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Chrétien's Last Words: Le Conte Du Graal

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Chrétien's Last Words: Le Conte Du Graal Chrétien’s last words: Le Conte du Graal The French poet Chrétien de Troyes was one of the greatest poets of the Middle Ages and he is regarded as the inventor of the “Holy Grail” and of the adventures of King Arthur’s knights of the Round Table. Yet little is known about his life and his last work Perceval, also known as le Conte du Graal, which is still shrouded in controversy. The grail is mentioned there for the first time, but the story ends abruptly before Perceval can correct his failure at the grail castle, probably because of the poet’s untimely death.2 It remains, however, his longest work at 9,234 lines, because he “had limited his previous romances to 7,200 lines or less.”3There is also an ambiguous word play at the end of the prologue, which is usually interpreted from the general context: Philip of Alsace, the count of Flanders, is praised so lavishly that lines 61- 68 are usually held to confirm that he commissioned the poem and provided a book as its source. Most scholars concluded, therefore, that Chrétien may have left the service of Marie de Champagne in the 1180s and had attached himself to Count Philip’s court in Bruges.4 Because these experts developed their theories by going from “hypothesis to hypothesis“ (Frappier5) and by having to make “arbitrary decisions” (Roach6), a new approach is proposed here: what if the sophistication of Chrétien has been underestimated? In this case, the praise __________________ 1. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, fr. 794 (ms. A), University of Ottawa: www.uottawa.ca/ academic/arts/lfa/activites/textes/perceval/cgrpres.htm, as of March 1, 2011. 2. Gerbert de Montreuil, La continuation de Perceval, ed. Mary Williams, (Paris, 1922), p.214: “Ce nous dist Crestiens de Troie Qui de Percheval comencha, Mais la mort qui l’adevancha ne li laissa pas traire affin” (vv. 6984-87). 3. Jean Frappier, Chrétien de Troyes, Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, A Collaborative History, ed. Roger Sherman Loomis, (Oxford, 1959), p.188. 4. Jean Frappier, Chrétien de Troyes et le Mythe du Graal, (Paris, 1972), p.50. He is apparently the only scholar who considers the option that Chrétien did not leave the service of the countess. 5. Ibid., p.51. 6. William Roach, Le Roman de Perceval ou Le Conte du Graal, (Geneva, 1956), p. XI. “la critique textuelle des oevres littéraires du moyen âge a été une longue suite d'hypothèses instabiles et de décisions arbitraires des éditeurs". 1 could be as ambiguous as the jeu de mots and comprise an equally strong attack on the count. That the praise involves difficulties is also noted by the experts: Foerster writes that “Chrétien grossly overdoes the praise of the count,”7and Frappier regrets that the “flattering dedication… seems very discreet, too discreet about the matter and sense of the poem.”8These evaluations sit badly with “the classic qualities of balance and reason” that distinguished Chrétien’s works.9 It seems to be an important clue that Chrétien uses the contemporary word cuens six times in the prologue for the title “count”, but then switches to the older and ambiguous conte four times in lines 63-66 when he introduces the obscure word graal. In line 67, he returns to cuens one last time to confirm that the count did indeed contribute a book for his story. 61 Donc avra bien sauve sa peinne So he won’t have wasted his effort, 62 Crestiens, qui antant et peinne Chrétien, who strives and toils 63 a rimoier le meillor conte to put in rhyme the better story (or account), 64 par le comandement le conte, by command of the story (count or account) 65 qui soit contez an cort real. that is told (or recounted) at the royal court. 66 Ce est li contes del graal, It is the story (count or account) of the grail, 67 don li cuens li baille le livre, of which the count gave him the book, 68 s'orroiz comant il s'an delivre.1 so hear how he acquits himself of it. It is rarely considered that conte has two etymological origins from the Latin,10 and the literal interpretation of line 64 would, therefore, refer to the “command” of a story. In that case, Chrétien felt obliged to rhyme a “better story” than the one told at the royal court. Jean Frappier believes that Count Philip’s book is lost, but that “Chrétien’s dry remarks give us two certitudes: 1. He did not invent the entire story; 2. His source was a written source.”11 _______________________ 7. Ibid., p. 152: "…sich sehr überschwenglich ergeht im Lobe des Grafen von Flandern”. 8. Frappier, Mythe (see above, n. 4), pp. 50, 52. 9. Frappier, Chrétien de Troyes, A Collaborative History, (see above, n. 3), p.161. 10. Wendelin Foerster, Kristian von Troyes, Wörterbuch zu seinen sämtlichen Werken, (Halle, 1914), p. 88: 1. conte (computu) m. Zahl…Zählen, Rechnung, Betrag, gut gezählt, Erzählung, Bericht erstatten… 2. conte (comite), N. cuens (comes), m. Graf. 11. Frappier, Mythe (see above, n. 4), p.53. 2 Many scholars have speculated what the contents of this book might have been, which Frappier sums up as follows: “The answers to this question tend to be influenced by theories concerning the origins of the grail legend. Some have surmised that the book was written in Latin and described a ritual about a Christian relic; others have maintained – in my opinion with greater probability – that it was a ‘conte d’aventure’, filled with Celtic marvels… It is impossible to say whether the livre combined the enfance of Perceval with the Grail theme, or the poet took the initiative.”12 Of course, these theories are based on the assumption that Count Philip had ordered Chrétien to write the poem. However, if a false story circulated at the royal court, which Philip’s book would have to correct, it could widen the scope substantially and a number of historical sources should be considered as well. We intend to show that it was indeed a Latin book that pertained to the enfance of Perceval: Count Philip’s genealogy. This identification would have some additional support of line 64, which also implies etymologically that Chrétien could have written the “mellor conte” by command of a wrong “account or calculation”. Genelogiæ comitum flandrensium: the count’s account The count’s genealogy has survived in several medieval chronicles,13 and the scenario that would have motivated him to present it to Chrétien’s patroness in Troyes is rather well- established.14 The count allied himself with “the rival court of Blois-Champagne” against his _________________ 12. Frappier, Collaborative History, (see above, n. 3), p.185. 13. Arthurian Literature XIV, ed. James P. Carley and Felicity Riddy, (Cambridge, Eng., 1996), p.3: The Genealogia comitum Flandriæ Bertiniana was “begun in 1120 by Lambert de Saint-Omer … An anonymous monk of Saint-Bertin undertook his own continuation… his Flandriæ generosa is a remainment (sic) of the history from Carolingian times…” See also Annales Abbatiæ Sancti-Petri Blandiniensis, ed. the Abbé F. vande Putte, (Ghent,1842). 14. John D. Hosler, Henry II, A Medieval Soldier at War, 1147-1189, (Leiden, 2007), p.81. 3 god-son Philip Augustus, the young king of France on “May 14, 1181 … and made frequent visits to the court in Troyes: he had hopes to marry Marie de Champagne… but his pressing courtship was in vain because the countess refused him in the course of the year 1182.”15 Konrad Sandkühler points out that Count Philip’s devotion to “religion and church” and “his involvement in political intrigues was not quite compatible with the enlightened and sensuous lifestyle of the countess.”16 Her court was a famous cultural center and the visits of the count and his entourage were probably major social events. Marie was a daughter of King Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine, the most illustrious woman of the era, by then married to King Henry II of England. The young king of France was Marie’s half-brother, and his mother her husband’s sister. Where such a blue-blooded crowd circulated, Philip’s descent from Charlemagne would have loomed large in any material he provided during his courtship. Chrétien could have seen the genealogy, because he is known to have been established at Marie’s court between “1177 and 1181” when he dedicated Lancelot to her.17It is the only other dedication to an individual in his works, and it also mentions a book.18However, he “turns an ingenious compliment in the honor of his patroness around… by needling her with an “épingle de jeu,” with the stipulation that “matière and sen” of the poem are entirely her responsibility.19 _______________________________ 15. Frappier, Mythe (see above, no. 4), pp. 49- 50: “…le comte de Flandre fit d’assez fréquentes visites á la cour de Troyes: il avait l’éspoir d’obtenir la main de Marie de Champagne… il fit une cour pressante, mais vaine á la comtesse; au cours de l’année 1182, elle refusa d’épouser le prétendant.” 16. Konrad Sandkühler, Gawain sucht den Gral, vol. 2, (Stuttgart, 1977), p.196: “Die dem kirchlich- religiösen Leben zugewandte und stark in den politischen Intrigen stehende Art des Grafen Philipp mochte wohl der heiteren und sinnenfrohen Lebensart der Gräfin Marie nicht ganz entsprechen." 17. Frappier, Collaborative History, (see above, n. 3), p.159. 18. Chrétien, Lancelot, v. 24 fg.: Del chevalier de la charette / Comance Crestiiens son livre.
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