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Tropical Forest (Tropical Moist Forest) (Whitmore, 1990) The rain forest is prevalent over most part of Indonesia. There are considerable floristic variation which are related to differences in soils and topography. Broader variations are also reflected by the horizontal zonation (related to geologic history) Tropical rain forests and vertical zonation (related to elevation) BY: which develop in the hot Tropical seasonal and humid region (every forest which develop in CECEP KUSMANA month is wet, 100 mm seasonally dry climate FACULTY OF FORESTRY, BOGOR AGRICULTURAL rainfall or more) which (4 – 6 dry months with lack of a pronounced dry 60 mm rainfall or less) UNIVERSITY seasons 2011

Main Types of The Tropical Forest in Indonesia Mangrove Forest Mangroves as Interface Ecosystem Climate Soil Water Soils Elevation Forest formation Seasonally dry Strong annual shortage Podsol, Renzina, 0 – (750) 1000 m , Lowland Monsoon forest Ecological Function Latosol (seasonal forest)  Forest formation growing in the intertidal zone of tropical and sub- Red yellow 1000 – 3000 m Montane monsoon forest podsolic, latosol, tropical areas, mainly extensively grows in the sheltered coastline, delta, andosol Ever-wet Dryland Zonal (mainly Lowland Lowland evergreen rain lagoon, estuary and river bank (perhumid) oxisols, ultisols) forest (750) 1200- Lower montane rain  This forests can grow on muddy alluvial soils, sands, peat, and coraly soils

1500 m forest (1500) 2500 – Upper montane rain forest 3300 m (3350) m

Mountains 3000 (3350) m Subalpine forest Terestrial ecosystem to tree-line INTERFACE Podozolized sands 0 – (750) 1000 m Heath forest Marine ecosystem Renzina, Latosol 0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over limestone Soils with high Mg, 0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over ultrabasic Fe, and Si content Water table high Coastal Regosol, Red 0 – (750) 1000 m Beach forest (at least salt- yellow podsolic periodically) water Alluvial < 0 m Mangrove forest Inland Oligotrophic peats 0 – (750) 1000 m Economical Function fresh Eutrophic (muck Biological Function 0 – (750) 1000 m Freshwater swamp forest water and minerals) soil

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General characteristic of mangroves Example of Zonation in Mangrove MANGROVE DISTRIBUTION IN INDONESIA  Halophytes, Salt-tolerant 1. Forest nearest the sea dominated by Avicennia and  Show a spesific adaptation to anaerobic waterlegged labile soils, tide Sonneratia, growing on deep mud rich in organic matter. flooding, and saline water, with:  Develop spesific type 2. Forest on slightly higher ground is often dominated by  Develop viviparious Bruguiera cylindrica and can form virtually pure stands behind Avicennia forest.  Develop anatomical tissue to excerting salt (Avicennia, Sonneratia, Aegiceras, Acanthus, & Laguncularia), excluding salt (Rhizophora, 3. Forest further inland is dominated by Rhizophora mucronata Ceriops, Bruguiera, Acrostichum) and accumulation salt (Xylocarpus and and R. apiculata, the former preferring slightly wetter Lumnitzera) conditions and deeper mud. These trees can be 35-40 m tall.  Commonly show zonation 4. Forest dominated by Bruguiera parviflora can occur in pure stands and whereas it often invades Rhizophora 5. The final mangrove forest is that dominated by Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. The seedlings and saplings of this tree are tolerant of shade

MANGROVE FLORA IN INDONESIA GROUP OF MANGROVE FLORA

MANGROVE AREA IN INDONESIA  TREES : 47 SPECIES  SHRUB : 5 SPECIES 45 FAMILIES  HERBS & GRASS : 9 SPECIES MAJOR MANGROVE 75 GENERA  LIANA : 9 SPECIES . RHIZOPHORA . BRUGUIERA . CERIOPS . KANDELIA 7.7 MILLION Ha, consist of: 101 SPECIES  EPIPHYTES : 29 SPECIES . AVICENNIA . SONNERATIA . NYPA  PARASYTES : 3 SPECIES  3.7 M ha in the forest concession area and MINOR MANGROVE 120 . EXCOECARIA . XYLOCARPUS . HERITERIA  4.0 M ha in the private own land) WORLD MANGROVE FLORA 100 101 . AEGICERAS . AEGIALITIS . ACROSTICHUM in which about 32% of them are still good forest. 80 78 MANGROVE ASSOCIATE 60 48 49 40 43 . CERBERA . HIBISCUS . ACANTHUS . DERRIS . 40 34 33 24 CALAMUS . IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE . DLL 20 6 7 0 1 Thai Bur Viet Phil Mal PNGBrunQue Chin Yae NZ Ina

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BRUGUIERA CYLINDRICA Sonneratia alba

RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA

CHIP  PULP CHIP PULP  CHIP PULP KONTRUKSI  KAYU BAKAR SIFAT EKOLOGI KONTRUKSI S. alba ARANG  BUAH DAPAT DIMAKAN KAYU BAKAR • Tanah: campuran lumpur & pasir, KAYU BAKAR  CAIRAN BUAH UNTUK kadang-kadang pada batuan dan TIANG PERANCAH MENGHALUSKAN KULIT karang SIFAT EKOLOGI TIANG PERANCAH TANIN • Tanah: spt R. apiculata tapi lebih TANIN  DAUN UNTUK MAKANAN S. caseolaris toleran thd substrat yg lebih keras & OBAT-OBATAN KAMBING • Tanah lumpur dalam, kurang asin pasir OBAT-OBATAN • Sepanjang sungai yg mengalir pelan • Umumnya di pinggir sungai dan CARBON TRADE  PENGHASIL PECTINE muara sungai CARBON TRADE

Avicennia marina (Jampe hitam) Xylocarpus granatum NYPA FRUTICANS

 DAUN UNTUK TIKAR, KERANJANG,  PAPAN TAS, JAS HUJAN, TOPI  BAHAN DASAR Bunga & Daun Buah  BIJI SEBAGAI BAHAN MAKANAN DAN KERAJINAN TANGAN SUMBER GARAM, MANISAN  MINYAK RAMBUT  PENGHASIL ALKOHOL DAN CUKA TRADISIONAL  OBAT-OBATAN

SIFAT EKOLOGI • Daerah yg jarang tergenang di Pohon Daun sepanjang pinggiran sungai & pinggir daratan dari mangrove

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Mangrove Fauna MANGROVE ASSOCIATE MANGROVE FAUNA

 OBAT-OBATAN  BAHAN MAKANAN TERESTRIAL FAUNA MARINE FAUNA

 DLL Varanus salvator AMPHIBIA EPIFAUNA BIRD & INFAUNA (MOLLUSC) REPTILE (CRUSTACEA) Egretta sp.

MAMMALS INSECTS BENTOS (FISH) Macaca fascicularis

Halcyon sp. Nycticorax nycticorax

Esential Physical Environmental for Cause of Mangrove Destruction Beach Forest (Hutan Pantai) Growing Mangroves  Forest formation growing in the supralittoral zone, sometimes subjected to extrem high tide (spring tide and Availability of Nutrient  Over exploitation storm)  Convertion of mangroves into other land use  Water pollution  Natural disaster

Good Growing Mangrove

Balanced Supply of Fresh water Stable Substrate and Sea water

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To survive in the habitat of beach  Pes-Caprae community occupied the outer fringe Pes-caprae community shows low species diversity, forest, must be: mounds of sand, where the beach tends to build about 15 species: Spinifex littoreus  Deep rooted Ipomoea pes-caprae  Tolerant to salt (saline water), wind, Cyperus spp. drought, high temperature, poor-nutrient Canavalia spp. soil Fimbristylis  Capable of producing floating Ischaemum muticum  Able to survive being buried periodically Etc. under wind-blown sand

The plant in this community are low, sand-binding herbs/grass and sedges

Barringtonia community occupied the area behind pes- Barringtonia formation consist of more diverse species diversity Strand species are widely utilized by caprae community on the stable soils or rocky soils, than pes-caprae community (about 30 species) commonly covers the narrow space of 25 – 50 meters Cocos nucifera coastal villagers Casuarina equisetifolia  Hibiscus : making rope and cordage Barrinngtonia asiatica  Calophyllum inophyllum Pandanus : making mats, baskets, sails Terminalia catappa  Casuarina : firewoods Hibiscus tiliaceus  Cocos nucifera : coconut oil, woods Pandanus, etc.

Plants in this community must be tolerant to showering of sea water, poor nutrient soils, and to drought.

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FAUNA  Trees of fresh water swamp forest often have to endure FRESH WATER SWAMP FOREST prolonged period of flooding. So, they develop  Wader and seabird which nesting, resting and feeding in  Fresh water swamp forest are wide spread over alluvial soils pneumatophores in adapting to the anaerobic soils beach forest that are periodically flooded for long periods with rich condition:  Sea turtle (green sea turtle, howksbill, leatherback, mineral fresh water (pH more than 6) associated with loggerhead) are nesting in beach forest (Tambelan island, coastal swamp, inland lake and huge low-lying river basin Berau island, Paloh and Lemukuta island at West Kalimantan, Meru Betiri and Baluran NP)  Fresh water swamp forest habitat is extremely  Coconut Crab (Ocypode) heterogenous in soils and vegetation, where a few centimeters of peat may occur. So that, floristic composition varies from:

 Floating grass, sedges and herbs  In Indonesia, the freshwater swamp vegetation occurs  Pandan and palm swamp in all islands in area where climate ranges from  Scrub seasonally dry to very wet, in the lowlands and  Similar to lowland rain forest highlands. The great extern of freshwater swamp forest in Indonesia occur in the lowland of , Kalimantan and Papua

 Flora  Fauna Causes of Freshwater Swamp Forest The most important trees in freshwater swamp forest Fauna diversity and abundance in freshwater swamp Destruction are the genera of: forest vary with the structure and floral diversity of the forest  Convertion to Melaleuca cajuputi and agricultural  Alstonia Mangifera cultivation (sugar cane, coconut, pineapple,  Barringtonia Neesia  Macaca fascicularis rubber, palm oil, paddy field, etc.)  Campnospermae Pholidocarpus  Crocodillus porosus  Dillenia Melanorrhoea  Eugenia Metroxylon sagu  Tomistoma schlegelii  Shorea  Calophyllum  Canarium  Koompassia

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Peat swamp forests are extent in Sumatra and PEAT SWAMP FOREST Kalimantan. Characteristics of peat swamp forest are:  Mineral nutrient amount of the soil decreases toward the center of the swamp, markedly for  Low nutrient content of blackwater Peat : a soil type with a very high (> 65%) organic contents, at Potassium and Phosphorus, reflected in the  High concentration of humic acid (pH 3 – 4,5) least 50 cm deep vegetation by the:  Low concentration of dissolved oxygen It consist of:  Decreasing tree height  Ombrogenous peat (rain-fed peat, poor in  Have biconvex shape (in the margin of the river  nutrient/oligotrophic, mainly calcium, in the behind of and in the center) Decreasing total biomass per unit area mangroves), drainage water are very acid, deep peat  Increasing thickness (an adaption to poor reached to 20 m soils)  Topogenous peat are formed in topographic depressions (mesotrophic/nutrient coming from mineral subsoil, river  Decreasing average girth of certain tree water, plant remains and rain) species

Flora Fauna Causes of Forest Destruction

 Alstonia pneumatophora  Salacca conferca    Over exploitation  Dyera lowii Palm (Luciala spinosa, sealing Macaca fascicularis wax palm   Convertion to agricultural cultivation (palm  Gonystylus bancanus  Parastemon urophyllum Presbytis cristata oil, rubber estates, paddy field and  Tetramerista glabra  Shorea platycarpa, S. uliginosa,  Pongo pygmaeus  Palaquium burckii S. albida horticultural field, etc)  Lephopetalum multinerviman  Hylobates agilis  Koompassia malaccensis  Campnosperma coriceae  Macaca nemestrina  Nasalis larvatus

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General characteristic:  The trunk of the trees are rather massive but relatively Monsoon Forest  During dry season, most of the trees shed their short with widely spreading crowns, rather stout and  Forest with abundant rainfall during wet season, which (leaf-shedding species or deciduous) gnarled branches, thick barks and often fissured alternates with a distinct drought period which may last  Trees have to develop deep root system and wood  The leaves of deciduous trees are usually hygrophilous, from about 4 to 6 months, the total amount of rainfall varies annual rings, thick barks, lack buttressed root thin and large. The few evergreen trees tend to have from about 1,000 to 2,000 mm a year, may be subjected to  smaller and thicker leaves strong winds. The A and sometimes also the B storey are more open and may disappear, so that only one tree  Fewer climber and epiphytes  In Indonesia this forests distribute in West Java (Karawang, stratum remains, those forests seem to consist of 3 Indramayu, Cirebon), East Java, Central Java, Bali, Nusa  Undergrowth (grass, shrub) and geophytes are Tenggara, Sulawesi layers all together: luxuriant  The upper layer being the tree canopy which is  Trees, shrubs and geophytes are in dry season, often disturbed herbs flower during rainy season  The second layer is undergrowth (shrubby thickets  Forests grow on the various kinds of dry mineral soils and more grasses) which is often dense at the low (2 – 1000 asl) and high elevation (1000 –  The third layer is a ground layer of herbs 4000 asl)

Flora Monsoon forest at medium to high elevation (1000 – 4000 asl) Fauna  Casuarina sumatrana  Honey bee  Monsoon forest at low elevation (2 – 1000 asl)  C. junghuhniana  Deer, buffalo, bull  Eucalyptus urophylla  Tectona grandis  Melaleuca  Long-tailed monkey  Dalbergia latifolia  Scheichera obasa  E. deglupta    Butterfly Acacia mangium Albizia leobekosides  Pinus merkusii  Lagerstomia speciosa  Azadirachta indica  Bird (Cypsiurus batasiurus)  Tamarindus indica  Casuarina penghumiares  P. insularis   Honalium tomentosum  Cassia fistula Frogs  Santalum album  Salmalia malabarica Not many published literatures on the fauna of monsoon forest  Eucalyptus alba  Palms (Borassus flabellifer and Corypha utan)

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Causes of Forest Destruction Heat Forest (Kerangas Forest) General characteristic:  Forests grow on white sand soils derived from siliceous  Trees are often densely packed difficult to penetrates  Fire parent materials, where the soil is poor in nutrients/bases, with small thick leaves  Grazing highly acidic, coarse textured and free draining. They are  Low, uniform, single-layered canopy formed by crowns often covered by superficial layer of peat/humus which is  Convertion to other land use for agriculture, of large saplings and small poles quickly lost once the natural vegetation is cleared resettlement, etc.  Buttress are smaller, but still root are common  In Indonesia, heat forest found be great extent in Central  Small, thin climbers are common, as are ephiphytes and East Kalimantan  Plants with supplementary means of obtaining minerals are common, i.e Casuarina nobilis which has root noduls containing nitrogen fixing bacteria  Conspicuous epiphytes are ant plants (Myrmecophytes): Hydrophytum and Myrmecodia

 Ground flora is sparse, with many mosses and Flora  Open scrubby and Padang vegetation: liverworth as well as insectivore plants such as  Tall-closed heat forest:  Casuarina sumatrana pitcher plants Nepenthes, sundews Drosera and  Eugenia palembanica  Cratoxylum glaucum bladderworm Urticularia growing on the poor soils  Ilex hypoglauca  Dacrydium elatum  Endemic orchid of Bulbophyllum beccarii growth on  Cotylelobium malayanum  Baeckia frutescens the trunk of the trees to maximize its access to  Barringtonia sumatrana  Tristaniopsis obovata nutrients  Calophyllum soulattri  Herb layer: Vaccinium baccanum, Nepenthes  In Indonesia, heat forest varies from tall closed  Shorea teysmanniana  Orchid: Dendrobium, Eria, Coelogyne, Bulbophyllum, and Liparis forest similar to adjacent lowland mixed forest, to  Agathis borneensis open scrubby vegetation or Padang (destroyed heat forest with small, short, crooked stem and thin crown trees, DBH < 30 cm and H < 15 cm high, forest floor is covered by herbs/dwarfs shrubs or completely bare).

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Fauna Causes of Destruction Limestone Forest  Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)  Macaques  Over exploitation  Limestone forest is a climax community, old  Orthotomus ruficeps (the ashy tailorbird)  Convertion to other land use for agriculture, etc and stable. A limestone forest grows on  Snakes, lizards, and frogs limestone hill areas.  Termites  Limestone is a type of rock made naturally  Beetles from the shells of sea creatures that lived millions of years ago.  Not all limestone area are described by geomorphologists as karst landscapes that have arisen from the abnormally high solubility of the bedrock.

Limestone Forest Flora in Limestone Forest

 The karst landscapes are two major forms  Dipterocarpus hasseltii typical of the humid tropics:  Stelechocarpus burahol  Diospyros maritima  conical hill karst, examples: in Sulawesi  Croton tiglium (north of Bone, on Buton and Muna), Bali  Pisonia grandis (Mt. Sewu and Nusa Penida southeast of  Kleinhovia hospita Bali)  Cyanotis cristata  tower karst, examples: Sulawesi (Maros  Peperomia laevifolia and Tonasa), Jawa (Padalarang)  Drynaria spp  Antrophyum reticulatum, etc

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Fauna in Limestone Forest Animal in Limestone Forest Causes of Disturbance

Macaca nigra  No vertebrates are restricted in their  Intense limestone mining distribution to the surface of limestone hill, but some species of snails are because they need calcium to form their shells. Macaca maura  Examples animals in limestone forest:  Graphium androcles  Macaca nigra  Macaca maura

Ultrabasic Forest Flora in Ultrabasic Forest Ultrabasic Forest  Forests occurring on soils derived from  Metrosideros ultrabasic parent material are often distinct  Agathis from forest of adjacent, different soils.  Calophyllum  The soil that developed on ultrabasic rocks  Eugenia are notoriously infertile due to combinations of  Kjellbergiodendron the following factors: high levels of  Horsfieldia exchangeable magnesium and a skewed calcium; magnesium ratio, a deficiency of  Gymnacranthera calcium, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium,  Knema molybdenum, and zinc; and toxic  Deplanchea concentrations of heavy metals such as nickel, bancana, etc. cobalt, and chromium.

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Fauna in Ultrabasic Forest Causes of Forest Destruction Lowland Rain Forest (LRF)

 Butterfly  Over exploitation LRF is the most extensive occuring in Indonesia  Flycatcher bird  Convertion and is the most luxurious vegetation compared to other types of forest in the world.  Starlings bird  Ants

Structure and Physiognomy Characteristic of LRF

Atribute Category Canopy height 25-45 m Emergent trees Characteristic, to 60(80) m tall Pinnate leaves Frequent Principal leaf size class of woody plants Mesophyll Lowland Rain Forests are Lofty, dense, evergreen Buttresses Usually frequent and large Cauliflory Frequent forest 45 m or more tall, characterized by the large Big woody climbers Abundant Bole climbers Often abundant number of species. Gregarious dominants Vascular epiphytes Frequent Non-vascular epiphytes Occasional Bryophyte Rare (consociations) are uncommon and usually 2/3 or more Bole Usually almost cylindrical Canopy layer Conventionally 5 layer: Three tree layers, shrub layer, and herb layer; of the upper-canopy trees are of species individually 1) A-Storey (upperanst tree layer) is made up of emergent trees about 30 – 45 m high with discontinuous canopy. Those emergent trees show shallow rooting and buttresses not contributing more than 1% of the total number 2) B-Storey (second tree layer, main canopy) is made up of the trees of about 18 – 27 m high with continuous canopy layer 3) C-Storey (third tree layer) is composed of trees rising to a height of about 8 – 14 m, with form dense layer, particularly the B-Storey does not do so 4) Shrub layer consisting of species with heights mostly below 10 m a. Shrub with branching near the base, no main axis b. Small trees with prominent main axis (treelet) and including the saplings) 5) Herb layer consisting of smaller plants which are either seedlings or herbacious species (Zingiberaceae, Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae, Araceae, Maranthaceae, etc.)

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Liverworth Lichen

Strangler

Liana mosses Sisik naga (epifit)

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Flora  Eastern part of Indonesia (East Malesia) Fauna  Western Part of Indonesia (West Malesian/Sunda Shelf) Dipterocarpaceae become less important and locally  Big herbivores (elephants, rhino), deer, anoa, etc. Species of Dipterocarpaceae, mainly the genera of dominant. The important species are:  Tiger and other Felidae Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Drybalanops, Parashorea and  Araucaria cunninghamii  Aves: hornbill, paradise bird, peacock, etc.  Primates: macaques, gibbon, orangutan Shorea are dominating the large trees of the emergent  A. humsteini layer, totaled about 350 species found in this region. Also  Reptiles and amphibians  Agathis labillardieri this forest is characterized by rich ground layer palm flora of  Others shade and moisture loving genera (Iguanusa, ,  Conifer species (Dacrydium elatum, D. novoguinense, , Nenga, Rhopalobaste) Papuacedrus spp., phyllocladus hypophyllus, Podocarpus papuanus)

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Montane Rain Forest  Upwards mossy forest is SUBALPINE FOREST with a Causes of Forest Destruction  Upwards the luxurious vegetation at low an medium altitude, the forest shorter more gnarled formation with even tinier leaves become a two storey with decreasing tree height as well as decreasing (Nanophylls). It is the tree line at about 4.000 m asl. tree species richness, but it is very luxuriant in epiphytes (mainly mosses  Over exploitation and illegal logging and liverworts) which cover the trunks and branches of the trees  Beyond the Subalpine forest is ALPINE VEGETATION densely. Woody vines are very few present. This kind of forest is called  Convertion to agriculture cultivation, (shrub heat, most tundra, fern meadow) and grassland. SUBMONTANE FOREST Those treeless landscape extend up to the nival zone resettlement, etc.  Above this forest, is the true montane forest made up of a single storey of twisted trees of massive growth and rich in branching, leaves of trees (snow line) at about 4,500 m asl.  Fire become smaller, trunks and branches are covered with a thick snat of mosses and liverworts which may hang down in festoon. This kind of forest is UPPER MONTANE FOREST in which often only 10 m tall or less and its shorter facies are sometimes called ELFIN WOODLAND. The trees may be heavily swatch in bryophytes and filmy fern, so this forest also known as MOSSY FOREST (mosses and liverworth dominate). Peat often forms, sometimes with the big moss Sphagnum. More light penetrate and the ground vegetation. of trees, shrubs and epiphytes are numerous (mossy forest as most striking type of tropical vegetation), strangler are usually absent, small climbers may be found near the upper limit of the forest

Tropical lowland Tropical upper Tropical lower Formation boleevergreen rain montane rain Subalpine forest montane rain forest Snow in the Top Montanea forest forest Canopy height 25-45 m 15-33 m 1.5-18 m 1.5 – 9 m

Emergent trees Characteristic, to Often absent, to 37 m Usually absent, 15 m 60(80) m tall tall to 26 m tall

Pinnate leaves Frequent Rare Very rare -

Principal leaf size Mesophyll Mesophyll Microphyll Nanophyll class of woody plants

Buttresses Usually frequent and Uncommon, small Usually absent Absent large

Cauliflory Frequent Rare Absent Absent

Compound leaves Abundant Present Rare Absent

Big woody climbers Abundant Usually none None Absent

Bole climbers Often abundant Frequent to abundant Very few -

Creepers Usually abundant Common or abundant Very rare absent

Vascular epiphytes Frequent Abundant Frequent Very rare

Non-vascular Occasional Occasional to Often abundant abundant epiphytes abundant

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 Flora Upper Montane Forest  Subalpine and Alpine  Conifer (Araucariaceae, Dacrydium, Podocarpus)  Lower Montane Forest :  Graminae  Loptospermum  Fabaceae (Quercus, Castana, Lithocarpus,  Cyperus  Nothofagus) Clearia  Juncus  Ericaceae  Lauraceae (Litsea)  Agrotis  Hammamelidaceae  Magnoliaceae  Ericaceae

Fauna Causes of Forest Destruction

 Tiger (Panthera pardus melas,  Mining etc.)  Exploitation  Frogs  Lizard, Snake  Convertion to agricultural cultivation  Bird (Eagle, etc.)  Natural disaster  Langur  Squirrel, shrew  Palm civet  Gymnure

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