CONTENTS

Preface to the Third Edition xxix Preface to the Second Edition xxxiii Preface to the First Edition xxxix Acknowledgments xiv

PART I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 THE IDEA OF INTERNATIONAL AND TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL 3

A. What Are International and Transnational ? 3 1. Transnational Criminal Law 3 2. International Crimes 4 3. Treaty-Based Domestic Crimes 5 B. What Is Criminal Law? 6 Henry M. Hart, Jr., The Aims of the Criminal Law 6 Notes and Questions 7 C. Crime and Punishment 9 v. Blaškic´ 14 Notes and Questions 14 D. The Need for Safeguards in the Criminal Law 14 1. The Risk of Overenforcement 15 John Hasnas, Once More Unto the Breach: The Inherent Liberalism of the Criminal Law and Liability for Attempting the Impossible 15 2. The Basic Protections in Criminal Law and Procedure 16 E. Is International Criminal Law Different? The Eichmann 18 Prosecutor v. Eichmann 20 Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law 21 Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil 23 Notes and Questions 23

xi xii Contents

CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARIES 29

A. The Classical Picture of International Law 29 1. Historical Overview 30 a. Westphalian Sovereignty 31 Island of Palmas (United States v. Netherlands) 32 Questions 33 b. Other Historical Sources of International Law 33 c. The Age of Imperialism 34 d. The Consequences of World War II 35 i. The End of European Dominance 35 ii. Decolonization 35 iii. The of Major War Criminals 35 iv. Law 36 v. The United Nations 37 (1) Basic Structure: General Assembly, Security Council, and Secretariat 38 (2) The International of (ICJ) 39 of the International Court of Justice 39 2. The Modified Classical Picture of International Law 41 B. The Sources of International Law 43 Statute of the International Court of Justice 43 Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 43 Notes and Questions 45 1. International Agreements (Treaties) 46 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 47 2. Customary International Law 47 3. General Principles 50 4. “Judicial Decisions and Teachings of the Most Highly Qualified Publicists” 51 5. “Peremptory Norms”(Jus Cogens) 51 C. Is International Law Real Law? 53 D. International Law in Domestic Legal Systems 56 1. Constitutional Division of Authority 56 2. Treaty Law in U.S. Law 58 a. Self-Executing and Non-Self-Executing Treaties 59 Medellín v. Texas 60 Notes and Questions 68 b. U.S. Treaty Law: Summary 70 3. Customary International Law in U.S. Law 71 Questions 74

CHAPTER 3 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL : FROM NUREMBERG TO THE HAGUE — AND BEYOND 75

A. The Nuremberg 75 Contents xiii

Charter of the International Tribunal (The “London Agreement” or “Nuremberg ”) 76 Notes and Questions 78 Opening Statement of Robert Jackson 80 of the International Military Tribunal for the Trial of German Major War Criminals 83 Notes and Questions 86 B. The Subsequent Nazi Trials 87 C. The Tokyo Tribunal 88 D. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 89 1. Background: The Balkan Wars 90 2. The Tribunal 92 a. The ICTY Statute 92 b. 93 c. The Work of the Tribunal 93 d. The of the Tribunal 94 Prosecutor v. Tadic´ 95 Notes and Questions 97 e. Bargaining 97 Notes and Questions 98 f. Controversies 99 3. The Bosnian War Crimes Chamber and the Specialist Chambers of Kosovo 100 E. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 103 1. Background on the Rwandan Genocide 103 2. The Tribunal 106 a. Founding 106 b. The Statute 108 c. Jurisdiction 108 d. The Work of the Tribunal 109 e. Plea Bargaining 110 F. The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) 111 David M. Crane, The Take Down: Case Studies Regarding “Lawfare” in International : The West African Experience 114 Notes and Questions 119 G. Other International Tribunals 121 1. Cambodia 121 2. The Special Tribunal for Lebanon 123 3. Senegal/Chad: The Extraordinary African Chambers 125 a. Background 125 b. Legal Proceedings 126 c. The EAC 127 H. The Evolving Treatment of Sexual Violence 128 I. Criminal Responsibility and Organizations 129 xiv Contents

PART II PROCEDURAL ISSUES IN TRANSNATIONAL PRACTICE 133 CHAPTER 4 COMPARATIVE AND SENTENCING 135

A. Differences in the Criminal Process 138 1. The and Systems: An Overview 138 Sybille Bedford, The Faces of Justice: A Traveller’s Report 143 Notes and Questions 144 2. and Detention 147 3. v. Recurso de Amparo 148 4. Pretrial Investigation 149 5. The Decision to Prosecute 150 6. Conduct of the Trial 150 7. Rights of Appeal 152 8. Victims’ Rights 153 9. Efforts to Establish Institutional Bridges 154 B. Perspectives 155 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 155 Sarel Kandell Kromer, The Rwandan Reconciliation 156 Notes and Questions 159 C. Sentencing Norms and Procedures 160 1. Problems for Discussion 160 2. National Sentencing Regimes 161 3. Sentencing in International Tribunals 163 Jens David Ohlin, Applying the Death Penalty to Crimes of Genocide 163 Notes and Questions 164

CHAPTER 5 JURISDICTION 173

A. Principles of Transnational Jurisdiction in International Law 173 1. Three Forms of Jurisdiction 173 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 174 Notes and Questions 174 2. Jurisdiction to Prescribe: Basic Principles 175 3. Limitations and Conflicts 177 4. Prescriptive Comity 178 5. The Territorial Principle and the Effects Principle 179 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 179 Contents xv

Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 180 Report on Extraterritorial Crime and the Cutting Case 180 Notes and Questions: The Cutting Case 184 The Case of the S.S. Lotus (France v. Turkey) 185 Notes and Questions 189 United States v. Rojas 191 Notes and Questions 194 6. The “Active” Nationality Principle 198 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 198 Problem 1 198 Research in International Law Under the Auspices of the Faculty of the Harvard : II. Jurisdiction with Respect to Crime 199 Notes and Questions 199 United States v. Clark 202 Notes and Questions 205 7. The “Passive Personality” Principle 207 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 207 Problem 2 208 Notes and Questions 209 8. The Protective Principle 210 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 210 Problem 3 210 Notes and Questions 211 9. The Universality Principle and Universal Jurisdiction 213 Restatement (Fourth) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States 213 Notes and Questions 214 Case Concerning the of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium) 216 Notes and Questions 224 B. Extraterritorial Application of U.S. Criminal 228 Problem 4 228 Statutory Interpretation 229 United States v. Belfast 231 Notes and Questions 232 Problem 5 237 2. Constitutional Authority 238 Problem 6 239 United States v. Clark 241 Notes and Questions 246 3. Principles of International Law, Comity, and Reasonableness 248 United States v. Ali Mohamed Ali 250 Notes and Comments 258 Flowchart 258 4. Special Jurisdiction Statutes: SMTJ, MEJA, Special Aircraft Jurisdiction 260 xvi Contents

Problem 7 260 a. Special Maritime and Territorial Jurisdiction 262 18 U.S.C. §7. Special Maritime and Territorial Jurisdiction of the United States Defined 262 Notes and Questions 263 b. Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Act 264 18 U.S.C. §3261. (Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Act) 265 c. Special Aircraft Jurisdiction 266

CHAPTER 6 IMMUNITIES 269

A. Domestic Prosecutions 270 1. Diplomatic Immunity 270 United States v. Al Sharaf 272 2. Consular Immunity 275 Rana v. Islam 276 3. International Organizations 280 4. Heads of State and Other Visiting Officials 281 5. The ICJ’s Arrest Warrant Decision 282 Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium) 282 Notes and Questions 289 B. International Tribunals 292 1. The Charles Taylor Case 293 2. The Al-Bashir Case 294 Situation in Darfur, Sudan: In the Case of the Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al-Bashir Pre-Trial Chamber II 295 C. Former Officials and Jus Cogens Violations 298 1. Pinochet 299 Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary , ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) 300 Notes and Questions 308

CHAPTER 7 U.S. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS IN A TRANSNATIONAL CONTEXT 315

A. Fourth Amendment 316 United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez 316 Notes and Questions 327 B. Constitutional Habeas and Suspension Clause 337 Boumediene v. Bush 338 Notes and Questions 349 C. Interrogations and the Fifth/Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause 350 D. Fifth Amendment Right Against Self-Incrimination 356 Contents xvii

In re Terrorist Bombings of U.S. Embassies in East Africa (Fifth Amendment Challenges) United States of America v. Odeh et al. 356 Notes and Questions 365 E. Sixth Amendment Right to 374 United States v. Raven 376 Question 377

CHAPTER 8 OBTAINING ABROAD 379

A. Hypothetical 380 B. Letters Rogatory 380 Super Vitaminas S.A., Applicant 381 Notes and Questions 384 C. Compulsory Process Under Domestic Law 387 In re Grand Subpoena Dated August 9, 2000 387 Notes and Questions 392 D. Mutual Legal Assistance 397 1. Direct Cooperation 397 2. Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties 398 Treaty Between the United States of America and Kazakhstan 400 Notes and Questions 407 3. Implementation in U.S. Law 411 E. Constitutional Constraints 413 Notes and Questions 414 F. Gathering Digital Evidence Abroad 414 Notes and Questions 417

CHAPTER 9 INTERNATIONAL AND ITS ALTERNATIVES 419

A. Hypothetical 421 B. The Extradition Process 421 1. Extradition Requirements and Procedures 421 In re Extradition of Figueroa 423 Notes and Questions 428 2. Judicial Role 434 Hoxha v. Levi 434 Notes and Questions 438 3. The “Political Offense” Exception 444 Ordinola v. Hackman 444 Notes and Questions 449 C. Alternatives to Extradition 452 1. Other Mechanisms 452 a. Waiver 452 xviii Contents

b. European Arrest Warrant 453 c. Transfer of Prisoners 453 d. Recognition of Penal Judgments and Transfer of Proceedings 454 2. Exclusion and Removal 455 Notes and Questions 455 3. Luring 459 4. Abduction 460 Notes 460 United States v. Alvarez-Machain 462 Notes and Questions 467 Prosecutor v. Nikolic 469 Notes and Questions 473

PART III TRANSNATIONAL CRIME 475

CHAPTER 10 ORGANIZED CRIME 477

A. Comparative Analysis of National Efforts to Criminalize “Organized Crime” 482 Edward M. Wise, RICO and Its Analogues: Some Comparative Considerations 482 Boaz Sangero, Are All Forms of Joint Crime Really “Organized Crime”? On the New Israeli Combating Criminal Organizations Law and Parallel in the U.S. and Other Countries 487 Notes and Questions 491 B. The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime 493 Roger S. Clark, The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime 494 Notes and Questions 502

CHAPTER 11 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS, DRUGS, ARMS, AND ANTIQUITIES 511

A. Trafficking in Persons 515 Notes and Questions 518 1. Historical Antecedents 519 2. 1949 Prostitution Convention 520 Notes and Questions 520 3. The UN Trafficking Protocol 522 Notes and Questions 523 Contents xix

4. The UN Protocol on the Sale of Children 524 5. Trafficking Victims Protection Act 525 Notes and Questions 526 United States v. Marcus 527 Notes and Questions 530 6. Smuggling of Migrants 533 Notes and Questions 534 B. Trafficking in Drugs 534 1. International Cooperation 535 U.S. Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 536 2. The UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic 537 Notes and Questions 538 C. Trafficking in Arms 542 1. UN Firearms Protocol 544 2. OAS Firearms Convention 545 Notes and Questions 546 D. Illicit Trade in Cultural Objects and Antiquities 548 Notes and Questions 550

CHAPTER 12 MONEY LAUNDERING 551

A. International Regimes Relating to Money Laundering 554 Herbert V. Morais, Fighting International Crime and Its Financing: The Importance of Following a Coherent Global Strategy Based on the 554 B. Comparative Money Laundering Statutes: Switzerland and the United States 560 1. Swiss Law 560 Code Pénal Suisse [Penal Code] 560 R. v. Public Prosecutor of the Canton of Vaud 561 Notes and Questions 565 2. U.S. Law 569 United States v. Piervinanzi 570 Notes and Questions 577 C. Challenges for the Future 586 Hearing on Hawala and Underground Terrorist Financing Mechanisms, Prepared Statement of Mr. Patrick Jost, SRA International 586 Notes and Questions 589

CHAPTER 13 CORRUPTION 591

A. Problems 593 B. Elements of an FCPA Anti-Bribery Offense 595 United States v. Kay 595 xx Contents

Notes and Questions 606 FCPA Corporate Enforcement Policy 621 C. Global Anticorruption and Initiatives 625 1. The Inter-American Convention 626 2. The OECD Convention 628 3. The COE Convention 629 4. The UN Convention 631 a. Criminalization Provisions 632 b. Seizure and Confiscation of Assets 634 c. Prevention 635 d. International Cooperation 635 e. Technical Assistance and Information Exchange 636 f. Monitoring Arrangements 636 5. Implementation: UK Bribery Act of 2010 637 Notes on UK Bribery Act of 2010 637

CHAPTER 14 TERRORISM 643

A. What Is Terrorism? 643 1. Terrorism: An Essentially Contested Concept? 643 Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law: Terrorism, Conspiracy, Homicide, Perpetration, Cumulative Charging 647 Notes and Questions 653 2. Definitions of Terrorism in U.S. Law 653 8 U.S.C. §1182 [] 653 22 U.S.C. §2656F [foreign relations law] 655 18 U.S.C. §2331 [criminal law] 655 10 U.S.C. §950v(24) [crimes triable by military commission] 656 Notes and Questions 656 B. The International Law of Terrorism 657 1. Efforts to Draft a Comprehensive Antiterrorism Treaty 657 Draft Comprehensive Convention Against International Terrorism 658 Notes and Questions 660 2. Specific Antiterrorism Treaties 661 Notes and Questions 663 3. Regional Counterterrorism Conventions 664 Notes and Questions 665 4. UN Security Council Resolutions 665 a. Resolution 1373: The UN as Legislator? 666 UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) 666 UN Security Council Resolution 1456 (2003) 668 b. Other Significant Resolutions 669 UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, Human Rights 670 Notes and Questions 671 C. Criminal Prosecution of Terrorism in U.S. Law 672 1. Is Terrorism a Crime or an Act of War — or Both? 672 Contents xxi

2. Material Support for Terrorism and Terrorist Organizations 675 18 U.S.C. §§2339A and 2339B 675 Notes and Questions 677 Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project 680 Notes and Questions 694 3. A Case Study of Material Support: Representing Terrorists 699 Notes and Questions 701 D. U.S. Prosecution of Terrorists by Military Commissions 702 1. Background on Military and Commissions 702 2. The Post-9/11 Military Commissions 706 3. The Military Commissions Acts of 2006 and 2009 708 4. Who Is an “Unprivileged Belligerent”? 712 Notes and Questions 714

PART IV INTERNATIONAL CRIME 717

CHAPTER 15 THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT 719

A. A Primer on Jurisdiction, Admissibility, and UN Security Council Role 726 1. Jurisdiction 726 2. Admissibility 729 3. UN Security Council Role 730 B. Selecting Cases in Light of the Goals of International Criminal Justice 731 Margaret M. DeGuzman, Choosing to Prosecute: Expressive Selection at the International Criminal Court 731 OTP, Policy Paper on Preliminary Examinations 734 OTP, The Interests of Justice 743 C. Uganda as Case Study 745 Adam Branch, Uganda’s Civil War and the Politics of ICC Intervention 745 Notes and Questions 750 D. Sudan as Case Study 761 Kurt Mills, Africa and the International Criminal Court 761 Note: Further Developments on Africa and the ICC 765 Notes and Questions 768 Prosecutor v. Al-Senussi 775 Payam Akhavan, Complementary Conundrums: The ICC Clock in Transnational Times 779 E. Sentencing 782 Prosecutor v. Lubanga 782 Notes and Questions 789 F. Victim Participation and Compensation 791 Prosecutor v. Lubanga 793 Notes and Questions 799 Prosecutor v. Lubanga 800 xxii Contents

CHAPTER 16 MODES OF PARTICIPATION AND MENS REA 807

A. Modes of Participation Generally 811 1. Principals/Perpetrators Versus Accessories/Accomplices: An Introduction 811 2. Modes of Participation in the United States, the Ad Hoc Tribunals, and the ICC 812 3. Analyzing Liability 814 B. “Subjective” or “Mental” Elements: Mens Rea 817 1. The United States’ ALI Model Penal Code §2.02 817 2. : Civil Law Concepts 819 3. ICC: Article 30’s “Mental Element” 821 Prosecutor v. Bemba 822 Notes and Questions 825 C. “Objective” or “Material” Elements: “Committing” a Crime as a Perpetrator 825 1. Conspiracy 826 2. Joint Criminal Enterprise Liability in the ICTY 830 Prosecutor v. Tadic´ 830 Notes and Questions 833 3. Article 25(3)(a): “Committing” a Crime and the Control Theory 836 a. Co-Perpetration 838 Prosecutor v. Lubanga 838 Notes and Questions 845 b. “Indirect” Perpetration and Co-Perpetration 847 Thomas Weigend, Perpetration Through an Organization 848 D. Accomplice Liability: Aiding and Abetting 851 E. Accomplice Liability: Instigating, Inciting, and Acting in Concert in the ICC 855 F. Command or Superior Responsibility 858 1. Relationship Element 862 2. Mens Rea Element 863 3. Nexus Requirement 867 4. ICC: Article 28 868 Prosecutor v. Bemba 869 Notes and Questions 875 G. Post–World War II Case Studies 876 1. The Jaluit Atoll Case 876 2. The Zyklon B Case 876 3. The Almelo Case 879 4. The Essen Lynching Case 879 5. The Velpke Children’s Home Case 880 6. The Hadamar Case 881 7. The Rohde Case 883 Contents xxiii

CHAPTER 17 DEFENSES TO INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS 885

A. The Excuse of Duress and the Justification of Necessity 887 Rosa Ehrenreich Brooks, Law in the Heart of Darkness: Atrocity and Duress 887 Notes and Questions 897 Bybee Torture Memo 899 Notes and Questions 900 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. Government of Israel 901 Notes and Questions 905 B. Superior Orders and Mistakes of Law and Fact 906 Gary D. Solis, Abu Ghraib — Another Black Hole? 909 Notes and Questions 914 United States v. Calley 915 C. Other Defenses 919 1. Self- 919 2. Insanity and Mental Disorders 920 3. Intoxication 921 4. Juvenile Status 921 5. Reprisals, Tu Quoque, and Conflict of Interest 922

CHAPTER 18 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY 925

A. The Evolving Law of Crimes Against Humanity 926 1. The Nuremberg Charter, Control Council Law No. 10 and the Ad Hoc Tribunals (ICTY, ICTR, and SCSL) 926 2. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 929 Note: Should There Be a Group-Discrimination Requirement in the Definition? 930 Note: What is a “State or Organizational Policy”? 933 Situation in the Republic of Kenya 933 Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Prosecutor v. Ruto and Sang 938 Notes 942 3. An International Convention on Crimes Against Humanity 943 B. : Applying the Law 944 Prosecutor v. Kupreškic´ 944 Notes and Questions 951 Prosecutor v. Musema 952 Notes and Questions 956 C. Problems on Crimes Against Humanity 957 D. Conceptualizing Crimes Against Humanity 958 Richard Vernon, What Is Crime Against Humanity? 958 David Luban, A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity 960 Notes and Questions 963 xxiv Contents

CHAPTER 19 GENOCIDE 965

A. Lemkin’s Word 965 Michael Ignatieff, Lemkin’s Word 966 Notes and Questions 969 B. The Genocide Convention 970 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 970 1. Article 2: The Core Definition of the Crime 971 a. The Chapeau 971 b. The Five Enumerated Crimes 973 c. Article 3: The Modes of Participation 974 2. Genocide in U.S. Criminal Law 974 U.S. RUDs to the Genocide Convention 974 18 U.S.C. §§1091, 1093 975 Questions 976 3. The Theory Behind the Core Definition: The Value of Groups 976 David Luban, Calling Genocide by Its Rightful Name: Lemkin’s Word, Darfur, and the UN Report 977 Chandran Kukathas, Genocide and Group Rights 978 Questions 980 4. The Meaning of “Ethnical” 981 Notes and Questions 982 5. Other Clauses of the Genocide Convention 982 Notes and Questions 982 C. Cases 983 Prosecutor v. Akayesu 984 Notes and Questions 987 Prosecutor v. Krstic´ 988 Notes and Questions 994 Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General 997 Notes and Questions 1002 D. Incitement to Genocide 1004 Prosecutor v. Akayesu 1004 Notes and Questions 1005 E. State Responsibility for Genocide 1008 F. Are States Obligated to Prevent Genocide? 1009

CHAPTER 20 WAR CRIMES AND THE CRIME OF AGGRESSION 1015

A. The Crime of Aggression 1016 1. The Laws of War and Just War Theory; Jus ad Bellum and Jus in Bello 1016 2. Defining the Crime of Aggression 1018 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 1019 Notes and Questions 1021 Contents xxv

3. Cyber Attacks and Aggression 1027 Michael N. Schmitt, The Law of Cyber Warfare: Quo Vadis? 1027 Notes and Questions 1031 B. Jus in Bello: War Crimes and the Conduct of Hostilities 1031 1. Core Principles of War Fighting 1031 United States Department of Defense, Manual 1034 Notes and Questions 1035 2. The Geneva Conventions 1036 a. The Structure of the GCs: Common Article 2 1037 Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949 1037 Notes 1038 Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, August 12, 1949 1039 Notes 1040 b. War Crimes Under the Geneva Conventions: “Grave Breaches” 1041 i. What Are the Grave Breaches? 1041 ii. A Note on Additional Protocol I 1042 iii. Repressing Grave Breaches 1043 Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949 1043 Notes 1043 c. Common Article 3 1044 Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949 1044 Notes and Questions 1045 3. War Crimes in the Rome Statute of the ICC 1046 C. International and Noninternational Armed Conflicts 1047 1. What Makes an Armed Conflict “International”? 1047 Prosecutor v. Tadic´ 1048 Notes and Questions 1052 2. When and Where Is Noninternational Violence an “Armed Conf lict”? 1053 Prosecutor v. Tadic´ 1053 Notes and Questions 1054 How is the Term “Armed Conflict” Defined in International Humanitarian Law? 1055 3. What Is “Armed Conflict Not of an International Character”? 1056 Hamdan v. Rumsfeld 1057 Notes and Questions 1057 D. Specific War Crimes 1058 1. Attacks that Foreseeably Cause “Collateral” Damage 1059 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions 1059 Notes 1060 E. Case Studies on Distinction, Proportionality, and Necessity 1062 1. The NATO Bombing of Grdelica Bridge and the Serbian Radio and Television Station 1062 Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1062 2. The Destruction of the Stari Most 1070 xxvi Contents

Martin Coward, Urbicide: The Politics of Urban Destruction 1070 Prosecutor v. Prlic´, et al. 1073 Prosecutor v. Prlic´, et al. 1074 Notes and Questions 1076 3. Targeted Killings 1079 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. Israel 1081 Notes and Questions 1088 Notes and Questions on the U.S. Drone Program 1090

CHAPTER 21 TORTURE AND CRUEL, INHUMAN, AND DEGRADING TREATMENT OR PUNISHMENT 1095

A. Torture 1104 1. Problem I 1104 2. Definitions: Convention and Statutes 1105 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) 1105 U.S. Reservations, Declarations, and Understandings (RUDs) to the Convention Against Torture 1106 18 U.S.C. §2340, §2340A 1107 ICC Elements of Crimes 1108 Notes and Questions 1108 3. Application: The Bybee and Levin Memos 1119 Bybee Torture Memo 1119 Levin Memo 1120 Notes and Questions 1122 B. Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1125 1. Problem 2 1125 Army 15-6: Final Report Investigation into FBI Allegations of Detainee Abuse at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba Detention Facility 1125 2. Definition and Consequences 1127 3. Applications Abroad 1131 a. The Detainee Treatment Act 1131 United States Code 1132 Notes and Questions 1132 b. Irregular Rendition 1133 Response of the United States of America, List of Issues to be Considered During the Examination of the Second Periodic Report of the United States of America 1134 Notes and Questions 1135 C. Torture and CIDTP in Wartime 1136 1. Problem 3 1136 2. Lex Specialis 1136 Contents xxvii

3. The War Crimes Act 1137 18 U.S.C. §2441(D) 1138 Notes and Questions 1138 D. Criminal Defenses Against Torture Charges 1139 1. Reliance and Estoppel Defenses 1139 John Sifton, United States Military and Central Intelligence Agency Personnel Abroad: Plugging the Prosecutorial Gaps 1140 2. The Necessity Defense 1142 Bybee Torture Memo 1142 Notes and Questions 1143 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. Government of Israel 1144 Notes and Questions 1148 Elena Chachko, “Pressure Techniques” and Oversight of Shin Bet Investigations: Abu Gosh v. Attorney General 1149 E. The Torture Debate 1153 Charles Krauthammer, It’s Time to be Honest About Doing Terrible Things 1153 Jeff McMahan, Torture, Morality, and Law 1157 David Luban, Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Time Bomb 1159 Michael Ignatieff, The Torture Wars 1161 Notes and Questions 1163 Note: Does Torture “Work”? 1165 F. The Role and Ethical Obligations of Government Lawyers 1170 Problem 4 1170 Counter Resistance Strategy Meeting Minutes 1171 Notes and Questions 1173

CHAPTER 22 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 1175

A. Defining the Crimes 1181 1. ICTR and SCSL 1181 Prosecutor v. Akayesu 1181 Notes and Questions 1191 Prosecutor v. Brima et al. 1203 Notes and Questions 1207 B. Charging Considerations 1210 1. Victims’ Views 1210 2. Purposes of Punishment: Expressive Function 1210 3. Pleading Rules 1212 4. Resources and Trial 1215 5. Concursus Delictorum 1216 Charting the Akayesu 1217 Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo 1224 Notes and Questions 1225 xxviii Contents

CHAPTER 23 ALTERNATIVES TO PROSECUTION AFTER ATROCITY: A SURVEY OF OTHER TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE MECHANISMS 1227

A. Truth and Reconciliation Commissions 1230 B. Context Is Key 1236 Tina Rosenberg, Overcoming the Legacies of Dictatorship 1236 Notes and Questions 1245 C. Goals and Means 1248 Miriam J. Aukerman, Extraordinary Evil, Ordinary Crime: A Framework for Understanding Transitional Justice 1248 Notes and Questions 1260

Table of Cases 1263 Table of Authorities 1275 Index 1291