Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

S.Y.B.Sc. Zoology Elective Course, USZO303 Unit I- Amazing 1.1. Natural History Natural History and Life time line: The Earth is a little over 4.5 billion years old, its oldest materials being 4.3 billion-year-old zircon crystals. Its earliest times were geologically violent, and it suffered constant bombardment from meteorites. When this ended, the Earth cooled and its surface solidified to a crust - the first solid rocks. There were no continents as yet, just a global ocean peppered with small islands. Erosion, sedimentation and volcanic activity - possibly assisted by more meteor impacts - eventually created small proto- continents which grew until they reached roughly their current size 2.5 billion years ago. The continents have since repeatedly collided and been torn apart, so maps of Earth in the distant past are quite different to today's. The history of life on Earth began about 3.8 billion years ago, initially with single-celled prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria. Multicellular life evolved over a billion years later and it's only in the last 570 million years that the kind of life forms we are familiar with began to evolve, starting with , followed by fish 530 million years ago (Ma), land plants 475Ma and forests 385Ma. Mammals didn't evolve until 200Ma and our own species, Homo sapiens, only 200,000 years ago. So humans have been around for a mere 0.004% of the Earth's history. Geological timeline: During its dramatic 4.5 billion year history, Earth has gone through a series of major geological and biological changes. The timescale below highlights a number of notable prehistoric events and the geological periods in which they occurred. As things didn't get interesting from a biological perspective until around 570 million years ago, we've included a couple of zoomed in timelines to show the detail of more recent evolutionary history. Geologists have organised the history of the Earth into a timescale on which large chunks of time are called periods and smaller ones called epochs. Each period is separated by a major geological or palaeontological event, such as the mass extinction of the dinosaurs which occurred at the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleocene epoch. Although the Cretaceous-Tertiary (or K-T) extinction event is the most well-known because it wiped out the dinosaurs, a series of other mass extinction events has occurred throughout the history of the Earth, some even more devastating than K-T. Mass extinctions are periods in Earth's history when abnormally large numbers of species die out simultaneously or within a limited time frame. The most severe occurred at the end of the Permian period when 96% of all species perished. This along with K-T are two of the Big Five mass extinctions, each of which wiped out at least half of all species. Many smaller scale mass extinctions have occurred, indeed the disappearance of many animals and plants at the hands of man in prehistoric, historic and modern times will eventually show up in the fossil record as mass extinctions. Discover more about Earth's major extinction events below.

Butterflies the flying Jewels:

Biologists estimate that worldwide there are about 150,000 different species of butterflies and moths, in which approximately 30,000 belong to the butterfly species. The size of a few species of butterflies ranges from less than an inch in size to a wing span of about 10 inches. The smallest species are no bigger than a fingernail and the largest swallowtails are larger than the smallest birds. The world’s tiniest known species, the blue pygmy (Brephidium exilis), is found in Southern California and has a wing span of just Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18 over half an inch. Both the world’s smallest butterflies occur in peninsular India. The largest species, the New Guineas Queen Alexandria’s bird wing (Ornithoptera Alexandrae) can measure up to twelve inches from wingtip to wingtip. The Goliath Bird wing butterfly is the second-largest butterfly in the world.

The largest moth, The Atlas Moth (Attacus atlas) has a wingspan of 1 foot (30 cm). The smallest moth, the Nepticulid moth is 0.1 inch long. Destruction of its habitat is threatening this beautiful creature with extinction. Butterflies provide aesthetic appeal and are connected with all plants and crops at all stages of their life cycle. Few are aware of the crucial role the butterfly plays in pollination of a large portion of economically important crops and flowering plants, which is second only to the honeybee. They pollinate about 75 per cent of staple crops in the world and 80 per cent of all flowering plants. The economic value of pollination is about $ 200 billion. Scientific studies have proved beyond doubt that pollinators account for 12% of the value of world ide agricultural production. Beneficial Aspects of Butterflies: Butterflies are categorized as keystone species, which enable many smaller species of to thrive and reproduce in an ecosystem. In simple terms, it denotes that conservation of butterflies, also conserves, other species of insects. In fact, the basic health of our ecosystem is directly dependent on the number of butterfly species. Butterflies act as indicators in monitoring environmental health. Play an important role in food chains and food webs. Excellent pollinators. Bio control of weeds. Butterflies are very sensitive to pollution and have been used as bio-indicators to detect the pollution levels Facts: The fact of the matter is that most butterfly species have an average lifespan ranging from 20 to 40 days. A few species may live up to nine months Butterflies are found worldwide except on the continent of Antarctica Butterflies can only see the colours red, green and yellow Most butterfly species are dark coloured because they need to absorb heat from the surrounding environment Caterpillars spend most of their time eating leaves using strong mandibles (jaws). A caterpillar's first meal, however, is its own eggshell. A few caterpillars are meat-eaters; the larva of the carnivorous Harvester butterfly eats woolly aphids Butterflies do not have any chewing mouth parts. They are gifted with a tubular straw like appendage known as proboscis which enables them to sip nectar. Butterflies "smell" with their antennae and taste with their feet Butterflies are one of the few creatures on earth that can orient themselves both in latitude and longitude Male butterflies attract females by releasing pheromone chemicals (scent) from their abdomen Butterflies and moths are picky in choosing leaves for egg laying. Butterflies and moths are picky in choosing leaves for their diet. When folded, a butterfly's wings are usually much less colourful, providing instant camouflage from would-be predators The earliest butterfly fossils are from the early Cretaceous period, about 130 million years ago. Their development is closely linked to the evolution of flowering plants (angiosperms) Butterflies are the only insects that have scales .Butterfly scales contain pigment, which in combination with light refraction gives butterflies their colors Moth species outnumber butterfly species by 16-to-1.

Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Butterfly Smuggling:

A global network of poachers and smugglers are wiping out threatened species of butterflies. Smugglers entice the locals and school children by paying them rupees fifty for every butterfly they catch. They are then killed, dried and used in greeting cards, wall plate hangings and for other ornamental and decorative purposes. In the international market some species of butterflies like the bird wing butterfly found on the Tiger hill of Jammu and Kashmir is sold at $2500. The yellow colour in the wings of some species is permanent and is used in gold ornaments. The most endangered species are the giant swallowtail Papilio homerus, whose velvety black and gold wings are highly prized as decorative agents. In spite of butterflies being protected by international and national laws, butterfly smuggling is rampant in India, especially from the Western Ghats. Lack of expertise in the identification of butterflies (Endeared, rare, threatened species) helps smugglers get away. Such lacuna in the system needs to be corrected with immediate effect. Believe it or not, trade in endangered species (including wildlife) is worth an estimated 15 billion dollars a year.

Blue mormon:- Papilio polymnestor, which is commonly known as Blue Mormon, has been declared as the state butterfly by the Maharashtra government on June 22. Maharashtra has also become the first state to have the second largest butterfly, found in India, as the State butterfly. The decision was taken at a meeting conducted by the State Wildlife Board in Mumbai. The meeting was chaired by Finance and Planning Minister Sudhir Mungantiwar. Earlier, the State of Maharashtra had also considered Giant Squirrel as the state and Green Pigeon as the state bird. Here are some facts on the State butterfly of Maharashtra, Blue Mormon:

 It has velvet, black wings with bright blue spots  It is the largest butterfly in India after the Troides minos commonly known as the Southern Birdwing  It is only found in Sri Lanka, the western ghats of Maharashtra, South India and coastal belts of the country  Out of the total number of butterflies in the country, only 15 percent are found in Maharashtra. To conserve butterflies in Maharashtra, Blue Mormon was declared as the state butterfly  The population of Blue Mormons is not threatened. Although the Blue Mormons can be seen throughout the year, they occur more commonly in the monsoon or after it  The most number of Blue Mormons are found in Sri Lanka because the country has availability of the most number of food plants  The butterfly is most common in evergreen forests  The pupa of this butterfly is very large in size  Blue Mormons usually like to sit on the Ixora flower species.

Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Striped tiger: , the common tiger, is one of the common butterflies of India. It belongs to the "crows and tigers", that is, the Danainae group of the brush-footed butterflies family. The butterfly is also called striped tiger in India to differentiate it from the equally common plain tiger, Danaus chrysippus. The butterfly closely resembles the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) of the Americas. The wingspan is 7 to 95 millimetres (0.28 to 3.74 in). Both sexes of the butterfly have tawny wings with veins marked with broad black bands. The female has a pouch on the hind wing. The margins of the wings are black with two rows of white spots. The underside of the wings resembles the upper side but is paler in colouration. The male common tiger has a prominent black-and-white spot on the underside of the hind wing. In drier regions the tawny part of the hind wing pales and approaches white in colour making it very similar to the white tiger. Members of this genus are leathery, tough to kill and fake death. Since they are unpleasant to smell and taste, they are soon released by the predators, recover and fly off soon thereafter. The butterfly sequesters toxins from its food plants of the family Asclepiadaceae. The butterflies also congregate with other danaiines to sip from the sap of Crotalaria, Heliotropiumand other plants which provide the pyrrolizidine alkaloids which they sequester. A study in north-eastern India showed a preference to foraging on Crotalaria juncea compared to Bauhinia purpurea, Barleria cristata rosea and Nerium oleander. To advertise their unpalatability, the butterfly has prominent markings with a striking colour pattern. The striped tiger ismimicked by both sexes of the Indian Tamil lacewing ( nietneri mahratta) and the leopard lacewing (Cethosia cyane) and females of the common palmfly.

Herpetofauna of India- Amphibians have high species richness and endemism in India, with two major centers of distribution, north-east India and the Western Ghats. Out of the 219 species in India, majority of the species occur in the rainforest and almost all the endemism is confined to it. A recent assessment based on lUCN criteria showed that nearly 57% of amphibians in India are 'Threatened' with western ghats having the highest number. The reptilian fauna of India is largely dominated by Indo-Chinese elements. Relics of which are found in high rainfall regions of Peninsular and North East India (Daniel 2002). About 484 species has been reported from India, 180 species are known to occur in the Western Ghats with a high level of endemicity. India apparently harbors the most diverse amphibian fauna in the oriental region. Flying Frog: The overachieving Wallace's flying frog wasn't content to just hop and swim. Thousands of years of watching birds navigate the rain forest and avoid predators by taking to the sky appears to have convinced this unique amphibian that air travel is the way to go. In the Air Also known as parachute frogs, Wallace's flying frogs inhabit the dense tropical jungles of Malaysia and Borneo. They live almost exclusively in the trees, descending only to mate and lay eggs. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

When threatened or in search of prey, they will leap from a branch and splay their four webbed feet. The membranes between their toes and loose skin flaps on their sides catch the air as they fall, helping them to glide, sometimes 50 feet or more, to a neighboring tree branch or even all the way to the ground. They also have oversized toe pads to help them land softly and stick to tree trunks. Wallace's flying frogs are not the only frogs who have developed this ability, but they are among the largest. The black color of their foot webbing helps distinguish them from their similarly aerial cousins. Population They are generally bright green with yellow sides and grow to about 4 inches. They survive mainly on insects. The Wallace's flying frog population is considered stable, and they have special status only in certain localities. However, they are partial to breeding and laying eggs in the fetid wallowing holes of the nearly extinct Asian rhinoceros, and further decreases in rhino populations may negatively affect the species.

Fan Throated Lizard (Sitana ponticeriana): The lizards are small-sized and many would fit on our palms. They are only found in South Asia. The renowned French naturalist Georges Cuvier described the first species of the Fan- throated lizard Sitana ponticeriana in 1829 in Puducherry. The Fan-throated Lizard Sitana ponticeriana is a beautiful agamid found in most parts of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka & Nepal. These gentle agamids are colorful dragons of the modern world. These lizards have a thin flap of skin called a gular appendage, between their throat and their abdomen which they can flap/ flash at will. Normally these appendages are whitish or creamish in color, but what’s interesting is that during the breeding season (mainly May-June) the males of these species develop a wonderful coloration ranging from blue-black-red. They take positions over small rocks or branches on the ground and flash their brightly colored gular appendages to attract other females and also to warn off other males about their territory.

Feathered bipeds:

Birds are warm-blooded bipedal vertebrates that lay hard-shelled eggs. They are characterized by bony beaks, hollow bones, feathers and forelimbs modified as wings. In short, birds can be called Feathered Bipeds. Since birds are warm-blooded, their body is covered with insulating feathers to maintain an even temperature. Size of the birds can vary from the tiny flowerpeckers & hummingbirds, to the huge Ostrich and the Sarus Crane. In India, other than the Sarus Crane, the Himalayan Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier is the biggest bird and the tiny Tickell's Flowerpecker is hardly bigger than a human thumb. Most birds are capable of flight, but some larger birds like Penguins, Ostrich and Kiwi are flightless. Depending on different scientific classifications, as of today there are over 9000 bird species (1250 in India), with almost 150 having become extinct after the arrival of Humans. The Sibley-Ahlquist Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18 , based on extensive DNA-DNA hybridization, has resulted in the Sibley-Monroe checklist which has revolutionized the whole system of bird classification.

Birds have a keen eyesight and good hearing but their sense of taste and smell is poor. Birds are generally diurnal (active during the day), some are nocturnal (active during the night), somecrepuscular (active during twilight hours) and some nocturnal & crepuscular both. Many birds migrate long distances with change in seasons to maximize feeding hours and/or to breed in suitable habitats. Arctic Terns migrate twice every year from Arctic to Antarctica and back (over 15,000 km one way!). Some birds, like the Wandering Albatross, spend most of their time at sea. Some, such as frigatebirds, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing. The large variety of bird food includes honey, nectar, seeds, grains, vegetable matter, insects, larva, spiders, fish, molluscs, rodents, reptiles, small mammals, carrion or other birds.

Numerous species have come to depend on human activities for food and are widespread to the point of being pests. They have adapted well to the rapid urbanization and growth in human population. For example, the House Crow and Rock Pigeon thrive near human habitation in large parts of the world. While in addition to these two species, the Common Myna, Bank Myna and Black Kite are thriving in India; Vultures (Aegypiinae) and the House sparrow are facing an inexplicable decline in their population.

Kingfisher-

The Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), is one of Britains most brightly coloured and interesting birds. Kingfishers are widespread, especially in central and southern England, becoming less common further north, however, following some declines last century, they are currently increasing in their range in Scotland. Kingfishers are found by still or slow flowing water such as lakes, canals and rivers in lowland areas. In winter, some individuals move to estuaries and the coast. Occasionally they may visit suitably sized garden ponds. The number of breeding pairs in the UK is 6,100 (4,400 in Britain and 1,700 in Ireland). Common Kingfishers measure 17 – 19 centimetres in length, weigh between 34 – 46 grams and have a wingspan of 25 centimetres. Their beak is around 4 centimetres long and pointed. Kingfishers have short, orange coloured legs. Kingfishers are very brightly coloured. The colour of their wings is a blue/green colour and their upperparts, rump and tail are a bright blue colour. Their underparts are bright orange and they have a small, white bib underneath their beaks, on their throats. The kingfishers head is blue with orange marks in front and behind the birds eyes and a white mark on each side of the head. These bright, beautiful colours are more apparent when the bird is in flight. Male kingfishers and female kingfishers are are almost identical except for an orange colouration with a black tip on the lower part of the females beak/mandibles. Young kingfishers are similar to the adults in appearance, however, they have duller and greener upperparts, paler underparts, black beak and initially, black legs. Kingfishers have very keen eyesight. The kingfisher has monocular vision (in which each eye is used separately) in the air and binocular vision (in which both eyes are used together) in water. The underwater vision is not as a sharp as in the air, however, the ability to judge the distance of moving prey is more important than the sharpness of the image. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

The Common kingfisher has no particular song, however, they vocalize using a shrill ‘tsee’ or ‘tsee-tsee’ call. Their flight call is a short sharp whistle, chee, repeated two or three times. Anxious birds emit a harsh, shrit-it-it and nestlings call for food with a churring noise. In temperate regions, kingfishers inhabit clear, slow-flowing streams and rivers and lakes with well- vegetated banks. Kingfishers are often found in scrubs and bushes with overhanging branches close to shallow open water in which it hunts. In winter, the kingfisher is more coastal, often feeding in estuaries or harbours and along rocky seashores. Kingfishers feed on aquatic insects such as dragonfly larvae and water beetles and small fish ranging from 1 inch to 5 inches long, such as sticklebacks, minnows, small roach and trout. About 60% of food items are fish. In winter, kingfishers feed up on crustaceans including freshwater shrimps. The Common Kingfisher hunts from a perch 1 – 2 metres (3 – 6 feet) above the water, on a branch, post or riverbank with its beak pointing downwards as it searches for prey. The Kingfisher bird bobs its head when food is detected to gauge the distance and plunges steeply down to grab its prey usually no deeper than 25 centimetres (19 inches) below the surface of the water. The female lays about 5 or 7 white, glossy eggs but sometimes will lay up to 10 eggs. The eggs hatch in 19 – 20 days and the young remain in the nest for a further 24 – 25 days, sometimes longer. Once large enough, young birds will come to the burrow entrance to be fed. Two to three broods may be reared in a season.

Drango: Black drongo is a beautiful Indian bird. It is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail. Its local name is Bhujanga. Size of black drongo is between 22 cm to 30 cm including the tail. The Weight of adult is between 40 g. to 80 g.

Black drongo has glossy blue-black or green-black plumage, with semi-translucent primaries visible in flight. Adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape and the iris is dark brown in color. The tail is long and deeply forked, and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers. Head is black, with only very small white patch at bill’s commissures. Bill is black. Eyes are reddish. Legs and feet are dark grey. The species is described as generally common throughout the Indian Subcontinent, although uncommon in Bhutan, china, Taiwan. Commonly found in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Black Drongo is resident in southern Asia, through India and Sri Lanka, east to southern China and Indonesia. This species is usually found in dry scrub or open forests. The distribution is restricted to peninsular India south of the Himalayas and to the west of the Gangetic delta bounded on the west by the Aravallis. Generally found in open areas, savanna’s and countries. It lives in open forests, habitation, farmlands and slightly wooded habitats, near water. It may be found from sea level to 1900 meters of elevation.

Diet is mainly insectivorous, but it may invariably be seen probing into the blossoms of the Silk Cotton, Flame of the Forest and Coral trees for the sugary nectar they exude. Feeds mainly on insects such as ants and termites, locusts and crickets, beetles, bees, moths and butterflies. It also consumes small reptiles, birds and bats. Black Drongo feeds on flower nectar too, playing an important role in plant pollination. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

They perch upright close to the tops of trees and capture insects in the air with short aerobatic sallies. Larger insects may be captured using their claws.

They are aggressive and fearless in nature. Birds are often seen singly or in groups of 2 or 3 individuals. Males and females sing in the mornings during the breeding season.

Nest is usually built in a horizontal fork, at tip of a branch in an isolated tree. The cup nest is typically situated in a tree. The breeding season is from February to July. The cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass.

The average clutch consists of two to four white, pinkish or creamy eggs, spotted with reddish- brown. Incubation lasts about two weeks. Both parents share domestic duties and protect the nest. The eggs are incubated by both parents and hatch after 14 to 15 days. Nestlings are brooded for the first five days, after which the young are capable of maintaining a fairly constant body temperature.

Young birds have a yellowish-red gape. The feather follicles appear on the fourth day and pin feathers emerge after a week. Nestlings increase in weight steadily until they are 12 days old. The eyes open on the eighth day, the iris reddish-black while the gape turns red. The parents continue to feed and protect them for a month. Young birds may beg for food for longer, but are often ignored or chased away by the adults. Birds reach breeding condition in about two years.

Mammals of India:

Malabar giant squirrel- Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) – complete detail. Description of Indian giant squirrel – Ratufa indica. Habit and habitat of Indian giant squirrel. They prefer mixed deciduous, most evergreen, tropical and rain forests. They are wary and shy in nature.

Distribution of Indian giant squirrel. Weight of Indian giant squirrel is between 1.5 to 2.0 kg. Head to body length measures about 25 to 45 cm. Color of body is deep red to brown, and have white furs in the belly area. Ears of an Indian Giant Squirrel are short and round. They have pronounced and broadened hands with an expanded inner paw for gripping. Cheeks, chest, front of the forelimbs and underparts are white, cream or orange in color. The eyes are bright dark or light brown. The nose and lips are pink in color. They have some long hairs behind. Males actively compete for females during the breeding season and pairs may remain associated for longer periods of time. Breeding occurs throughout the year, or several times during the year. Average number of offspring is 1 or 2. The gestation period is between 29 to 35 days. The average lifespan of Indian giant squirrel is 20 years. Indian giant squirrel is a Schedule – II animal, according to wildlife (Protection) act, 1972 and classified as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN. The weight of Indian giant squirrel is between 1.5 to 2.0 kg. Head to body length measures about 25 to 45 cm. The length of tail about 20 to 40 cm. Indian giant squirrel is one of the world’s most beautiful squirrel. They have two or three tone color scheme with shades of black, brown, and deep red. Color of body is deep red to brown, and have white furs in the belly area. The underparts and the front legs are usually dirty white or cream colored. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Ears of an Indian Giant Squirrel are short and round. They have pronounced and broadened hands with an expanded inner paw for gripping. Cheeks, chest, front of the forelimbs and underparts are white, cream or orange in color. The eyes are bright dark or light brown. The nose and lips are pink in color. They have some long hairs behind the nose and mouth. The tail is long and strong, the color of tail is light brown to creamy white on the tip. Both sexes are almost similar, but females can be distinguished from males by their three sets of mammae.

Slow Loris: Nycticebus coucang is located in southeastern Asia, across India and Philippines. The slow loris is one of the rarest primates. Their closest relative are the African bushbabies. Slow lorises may be slow, but they can travel around 8 kilometers in one night. That's a long distance for such a slow mammal! Muscles on a Nycticebus species allow them to remain still for hours at a time. Muscles on a Nycticebus species allow them to remain still for hours at a time. The movement of a slow loris is snakelike. This is because a slow loris has more spinal vertebra than other primates. The second finger on a slow loris is smaller than the rest for gripping purposes. Out of all the primates, Nycticebus coucang has the longest tongue. This tongue is used to drink nectar. The home range of a slow loris can be as large as 3200 square meters, about 2 square miles! They also can have as many as 60 different sleeping sites that they use! In parts of Asia, the slow loris is believed to be able to cure over 100 diseases. Compared to other nocturnal creatures, a slow loris has one of the slowest rates of development. All Nycticebus species have a light reflecting layer in their eyes called tapetum lucidum. Animals like cat have this! Their eyes are the largest of all the other primates and are the most forward facing. A slow loris has the ability to see in close to complete darkness.

1.2 The Words most amazing animals : are ocean creatures that are most famous for having eight arms and bulbous heads. Some other fun facts: They have three hearts and blue blood; they squirt ink to deter predators; and being boneless, they can squeeze into (or out of) tight spaces. They are quite intelligent and have been observed using tools. And sadly, for them, sex is a death sentence. Description The order Octopoda includes 289 species, according to the World Animal Foundation. The word also refers specifically to animals in the genus Octopus. The word octopus comes from the Greek, októpus, which means Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

"eight foot," according to a Smithsonian magazine articlethat summarized facts in Katherine Harmon Courage's book, "Octopus! The Most Mysterious Creature in the Sea."

Some people call their appendages tentacles, but that is incorrect; they are arms. Most octopus species have suction cups on the bottom of each arm. The arms seem to have a mind of their own. In fact, two- thirds of an octopus' neurons are in its arms rather than its head, according to the article. That means that an octopus can focus on exploring a cave for food with one arm while another arm tries to crack open a shellfish. Some octopuses even have warts. Two deep-sea octopuses in the Graneledone genus — G. pacifica and G. verrucosa — have skin bumps dotting their pink-hued mantles. These warty protrusions, it turns out, can be used to distinguish the two species, which have been incredibly difficult to tell apart. Scientists reporting June 7, 2017 in the journal Marine Biology Research catalogued the distribution of warts on both species, pinpointing two variables that were consistent across the individuals within a given species: distance between the warts and the tip of the mantle and the extent to which the skin bumps spread down the creature's arms. Octopuses have an excellent sense of touch, according to the World Animal Foundation. Their suckers have receptors that enable an octopus to taste what it is touching. Most octopuses — those in the suborder Incirrata (or Incirrina) — have no internal skeletons or protective shells. Their bodies are soft, enabling them to squeeze into small cracks and crevices, according to National Geographic. In April 2016, an octopus at the National Aquarium of New Zealand squeezed out of its tank and made an eight-armed dash for a drainpipe that — luckily for him — led directly to the sea.

A bulbous sack-like body, or mantle, is perched on top of an octopus' head. The only hard part of their bodies is a sharp, parrot-like beak that is on the underside, where the arms converge. Octopuses have powerful jaws and venomous saliva, according to National Geographic. Octopuses weren't always squishy creatures. The ancestors of octopuses and squid sported hard shells. A study published online March 1, 2017 in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciencesrevealed these marine animals lost their hard "mobile homes" in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. This shell loss likely helped the ancient relatives of today's octopus, squid and cuttlefish become more agile to evade predators and nab prey, the researchers said. Three hearts An octopus has three hearts. One pumps blood through its organs; the two others pump blood through its gills, according to the World Animal Foundation. Octopus blood is blue because it has a copper-based protein called hemocyanin.

When an octopus is swimming, the organ that delivers blood to the organs stops beating. This exhausts the octopus, which is likely the reason they prefer to crawl than swim, according to the Smithsonian article. Size Octopuses come in many different sizes. The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is 12 to 36 inches (30.5 to 91.4 centimeters) long and weighs 6.6 to 22 lbs. (3 to 10 kilograms). The giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) is the largest octopus. They typically grow to 16 feet (5 meters) long and weight around 110 lbs. (50 kg), but one was recorded to weigh more than 600 lbs. (272 kg) and measure 30 feet (9.1 m) across, according to National Geographic. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

The smallest octopus is the Octopus wolfi. It is smaller than an inch (2.5 cm) long and weighs less than a gram. Habitat Octopuses live in oceans all over the world. Most are pelagic, meaning they live near the water's surface in shells, reefs and crevices. Some species live on the floor of the ocean, making their homes out of caves. Habits Octopuses tend to be solitary, though they do interact with other octopuses at times. Some species of octopuses hunt at night, while others only hunt at dusk and dawn. When scared, octopuses will shoot a dark liquid, sometimes called ink, at the thing that scared them. This will temporarily blind and confuse a potential attacker, giving the octopus time to swim away. The ink can also dull the attacker’s smelling and tasting abilities, according to the Smithsonian article. Octopuses can also change color to hide and match their surroundings. They can turn blue, gray, pink, brown or green. The mimic octopus can also flex its body to resemble more dangerous animals, such as eels and lionfish, according to the World Animal Foundation. If an octopus does get caught — no problem. They can lose arms and regrow them, according to National Geographic. Octopuses are fast swimmers but they prefer to slowly crawl along the sea bottom. To swim, octopuses suck water into their bodies and shoot it out a tube called a siphon, according to the World Animal Foundation. This lets the octopus blast off, away from attackers. Diet Octopuses are carnivores, which means they eat meat. Meals can include clams, shrimp, lobsters, fish, sharks and even birds. Octopuses typically drop down on their prey, envelop it with their arms and pull the animal into their mouth. Offspring Octopuses have short life spans. Some species only live for around six months. Other species, like the North Pacific giant octopus can live as long as five years. Typically, the larger the octopus, the longer it lives, according to the World Animal Foundation.

No matter what, when octopuses mate, they die soon after. During reproduction, a male delivers sperm by inserting a specialized arm (usually the third right arm) into the female's mantle cavity, according to the World Animal Foundation. Sometimes he literally hands her the sperm, however, according to the Smithsonian article.

Females usually lay 200,000 to 400,000 eggs, though it varies depending on species. She obsessively guards the eggs until they hatch. She even stops eating. After the eggs hatch, her body turns on her, according to the Smithsonian article. It goes through cellular suicide, which rips through her tissues and organs until she dies. Meanwhile, the male has swum away and dies in a few months.

When they hatch, baby octopuses are called larvae. They drift in plankton clouds and eat other animal larvae until they mature.

Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Spider: The most dedicated mother. The world may have found its ‘Mom of the Year’ in the female Stegodyphus lineatus, a desert spider that feeds herself to her young shortly after they’re hatched. This practice, which is known as matriphagy, has been recorded in spiders before, according to Mor Salomon of the Israel Cohen Institute for Biological Control in Yehud-Monosson, Israel. “Matriphagy was first discovered by the German arachnologist Ernst Kullmann in [the] seventies, so the behaviors of regurgitation and matriphagy are not the new discovery here,” “The big discovery [here] is the mechanism behind these behaviors.” Found in the semi-arid regions of Israel and other parts of the Mediterranean basin as well as throughout the Near East and Asia Minor, the female Stegodyphus spins her webs in shrubbery. Webs studied in Salomon’s research were found in bushes near dried-up river beds in Israel’s Negev Desert. Inside the web, she creates a silk disc that contains 70 to 80 eggs, while her intestine tissues begin to dissolve. When the “spiderlings” hatch, she pierces the silk disc, allowing the babies to emerge. “[At this time] a liquid has already accumulated in her gut, allowing her to start regurgitating to her young,” Salomon said. “While she regurgitates, the process in her intestine intensifies and the liquid formed probably travels back through her intestinal tube to her mouth where she secretes it for her young. The babies crawl all over her head, trying to get at the liquid that is leaking from her face. She makes no attempt to escape as her young eventually pierce her soft abdomen with their mouths before feasting on the liquefied guts inside. This process takes a few hours, at the end of which their mom (otherwise known as “dinner”) is officially dead. In the end, the mother has given all but 4 percent of her body mass to her young, who leave her heart alone. While it might seem like a case of taking a mother’s love too far, in the spider world this is business as usual. “Stegodyphus is not the only spider genus showing matriphagy,” Salomon added. “All species in the family Eresidae (to which Stegodyphus belong) show matriphagy and there are other spider families in which it is also [involved].” And though many may find the concept of baby spiders eating their mother’s liquefied innards revolting, Salomon suggested that it’s just another amazing example of nature at work. “It may look ‘disgusting’ for someone who is not familiar, but it shows the amazing way evolution and natural selection work,”. “It is amazing to think that this behavior has evolved as the best way (evolutionarily) for a female to reach a high reproductive success by ‘giving herself to her young’. It really shows how the natural world is remarkable.”

Mudskiper: A walking Fish. While most fish are content to live their lives fully immersed in water, mudskippers (fishes of the genera Periophthalmus, Periophthalmodon, Boleophthalmus, Scartelao, and Zappa, of which the first two are commonly seen in the hobby) not only live IN water, but unlike most fish, mudskippers spend much of their life OUT of water! In nature, at high tide, you can find them at the water's surface, resting on rocks, roots or anything else they can find to perch on, usually within reach of their burrow. At low tide, mudskippers can be seen walking (yes, walking!) on mudflats, actively foraging for food. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

But how do mudskippers, which are fish, walk on dry land? By using their highly modified pectoral (swimming) fins much like legs. And by flipping their bodies, they can "skip" across the mud (and water), which is a great way to avoid predators. They are poor swimmers, and will also use these fins to walk underwater (mudskippers move faster ABOVE water than BELOW it!). Another unusual aspect of mudskippers is that they are one of the few fishes that can actually drown if held underwater. They need to be able to poke their heads above the water's surface and gulp air. Mudskippers retain water in their large gill chamber that closes tightly when the fish is above water. This keeps the gills moist, and allows them to function. You will often see them rotate their eyes to mix the water in the gill chamber and keep the gills from sticking together while at the same time supplying them with oxygen. Yet another amazing fact about mudskippers is that they can actually breathe the same air that we do. They absorb oxygen though blood-rich membranes found at the back of the throat. They can also absorb air through the capillary-rich skin providing the skin remains wet.

Flying Fish: Flying fish can be seen jumping out of warm ocean waters worldwide. Their streamlined torpedo shape helps them gather enough underwater speed to break the surface, and their large, wing-like pectoral fins get them airborne. Flying fish are thought to have evolved this remarkable gliding ability to escape predators, of which they have many. Their pursuers include mackerel, tuna, swordfish, marlin, and other larger fish. For their sustenance, flying fish feed on a variety of foods, including plankton.

Characteristics There are at least 40 known species of flying fish. Beyond their useful pectoral fins, all have unevenly forked tails, with the lower lobe longer than the upper lobe. Many species have enlarged pelvic fins as well and are known as four-winged flying fish. Gliding Ability The process of taking flight, or gliding, begins by gaining great velocity underwater, about 37 miles per hour. Angling upward, the four-winged flying fish breaks the surface and begins to taxi by rapidly beating its tail while it is still beneath the surface. It then takes to the air, sometimes reaching heights over 4 feet and gliding long distances, up to 655 feet. Once it nears the surface again, it can flap its tail and taxi without fully returning to the water. Capable of continuing its flight in such a manner, flying fish have been recorded stretching out their flights with consecutive glides spanning distances up to 1,312 feet. Fishing Flying fish are attracted to light, like a number of sea creatures, and fishermen take advantage of this with substantial results. Canoes, filled with enough water to sustain fish, but not enough to allow Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18 them to propel themselves out, are affixed with a luring light at night to capture flying fish by the dozens. There is currently no protection status on these animals.

Pebble toad: . These tiny little toads only grow to about 3 cm long, with females slightly larger than males. . The Venezuelan Pebble Toad is best known for their incredible defensive strategy . . This toad species can be found in Venezuela (obviously) and there have been a few accounts of them hanging out in Guyana . Unlike other frogs and toads, the Venezuelan Pebble Toad is not able to jump very far – they are capable of jumping roughly an inch . Besides being poor jumpers, this particular toad is also not a very good swimmer. In fact, there have been a few stories suggesting that these small toads have been known to drown in deep puddles. . Pebble toads also breed communally so that a single nest can contain about 100 toads. . Venezuela pebble frog live in peat bogs and rocky areas in the mountains of Venezuela. They are vulnerable to extinction because of their restricted range. When the Venezuelan Pebble Toad feels threatened they take the same approach as one would do when you are on fire. That’s right, they stop, drop and roll. Believe it or not, the Pebble Toad will actually fold itself into a ball and simply roll away from danger. Their sandstone colouring gives our featured toad a pebble-like look, which tricks the hungry predator into thinking it is just a rock rolling down the mountain side. Not too mention, it would be pretty difficult to catch up to a pebble rolling down a mountain.

The only danger that has been reported about this free-fall down the mountain is the toad will often land in deeper bodies of water at the bottom of the hill. As mentioned earlier, they don’t swim very well and this can often lead to a devastating outcome.

Strawberry Poison Frog:

A RAIN FOREST-DWELLING FROG Only about one inch long, the strawberry poison dart frog is a small frog with a plump body and thin limbs. In its common form, the head and body are brilliant strawberry-red or orange-red with blue or black lower parts. The bright coloration is a warning to predators that the animal is toxic. Found mostly in Central America and Puerto Rico, the frog prefers lowland rain forests. In parts of Puerto Rico during the wet months, densities can reach almost 400 frogs per acre, the forest resounding with the loud chirping trills that males make all year round. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Males are territorial and when provoked will jump on top of an interloping male, wrestling for up to 20 minutes. While wrestling, both frogs stand on their hind legs and try to push one another to the ground with their front legs. Once one is pinned, the victor, usually the inhabitant of the territory, allows the other to leave.

Strawberry poison dart frogs mate any time of the year, the female laying up to five eggs on leaf or bromeliad axil. Once the eggs are fertilized, the male and female return to the clutch every day, the male moistening the eggs by emptying his bladder over them. After about a week, the eggs hatch, and the mother ferries them on her back to the vases of bromeliad plants, depositing one tadpole per plant. She returns to each tadpole almost every day and lays up to five unfertilized eggs for it to eat. After 43-52 days the tadpole undergoes metamorphosis. Currently, the strawberry poison frog is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Komodo Dragon:

Komodo dragons are the largest, heaviest lizards in the world and one of the few with a venomous bite. The stealth and powerful hunters rely on their sense of smell to detect food, using their long, forked tongues to sample the air. They can spend hours waiting for a sizable meal to wander within range before launching a deadly attack with their large, curved and serrated teeth. Dragons live about 30 years in the wild, but scientists are still studying this. Physical Description A large lizard, Komodo dragons have long tails; strong, agile necks and sturdy limbs. Adult Komodo dragons are an almost-uniform stone color with distinct, large scales. Juvenile dragons may display more vibrant coloring and patterning. Their tongues are yellow and forked, appropriate for their draconian name. The muscles of the Komodo's jaws and throat allow it to swallow huge chunks of meat with astonishing rapidity. Several movable joints, such as the intramandibular hinge opens the lower jaw unusually wide. The stomach expands easily, enabling an adult to consume up to 80 percent of its own body weight in a single meal, which most likely explains some exaggerated claims for immense weights in captured individuals. When threatened, Komodos can throw up the contents of their stomachs to lessen their weight in order to flee. Although males tend to grow larger and bulkier than females, no obvious morphological differences mark the sexes. One subtle clue does exist: a slight difference in the arrangement of scales just in front of the cloaca. Sexing Komodos remains a challenge for human researchers; the dragons themselves appear to have little trouble figuring out who is who. Size The Komodo dragon is the largest living lizard in the world. The largest verified specimen reached a length of 10.3 feet (3.13 meters) and weighed 366 pounds (166 kilograms). The largest wild dragons more typically weigh about 154 pounds (70 kilograms). Native Habitat Komodo dragons are limited to a few Indonesian islands of the Lesser Sunda group including Rintja, Padar and Flores, and of course the island of Komodo. They live in tropical savanna forests, but range widely over the islands, from beach to ridge top. Food/Eating Habits Monitors can see objects as far away as 985 feet (300 meters), so vision does play a role in hunting, especially as their eyes are better at picking up movement than at discerning stationary objects. Their retinas possess only cones, so they may be able to distinguish color but have poor vision in dim light. They have a much smaller hearing range than humans. The result is an animal that cannot hear such sounds as a low-pitched voice or a high-pitched scream. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Vision and hearing are useful, but the Komodo's sense of smell is its primary food detector. The Komodo smells much like a snake does. It uses its long, yellow forked tongue to sample the air, after which the two tongue tips retreat to the roof of the mouth where they make contact with the Jacobson's organs. The chemical analyzers "smell" a deer by recognizing airborne molecules from as far away as 2.5 miles (4 kilometers), when the wind is right. When the Komodo is hunting and catches its prey, such as a deer, it attacks the feet first, knocking the deer off balance. When dealing with smaller prey, it may lunge straight for the neck. The dragon's basic strategy is simple: try to smash the quarry to the ground and tear it to pieces. Strong muscles driving powerful claws accomplish some of this, but the Komodo's teeth are its most dangerous weapon. They are large, curved and serrated and tear flesh with efficiency. If the deer fails to escape immediately, the Komodo will continue to rip it apart. Once convinced that its prey is incapacitated, the dragon may break off its offensive for a brief rest. The deer is now badly injured and in shock. The dragon then launches the final blow, a belly attack. The deer quickly bleeds to death and the Komodo begins to feed. The Komodo bite is not deadly to another Komodo, however. Dragons wounded in battle with their comrades appear to be unaffected by the otherwise deadly bacteria and venom. Scientists are searching for antibodies in Komodo blood that may be responsible for saving them from the fate of the infected prey. They eat bones, hooves and swaths of hide. They also eat intestines, but only after swinging them vigorously to scatter their contents. This behavior removes feces from the meal. Komodo dragons eat almost any kind of meat. They scavenge from carcasses or stalk animals ranging in size from small rodents to large water buffalo. The young feed on mostly small gecko lizards or insects. Komodos use their powerful sense of smell to locate the dead animal. A kill is usually shared by many Komodo dragons and very little is wasted. Social Structure Because large Komodos cannibalize young ones, the young often roll in fecal material, thereby assuming a scent that the large dragons are programmed to avoid. Young dragons also undergo rituals of appeasement, with the smaller lizards pacing around a feeding circle in a stately ritualized walk. Their tail is stuck straight out and they throw their body from side to side with exaggerated convulsions. Reproduction and Development Most mating occurs between May and August. The female Komodo lays about 30 eggs. A delay in laying may serve to help the clutch avoid the brutally hot months of the dry season. In addition, unfertilized eggs may have a second chance with a subsequent mating. While the eggs are incubating—about nine months—females may lie on the nests, protecting their future offspring. No evidence exists, however, for parental care of newly hatched Komodos. The hatchlings weigh less than 3.5 ounces (100 grams) and average 16 inches (40 centimeters) in length. Should they live five years, they can weigh 55 pounds (25 kilograms) and stretch 6.5 feet (2 meters) long. By this time, they have moved on to bigger prey such as rodents, monkeys, goats, wild boars and the most popular Komodo food, deer. Slow growth continues throughout their lives, which may last more than 30 years They escape the heat of the day and seek refuge at night in burrows that are just barely bigger than they are. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Lesser Flamingo: The lesser flamingo is a tall, large bodied bird with a long neck and small head. Most flamingos, including this species, have pale pink plumage, legs, and bills. The lesser flamingo is one of the smallest and the brightest of the flamingos. They grow t a size of approximately 80-90 cm (31-36 in) long and weighing about Approximately 1.5-2 kg (3-4.5 lb.). Females tend to be smaller than males. The name flamingo is originally derived from the Portuguese language and means "red goose", which is a reference to their flying formation and the noise they make. Lesser flamingos are believed to be the most numerous and live in the largest flocks. Some flocks are known to contain up to one million lesser flamingos and several thousand greater flamingos. Flamingos feed with their bill upside-down. They tip their head into the water and filter feed, using special adaptations in the top half of their bill to gather the microorganisms that make up their diet. However, the lesser flamingo rarely submerges its head while feeding instead it feeds at the surface. Flamingos are an ancient group of birds. Their fossil records dates back to the Miocene epoch, which is about 10 million years ago. Flamingos are not born with their beautiful pink plumage. Their color comes from the carotenoid pigments they consume as part of their diet. Some scientists believe that a flamingo's success in breeding relies on its bright color. The flamingo is unique in that the adults, both male and female, provide their young with a type of milk called crop milk. Flamingos have few natural predators because they live in remote, inhospitable places. Their feeding strategy, feeding in alkaline or saline bodies of water, does not affect other species. Their uses to man are unfortunately the flamingos greatest problem. In the past, their tongues were a rare, pickled delicacy and their eggs were collected for human consumption. However, as with most animals, habitat destruction and exploitation is by far the flamingo's greatest challenge.

Great white pelican: The Great White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) is one of the world’s largest flying birds that is found in the shallow swamps of Africa. The Great White Pelican breeds in Southern Europe and in Asia. There are no sub-species of the Great White Pelican. Great White Pelicans are also known as the White Pelican or the Eastern White Pelican. Pelicans and their relatives make up the order ‘Pelecaniformes’ and they can be distinguished from other birds by having feet with all 4 toes webbed which is known as ‘totipalmate’. Male Great White Pelicans are slightly larger than females. Males measure 175 centimetres in length, and females 148 centimetres in length. Males also have a slightly longer beak/bill which measures 35 – 47 centimetres, while the female’s is 29 – 40 centimetres. The weight of the male Pelican is 9 – 15 kilograms and the female 5 – 9 kilograms. Both have a huge wingspan of up to 3 metres wide. Great White Pelicans are white in colour with black and grey primary feathers. Their bodies are large with long, broad wings attached. They have a short tail, short, pinkish legs and webbed feet. There is a bare pink/yellow facial patch around their eyes. Their spectacular bills are azure blue on the top and yellow underneath where there is a large pouch. The bill has a central red stripe, and ends in a small, red hook. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

The Great White Pelican’s chest and throat may have pinkish or yellowish/orange colouration depending on the breeding season. In breeding condition the male has pinkish skin on is face and the female has yellowish/orange skin. The Great White Pelican’s huge, long bill/beak is used to scoop up fish from the water. The pouch under the beak is stretchy and can hold several litres of water. As the Pelican pushes its bill underwater, the lower bill bows out, creating a large pouch which fills with water and fish. As the bird lifts its head, the pouch contracts, forcing out the water but retaining the fish which are swallowed whole. HABITAT Great White Pelicans can be found in the swamps, freshwater lakes, brackish lakes, marshes and deltas of Africa (Asia and Europe). DIET Great White Pelicans feed mainly up on fish such as carp and cichlids but will also eat small invertebrates. These water birds do not have to dive to catch their prey, instead they use their large bills to sccop the fish into their mouths by dipping their heads into the water. Feeding is sometimes done cooperatively, whereby, several Pelicans will move into a circle to concentrate the fish and dip their heads into the water in unison to catch the fish. This makes for successful fishing. Each Pelican needs about 1.2 kilograms (2.6 pounds) of fish every day.

On Lake Rukwa in Tanzania, there is the largest colony of Pelicans with over 80,000 birds and it needs 35 million kilograms of fish every year to satisfy their hunger.

Pelicans are not restricted to fish and are often opportunistic foragers. Sometimes, they will eat chicks of other birds. They readily accept handouts from humans, and a number of unusual items have been recorded in their diet. During periods when food is scarce, Pelicans also eat seagulls and ducklings and will also steal prey from other birds.

BEHAVIOUR

Although Great White Pelicans are quite cumbersome on land, they are magnificent, graceful fliers who can fly continuously for a whole day and night covering distances of up to 300 miles without stopping. Pelicans often travel in V-formation groups which is a spectacular sight. The Great White Pelican is well adapted for aquatic life. In water, the birds are just as graceful as when they are flying. They are fast, strong swimmers who can reach speeds of up to 6 kilometres per hour (3.7 miles per hour) as their strong legs and webbed feet propel them through the water in preparation for their sometimes awkward take-offs. Great White Pelicans are generally silent apart from when they are nesting during breeding season. GREAT WHITE PELICAN REPRODUCTION Great White Pelicans nest in large colonies. During breeding season, adult pelicans emit a low, hoarse display call. Nests are made in scrapes in the ground and are lined with vegetation, grass, sticks, feathers and other available materials. The female lays 2 large, chalky white eggs in the nests which are incubated for 29 – 36 days. The Pelican chicks are grey and have dark flight feathers. They are cared for by both parents. The chicks become fledglings at around 65 – 75 days. Pelicans reach sexual maturity at 3 – 4 years. The life span of the Great White Pelican can be over 16 years old. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

GREAT WHITE PELICAN CONSERVATION STATUS The Great White Pelican is classed as ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List 2006. However, humans are the main predators of the Great White Pelicans. The Great White Pelican is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Pelicans are very vulnerable to pollution and because of overfishing in certain areas, they are forced to fly long distances just to find enough food. Great White Pelicans are exploited for many reasons. Their pouch is used to make tobacco bags, Their skin is turned into leather, the guano (faeces from sea birds, seals or bats) is used as fertiliser, and the fat of young pelicans is converted into oils for traditional medicine in Asia. Human disturbance, loss of foraging habitat and breeding sites and pollution are all contributing to the decline of the Great White Pelican.

Spatuletail hummingbird: The marvellous spatuletail (Loddigesia mirabilis) is a rare, medium-sized hummingbird, and like most hummingbirds its colourful plumage and miniscule size make it an engaging little creature. The male marvellous spatuletail is beautifully decorated, with a deep blue crest on its head, a turquoise patch on its throat, and a deep black line down its breast and belly. The rest of the underparts are white, with green on the flanks, while the upperparts of the body are a shimmering green-bronze or bronzy- brown colour. One of the most characteristic features of the marvellous spatuletail is the long, spectacular tail of the male, which is made up of only four feathers. Two of these feathers are long, straight and narrow, while the other, outer two are even longer, bare, and end in blue compact ‘rackets’ or ‘spatules’, for which this species is named. The feathers which end in the spatules can grow to three or four times the length of the male’s body. The female marvellous spatuletail is patterned similarly to the male, but has a bronzy-green rather than blue head, a white throat, and lacks the black line on the breast and belly, which are both buffy-white. Females and immature males of this species have a much shorter tail than the adult male, although the outer tail feathers still have broad drop-shaped tips. The call of the marvellous spatuletail has been described as a thin, sweet, rising ‘wsst’, and while displaying to the female the male marvellous spatuletail produces a snapping sound. Although this sound was previously thought to be produced by the spatules on the tail snapping together, high speed film has shown that the noise is actually produced from the male’s mouth.

 The marvellous spatuletail is a rare hummingbird found in just a few small areas of north- western Peru.

 The marvellous spatuletail is named for the male’s bizarre, highly elongated outer tail feathers, which end in blue discs or ‘spatules’.

 The male marvellous spatuletail displays to a female by hovering in front of her, waving his tail feathers.

 The courtship display of the male marvellous spatuletail is so energetically demanding that it can only be performed for very short periods. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Cheetah:

Cheetahs are part of the big cat family and while they can’t climb trees, they can run faster than any other land animal. The cheetah is the fastest land animal in the world. They can reach a top speed of around 113 km per hour. A cheetah can accelerate from 0 to 113 km in just a few seconds. Cheetahs are extremely fast however they tire quickly and can only keep up their top speed for a few minutes before they are too tired to continue. Cheetahs are 3.5 to 4.5 feet (1.1 to 1.4 meters) long from head to rump, and their tails add an additional 25.5 to 31.5 inches (65 to 80 centimeters). Normally, these big cats weigh around 77 to 143 lbs. (35 to 65 kilograms). Cheetahs are smaller than other members of the big cat family, weighing only 45 – 60 kilograms. One way to always recognise a cheetah is by the long, black lines which run from the inside of each eye to the mouth. These are usually called “tear lines” and scientists believe they help protect the cheetah’s eyes from the harsh sun and help them to see long distances. Cheetahs are the only big cat that cannot roar. They can purr though and usually purr most loudly when they are grooming or sitting near other cheetahs. While lions and leopards usually do their hunting at night, cheetahs hunt for food during the day. A cheetah has amazing eyesight during the day and can spot prey from 5 km away. Cheetahs cannot climb trees and have poor night vision. With their light body weight and blunt claws, cheetahs are not well designed to protect themselves or their prey. When a larger or more aggressive animal approaches a cheetah in the wild, it will give up its catch to avoid a fight. Cheetahs are mostly found in sub-Saharan Africa and in eastern and southern African parks. Some of the animals can still be found in southern Algeria, northern Niger and Iran. They like dry, open grasslands where they can pick up speed to kill prey. During daybreak and dusk, cheetahs spend their time stalking and catching prey. Usually, large cats go for the throat right away in a pursuit, but cheetahs do not do this. Instead, they will first run up to the animal and knock it over; then, they will suffocate their prey by clamping down on the throat. Cheetahs will hide the corpse so other animals won't steal it. Hiding their food usually doesn't work, though, as vultures and other animals will often take a kill. Cheetahs are carnivores, meaning their primary food is meat. The predators stick to smaller prey, such as gazelles, hares, young wildebeest, warthogs and birds. Cheetahs only need to drink once every three to four days. The research revealed that only 7,100 cheetahs remain globally and that the speedy animal has lost 91 percent of its historic habitat range. Cheetahs are particularly sensitive to habitat loss because of their large space requirements.

1.3 Five Most Incredible animals discovered within the last decade

The Purple (Jocker) Crab: (Discovered in: 2012): Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

The Filipino island of Palawan is a beautiful place full of enchanting beaches and majestic animals, but to zoologists it’s known simply as “JACKPOT”.

About half of all the species found on the island cannot be found anywhere else on the planet, including the above stylish crab, scientific name Insulamon palawanese. Obviously it has earned its place on the list by bearing a slight resemblance to the comic book supervillain Joker (why yes, my virginity is doing great, thanks for asking) but there were also other factors involved, like how we’ve just discovered the damned thing and it’s already endangered due to mining projects going on at

Palawan.

The African Dwarf sawshark (Stabbing shark): In 2011, the African Dwarf Sawshark (Pristiophorus nancyae) envisioned above was inadvertently caught in a 1600-foot-profound trawling net off the shore of Mozambique, bringing the aggregate number of sawshark species worldwide to seven. The African Dwarf Sawshark, is also nicknamed the “Rapier- Wielding Sawshark. It has a unique long, tooth- studded snout. The African Dwarf Shark uses this snout like a sword to stab its prey, waits, and returns to eat it when it is too weak to put up a fight. The African Dwarf Shark grows to about two feet in length at maturity. It usually hunts by blindly charging into schools of fish, stabbing a few at random with its sword nose, and then returning to feast on the casualties.

The Psychedelic (Crime fighting) Gecko: Discovered in 2011. The Cnemaspis psychedelica gecko, or “Psychedelic Gecko” is currently found only on the small island of Hon Khoai and so named because of its bright orange coloration. The gecko’s orange spots totally look like superhero gloves and boots. Online offers of live psychedelic rock geckoes and their eggs have driven these animals close to extinction. From 2013 to 2015, there were at least 21 different online ads for the colorful creature— mostly from Russia, but also a few from Germany, Spain, the Czech Republic, and the United States, according to a study earlier this year by Mark Auliya at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research in Germany. They had also seen young geckos being offered for sale as captive- bred, even though there are no known captive breeding facilities of these geckos. To make matters worse, psychedelic rock geckos are really picky about where they live. They prefer granite outcrops surrounded by dense forest and a leaf-covered floor. But many of these granite formations are now being literally blasted away to make room for the construction of roads. Plus, they’re really slow to reproduce. All these factors combine to make them extra-sensitive to overcollection. There are only about 500 to 700 left. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

The Matilda Viper:

Matilda’s Horned Viper is one the few new snakes discovered in Africa (Tanzania in this case) in the last 30 years, which is weird considering that it totally looks like a cartoon character.

The yellow-green-black slithering bastard with two horns protruding from its head can grow up to 65 centimeters or bigger, and is believed to be venomous. Considering that it resembles a pet which Satan would keep in a locked, underwater safe, I’d say that’s a pretty accurate guess by the researchers who’ve discovered it, though there are many ways to make absolutely sure. Did you know that homeless people are REALLY desperate for cash?

Scientists do claim that the snake is very calm and not at all aggressive. This calms me down none; it simply proves that it this thing is both murderous AND crafty.

But the weirdest part of this newly discovered animal is that it’s been named…after a 7-year-old girl named Matilda. The girl wasn’t its first documented victim, but rather the daughter of one of the researchers who discovered the snake. I’d say that naming a scaly, slimy, horny snake after a small girl isn’t really the best idea, but hey, the guy’s already named his daughter “Matilda.” Not like he was parent of the year material anyway.

Michael Jackson Mankey:

The Myanmar Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri) isn’t totally a new species, as it’s been known by some Myanmar locals for some time now, but unless it’s discovered, climbed or invented by a white guy, it apparently doesn’t count. Snub-nosed monkeys aren’t exactly unknown to science, but apparently no species before ever came close to anything like Snubby over here. His nose is so snubbed it doesn’t even deserve that name. Incidentally, it also causes the monkey to sneeze uncontrollably whenever it rains.

The first contact on records that scientists had with the Myanmar Snub-nosed Monkey came from examining the skull and skin of a gutted male of the species… which was eaten by hunters. Unfortunately, the local demand for monkey meat is one of the main reasons why this newly discovered funky monkey is already considered Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18 endangered – it apparently tastes THAT good.

1.4. Marvel of Animals Mantis Shrimp: The fastest Punch: Mantis shrimps are mere inches long but can throw the fastest punch of any animal. They strike with the force of a rifle bullet and can shatter aquarium glass and crab shells alike. Now with the aid of super- speed cameras, we are beginning to truly appreciate how powerful this animal is. In April 1998, an aggressive creature named Tyson smashed through the quarter-inch-thick glass wall of his cell. He was soon subdued by nervous attendants and moved to a more secure facility in Great Yarmouth. Unlike his heavyweight namesake, Tyson was only four inches long. But scientists have recently found that Tyson, like all his kin, can throw one of the fastest and most powerful punches in nature. He is a mantis shrimp.

Mantis shrimps are aggressive relatives of crabs and lobsters and prey upon other animals by crippling them with devastating jabs. Their secret weapons are a pair of hinged arms folded away under their head, which they can unfurl at incredible speeds. The ‘spearer’ species have arms ending in a fiendish barbed spike that they use to impale soft-bodied prey like fish. But the larger ‘smasher’ species have arms ending in heavy clubs, and use them to deliver blows with the same force as a rifle bullet. The strike is one of the fastest limb movements in the animal kingdom”, says Patek. “It’s especially impressive considering the substantial drag imposed by water.” Water is much denser than air and even the quickest martial artist would have considerable difficulty punching in it. And yet the mantis shrimp’s finishes its strike in under three thousandths of a second, out- punching even its land-living namesake.

The need for speed If the animal simply flicked its arm out, like a human, it would never achieve such blistering speeds. Instead, mantis shrimps use an ingeniously simple energy storage system. Once the arm is cocked, a ratchet locks it firmly in place. The large muscles in the upper arm then contract and build up energy. When the latch is released, all this energy is released at once and the lower arm is launched forwards. But Patek found that even this system couldn’t account for the mantis shrimp’s speed. Instead, the key to the punch is a small, structure in the arm that looks like a saddle or a Pringle chip. When the arm is cocked, this structure is compressed and acts like a spring, storing up even more energy. When the latch is released, the spring expands and provides extra push for the club, helping to accelerate it at up to 10,000 times the force of gravity. This smasher’s arm is truly state-of-the-art natural technology. “Saddle-shaped springs are well-known to engineers and architects”, explains Patek, “ but is unusual in biological systems. Interestingly, a recent paper showed that a similarly shaped spring closes the Venus’s fly trap.” Killing with bubbles Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

Patek’s cameras revealed an even bigger surprise – each of the smasher’s strikes produced small flashes of light upon impact. They are emitted because the club moves so quickly that it lowers the pressure of the water in front of it, causing it to boil. This releases small bubbles which collapse when the water pressure normalises, unleashing tremendous amounts of energy. This process, called cavitation, is so destructive that it can pit the stainless steel of boat propellers. Combined with the force of the strike itself, no animal in the seas stands a chance. Large smashers can even make meals of crabs, buckling their thick armour as easily as they do aquarium glass. And they are often seen beating up much larger fish and octopuses, which are unfortunate enough to wander past their burrows. Not just a good right hook Some scientists think that the mantis shrimps’ belligerent nature evolved because the rock crevices they inhabit are fiercely contested. This competition has also made these animals smarter than the average shrimp. They are the only invertebrates that can recognise other individuals of their species and can remember if the outcome of a fight against a rival for up to a month. And recently, Roy Caldwell, also from USC Berkeley, discovered that mantis shrimps have the most sophisticated eyes of any animal. While human eyes only have a measly three kinds of light receptors, mantis shrimps have at least ten, allowing them to see into the infrared and ultraviolet range.

Homing in Pacific salmon: See the Article-Homing in pacific salmon (ANDREW H. DITTMAN AND THOMAS P. QUINN, 1996: The J. Exp. Biol. 199; 83-91.

Sperm whale: Mechanism of deep sea diving: Whales are beautiful, mysterious, and some of them are really big. They are probably the deepest air- breething divers on the planet. They have biggest head for their size of any animal(upto one third of their body length). Sperm whales apparently have biggest brain (9 kg) of any animal that has ever lived on this planet. They are almost certainly largest toothed predator that has ever lived and they have biggest teeth (10 inches long). Sperm whale have lowest reproductive rate of any animal- not necessarily a good trait. Sperm whale carry in their great huge heads the worlds largest sound producing organ (unfortunately for them this organ is full of fat called spermaceti that was very popular amongs human for making a high grade oil. Scientists still do not understand the function of spermaceti. One common theory is that the fluid—which hardens to wax when cold—helps the whale alter its buoyancy so it can dive deep and rise again. Sperm whales are known to dive as deep as 3,280 feet in search of squid to eat. These giant mammals must hold their breath for up to 90 minutes on such dives. Sperm whales feed on squids. Sperm whales are often spotted in groups (called pods) of some 15 to 20 animals. Pods include females and their young, while males may roam solo or move from group to group. Females and calves remain in tropical or subtropical waters all year long, and apparently practice communal childcare. Males migrate to higher latitudes, alone or in groups, and head back towards the equator to breed. Driven by their tale fluke, approximately 16 feet from tip to tip, they can cruise the oceans at around 23 miles per hour. Mumbai University, S.B.Sc. Zoology, Sem III Paper-USZO303, Year 2017-18

During the height of whaling they were the most hunted of any whale and probably more sperm whales were killed than any whale species- a record they would probably not have had. Despite large population drops due to whaling, sperm whales are still fairly numerous. The difference between male and female sperm whale is the greatest of all the cetaceans. Females are only two-thirds the length, and one third the mass, of the big males.