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Female Labor in the Postwar Japanese Economy: a Geographic Perspective

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Female Labor in the Postwar Japanese Economy: a Geographic Perspective FEMALE LABOR IN THE POSTWAR JAPANESE ECONOMY: A GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Joel A. Shelton, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Professor Emeritus Lawrence A. Approved by Brown, Adviser Professor Phillip Brown ______________________________ Professor Linda Lobao Adviser Professor Edward Malecki Geography Graduate Program ABSTRACT A major factor underpinning growth in the post-Second World War Japanese economy has been the substantial contributions made by female labor—an issue that has not received academic attention relative to its importance. Moreover, studies that specifically address geographic aspects of the gender division of labor are all but absent for Japan, surprising in light of significant regional variations in women’s employment experiences as revealed in North American-based studies. Focusing on the 1970-2000 period, the goal of this research is thus to investigate how the trajectory of social and economic changes in postwar Japan have impacted the form and extent of female labor force participation, with particular focus on how these changes have manifested themselves geographically. Methods include location quotients (LQ) and cartographic display to identify sub-national areas and prefectures where women are under- or over- represented in the labor force relative to Japan as a whole. Findings are interpreted in the context of broad changes in the economy and existing literature on the Japanese female labor force. Analysis reveals: shifts of women over time into paid employment, albeit to a large extent in low-waged and low-status jobs; increases in “flexible” forms of employment for women, including paato (part-time) and temporary; and female overrepresentation in tertiary sector clerical work, wholesale/retail, or services. ii Concerning geographic aspects, this research confirmed significant sub-national variation in the secondary sector, and identified contributing factors. High LQ values, for instance, were shaped by presence of particular manufacturing industries with a history of employing women, and by social norms that encourage long-term labor force participation. Less spatial variation existed for the overall tertiary sector, but more so in certain occupational categories. High female shares, for example, in low-waged and low- benefit sales, and food/beverages jobs in prefectures in southwestern Japan were likely influenced by relative lack of secondary sector employment and higher order services; while the Tokyo region’s world city status has created to some extent opportunities for women in professional/technical and managerial occupations. iii Dedicated to my mother, Sandra Williams Shelton (1938-1996) iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I extend my gratitude to my advisor, Larry Brown, for his encouragement and enthusiasm in carrying through this project to completion, and for his support in my overall intellectual and career development. I also thank my committee members, Linda Lobao, Philip Brown, and Ed Malecki for their valuable comments and insight. I am indebted to my graduate school friends, including Shawn Banasick, Steve Mulherin, Rini Sumartojo, Julie Weinert, and Kyle Coots. I will always appreciate their friendship. To all of my family and friends, I remain grateful for your encouragement. To Mayuko, I extend my love and gratitude for the emotional and “logistical” support throughout the various stages of this project. v VITA October 30, 1967………………………… Born – Huntington, West Virginia 1991……………………………………… BA Geography, West Virginia University 1995……………………………………… MA Geography, West Virginia University 1991-1993……………………………….. Graduate Teaching Assistant West Virginia University 1998-2001………….................................. Graduate Associate The Ohio State University 2004-present……………………………… Coordinator, Academic Advising Colleges of the Arts and Sciences Advising and Academic Services The Ohio State University FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Economic Geography vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………i Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………iii Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………iv Vita………………………………………………………………………………………...v List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...ix List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..xi Chapters: 1. Introduction and research methods……………………………………………….1 1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………...1 1.2 Research objectives and organization of dissertation………………...3 1.3 A note on economic sectors…………………………………………..7 2. Historical overview of the post-Second World War Japanese economy…………9 2.1 Postwar recovery and high growth: 1945-1971………………………10 2.2 Era of slower growth 1971-1991……………………………………..18 2.3 The prolonged economic downturn, 1991 to 2000…………………...21 2.4 Summary and interpretation…………………………………………..25 2.4.1 Chapter summary…………………………………………....25 2.4.2 The Fordist to post-Fordist transition: the Japanese vs. US experience…………………………………………………27 3. The female labor force in Japan: 1970-2000……………………………………...30 3.1 Overview of female labor……………………………………………..32 3.1.1 Unpaid family enterprise work, and self-employment……...33 3.1.2 Paid employment……………………………………………35 3.1.3 Nonstandard employment: regular nonstandard, temporary, arubaito, and paato workers………………………….36 3.1.4 Shift of female workers from regular nonstandard labor to other types, notably paato………………………………………………………………39 3.1.5 The life cycle of the Japanese labor force…………………...42 3.1.6 Legislation affecting women………………………………...44 vii 3.2: The changing industrial and occupational composition of the female labor force…………………………………………………45 3.2.1 Industrial composition……………………………………..46 3.2.1 Occupational composition…………………………………49 3.3 Summary and interpretation ………………………………………...52 3.3.1 Chapter summary…………………………………………..52 3.3.2 Female labor: cross-national comparisons…………………54 4. Spatial trends in the postwar Japanese economy………………………………...57 4.1 Regional classifications……………………………………………...57 4.2 Population distribution……………………………………………….59 4.3 Distribution of labor force……………………………………………62 4.4 Regional shifts………………………………………………………..64 4.4.1 Formation of the Pacific-Urban Industrial Belt…………….64 4.4.2 Industrialization in areas outside the Pacific Urban-Industrial belt……………………………………...71 4.4.3 Increasing secondary and tertiary sector primacy of the Tokyo Core relative to other regions……………..73 4.5 Summary and interpretation…………………………………………..74 5. The changing spatial distribution of female labor in the secondary sector: 1970-2000………………………………………………….77 5.1 Secondary sector location quotient analysis…………………………..78 5.2 Manufacturing case study analysis……………………………………83 5.3 Summary and interpretation…………………………………………..94 6. The changing spatial distribution of female labor in the tertiary sector: 1970-2000…………………………………………………….97 6.1 Tertiary sector location quotient analysis…………………………….98 6.2 Spatial distribution of female labor force by occupation, and by paato and temporary non-standard employment type…………………………………………………………102 6.2.1 Female employment in selected tertiary sector occupational groups……………………………………….103 6.2.2 Female employment by prefecture in engineering/technical and managers/officials occupational categories…………………………………………..110 6.2.3 Female employment by prefecture in nonstandard employment: paato and temporary occupations…………………………………………...112 6.3 Summary and interpretation………………………………………….115 7. Summary and conclusions………………………………………………………..118 viii Bibliography………………………………………………………….……………….128 Appendices………………………………………………………………….………...136 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Industrial classification systems in Japan and the United States…………………………………………………………………8 2.1 Size of business establishments by numbers of employees (1000s) 1981-1999……………………………………………….15 2.2 GNP growth in Japan, 1956 to 1990…………………………………………....17 3.1 Self-employment, family enterprise work, and paid employment, 1970-2000: numbers (1000s), PCTLF, and concentration indexes CI …………………………………………………..34 3.2 Regular, temporary, arubaito, and paato types of labor in Japan, 1985 and 2000: numbers (1000s), PCTLF, and concentration indexes CI ……………………………………………………….41 3.3 Industry: female and male employment (10,000s), PCTLF, and concentration indexes CI: 1970-2000………………………………………47 3.4 Occupation: female and male employment (10,000s), PCTLF, and concentration indexes CI: 1970-2000……………………………..50 4.1 Secondary sector employees and percent of total labor force: 1970-2000………………………………………………………………...68 4.2 Secondary sector employees and percent change in total employment: 1970-2000…………………………………………………...69 5.1 Secondary sector female employment and location quotients: 1970, 1985 and 2000…………………………………………………80 5.2 Medium industrial groups in manufacturing…………………………………….84 x 5.3 Case study prefectures, and characteristics, 1970……………………………..85 5.4 Manufacturing labor force in selected prefectures: industrial groups with >10% of female or male labor force…………………...87 6.1 Tertiary sector female employment and location quotients: 1970, 1985 and 2000………………………………………………..99 6.2 Location quotients and female/male employment in selected tertiary sector occupational groups: 2002 (A)…………………………104 6.3 Location quotients and female/male employment in selected tertiary sector occupational groups: 2002 (B)…………………………106 6.4 Location quotients and female/male employment in selected tertiary sector occupational groups: 2002 (C)………………………....107 6.5 Location quotients
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