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Home , Abu Yusuf, Ibn Hazm, Khamr, Najis, Recommended precaution, Talhah

JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS

ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 05, 2020

PRINCIPLES REGARDING THE USE OF SOURCES IN MODERN FOOD PRODUCTS: AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Mohd Izhar Ariff Mohd Kashim1,2, Ab Rahman, Z.3*, Ahmad Yunus Mohd Noor2,3, Fariza Md Sham2, Nur Asmadayana Hasim2,4, Mohd Safiai1, Mohd Helmy Mokhtar5 & Salasiah Hanin Hamjah6

1Sharia Research Centre, Faculty of , Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 2Institute of Hadhari, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 3Research Centre for & Philosophy, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 4Pusat Citra Universiti, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 5Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 6Research Centre for Human and Community Well-being, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Received: 28 February 2020 Revised and Accepted: 06 March 2020

ABSTRACT: Nowadays, there are many different types of modern food products that are produced through modern biotech technology. Of these modern food products, some are based on ingredients, while others contain sources of (impure). Food products that are based on halal resources certainly do not give any rise for concern; however, najis-sourced food products have garnered much debate and attention. Conflict arises when Islamic scholars differ in their of the permissibility of modern food products. The Shafie and schools of thought have prohibited all forms of najis-based food products, notwithstanding the undertaking of the process of istihalah. This is in contrast to the views of the and schools of thought, that have permitted modern food products that are sourced from najis products, given that the process of istihalah has been performed accordingly. Results of this discussion conclude that the views of the Hanafi and Maliki sects are based on strong argumentative factors. Nonetheless, taking the path of ihtiyat (recommended precaution), such that of the Shafie mazhab, is the more preferred and safer practice. KEYWORDS: Blood, DNA, Food, Modern, Biotechnology, Najis.

I. INTRODUCTION This study would not be accurate and complete without the discussion of several crucial terms that are usually mentioned in the discussion of modern food products, such as principle, haram, najis and istihalah. The term principle refers to the basis or foundation of a law or theory. For instance, someone who wants to open up a shop, should first learn the basics of running a business (Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2002). In , the word principle is al-dabit, which, linguistically, denotes the binding of something with an immense strength (, 1996). In the context of this discussion, the word al-dabit refers to the establishing of guidelines or principles according to (Ibn al-Nujaim, n.d; Abdul al-Qadir, 2007; Abdul al-Wahhab, n.d; al-Fayyumi, n.d; al-Sayutiyy, n.d; Kashim, 2017). In his book, Dawabit al-Maslahah, Said Ramadhan al-Buti explains that dabit is a clear guideline for , for a specific law or ruling, that is established with the intent to prevent any forms of doubts or confusion of aspects of fiqh (al-Buti, n.d). He further explained that the word dabit is synonymous with the meaning of al-Shurut: conditions in which an (act of worship) is performed in accordance with Islamic teachings, thus, rendering it sah (acceptable) from an Islamic perspective (al-Buti, n.d). Therefore, the word dabit is used in this article as a term to refer to the set of clear guidelines and principles regarding products which contain sources of najis, either from animals or the like. Another term used in this discussion is haram, which refers to something that has been prohibited in Islam, without any exceptions (al-Zuhayli, 1995; Kashim, 2018a). The term haram often relates to subjects that are najis (impure), food and consumer goods. The Arabs attributed these two qualities with khabith, which means anything that is

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unclean and dirty (Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2002). In the context of this study and the discussion of food, the term haram is associated with sources containing pigs, carcasses, flowing blood, and animals that have not been slaughtered according to the Islamic requirements. This term is also sometimes associated with wealth derived from haram sources such as (usury), robbery, theft and so on. These things are deemed unclean and najis, as they do not please SWT (al-Zuhayli, 1998).

The most important term used in this discussion is istihalah, which denotes the process of completely transforming the nature of a substance into another, such that its original characteristic and state is no longer evident (Kashim, 2018b; al-Hattab, 2003). The scholars of the Maliki school of thought hold the view that this word serves as a key word to refer to the process of transforming a substance’s existing feature, to result in a new feature, until the existing feature disappears (al-Hattab, 2003). Scientists, on the other hand, argue that the word istihalah, refers to the process of change that takes place scientifically, either naturally or through chemical processes. For example, the process carried out on substances like oil, animal fat or plants, where its physical nature transforms into that of soap and the likes. The transformed substance is no longer referred to as oil or fats, rather it is now given a different name according to the product that has been artificially produced. The aforementioned process is called istihalah (Che Wan Jasimah, 2000; Kashim, 2019).

II. ISTIHALAH IN MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCED FOOD By 2020, Biosafety Department of Malaysia have permitted hundreds of modern biotechnology products (Hasim et al., 2019). The acceptance of biotechnology modern products in Malaysia has been debated among the stakeholders (Hasim et al. 2020). One of the main of this arising issue is the source used in modern biotechnology products. Biotechnology allows all forms of istihalah to be made to an organism at its molecular level. Uncertainty pertaining to its permissibility arises when these transformations occur to organisms which are then used for food, or products from said organisms are used to produce food. In biotechnological terms, animals that have had their DNA modified are referred to as transgenic or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Tolin & Vidaver, 2009; Hasim et al., 2020). In most cases, these changes occur at the molecular level and is not physically visible. For illustrative purposes, consider a rice plant which has been genetically modified with the cytochrome P450 gene, derived from a pig (National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 2002). The intent behind said transformation is to make the paddy plant resistant to herbicides which, in turn, benefits farmers in their farming duties. Moreover, technologies such as the use of blood plasma in food, have also raised concerns for Muslims worldwide (Mohd Kashim et al., 2017). While said technologies and processes provide various benefits to the industrial and research sectors, the issue on the permissibility of the process as well as its by-products has gained public attention. Animals that are halal, are often also genetically modified. There are two categories of halal products. First category is in respect to animals that are genetically modified by genes derived from animals that are also halal, but said genes were taken in the state where animals were still alive, or not slaughtered according to Islamic requirements. This process can be exemplified in the transgenic fish that carries the genes of a chicken (Ozato et al., 1986), and the transgenic lamb carrying the genes of another lamb (Nancarrow et al., 1987). The second category includes animals that are genetically modified with genes derived from non-halal animals, as can be seen in the transgenic lamb carrying the genes of a mouse (Wall et al., 1995), the transgenic fish carrying the genes of a butterfly (Dunham, 2009), and the transgenic rabbit carrying genes of a mouse (Weidle, Lenz & Brem, 1991). In another instance, rice plants have been reported to be genetically modified by using genes from insects (Giri & Laxmi, 2000). Human genes are also frequently artificially introduced in transgenic animals. The cloning of genes that produce human proteins is crucial for the large-scale production of said proteins, often used for medical purposes. For instance, the human growth hormone introduced into a transgenic rabbit (Limonta et al., 1995), lysine introduced in a sheep such that its milk can contain lysine (Maga et al., 2006), as well as the human produced protein α-lactalbumin produced in the milk of a transgenic cow (Wang et al., 2008). However, in the urge to produce human proteins in animals, animals that are indisputably haram, such as transgenic pigs, are also often used (Park et al., 2006). Said pig is still deemed haram, even though its DNA has been transformed to that of a halal animal.

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It should be noted that the genes used to produce transgenic animals or plants, are not the original gene molecules from the donor animal, such as pigs. The process of isolation involves several stages, including a series of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cloning into bacteria. During these two stages, the DNA of the donor, pigs for instance, has been replicated millions of times such that the DNA or the gene that is introduced into the organism is no longer the natural form of the donor DNA (Sambrook, Fritsch & Maniatis, 1989). However, it should be noted that while the synthetic genes used are no longer the pig DNA in its natural state, the properties of the molecules and proteins produced by said genes are still of pig origin. Therefore, food products produced through the modern process discussed above, must be closely examined and discussed in great detail to ensure the avoidance of errors in the determination of its permissibility from the perspective of Islam and the modern world.

III. PRINCIPLE REGARDING NAJIS THAT HAS CHANGED IN STRUCTURE Islamic scholars have differing views in deciding the ruling pertaining to istihalah, which transforms a substance of najis (impurity) into one that is clean and pure (Mohd Kashim et al., 2018). The transformation occurs either through natural processes or processes based on modern biotechnology. As a result of these processes, what was once considered najis, is no longer considered najis. As such, the fuqaha have conflicting views regarding the permissibility of najis that has changed in structure, feature and characteristic, to be a substance that is no longer perceived as najis by people. An example of this process is the transformation and processing of pig fats into soap, which is, now, both scented and cleansing. In discussing the permissibility of the end-product of said processes, the views of the fuqaha are divided into two: a) All kinds of najis that has changed in structure is deemed to be pure or purifying, notwithstanding its najis origins. For instance, pig fat that has been processed into soap, medicinal capsules, and pig fat that is used on plants, vegetations and so on, is now considered pure. This view is supported by scholars of the Hanafi school of thought, including Muhammad (Ibn Hammam, 2003), the Maliki mazhab scholars (al-Hattab, 2003), as well as the scholars of the Hanbali mazhab (Ibn al-Qudamah, n.d). The Hanafi mazhab explains that the determination of permissibility of a substance is based on its end-product; a substance that has transformed in structure to possess completely different properties than its original form, will be judged according to its form at the end of the process (not its original properties). This indicates that products containing najis, that have undergone the process of transformation into products that do not contain any traces of impurities, such as the smell, colour and taste of the original product, are considered to be pure and halal for consumption by Muslims, without a doubt. The same principle applies to pig fat that has been mixed, along with other halal ingredients, in the process of producing salt. On the surface, the final product does not indicate that it contains pig fat, rendering it, according to scholars, halal for consumption (al-Nasafi, 1997). Muhammad further explains that faeces that has been processed either through combustion, absorption, or other means, such that its structure is changed into dust, manure, solids, fragrances and the likes, is considered pure and halal for ibadah or other uses (, 1966). In regards to the issue of substances that had its structures transformed into something new, the Hanafi sect has issued numerous fatwa. Among them are:  The ruling on cooking meat which still contains flowing blood is that, if it is cooked to the point where there is no more blood, then it is pure and halal to be consumed (al-Nasafi, 1997).  Pots and jars that are made from soil containing traces of najis, are considered pure and clean. Any food or cooked and boiled using said utensils or crockery is halal to be consumed, as the determination of the ruling of permissibility is based on the end-product, rather than its origin (al-Nasafi, 1997).  The baking of bread containing wine is considered pure and clean, as long as the end-product does not leave any traces of the wine properties such as its smell, taste and colour. Most importantly, the end-product does not intoxicate when ingested (al-Awzajandari, 1411H).  Najis substances that are modified into purifying substances such as soap, are considered clean and pure (Mujmun'at al-, n.d). Similarly, the Maliki school of thought explains that every najis that has been transformed into something good, is considered pure and clean. However, if the opposite occurs (clean substance transformed into something impure), then it becomes najis, thus, haram. For example, halal food that is consumed, but then processed in the stomach and exits through the rectum as faeces, or through the mouth as vomit, the end-product (faeces and vomit) is then rendered to be haram even though the original state of the food was pure and halal. This is due to the effects of the process on the food and drinks that entered the stomach, which have resulted in the impure and najis product. Therefore, the permissibility of a substance depends on its final product, without the consideration of its original

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ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 05, 2020 state (al-Dardir, n.d). The views of these scholars are based on the principle of musawah. Alcohol, in its original state, is considered as a najis; however, upon the process of istihalah, it transforms into vinegar and is, then, deemed halal. Therefore, the determination of permissibility depends on a substance’s final product: if the resultant product is good, it is halal; otherwise, it is haram (al-Dardir, n.d).

The same stance is adopted by the fuqaha of al- sect. They have argued that if any of the najis substances has changed in structure, such as its colour, odour and taste, into a different matter, then the ruling pertaining to its permissibility also changes to halal. However, this is subject to the concept of ‘illah (operative causes) of the subject of discussion. If there is no ‘illah or plausible reasons for it to be rendered impure or haram, then the matter is considered halal. Should there be elements of ‘illah, on the other hand, then the dominant ruling of the permissibility of the matter is that it is haram. As outlined in usul fiqh, "an ‘illah that is permanent and clear in nature, serves as an indication of the permissibility of a matter” (al-Zuhayli, 1995). In another instance, this concept is also explained from an usul fiqh perspective, "there is no doubt to the change of a ruling, when there is change in time and place” (Md. Saleh, 2000). The above-discussed ideas, according to al-Zahiri sect, seem to establish a guideline to the determination of permissibility for najis that has changed in structure. It is imperative that rulings should be analysed from a variety of aspects, especially from the aspect of ‘illah, which forms as the basis of the determination of whether a matter is halal or haram. Therefore, this sect is of the opinion that it is inaccurate to, by default, determine a new product created from sources of najis, as haram, if the end-product has changed in nature and is no longer perceived as najis (, n.d). In regards to this discussion, supports the views of the Hanafi and Maliki scholars. He critically argues that if alcohol is permitted by Islam, after it has been transformed into vinegar through the natural process of fermentation, the artificial process that is controlled by humans, whereby the subject is ensured to no longer resemble or contain any traces of alcohol, is more halal. He further argues that the permissibility of every matter should be considered from the perspective of and the , before it is rendered haram. However, if the conclusion cannot be derived from the texts found in the Quran and Sunnah, it is then, the duty of the mujtahid to refer to the prevalence of ‘illah (operative causes) in a subject, that may deem it haram. By doing this, the establishing of the rulings regarding a subject’s permissibility, through the method of qiyas, can be more accurate, and does not necessarily prohibit something which Allah SWT has permitted (Abd al-Rahman, n.d; Mohd Noor, 2019a). It should be noted that Allah SWT has clearly permitted the consumption of everything on this earth, except for carcasses, pork, animals which have not been slaughtered in the name of Allah, and flowing blood, as stated in Surah al-An’am: “Say (O Muhammad), "I do not find within that which was revealed to me [anything] forbidden to one who would eat it unless it be a dead animal or blood spilled out or the flesh of swine - for indeed, it is impure - or it be [that slaughtered in] disobedience, dedicated to other than Allah . But whoever is forced [by necessity], neither desiring [it] nor transgressing [its limit], then indeed, your Lord is Forgiving and Merciful."” (al-Quran, al-an’am, 6:145). The verse quoted above generally outlines that Islam has permitted everything on this earth, for the benefit of Muslims, whether for the purposes of food, drink, consumer goods, medicine and so on, except for the four types of najis ainiyyah: animal carcasses, flowing blood, pork, and animals that are not slaughtered for the sake of Allah SWT (al-Zuhayli, 1998; al-Sayuti, n.d; al-Ashqar, 2006). As such, it would be a grave mistake for one to prohibit anything that has been permitted by Islam, without providing any strong arguments. This is highlighted in the following verse: “Say, "Who has forbidden the adornment of Allah which He has produced for His servants and the good [lawful] things of provision?" Say, "They are for those who believe during the worldly life [but] exclusively for them on the ." Thus, do We detail the verses for a people who know. Say, "My Lord has only forbidden immoralities - what is apparent of them and what is concealed - and sin, and oppression without right, and that you associate with Allah that for which He has not sent down authority, and that you say about Allah that which you do not know." (al-Quran, al-A’raf, 7:32-33). recounted that this verse was revealed for the non-Muslims, who performed tawaf around the Ka’bah, without clothing. Moreover, during season, the same Quraish members would also refuse to eat anything, apart from a few who would only consume fatty foods (al-Zuhayli, 1998). The verse above, emphasises that Allah strongly detests the attitude expressed by members of the Quraish tribe, in the performance of hajj in , as they prohibited themselves from consuming what was not prohibited by Allah SWT. Allah SWT has created a variety of food and drinks for the benefit of mankind. The onus is on

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ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 05, 2020 mankind, to produce something positive out of these materials, for food, drinks, medicine or other purposes. (Al- Zuhayli, 1998, p. 185; al-Qurtubiyy, 1993, p. 192). Moreover, this verse also demonstrates the perfection of the Islamic Shariah, which has extensively clarified the concept of halal and haram in one’s daily life. As for matters that were not discussed in the Quran and the Sunnah, the responsibility then befalls on to mankind, especially Muslims, to determine its permissibility by examining the subject based on the teachings found in the Quran and Sunnah, as well as taking into consideration the concept of maslahat mu’tabarah, in ensuring that the subject will bring benefit to Muslims (Al-Zuhayli, 1998, p. 185). Allah SWT states: “It is He who created for you all of that which is on the earth. Then He directed Himself to the heaven, [His being above all creation], and made them seven heavens, and He is Knowing of all things.” (al-Baqarah, 2:29). Based on this verse, one should ponder if everything on this earth was created for the benefit and use of mankind, why should mankind, then, prohibit the use and render subjects haram, without first examining the subject. Therefore, food produced with substances derived from animals and plants must be thoroughly examined, to ensure the accuracy of the fatwa on the permissibility of its consumption (Abd al- Rahman, n.d; Mohd Noor 2019b; Ab Rahman, 2019). In another verse, Allah SWT states: “ … and He makes lawful for them the good things and prohibits for them the evil…” (al-A’raf, 7:157). From this verse, it can be understood that it has been decreed upon Muslims to use materials that are halal, in their daily life. At the same time, this verse also indicates the prohibition of any forms of food, drinks and consumer products that is of a dirty and najis nature (al-Zuhayli, 1998). a. Fiqh scholars from the Shafi’i sect, such as al-Shirazi (Al-Shirazi, t.th) and al-Shirbini (Al-Shirbini, t.th), and a number of Fiqh scholars from the Hanafi mazhab such as (al-Hanafi, 2003), argue that all kinds of najis that have changed in structure (to become another thing), is still considered as a form of najis, and is thus, haram for Muslims. For example, if significant quantity of ashes from the burning of a najis matter, falls into a well, the water in the well, then, becomes najis. The same principle applies to salt if, for instance, a carcass was found in the salt water used in the process of producing salt. Other supporters of this view include al-Mardawi (al-Mardawi, t.th) and (Ibn Qudamah, t.th) from the Hanbali mazhab. The arguments of said scholars are based largely on the hadeeths of the Prophet SAW, wherein he prohibited the sahabas from using alcohol in their food, even though the alcohol has changed in structure to become vinegar. The hadeeth is as follows: Anas ibn Malik R.A. narrated, “The Messenger of Allah SAW was asked, whether wine could be changed to be used as vinegar? The Prophet quickly said, ‘No.’” (al-Nawawi, 1994). The hadeeth indicates that the Prophet SAW forbade the use of alcohol in the process of producing vinegar as the process is undertaken by humans, as opposed to naturally. As such, the prohibition of alcohol remains the same (haram) regardless of any modifications of its properties. The same principle applies to other haram matters such as the consumption of pork, blood and others (Ibn Abi Ya’la, n.d). Said matters remain haram for the use and consumption, even though its original structure and nature has been transformed into that of other properties, such as can be depicted in the transformation of pig fats into pill capsules and snacks. The second dalil used by scholars of this view is the narration of Anas ibn Malik: “The Messenger of Allah SAW was asked by Abu Talhah, about some orphans who had inherited some wine (alcohol). The Prophet said, ‘Burn [destroy] it.’ Abu Talhah asked again, ‘Could we not make it into vinegar?’ The Prophet said, ‘No.’” (Dawud, n.d). However, it should be noted that the hadeeth above has been argued by the scholars who have permitted the process of istihalah, as, in their opinion, the hadeeth does not refer to the process, but it refers to the old tradition of substituting vinegar with wine as food seasoning (al-Sarkhasi, 2000). In line with this explanation, it can be perceived that the transformation of alcohol into vinegar, and the use of said vinegar in food (after completing the process of modification) is not prohibited in Islam. This is because the final product is no longer considered as alcohol or wine, as its properties has been transformed into that of vinegar. The view that is adopted by this study is of the view of scholars who have allowed the process of istihalah in the production of food. This study finds that the views of said scholars are based on concrete evidence and arguments. Moreover, this view is also consistent with the maslahah or public interest approach in the determination of the

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permissibility of a matter, to safeguard the needs, desires and well-being of Muslims in matters, specifically in relation to their daily life.

IV. CONCLUSION Through the discussion in this study, the conflicting views of scholars, in regards to the transformation of najis matters into food products, can be observed. The Shafi’i and Hanbali schools of thought strongly argue that each product’s permissibility can be determined by the initial stages of the process. If the resultant product was produced from halal matters, then the resultant products is also halal. If the product was produced using najis and haram substances, the resultant product is also najis and haram, regardless of its new properties. On the other hand, scholars of the Maliki and Hanafi mazhab assert that najis that has undergone the process of transformation, such that it has completely changed in nature, is no longer deemed as najis. The view of this group of scholars is the more widely accepted view by other contemporary scholars such as al-Qardawi, Sulayman al-Ashqar, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah and many others. However, this view is not adopted and practised in Malaysia as the fatwas established in Malaysia are based on the Shafie sect. It is interesting to note that despite the conflicting views of scholars, both views are in agreement that any product that gives rise to harm or detrimental to humans, whether directly or indirectly, is haram.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This article is part of the research FRGS / 1/2019 / SS103 / UKM / 02/1: Development of guidelines of plasma- based food from a scientific and Islamic perspective and DCP-2018-001/3.

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