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Disturbing History: Aspects of Resistance in Early

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Disturbing History: Aspects of Resistance in Early DISTURBING HISTORY: ASPECTS OF RESISTANCE IN EARLY COLONIAL FIJI, 1874 – 1914. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the University of Canterbury by Robert E. Nicole University of Canterbury 2006 Table of Contents Page Abstract ................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... vii Glossary ................................................................................................... x Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xii Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Methodology: Reading the Archive ‘Against the Grain’........... 3 Historiography .......................................................................... 7 Resistance .................................................................................. 14 The Boundaries of the Thesis ..................................................... 20 Structure ..................................................................................... 22 Chapter One The Colo War of 1876 .............................................................. 32 Context for Antagonism: A Series of Events .............................. 32 The Causes of the Colo War ...................................................... 51 The 1876 War ............................................................................ 74 Reflections ................................................................................. 85 Chapter Two Navosavakadua and the Tuka Movement ............................ 89 The Battle of Nakorowaiwai: 1873 ........................................... 91 The First Wave: Tuka 1876 – 1878 .......................................... 94 The Second Wave: Tuka 1884 – 1886 ...................................... 103 The Government's Crackdown ................................................. 110 The 1891 Revival ...................................................................... 113 Punishment and Exile ............................................................... 118 Later Outbreaks ........................................................................ 122 Reflections ................................................................................. 123 Chapter Three The Movement for Federation and the Viti Kabani ............ 128 The Seaqaqa War: 1894 ............................................................ 129 The Movement for Federation: 1901 – 1903 ............................ 134 ii Apolosi Nawai and the Viti Kabani: 1913 – 1917 .................... 146 Reflections …............................................................................. 174 Chapter Four Organised Plantation Protest ................................................ 177 Historical Context .................................................................... 177 The First Strikes and Riots: 1881 – 1884 ................................. 190 Rewa and the Spirit of Insubordination .................................... 194 “The Governor and the Native Commissioner Don't Hold Here”: Mago Island, 1887 – 1889 ........................................................ 204 The Lull Before the Storm: 1890 – 1895 .................................. 208 A Virtual Civil War: Labasa 1895 – 1907 ................................ 211 Reflections ................................................................................. 218 Chapter Five Everyday Resistance in the Villages ...................................... 224 The Murmurings of the People .................................................. 226 Luveniwai .................................................................................. 233 Village Absenteeism .................................................................. 244 Tax Evasion ............................................................................. 247 The Boycott of Land Registration ............................................. 252 Religious Conversion ................................................................ 260 Education .................................................................................. 267 Reflections ................................................................................. 276 Chapter Six Everyday Resistance on the Plantations ............................... 278 Violence and Retributive Justice ............................................... 278 Avoidance Protest ..................................................................... 286 Petitioning ................................................................................. 296 Religion and Indenture .............................................................. 298 Hinduism and Islam: “It was our religion that saved us.” ....... 304 Festivals: Inverting the Symbolic Order ................................... 307 Religious Instruction ................................................................. 309 Education .................................................................................. 312 Reflections ................................................................................. 321 iii Chapter Seven Women’s Resistance ............................................................... 324 Women in the Villages ............................................................. 325 Marriage ................................................................................... 326 Abortion .................................................................................... 332 Control of Movement ................................................................ 337 Disobedience ............................................................................. 339 Women on the Plantations ....................................................... 341 Defying Violence ....................................................................... 344 Sexuality and Partnership ......................................................... 347 Violation of Labour Laws ......................................................... 350 Striking Back ............................................................................ 359 Forging Alliances with Men ..................................................... 361 Girmit Women and the End of Indenture ................................. 364 Reflections ................................................................................ 369 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 372 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 387 List of Maps Map 1: Map of Fiji in the Pacific Ocean ..................................................................... xiii Map 2: Map of the Fiji Islands .................................................................................... xiv Map 3: South-eastern Viti Levu before Cession (1874) ............................................. 33 Map 4: South-western Viti Levu before Cession ........................................................ 38 Map 5: Map of Colo East before Cession.................................................................... 40 Map 6: Richard Philp's 1872 map ............................................................................... 45 Map 7: Arthur J. Gordon’s map of the war area ......................................................... 71 Map 8: Map of Colo villages and vanua involved in the 1876 war ............................ 75 Map 9: Map of the 1876 general war area .................................................................. 76 Map 10: Map of north-western Viti Levu ................................................................... 90 iv Map 11: Map of Ra and Northern Colo with Main Districts ...................................... 90 Map 12: Map of Vanua Levu showing the location of Seaqaqa, 1894 ....................... 130 Map 13: Southern Viti Levu, 1900 .............................................................................. 141 Map 14: South Eastern Viti Levu, 1910 ...................................................................... 150 Map 15: Main Sugar Plantation Centres: 1879-1920 .................................................. 182 Map 16: Plantations on the Rewa River: 1882-1920 .................................................. 191 List of Figures Figure 1: Total Number of Charges Laid Against Women ........................................ 351 Figure 2: Total Number of Charges Laid Against Women Compared to Men ......... 352 Figure 3: Percentage of Charges Laid Against Women (Compared to Men) for Unlawful Absence .......................................................................... 355 Figure 4: Percentage of Charges Laid Against Women (Compared to Men) for Refusal or Neglect to Complete or Perform Task .......................... 358 List of Charts Chart 1: Percentage Number of Charges for Labour Offences Against Indentured Women from 1885 to 1909 by Type of Offence .................................. 354 Chart 2: Percentage Number of Charges for Labour Offences Against Indentured Men from 1885 to 1909 by Type of Offence ..................... 355 v Abstract The overarching aim of this study is to trace evidence of resistant behaviour among
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