration with the description of the divine wedding on Mount Olympus. Comic lovers usually fail to carry out the demands imposed by their role, and usually the slaves carry out their duties. The success of Cupid's performance gives an added dimension to this New Comedy conven tion.207

207 Anderson 1993, 113 observes that «[i]n play's of Plautus' maturity, drastic changes are introduced to inherited love stories, and the typical lover gets shunted aside, upstaged by more enterprising characters...» B biography

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Agave, 136; 141 6.22: 145.6-19, 173 anagnorisis, 11; 146; 175 6.23: 145.25-146.1-5, 174 6.23: 146.5-8, 174 Apollo, 59; 138; 141; 143; 150-1; 6.24: 146.22-25, 176 153-4; 159; 161 7.11: 162.30-1, 167 apotheosis, 146; 175 , 81; 126 Apuleius auctor adulterinus, 162; 168; 169 Metamorphoses 4.33: 100.23-101.4,153-4 choragos, 28 4.34: 101.25-102.14, 151 5.1: 103.14-15, 154 comoedia palliata, 140 5.11: 111.21-24, 153 confarreatis neptis, 159-60 5.13: 113.20, 154 counter-theatricalization, 4-5; 80 5.15: 115.6-7,152 5.17: 116.19-21,153 deus ex machina, 82; 126; 146; 175; 177 5.21: 119.9-15, 155 Dionysus, 20; 26; 136-7; 141-3 5.24: 122.1-12, 148-9 5.28: 125.12-20, 160 Diphilus, 69 5.30: 127.9-10, 162 dramatic/narrative programs, 148 5.30: 127.17-24,162-3 5.31: 128.1-4, 163 epidikasia, 77; 85; 88; 97 6.4: 131.22-24, 175 6.5: 132.2-12, 165 fabula, 9; 11; 20; 36; 98; 101; 109; 119; 6.9: 134.21-135.1-5, 166 140; 145; 150; 154; 158; 163; 174; 6.10: 135.10-12, 167 176; 177 6.10: 135.13-15, 168 flagitatio, 38-9 6.15: 139.11-15,169 6.15: 140.7-6.16: 140.9, 169 LexJulia, 145; 173 6.17: 141.5-7, 170 6.19: 143.8-12, 170 190 Plots and Subplots ludus, 3; 13; 66; 134 105-7,50 lusus, 162; 164 194-5,67 204-5,26 narrative/dramatic programs, 148 231-2,27 304-5, 28; 39 omophalJ',137 354-60, 29-30 407-18,32 Pentheus, 136 427-30,45 431-7,63-4 Phasma, 38; 47; 69 470-1,56 Philemon, 47; 69 497-504,34 Plautus 506-16,36 Captivi 510-1,36 845-51,52-3 728-31,41 860-5, 126 733-44, 41-2 914-8,53 775-82, 43-4 Mercator 810-4,46 195-7,63 845-7,48 225-51, 133 849-51,48 292-3,116 885-97,51-3 303-4, 116; 136 916-8,49 418-23,98 931-2,49 469-73,136 939-46, 54-5 544-54,137 947-56,56 678-80,138 956-62,57 686-8,138 966-86, 58-60 741-7,62 993-6,63 833-41,139-40 1027-8,65 909-11, 140 1030-40,47-8; 65 919-22,140-1 1047-50,44 971-4, 14-5 1064-7,67-8 982-6,15 1122-7,69-70 988-9,15 1153-61, 70-1 991-4, 15-6 1162-5,71 MilesGloriosus play within a play, 1; 2; 62; 119 790-3,26 Mostellaria sequestratio, 138-9 27-8,25 sparagmos, 137 31-2, 72 General Index 191

Terence 346-7,94 Andria 361-7,95 475-6,9 391-2,96-7 492-4,9-10 413-7,97 922-5,11 578-87, 112-3 Eunuchus 585-7,95 14-9,123 648-58, 104-5 255-64,128 745-6, 109 583-90,2-3 814-5,114 951-8,11-2 820-7, 113 1007-18,12-3 829-32,106-7 Phormio 841-2, 110 885-6, 117-8 12-21,123 885-7,127 72-6,102-3 885-90,108 80-2,83 941-7,118-9 93-100,83-4 948-51,119 125-34, 84-5 979-89,120 157-60,85-6; 112 1004-9,121 210-4,87 1027-8,122-3 317-8,93-4 1029-30, 124 324-31,90-1 1038-9,103 334-6,91 1040-2, 125 338-45, 92-3