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Ie ne fay rien sans Gayete (Montaigne. Des livres) Ex Libris Jose Mindlin •gPije Fog-age of t&e '<2DjbalUnger/ THE ATLANTIC. €!K Wogage of tfce ' CfjaUenfltr.' THE ATLANTIC A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE GENERAL RESULTS OF THE EXPLORING VOYAGE OF H.M.S. 'CHALLENGER' DURING THE YEAR 1873 AND THE EARLY PART OF THE YEAR 1876 SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON KNT., L.L.D., D.Sc, F.R.SS.L. & E., F.L.S., F.G.S., ETC. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, And Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff of the ' Challenger ' Exploring Expedition. i;ro VOLUMES. VOLUME II. publisbeb bg 3Utbori'!> of ibje forbs Commissions of tbt abmtraltu. IConbon: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1877. LONDON H. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, BEEAD STREET HILL, E.C. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. Final departure from Bermudas.—Temperature-sounding near the Island.— Scalpellum regium. — Manganese concretions. — Gulf-weed. — Gnatho- phausia.—The general aspect of the Agores.—The Island of Fayal.— Horta.—The Island of Pico.—San Miguel.—Ponta Delgada.—Orange cultivation.—An excursion to. Furnas.—Sete-Cidades.—The garden of M. Jos6 do Canto.—A religious ceremony.—Flabellum alabastrum.— Ceratotrochus nobilis.—Arrival at Funchal Page 1 APPENDIX A.—Table of Temperatures observed between Bermudas and Madeira Page 58 APPENDIX B.—Table of Specific Gravities observed between Bermudas and Madeira Page 61 CHAPTER II. MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. Return to Madeira.—The Black Coral.—Ophiacantha chelys.—Ophiomusium pulchellum.—Ceratias uranoscopus.—The Island of San Vicente. —Porto Praya.—The Island of San Iago.—A Red-coral Fishery.—The Guinea Current.—Balanoglossus.—Luminosity of the Sea.—Pyrocystis.—Young Flounders. — Bathycrinus aldrichianus. — Hyocrinus bethellianus. — St. Paul's Rocks.—Fernando Noronha.—Low bottom temperatures under the Equator. — Ceratotrochus diadema. — Pentacrinus madearanus.— Dredging at moderate depths.—Arrival at Bahia Page 62 VI CONTENTS. APPENDIX A.—Table of Temperatures observed between Madeira and Bahia during the months of July, August, and September, 1873 ... Page 127 APPENDIX B.—Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 500 fathoms, taken between Madeira and Station 102 (Lat. 3° 8' N., Long. 14° 49'W.) Page 131 APPENDIX C.—Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken between Station 102 and Bahia Page 132 APPENDIX D.—Specific Gravity Observations taken between Madeira and Bahia during the months of July, August, and September, 1873 Page 133 CHAPTER III. BAHIA TO THE CAPE. A Shower of Butterflies.—Bahia de todos os Santos.—Excursion into the Forest.—San Salvador.—Hospitality of the English Residents.—Dredging in Shallow Water in the Bay.—A case of Yellow Fever and our conse­ quent abrupt Departure.—Fungia symmetrica.—Tristan d'Acunha.—In­ accessible Island.—Story of the Stoltenhoffs.—The Birds of Inaccessible Island.—The Habits of the Penguin.—Nightingale Island.—Subsequent history of Tristan d'Acunha.—Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope.—We leave the Atlantic Page 135 APPENDIX A.—Table of Temperatures observed between Bahia and the Cape of Good Hope Page 196 APPENDIX B.—Table of Serial Soundings down to 200 Fathoms, taken between Bahia and the Cape of Good Hope Page 198 APPENDIX C— Specific Gravity Observations taken between Bahia and the Cape of Good Hope during the, months of September and October, 1873 Page 199 CHAPTER IV THE VOYAGE HOME. The Strait of Magellan.—Dredging in shallow water.—The Falkland Islands. —Their physical features.—The town of Stanley.—The products and commerce of the Falklands.—The ' Balsam-bog.'—The ' Tussock-grass.'— The vegetation of the Falkland Islands.—A peculiar mode of reproduc­ tion among the Echinoderms.—' Stone rivers.'—The temperature section between the Falklands and the mouth of the river Plate. Monte Video.—Low temperatures between Monte Video and Tristan d'Acunha. Meridional section along the central ridge of the Atlantic—Ascension. CONTENTS. vii —Physical features.— An Island under Naval Discipline.—Voyage to Porto Praya and Porto Grande.—Soundings in the Eastern Trough of Atlantic.—Vigo Bay.—Arrival at Spithead Page 201 APPENDIX A.—Table of Temperatures observed between the Falkland Islands and Tristan d'Acunha Page 272 APPENDIX B.—Table of Temperatures observed between Tristan d'Acunha and the Agores Page 274 APPENDIX C.—Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken in the South and North Atlantic in the year 1876 ... Page 276 APPENDIX D.—Specific Gravity Observations taken on the Homeward Voyage between the Falkland Islands and Portsmouth Page 278 APPENDIX E.—List of the Stations in", the Atlantic at which Observations were taken in the year 1876 Page 283 CHAPTER V. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. The Contour of the Bed of the Atlantic.—The Atlantic Ocean divided by a series of Ridges into three Basins.—The Nature of the Bottom.—Pelagic Foraminifera.—Hastigerina murrayi —Volcanic debris. —Products of the Decomposition of Pumice.—The Distribution of Ocean Temperature.— Laws regulating the Movements of the Upper Layers of the Atlantic.— Corrections of Six's Thermometers.—Laws regulating the Movement of Water in the Depths of the- Atlantic.—The Doctrine of ' Continuous Barriers.'—The Distribution and Nature of the Deep Sea Fauna.—The Universal Distribution of Living Beings.—Causes Modifying and Re­ stricting the Distribution of the Higher Forms. — Relations of the Modern* to the Ancient Faunae.—The Challengerida.—The Density of Sea-water. — The Amount and Distribution of Carbonic Acid. — Of Oxygen Page 287 APPENDIX A.—The General Result of the Chemical and Microscopical Ex­ amination of a Series of Twenty Samples of the Bottom from the Observ­ ing Stations on the Section between Teneriffe and Sombrero Page 369 APPENDIX B.—Table showing the relative frequency of the occurrence of the Principal Groups of Marine Animals at Fifty-two Stations at which Dredging or Trawling was carried to depths greater than 2,000 Fathoms Page 382 APPENDIX C—Table showing the amount of Carbonic Acid contained in Sea-water at various Stations in Atlantic Page 384 LIST OE ILLUSTRATIONS. WOODCUTS. I*"'. PAGE 1. DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTED FROM SERIAL SOUNDING NO. 59 ... 2 2. SCALPELLUM REGIUM (sp. n.). Natural size. (No. 63) 4 3. MALE OF SCALPELLUM REGIUM. Twenty times the natural size. (No. 63) 7 4. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN DEPTH AND TEM­ PERATURE AT STATION 69 13 5. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN DEPTH AND TEM­ PERATURE AT STATION 71 13 6. GNATHOPHAUSIA GIGAS, von Willembes-Suhm. Natural size. (No. 69) 15 7. GNATHOPHAUSIA ZOEA, von Willemb'es-Suhm. Natural size. (No. 73) 16 8. ALTINGIA EXCELSA, in the garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a Photograph) 27 9. CRYPTOMERIA JAPONICA, in the garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a Photograph) 29 10. ARAUCARIA COOKEI, in the garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a Photograph) 32 11. ORANGE GROVES NEAR PONTA DELGADA. (From a Photograph) 35 12. FLABELLUM ALABASTRUM, Moseley. Slightly enlarged. (No. 78) 51 13. CERATOTROCHUS NOBILIS, Moseley. Slightly enlarged. (No. 78) 5.3 14. DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTED FROM SERIAL SOUNDING No. 82 ... 54 15. CURVES CONSTRUCTED FROM THE SERIAL SOUNDINGS AT STATIONS 59, 69, 71, AND 82 55 16. OPHTACANTHA CHELYS (sp. n.). Dorsal aspect of the disc. Four times the natural size. (No. 87) 64 17. OPHIACANTHA CHELYS (sp. n.). Oral aspect of the disc. Four times the natural size. (No. 87) 65 18. OPHIOMUSIUM PULCHELLUM (sp. n.). Dorsal aspect of the disc. Seven times the natural size. (No. 87) 67 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE FIG. 19. OPHIOMUSIUM PULCHELLUM (sp. n.). Oral aspect of the disc. Seven times the natural size. (No. 87) 68 20. CERATIAS URANOSCOPUS, Murray. Natural size. (No. 89) ... 69 21. PYROCYSTIS NOCTILUCA, Murray. From the surface in the Guinea Current. One hundred, times the natural size 88 22. PYROCYSTIS FUSIFORMIS, Murray. From the surface in the Guinea Current. One hundred times the natural size 89 23. BATHYCRINUS ALDRICHIANUS (sp. n.). Three times the natural size. (No. 106) 93 24. HYOCRINUS BETHELLIANUS (sp. n.). About twice the natural size. (No. 106) 96 25. HYOCRINUS BETHELLIANUS. About four times the natural size. (Station 147) 97 26. DISC OF HYOCRINUS BETHELLIANUS. Eight times the natural size 98 27. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE SOFT PARTS IN HYOCRINUS BETHELLIANUS, Eight times the natural size 99 28. BREEDING-PLACE OF T*HE NODDY, ST. PAUL'S ROCKS. (From a Photograph) 104 29. ST. PAUL'S ROCKS. (From a Photograph) ... 107 30. CERATOTROCHUS DIADEMA, Moseley. Once and a half the natural size. (No. 120) 122 31. PENTACRINUS MACLEARANUS (sp. n.) Slightly enlarged. (No. 122) 124 32. DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AT STATION 129 146 33. FUNGIA SYMMETRICA, Pourtales. Three times the natural size. (No. 133) 149 34. THE SETTLEMENT OF ' EDINBURGH,' TRISTAN D'ACUNHA. (From a Photograph) 158 35. CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE, TRISTAN ISLAND. (From a Photo­ graph) 162 36. WATER-FALL, INACCESSIBLE ISLAND. (From a Photograph) ... 166 37. GROUP OF ROCK-HOPPERS, INACCESSIBLE ISLAND, (From a Photograph) 179 38. CI.ADODACTYLA CROCEA, Lesson. Stanley Harbour, Falkland Islands. Natural size 216 39. PSOLUS EPIIIPPIFER (sp. n.). Corinthian Harbour, Heard Island. Three times the natural size 220 40. PSOLUS EPIIIPPIFER. Some of the plates of the marsupium re­ moved. Three times the natural size 222 41. GONIOUIDARIS CANALICULATA, A. Agassiz. Stanley Harbour. Twice the natural size 224 42. CIDARIS XIJTRIX (sp. n.). Balfour Bay, Kerguelen Island. Natural size 227 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi I'IG. PAGE 43. HEMIASTER PHILIPPII, Gray. Accessible Bay, Kerguelen Island. Twice the natural size 229 44. HEMIASTER PHILIPPII. The apical portion of the test of the female seen from within. Slightly enlarged 230 45. HEMIASTER PHILIPPII. The apical portion of the test of the male seen from within. Slightly enlarged 231 46. HEMIASTER PHILIPPII. The arrangement of the eggs in one of the marsupial recesses.
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    AÇOREANA, 2011, Suplemento 7: 93-123 PATTERNS OF COLONIZATION AND SPECIES DISTRIBUTION FOR AZOREAN ARTHROPODS: EVOLUTION, DIVERSITY, RARITY AND EXTINCTION Paulo A.V. Borges1, Clara Gaspar1, Ana M.C. Santos1, Sérvio Pontes Ribeiro1,2, Pedro Cardoso1,3, Kostas A. Triantis1,4 & Isabel R. Amorim1,5 1 Azorean Biodiversity Group (CITA-A), Departamento de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade dos Açores, Pico da Urze, 9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] 2 Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Instituto de Ciências Exatas e Biológicas, Lab. Ecologia Evolutiva de Herbívoros de Dossel/DEBIO, campus Morro do Cruzeiro, 35400-000, Ouro Preto, MG, Brasil 3Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA Department of Biology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA 4Biodiversity Research Group, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK 5School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, England, UK ABSTRACT Here we address a list of questions based on long-term ecological and biogeographical studies performed in the Azores, a remote volcanic oceanic archipelago composed by nine islands. The target group are the arthropods, and the main habitat the Laurisilva, the Azorean native forest. Diversification of Azorean arthropod species is affected by island age, area and isolation. However, results obtained for over a decade show that distinct groups are differently affected by these factors, which has lead to the extreme diverse distribution patterns currently observed. Spatial distribution of arthropods in each island may be interpreted as caused by a typical “mass effect”, with many species following a “source-sink” dynamics.
  • Taxonomy and Systematic Botany Chapter 5

    Taxonomy and Systematic Botany Chapter 5

    Downloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.com Chapter Taxonomy and 5 Systematic Botany Plants are the prime companions of Learning Objectives human beings in this universe. Plants The learner will be able to, are the source of food, energy, shelter, clothing, drugs, beverages, oxygen and • Differentiate systematic botany from taxonomy. the aesthetic environment. Taxonomic • Explain the ICN principles and to activity of human is not restricted to discuss the codes of nomenclature. living organisms alone. Human beings • Compare the national and learn to identify, describe, name and international herbaria. classify food, clothes, books, games, • Appreciate the role of morphology, vehicles and other objects that they come anatomy, cytology, DNA sequencing across in their life. Every human being in relation to Taxonomy, thus is a taxonomist from the cradle to • Describe diagnostic features of the grave. families Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, Taxonomy has witnessed various Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Musaceae phases in its early history to the present day and Liliaceae. modernization. The need for knowledge Chapter Outline on plants had been realized since human existence, a man started utilizing plants 5.1 Taxonomy and Systematics for food, shelter and as curative agent for 5.2 Taxonomic Hierarchy ailments. 5.3 Concept of species – Morphological, Biological and Phylogenetic Theophrastus (372 – 287 BC), the 5.4 International Code of Greek Philosopher known as “Father of Botanical Nomenclature Botany”. He named and described some 500 5.5 Type concept plants in his “De Historia Plantarum”. Later 5.6 Taxonomic Aids Dioscorides (62 – 127 AD), Greek physician, 5.7 Botanicalhttps://www.studiestoday.com Gardens described and illustrated in his famous 5.8 Herbarium – Preparation and uses “Materia medica” and described about 600 5.9 Classification of Plants medicinal plants.