'Homeland' in the Identity Narratives of Romanians in Ireland

Home , Romanian diaspora, The Choice (Homeland)

DOI: 10.1515/irsr-2011-0015

IRSR INTERNATIONAL REVIEW of SOCIAL RESEARCH Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011, 125-143 International Review of Social Research

Stories of Love and Hate. Images of ‘Homeland’ in the Identity Narratives of Romanians in Ireland

Gloria MACRI• Dublin City University

Abstract: Identity is a term that has sparked criticisms in the academic debates, with some scholars fully embracing this rather insufficiently defined concept, whereas others militate for its complete removal from the vocabulary of social sciences. However, in spite of the fierce criticism, identity research has become a central part of the social sciences. Striving to address some of the existing challenges in identity scholarship, the research presented in this article focuses on the diaspora identity narratives of Romanians in Ireland. By adopting a constructivist perspective on identity, this is a study of the continuously flowing boundaries between ‘us’ and ‘them’, as well as of the boundaries where the symbolic space is negotiated and identities are fiercely debated, constructed and re-constructed. While Romanians use a multitude of ‘other’ groups against which they construct their diaspora identities, one of the key markers used in their identity narratives is their relation with the ancestral homeland. Interesting findings have emerged, as Romanians talked about their mixed feelings towards their homeland and their fellow countrymen. As these narratives of the homeland unfold, it becomes clear they bear a strong imprint on their diaspora identity and feelings of belonging. The study presents an analysis of data collected over a six-year period (2004-2010) in the archives of the online discussion forum of the Romanian community from Ireland.

Keywords: diaspora, identity, boundaries, online, homeland, Ireland, migration

Introduction Allport’s book The Nature of Prejudice (1954) to have played a considerable Since the publication of the works of role in linking identity to ethnicity. Erik Erikson and Gordon Allport in the This strand of research has since then late 1950s and early 1960s, identity has flourished and, particularly in the emerged as a key topic in the social field of migration studies, research on sciences. Many scholars consider identity and belonging has thrived over

•email: [email protected]. This research was funded under the IRCHSS (Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences) - Government of Ireland Post-Graduate Scholarship Scheme. © University of Bucharest, June 2011 126 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 the last two decades. Mandaville (2001) in relation to its empirical applications. attributes a key role in the expansion ddOne of the main critiques addressed of this particular strand of research to to the constructionist approach is that the intense search and negotiation of it is believed to have destroyed the identity in which diasporas engage due rationale for talking about identities to their physical separation from the (Brubaker and Cooper, 2000). The two ‘natural’ setting of the homeland. authors argue that identities in the post- ddJust like all main concepts in the modern acceptance are too ambiguous social sciences, ‘identity’ has got its and ‘infinitely elastic’ (Brubaker and fair share of fierce debate around its Cooper, 2000) and the concept became meaning and also around its alleged an increasingly popular term precisely utility for the social sciences. Stuart because it ‘could be adjusted to fit Hall, one of the main contributors to the various meanings granted to it’ the scholarship on identity, signals the (Georgiou, 2006: 39). major shifts in the definitions of this ddEven more voices signalled the disputed concept throughout its history, difficulty in using the concept of from the ‘old’ essentialising perspective identity in empirical research. On one on identity (identity as a ‘given’, a static hand this is a direct consequence of the reality) to a post-modern approach to ambiguity surrounding the concept. identity (identity as a process which Social researchers are bound to answer undergoes continuous construction and a pressing question in relation to how re-construction) (Hall, 1994). is identity to be measured empirically: ddAccording to Hall (1994), post- what aspects of identity need to be modern identity needs to be understood included in the measurement to ensure as an open-ended project, which is relevance, while also avoiding an all- negotiated and re-negotiated in different inclusive but meaningless viewpoint? situations and contexts. Identity is On the other hand, there are concerns thus not only about ‘being’, but also about the reliability of the concept about ‘becoming’ (Triandafyllidou of identity as a variable in empirical and Wodak, 2003). Moreover, the research: if identity has become post-modern individual is no longer fragmented and dynamic, then would it believed to have a single, homogenous still be a useful concept and a reliable identity (Giddens, 1991; Husband, variable to be used in social research? 2005), but rather a fragmented one ddAs many questions still remain to which the individual assembles (just be answered, it becomes evident that like a mosaic) from a wide array of while ‘identity’ is still very much an possible identifications. important concept in social sciences, ddAlthough the post-modern identity it is not without its own intricacies. approach may appear to solve some There is yet no single, clear definition of the key problematic issues in of identity and the concept tends to understanding identity, it has also acquire new meanings in different generated a significant amount of instances of its use. In spite of the debate and criticism. Arguments have multiple difficulties in coming to an been raised both in relation to the agreement about the meanings of conceptualisation of identity, but also the concept, I argue that eliminating GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 127 the term ‘identity’ (together with the concept of identity in empirical other contested concepts) from the research. vocabulary of social sciences would ddThe study presented in this article render these sciences quite theoretically constitutes a part of my doctoral poor. Therefore what remains to be research programme that focuses on seen is not ‘if’, but rather ‘how’ can mapping the identity narratives of the social research engage this key term in Romanian diaspora living in Ireland. a creative way. The methodology proposed by this ddFrederik Barth’s (1969) argues that study stems from a constructivist one way of addressing the multiple perspective, and it looks at identity difficulties in defining identity is to as a process that is negotiated in the focus the analysis on the boundaries everyday life and interactions of of an ethnic group, rather than on diasporic people. Following on from the cultural content delimited by the line of research opened by Barth them. Thus the boundary becomes a and Baumann, this research places a powerful identifier in discourses of strong emphasis on the processes of identity. Bauman (1990) develops boundary creation and negotiation in further the Barthian idea of boundaries the identity discourses as it examines and underlines the role of ‘the Other’ the reflections of the Romanian in the construction of who we are. diaspora in Ireland around their Bauman (1990: 40) defines the ‘we’ identity and the identities of ‘relevant (or the ingroup) as the space to which Others’. we belong and where we feel secure. ddWhen choosing to study identity On the opposite, ‘they’ represents the from a relational perspective, the group to which someone cannot or markers (or identifiers) in relation to does not wish to belong. whom identity is being constructed ddThe key advantage of this approach become of key importance (Brubaker is that it enables us to eliminate some of and Cooper, 2000). Thus, the choices the ambiguity surrounding the concept people make from a wide range of of ‘identity’ and clarify its meanings, possible identifiers become particularly thus addressing one of the key gaps relevant. For example, findings in identity studies. By focusing on the emerging from this research point to symbolic borders between groups, we the fact that Romanianness is defined can see how individuals and groups in relation to a multitude of ‘Other’ negotiate their identities in the social diasporic groups (e.g. being Romanian context and in relation to ‘Others’. vs. being Polish or Lithuanians in ddThis relational view on identity also Ireland etc.), ‘Other’ religious groups enables social researchers to actively (e.g. being Orthodox – as are most engage the concept in empirical Romanians - vs. being Catholic – as research. By investigating its contours, are many more of the other European researchers are confident that they can countries), ‘Other’ political entities indirectly discover the ‘content’ of a (being a member of the EU or not), group’s identity. The great merit of but also in relation to being Gypsy, this approach is that it eliminates the being Moldovan (from the Moldovan perpetual obstacles in operationalising republic). Important distinctions have 128 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 also been made in relation to being a ddThus, the images of homeland Romanian in Ireland vs. a Romanian are particularly important when we migrant elsewhere, between living in discuss the case of diasporic identity Romania and living abroad. discourses. Their physical separation ddWhile there are many identifiers from the country of origin leads to from which people can choose in their specific forms of attachment and identity discourses, many scholars belonging. Migrant or diasporic have pointed to ‘the State’ as one of the identities are deeply anchored in most powerful identifiers particularly transnational spaces, linking the old in the study of ethnic, migrant or and the new identities, the homeland diasporic groups and their identity and the host country(ies). narratives. Smith (1991: 143) argues ddThis article sets out to evaluate the that the nation is important because it different discourses that Romanian permeates most spheres of activity in migrants in Ireland construct when the life of individuals and communities. they refer to their ancestral home. It Moreover, the author asserts that the begins with a brief overview of the nation provides the most inclusive country and its people which aims to community and it may also be seen map the main ideas and expressions as the basic unit of moral economy, in used by Romanians in Ireland when terms both of territory and of resources describing their homeland. Many and skills (144). Georgiou (2006: 85) interesting findings emerge in relation also views that ‘home’ is important to the rather mixed picture diasporic because it is ‘a synonym to familiarity, Romanians build about their country intimacy, security and identity against of origin and their co-citizens. The the unknown, the distant and the large’. article endeavours to interpret these ddParekh dedicated an entire chapter images and discourses of the homeland in his book A New Politics of Identity through the lens of diasporic identity (2008: 56) to the topic of national construction. identities. The author points out that members of a political community (such as the nation state) grow up in Methodology a particular national culture and will eventually be shaped by its values and There is a dearth of studies in ethos. Thus, belonging to the national relation to the diasporic narratives of community is a valued part of each identity of Romanian communities individual’s identity and will therefore abroad. Thus, this research is rather not be entirely abandoned in exchange exploratory in nature and it aims at for other forms of belonging. understanding the identity narratives ddConsequently ‘homeland’ represents of the Romanian migrants in Ireland a common point of identification (as the and to comprehend the process through country of origin) and it constitutes as which these identities are constructed. well a common pool of cultural values, In order to achieve these aims, the memories, myths and symbols that will study uses a predominantly qualitative have an impact in shaping migrants’ methodology. feeling of belonging. ddMoreover, the nature of the topic GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 129 studied, also recommends a qualitative forum that I envisage to explore the methodological approach as identity dynamic identity narratives in different and belonging are dynamic processes contexts. that can hardly be quantified and measured through a quantitative approach without the risk of over- Alternative geographies? Where are simplifying the two concepts. we exactly on the map? ddThis study is based on an ethnographic investigation of the online While it was expected that different discussion forum of the Romanian voices in the diasporic community community in Ireland. The main would produce different narratives of advantage offered by ethnographic home by highlighting various aspects research is that it allowed for a long- and images of the homeland, findings term and in-depth immersion into the surprisingly indicate that even the life of the community and this enabled geographical location of the homeland the capture of the identity discourse(s) may be subject to debate among the of a community as a collective and diaspora. continuous process of negotiation and ddNot until long ago, societies re-negotiation. Participant observation and communities were understood and content analysis have been used to exclusively in terms of their examine the messages posted on forum geographical boundaries as this and their meaning in relation to the facilitated people’s identification topic studied. with and belonging to them: ddThe forum constitutes a rich source ‘physical proximity, defined by of information about Romanians as locality and residence, was central a community, the ways in which they in the conventional understanding see themselves and others. Findings of community’ (Kennedy and indicate that the forum constitutes the Roudometof, 2001:11). Existing centrepiece of Romanian community scholarship indicates that in the last life in Ireland. Moreover, the forum decade there has been a marked allows access to information over a change towards a more symbolic long time-span (2004-2010)1, thus understanding of geography. Thus, including many key moments in the life according to Kennedy and Roudometof of the community. Another important (2001), nation states (and communities aspect is that on the forum, identity in general) need to be constructed unfolds naturally, like in everyday symbolically. While this perspective life, through stories and experiences, dates back as early as 1967, when without answers being prompted by Walzer (1967) referred to the state specific questions. as an invisible entity that ‘must be ddDiscussion forums have rarely personified before it can be seen, been used in social research and even symbolized before it can be loved, fewer studies have taken advantage of imagined before it can be conceived’ the archived content that discussion (Walzer, 1967 in Ruggie, 1992: 157), forums contain. It is precisely by the clear breakthrough came in 1983, focusing on the archived content of the when Benedict Anderson proposed the 130 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 term ‘imagined communities’ to define centre. As one of the forum participants ‘all communities larger than primordial pointed out, there are nearly 650 km villages of face-to-face contact‘ between Bucharest and Istanbul and (Anderson, 1991[1983]: 6). This new more than 2200 km between Bucharest approach on communities does not and Amsterdam. This perspective imply that ‘locality’ has vanished or argues that Romania is undeoubtedly that is has become irrelevant. Instead, placed in the South-East of Europe. ‘locality’ has just acquired a symbolic ddThese different visions of Romania dimension. articulate an interesting debate ddIn the same line, findings point to about the distinction between the an intriguing dilemma which emerged actual geographical borders and the on the forum in relation to the position cultural geographic claims. Forum occupied by Romania in Europe. members pointed out to the fact that Analysing the online debates of other countries (such as Ukraine) are Romanians in Ireland it became evident also making similar assertions about that even a science of physical borders belonging to the Central European (as geography is) can be subjective and space. However as the forum allow for many alternative visions. In discussants argue, these claims can 2009, a forum discussion thread dealt only become legitimate if and when with the complex issue of Romania’s they are acknowledged and recognised geographical, cultural and strategic by others: position in Europe. […] I don’t know how relevant is ddThere were voices that placed for us to debate about Romania’s Romania (geographically, as well as geographical positioning on the culturally and historically) together European map as long as we with the other Central European treated [negatively] the way we countries in a European continent are… (2009 – M01) that extends its borders to the Ural ddThis last paragraph summarises Mountains. one of the key aspect of Romanians ddOther forum members however identity: our image in the eyes of argued that Romania is clearly placed ‘the Others’ tends to put a significant in the East of Europe and highlight the constraint on who we are and who we fact that many Western Europeans are claim we are. The subtle meanings not even aware or do not acknowledge deeply embedded in this sentence the Ural Mountains as the eastern will unfold throughout the article as border of the continent. Further more, the narratives of Romania and being they feel that in this scenario Romania Romanian take shape. has probably not even been considered to be part of Europe until the last two waves of EU accession created a more Romania: the land of all the inclusive definition of Europe. problems ddWhen actual distances are considered, arguments also seem to Having highlighted some of the indicate that Romania is placed rather alternative visions of Romania’s in the East of Europe rather than in the geographical, political and cultural GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 131 position in Europe, the focus will shift to be totally inefficient in fighting next to stress out the views and opinions corruption. Many think that laws are exposed by Romanians in Ireland when either conceived to suit the interests they discuss about their homeland and and purposes of the powerful or they its citizens. are simply not applied. This constitutes ddThere are not many positive things the main reason why people have that Romanians have to say about completely lost their trust in the police ‘living in Romania’. For many, it is a force and the justice system. When the country that offers no opportunities failures of the justice system become for young people to earn a decent noticed abroad, they cause Romanians living or to promote their career. They in Ireland a huge embarrassment and feel that salaries are at an incredibly also result in damaging effects to their low level which hardly reflects their identities by reinforcing the stigma educational achievements, their skills associated with ‘being Romanian’. or competences. For some of the [...] Sometimes I don’t feel like speakers, the experiences are dramatic: saying out loud that I am Romanian. It depends on the circumstances… […] I’m dying here in this country… I sometimes I am from Transylvania have got to a point where I am working or… Christmas Island! (2006 – M05) for free in Romania just so that I can practice my own profession and to ddFor many forum members, living in acquire some work experience and Romania takes nerves of steel in order seniority […] I feel that life is passing to survive and they recall the lack of me by and I have no chance in this money, bureaucracy, corruption, and shit-hole of a country. (2006 – M10) the difficult interactions with rude ddStarting a business in Romania is also public officers as the some of main perceived by forum users to be a nearly causes of stress. Romania’s road impossible task. The lack of economic infrastructure, the health system and stability makes it hard to plan your the educational system are also harshly business in the long term. In addition criticised by Romanians abroad. to this, bureaucracy, corruption and ddRomania’s problems were brought bribes add to the burden of a business even more to the forefront in the year start-up. preceding the country’s joining the ddCorruption does not only affect European Union. During this period entrepreneurs but just about everybody the critical reports of Romania’s slow in the society. Many forum members progress were extensively scrutinised seem to view that corruption is ‘the by Romanians in Ireland on their New Religion’ in the Romanian online communication platform. To society, becoming more like ‘a way of a great extent their opinions seemed doing things Romanian-style’ (2007 to echo the conclusions formulated – M02). Starting with the political in these Country Progress Reports. leaders and company managers to the Forum contributors felt that Romania regular people in their everyday lives, was not yet ready to join the EU, before everybody give and take bribes in ‘cleaning the communists from our exchange for favours. backyard’ (2006 – M05) and ‘speeding ddThe legal system is perceived up the pace’ (2006 – F05). 132 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 ddOn the other hand there are also to affect the migrants after they settle voices on the forum which tried to in a different location. As the map of counter these feelings of inferiority Romania’s problems starts to catch that Romanians have in relation to contour in the forum narratives, it the European Union by suggesting also becomes more apparent that these that we are not worse than other EU aspects carry potentially negative members when they had to prepare impacts on Romanian migrants’ their accession process: attachment to their homeland. There We shouldn’t always be so humble are multiple ways in which the in front of them, we are not slaves! situation in Romania imprints on the We have to fit many criteria in order lives of migrants. to join the EU, and other countries ddOn the one hand migrants keep in namely Ireland had no problems touch with their family and friends joining when in fact it had similar at home and they tend to see the problems in the main areas where we country not only through diasporic have ‘red flags’ as well! [e.g. securing eyes, but also through the eyes of the borders; high level corruption] […] I’m not saying that the level their dear ones. Thus, the homeland’s of corruption is not problematic in sad realities appear as extremely real Romania, but they should take a and immediate even for those living look in their back garden before they thousands of kilometres away from speak about us. (2006- M01) ‘the source’. According to the opinions ddThe feelings of shame for the expressed on the forum these images country’s apparent lack of progress have also impact greatly on the evaluation not ceased after 2007 when Romania and re-evaluation of their decision to joined the European Union. Quite on return. the contrary, the sense of inferiority ddOn the other hand forum members seems to be working its way deeper also mention undergoing negative into the Romanian identity narratives. feelings and experiences when For example when many countries returning ‘home’ for holidays. For (including Ireland and the UK) some it is the immediate reaction they decided to impose work restrictions get when they encounter unfriendly for Romanian and Bulgarian workers, Romanian customs officers at the people felt that we are a nation of airport: the fact that they are not indésirables and that, ironically, even smiling and they treat one like dirt ‘Zimbabwe will soon impose work is, for many forum members, a sign restrictions on Romanians’ (2008 – that one is no longer in the ‘civilised M06). European space’ and is now crossing ddFindings indicate that although the border and re-entering the ‘land of many all these problems summarise problems’. the main issues which characterise ddUpon return, the country is also the present-day Romania, many of experienced as an expensive and them also constitute the key factors stressful experience: that determined the migrants to leave I am going home and I stay with their homeland and settle elsewhere. my folks or friends and still I end These factors however do not cease up spending more than if I went GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 133

on an exotic holiday. I come back [to significant difference from this point Ireland] tired and angry. [After that] I of view between Romanians ‘at home’ need another holiday. Therefore I go and those who have migrated. As one back quite rarely and I would rather forum user mentions, Romanians take a holiday in a country where re- only show a healthy work ethic when laxation is guaranteed. (2008 – M02) working abroad and this is mainly ddFindings clearly seem to indicate because of an existing vicious cycle that Romanians in Ireland do not have between the level of pay and the work a positive image of their homeland’s ethos. progress and situation. Some opinions ddAnother positive element mentioned describe the situation as extremely is that Romanians find it easy to get sad, calling their ancestral home ‘the adapted in each situation. However Valley of Sorrows’2. It comes thus to while sometimes this is achieved no surprise that several Romanian through will-power and determination, migrants mentioned on the forum that in other situations the methods they their decisions to leave the homeland adopt are said to be less Orthodox: stems from a feeling that Romania is It seems that the true Romanian is simply the ‘wrong country’ for them the one who has learnt to push and and consequently anywhere is better shove… to manage situations... He than in Romania. is the one who has the guts to cut ddIn spite of some of these negative in front of the queue. To disobey portrayals of the homeland, some the law without a trace of guilt if his personal interests require so… forum members argue that an important (2006 – M09) distinction needs to be made between Romania as a country that needs to ddThis last quote points to other aspects be loved and the people that live in it. which forum users see as characteristic ddThis resonates with one of the most for Romanians: selfishness and popular sayings in Romania: ‘Romania individualism. Thus instead of is a beautiful country, too bad it is bonding with other co-citizens and inhabited’. This reflection indicates that contribute to the collective community Romania represents at the basic level a construction (either online or offline), geographical space that cannot carry forum members feel that Romanians any blame for its own situation or lack generally lack the civic spirit and the of development. It is the responsibility social unity that a community needs. of people to make Romania a better In their opinion this will further place which will eventually inspire negatively impact on the shaping a more pride to its citizens. collective identity for Romanians in ddWhile some positive aspects Ireland have been mentioned about ‘being ddThe reason why Romanians don’t Romanian’, there is seems to be a great like to meet and socialise with other variety of shades in which the picture Romanians represents for the forum of the ‘typical Romanian’ is painted members a big dilemma and they by the forum members. On the one are suggesting multiple explanations hand Romanians are praised for being for what they call ‘the mentality of good workers. There seems to be a standing divided’. Disenchantment 134 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 with the situation at home as well as Romanians in Ireland do not trust their the stigma and shame associated to co-ethnics. being labelled as ‘Romanian’ are for ddIn certain circumstances, this lack of the forum members the key reasons trust may lead to the desire to distance why Romanians in Ireland might not themselves from their fellow citizens: feel the incentive to participate more You see a Romanian woman in the in the collective events (national day street with her child and as soon as celebrations, protests etc.): she hears that you speak Romanian […] Romanians are not interested in she will quickly [switch to English the National Day celebrations or in and] call her child: ‘‘Kevin, come to any other forms of association that mother!’ and then she simply pretends might remind them that they are Ro- she can’t see you. But what she for- manians […] [They must say to them- gets is that she is wearing a leather selves] So what if my son will never jacket and has a hair-do that screams know who Stefan the Great [Prince ‘Eastern European’ […] and she also of Moldavia] was? And so what if carries a plastic bag in her hand. This my son will think that his father was all means that the person does not feel born somewhere west of Asia. […] very good about herself and she tries For these people the only thing that to pass as someone that she will never counts is that they left that shitty be. (2007 – M08) country behind and that they can now ddSuch extreme efforts to distance hide their Romanianness in the box. themselves from other Romanians may These people say they are Romani- also be interpreted from a different ans only when we get Gold medals angle: the desire by some Romanian in sports competitions, otherwise he migrants to Ireland to assimilate into calls his own people… ‘these fucking the host society. Well established Romanians’. (2007 – M04). strategies, such as children naming ddFor some of the online discussants, practices, speaking exclusively the the lack unity in the community has host society language at home etc. have also deep roots in the generalised lack already been documented by existing of trust between Romanians during the scholarship (Isaacs, 1975; Becker, Communist regime when Romanians 2009). Several authors argue that were said to betray even their close children name choice practices tend to friends and family to the Securitate be particularly important as they are for meagre benefits or to escape from not only markers of one’s personal, accusations themselves. After the but also of one’s social identity; it Communist regime ended in 1989, represents a voluntary and desired it was also common belief that many identification with the host society on Romanians residing abroad illegally the part of immigrants (Gerhards & would collaborate with the local Hans, 2006 in Becker, 2009). On the Police and betray their friends and other hand, in comparison with other acquaintances (who were also residing forms of assimilation or integration illegally) in exchange for legal status. which may require higher resource Although there is not enough proof investments (e.g. learning a language), to support these hear-say accusations, the choice of the first names are it becomes apparent that many available free of charge to parents GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 135

(ibid.). Moreover, naming practices by others. This translates into a deeply measure real behaviours, not only embedded pessimism about the power attitudes or intentions. to change their fate and the fate of ddFurthermore, by naming their the country they live in. One of the children traditional Irish names and forum contributors describes these by talking to them in English, parents pessimistic people as grey shadows may hope to reduce the so-called that crawl on crowded city streets in ‘handicap’ of the first generation of something that resembles a dickensian Romanian migrants in Ireland. From landscape. this perspective their separation from ddOnline discussions highlight more other Romanians and the Romanian other negative aspects. Reacting to culture suggests more that just a desire the manifold media representations to escape the ‘Romanian’ label, but portraying Romanians as uncivilised also as a strong desire to belong to the and criminals, many forum users are Irish society. upset and sad. However many also ddLast but not least, naming practices view that ‘there is rarely smoke without can also be explained by making a fire’. They find that these categories of reference to Goffman’s (1963) theory Romanians (i.e. ‘the criminals and the on stigmatised identities and ‘passing’ uncivilised’) carry most of the blame - the desire to become invisible by for our problematic image abroad resembling as much as possible with and also for the fear that Westerners the ‘Other’. feel when they encounter Romanians. ddConclusions so far point to the fact These reflections indicate how deeply that Romanians abroad, in spite of their the forum members are affected by good work ethos and their adaptability having to ‘share their citizenship’ skills, also have many undesirable with people which they feel are not characteristics such as selfish-ness, dignified to claim belonging to the individualism and lack of trust in other same ‘homeland’ as them. community members. These factors all ddIn a similar manner, the RCI forum seem to reflect and further contribute members are trying to detach from to a problematic identification with the the deeds of the Romanian criminals Romanian identity label. which tend to get over-representation ddSpeaking about their fellow- in the foreign media. Forum citizens ‘at home’, forum users feel participants discuss extensively about that Romanians tend to be constantly a so-called criminal nature (‘culture’) unhappy, they always complain of Romanians where crime seems and criticise and they are also too to be the ruling principle. They feel pessimistic about their chances to that Romanians abroad have already have their say in turning the country’s made a name for themselves in all situation around. Blaming others for sorts of illegal activities (stealing, card the disasters appears to be yet another skimming, sex-trafficking, rape etc.) well know feature of ‘being Romanian’ and this justifies to a certain degree the in the eyes of the forum members. In bad treatment we get from the whole their view, Romanians like to self-pity community abroad. and are obsessed with being persecuted 136 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011

Let’s be honest, what can the stigmatising effects, and while some Italians do if Romanians behave Romanians may choose the path of like animals? Don’t try to tell me assimilation into the Irish society, that it is their civic duty as hosts to others are striving to maintain their give the immigrants free food, free attachment to the homeland and to accommodation, free drinks and their women. (2007 – M02) raise the profile of Romanianness by correcting the problematic aspects of ddIn many instances encountered on the the image that the Romanians have online discussion forum, Romanians (or are thought to have) abroad. The have articulated a discourse emerging following section sets out to explore from a sense of inferiority about who the things that make Romanians proud they are and how they are treated. of their ancestral home. However some forum members acknowledge that in many situations we tend to underestimate ourselves and From hate to love… - Romania and that perhaps Romanians need to feel the things that make us proud more positive about who they are and struggle more to defend their sense of The section of the article highlights belonging: the key aspects that make Romanians We are Romanians and we have feel proud about their country and also to show everybody that we are not the elements that generate a feeling less capable than ‘the others’ in any of nostalgia when they talk about respect, and that we are a nation that their ‘homeland’. It also discusses the knows what it wants. It’s just that for idea of patriotism and respect for the so long the system has put its stamp on country. our way of thinking and everybody has ddIn spite of the many aspects taken advantage of us because of this. (2006 – F09) they dislike about their country of origin, Romanians are very proud ddSometimes, while striving to mask about the beauty of their country their inferiority complex, Romanians and its landscapes. Seeing media online tend to move their discourse representations (i.e. films, ads, to the completely opposite direction internet short clips etc.) which feature and, as a consequence, they construct Romania’s beautiful sights make a superior and arrogant discourse when Romanians extremely proud. discussing Romanians’ identities as ddBesides the national scenery, opposed to ‘the Others’. As one of the Romanians are also proud of the forum discussants remarks, Romanians human talents emerging from their usually oscillate between thinking that homeland, namely mathematicians, IT they are the smartest or the worst. engineers, experienced medical staff ddFrom the findings presented so far and so on. Many names of famous we can conclude that Romanianness Romanians have also been mentioned understood as shared belonging in in different contexts on the forum. It the great national discourse is not is particularly the case of those who necessarily a treasured heritage. have made an excellent reputation Being labelled as Romanian may have and are well-known abroad. Among GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 137 the names mentioned are the members and Tatars) have given the country a of the Galway Ensemble - ConTempo cosmopolitan flavour even before other Quartet3; Herta Müller - the 2009 winner Western European countries became of the Nobel Prize in Literature4; and cosmopolitan as a consequence of Dacian Ciolos - the current European economic migrations and asylum. Commissioner for Agriculture. These Forum discussants mentioned that achievements of some of the most they would like to see more migration famous Romanians make the forum happening in Romania, but they members extremely proud. It is express a strong preference for sometimes uncertain whether some of migration of a certain profile: fewer these well-know personalities consider migrants from the east, more migrants themselves representatives of Romania from the West. This may be interpreted or not (as may be the case for example as a reversal of the current East-to- of Herta Müller). Regardless of this, West migration trend and, at the same Romanians seem to take pride in the time, seeing Occidental migrants in achievements of some personalities Romania would act as a confirmation which belong to a liminal zone of the of the country’s value. Consequently Romanian cultural space. this would greatly improve the level ddSome Romanians in Ireland also feel of trust in the country’s bright future that their cultural traditions make them and it would also bring the Romanian proud and at the same time it also makes diaspora great pride in their country’s them feel distinct from ‘the Others’. In appeal to ‘the Others’. particular the Christmas celebrations ddLast but not least, some of at home are unforgettable for many Romanians online mention that as a of the forum participants and for this nation we should take great pride in particular reason they are deemed to be our history, which, they feel, goes a nearly impossible to be reproduced in very long way back, allowing us track exact detail in Ireland. The availability Romanians (or at least their ancestors) in Ireland of an increasing range of among the first peoples in Europe: ethnic food products may make it We will join the EU, but it is easier for Romanians to acquire a improper to say that we become a better ‘taste of home’, however the part of ‘Europe’ now, because we nostalgia with which they recall the were in Europe long before others. family Christmas traditions back home The Dacians were not migrant makes it impossible to recast the same people like the Gauls, the Germans, rituals on a foreign land. the Greek and the Celts […]. (2004 ddOther positive aspects that make – M01) Romanians proud of their national ddFindings presented so far seem to belonging are their language and indicate that there are many aspects culture as well as Romania’s that are valued by diasporic Romanians multiethnic profile which seems to be in relation to their homeland. However considered by the forum members as many forum users question whether a great asset to their homeland. They these aspects are sufficient in order to feel that Romania’s historical ethnic make Romanians to love their country minorities (German, Hungarian, Turks and be proud of their Romanian 138 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 identity. should not try to identify patriotism, by ddWhen discussing the issue of relying on stereotypic indicators: patriotism, some forum members In today’s 21st century nobody argue that Romanians are not at could persuade me to sing the na- all patriots since they refuse to tional hymn in public… and I don’t associate with other Romanians or think that this means I don’t love to participate in events organised by my country. As well, nobody could the Romanian Community. For these convince me to listen to Romanian folk music on December 1st [the forum discussants, patriotism refers Romanian National Celebration] to a desire to spend time with other I don’t like Romanian folk music co-citizens either by participating in […] because I am interested in other collective events or by doing volunteer styles of music. (2006 – F02) work for the Romanian Community organisation. ddFor other forum participants, the ddThis is however a rather skewed signs of patriotism lie in people’s most measure of patriotic feelings as some common everyday acts. For example of the other forum members tend to being an honest person in a country argue. Lack of interest to partake in the where everybody is assumed to Romanian Community events may be immoral and corrupt is thus considered linked to the problematic organisation a sign of love and respect for the of the events, rather than a contestation country. of the importance of getting together. ddLast but not least forum members Due to the volunteer nature of the work feel that patriotism is reflected also in carried out by Community members the desire to return to Romania: as well as restricted available funding, I honestly don’t see myself as living there is usually limited access to abroad all my life… From time to professional advertisement channels time I keep telling myself that this for Community’s events, therefore the [Ireland] is just a borrowed home… announcements rarely reach more than but it’s not ‘home’. (2006 – F02) a handful of fellow-citizens. Moreover ddThis last paragraph highlights in a the events organised rarely have a wide very interesting manner the fact that scope that cater for the interests of all patriotism may eventually reveal itself categories of Romanians in Ireland. not through standard manifestations, The issue of social class becomes thus but rather in a more silent way by of key importance in this discussion. keeping Romania as ‘the true home’ ddAnother explanation may also refer in our memories and by harbouring to the fact that the incentive to actively a deep respect and love for it in spite engage in community work may of its difficulties, for good and for bad have also been greatly eroded during times, in ‘sickness and in health’. communism when volunteer work was ddHaving to live remote from a forced upon Romanians and was a key homeland which is sometimes source of free labour for the benefit of portrayed with great love and affection, the state. makes some of the Romanians on the ddWhen discussing patriotic attitudes, forum adopt a nostalgic tone when several forum members felt that one they talk about their country of origin. GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 139 ddDevlin Trew (2010: 541) argues that and we think of Romania as the migrants engage in acts of remembering idyllic land of our childhood, the and re-imagining of their homeland smell of Christmas cake, the and thus they re-create new homes and sleigh rides, but apart from this communities in the host environment. the system still hasn’t changed and unfortunately it is even worse than Nostalgia is thus not just an exercise before. (2004 – M07) of the memory, it is also a symbolic act. In a fascinating book which ddIn many situations, the mechanisms brings to the forefront the idea of the of nostalgia are complex and they blend ‘imagined homeland’, Isabel Allende more than one aspect. The following (2007 [2003]: 190) describes the pro- paragraphs were extracted from one of cess of construction of her Chilean the forum discussions dedicated to the homeland like this: ‘I have constructed topic of nostalgia: the image of my country just like a - For those of us born near our puzzle, picking those pieces that fit my Carpathians; How do you survive goal and ignoring the others’. Thus, this curse [referring to the curse ‘home’ becomes more than a physical of living away from the place of place, it is a home that travels with the origin]? How long will we be able subject, it is a sentimentalised space of to take it? […] Will we ever see belonging (Ahmed, 1999). those dear to us standing or will we just see a big lock on the front door ddFor diasporic Romanians, nostalgia upon our return? (M05) is sometimes revealed when thinking - It is a weird feeling: when I was about particular foods (in particular away from the country, I missed linked with Christmas traditions); it, and now that I am back here [in when listening to a particular sort Romania] for more than a year now, of music. In other cases nostalgia is I am looking forward to leave it [...] unleashed when seeing Romania’s I am 44 years old and I am the only landscape on TV (in promotional ads, daughter my parents have and now documentaries or as filming locations). I see myself forced to leave them This creates a huge torment in some when they are so old [...] I have no other choice... But if you miss the of the forum member’s hearts, making country, come back for a short visit. them re-evaluate (even if just briefly) You will get over your nostalgia. their decision to stay in Ireland or (F05) return ‘home’. - [...] In Ireland I get nostalgic ddWhen imagining their country in about Romania, and when I come to a nostalgic way, the bad memories Romania and I stay for a bit longer I seem to fade away and good ones take start to miss Ireland. If I could bring precedence: here a few close relatives then for Let’s remember when we left sure I will not need Romania at all Romania the good-bye words we […]. (F13) said to all our dear ones: ‘I’m sick - ‘The thing with the relatives is of Romania. Here nothing happens relative… […] The fact that you and nothing can be done about it’. succeed abroad and you can send But things change after a while them a small amount that ensures and we start to forget the desperate their survival counts much more situation that we had to face then than being together but poor. 140 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011

Unfortunately one cannot have it perceptions about the Irish too. Many all.’ (F05) people say now that it is cool to be Irish, especially Americans: they all ddSeveral interesting aspects emerge want to have Irish roots. Even Obama from this segment of conversation. On is supposed to have some Irish roots. the one hand for some of the Romanians And us, Romanians, we can also in Ireland there is a strong attachment to show the world that it’s cool to be their homeland as a beautiful geographic Romanian. We should be proud with space that becomes personalised: ‘our our country. (2009 – F10) Carpathians’ (emphasis added). On the other hand there is the strong link ddRomanians in Ireland seem to have to the family left behind which makes an intricate relation with their country the forum participants realise that and their co-citizens. This complex migration has involved a huge sacrifice bond with their homeland unravels of family ties. Hence, migration seems continuously through their discourse to be like a curse for those that fell in and it seems to resemble a puzzle the trap of nostalgia. image with many different facets, ddHowever for some of the forum some good, and some bad: discussants, nostalgia fades away when For me there are two Romanias. one thinks about the financial hardships One is written with capital ‘R’ and the other one is written with back home and also when one feels the small caps ‘r’. In the (R)omania burden of the duty towards their family. (with capital letter) I include the In this circumstance, some Romanians Romanian university graduates, talk about living away from home as a those people that work hard and are Catch 22 situation: in spite of missing very appreciated in their workplaces your country and the old life, one has and the communities they are part a higher duty towards ensuring the of. On the other hand we have the family’s welfare and therefore cannot (r)omania (with no capital letter) return. Therefore happiness is never that includes those that steal from complete. ATMs and shops, those that beg on the streets, the bureaucracy that ddIn conclusion, while there can be makes one waste their time […] and many negative aspects to highlight the Romanians that are not open to about their country and its people, other opinions than their own. (2007 Romanians in Ireland are also aware – F07) of the many aspects that make them proud of their national belonging. It ddThe arguments presented so far is expected that gradually all these bring important clues in the process of positive elements will constitute the discovering how Romanians in Ireland foundation of a more positive feeling see their homeland. The interplay of belonging to the national discourse between ‘love’ and ‘hate’ seems to and equally a lesser stigma and shame be the key aspect that frames their attached to being Romanian: discourse about homeland. The negative perception everyone has about Romanians and Romania could be changed in a few years’ time as people changed their GLORIA MACRI Stories of love and hate | 141

Conclusion and diasporas in relation to their ancestral homes, very few studies have This article highlights the great highlighted the fact that nostalgia is variety of discourses that Romanians only one type of response developed in Ireland construct when they talk by diasporas in relation to homeland. about their homeland and about their Thus, the challenge of analysing the fellow-citizens. Findings point to the Romanian narratives of home and fact that no single and homogenous belonging has been a fascinating task diasporic identity discourse could be which brought to the surface both identified on the forum. Thus, mapping expected as well as many unexpected the various discourses encountered on findings. the online discussion forum constitutes ddRelations between peoples an attempt to bring to the forefront the in diasporas and their ancestral multiple ways in which the Romanian homelands are complex and full of community in Ireland imagine and dialectical contradictions. On the re-imagine their motherland. Data one hand it became evident from the collected over a period of more that findings presented in this article that six years, indicates that migrants’ many aspects mentioned by the forum relation to home is not frozen in time, members about Romania’s realities but rather that the location and the were not positive. However the action meaning of ‘homeland’ are constantly to ‘denounce’ the weaknesses of the being renegotiated. These findings thus country of their origin is in many cases confirm the key theoretical assumptions met with an equally significant re- posed by the post-modern approach on action to defend the homeland against identity. the harsh accusations and identify the ddMoreover, findings have pointed positive aspects that render Romanians out to a great variety of ‘Other’ proud of their country. groups against which Romanians ddIt thus becomes immediately clear construct their identity discourses. This that these discourses about ‘home’ do highlights the fact that the relational not seem to have a neutral tone, but are aspect of identity is particularly rather charged with strong emotions. important when we discuss the complex This seems to explain the sudden shifts process of construction and negotiation from hate to love in the discourses that of diasporic identities. This article Romanians in Ireland have articulated has focused in depth on one of these on the forum. identity markers, namely the diasporic ddAnother key finding for this research relation to the homeland. The homeland is that there seems to be a significant is important for Romanians in Ireland link between the narratives of hate for as it constitutes a common point of their homeland and a negative image identification for most diasporeans and about their identities as Romanians. it bears a strong imprint, as findings Stigma and feelings of shame have been confirmed, on their diasporic narratives expressed by members of the forum of of identity. the Romanian community In Ireland ddWhile many studies have focused in many instances. The opposite was on the nostalgia felt by migrants also notices when feelings of national 142 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011 pride have led to positive images about Notes ‘being Romanian’ (or hope that in the future ‘Romanianness will be cool’). d1dTotalling a number of 2,227 This argument confirms Parekh’s discussion threads and 25,151 posts (2008) comments which highlight the (counted on May 31st 2010). idea that migrants’ ‘self-respect […] is d2dThe ‘valley of sorrows’ is a reference often inseparable from the respect for to one of the most popular Romanian their country’ (Parekh, 2008: 57). children stories by Petre Ispirescu and ddIn conclusion, this article has set out entitled ‘Tinereţe fără bătrâneţe, şi to assess the images that Romanians viaţă fără de moarte’ [Youth without construct in their discourses of their old age and life without death]. In the ancestral home and their fellow- story, the ‘valley of sorrows’ [valea citizens. These findings have been plangerii] represents the liminal space interpreted mainly through the prism between two different worlds: the of the process of diasporic identity world of the living and the world of the construction. The analysis has immortals. It symbolises the trials and undoubtedly pointed to the complex tribulations that one needs to surpass and mixed feelings which Romanians before achieving a superior state) in have about their country of origin this case, immortality. and, at the same time, the analysis d3dFormed in Galway, Ireland in 1995 has also confirmed the expected link by former students from the Music between images of home and feelings University in Bucharest (source http:// of attachment or, quite the opposite, www.galwayensemble.ie) shame of their Romanianness. d4dRomanian born German novelist, writing about the cruel realities of the Communist Regime in Romania (source http://en.wikipedia.org)

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