The Making of Totalitarian City in Pyongyang: the Spatial Transition from Free to Ideology, and for Marketization

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The Making of Totalitarian City in Pyongyang: the Spatial Transition from Free to Ideology, and for Marketization The making of totalitarian city in Pyongyang: The spatial transition from free to ideology, and for marketization Thesen zur Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor- phil. an der Fakultät Architektur und Urbanistik der Bauhaus-Universität Weimar vorgelegt von Lee, Si Hyo geb. 20. Feb. 1980 in Seoul Weimar, 2020 Mentor: Prof. Dr. habil. Frank Eckardt 1 Abstract Keywords totalitarian city, Pyongyang, North Korea, spatial transition, ideological space, colonial city, socialist city, space of terror, space of ideology, location game, marketization Space is a social product and a social producer. The main aim of this thesis is to reveal ‘the process of totalitarian city making in Pyongyang’, especially in the light of the interaction between the power and urban space. The totalitarian city of Pyongyang was born out of modernization in the process of masses formation. During the growth of colonial capitalism and Christian liberal ideas, Pyongyang was modernized and displayed the characteristics of a modern city with industrialization and urbanization. During the introduction of Japanese colonial capitalism, peasants, women, and slaves became the first masses and urban poor, and they later transformed into the mob; their violence was finally demonstrated during the Anti-Chinese Riot. After the 1945 independence, Kim’s regime formed the one-party state with a cry for revolution. They produced an atmosphere of imminent war to instill fear and hatred into the psyche of Pyongyang citizens. The regime eliminated all political opponents in 1967 and finally declared the totalitarian ideology in 1974. During this process, Pyongyang demonstrated two main characteristics of a totalitarian city: the space of terror and of ideology. The space of terror produces the fear of death and the space of ideology controls the thought and life of citizens. After entry to the market, to keep Kim’s controlling power, the regime used the strategy of location exchange. The camp, market, and Foreign Currency Shop were effective tools to prepare for executives’ gifts. However, the market also produces the desire not only for consumption but also for freedom and truth; it is tearing down the foundation of the totalitarian city of Pyongyang. This research focuses primarily on the interaction between political power and urban space. In the process of making a totalitarian city, the power produced urban space and it influenced the psyche of Pyongyang citizens. Even though this spatial transition has created the totalitarian city and helped maintain political power, it also led and produced intended or unintended social variation in Pyongyang society. ii Zusammenfassung Schlüsselwörter: totalitäre Stadt, Pjöngjang, Nordkorea, räumlicher Übergang, sozialistische Stadt, Raum des Terrors, Raum der Ideologie, Vermarktung In dieser Arbeit werden die Prozesse und Eigenschaften der totalitären Stadt Pjöngjang und die Verbindungen zwischen Raum und Gesellschaft in dieser beschrieben. Im Kontext des räumlichen Übergangs Pjöngjangs von einer freien Gesellschaft zu einer mit einer einzigen Ideologie war die Macht eng mit der Transformation des Raums verbunden. Dabei führte der räumliche Übergang als sozialer Produzent zu sozialer Variation. Die Hauptfragen der vorliegenden Forschung sind folgende: Durch welche Prozesse ist Pjöngjang zu einer totalitären Stadt geworden? Welche sind die totalitären Merkmale von Pjöngjang? Welche dieser Merkmale unterscheiden sich von denen anderer totalitärer Städte? Wie verändert sich die Situation heute nach dem Markteintritt? Der Prozess, Pjöngjang in eine totalitäre Stadt zu verwandeln, dauerte ungefähr siebzig Jahre und umfasste vier Stationen: Erstens wurden während der Modernisierungszeit nach 1894 Bauern, Frauen und Sklaven befreit und zu einer bedeutenden, weil großen gesellschaftlichen Schicht. Durch den raschen sozialen Wandel und die Verstädterung wurden sie jedoch in die unterste Klasse gestellt, wodurch sie den minimalen Schutz durch die menschlichen Beziehungen verloren. Die vernachlässigte Bevölkerungsschicht wurde schließlich zu städtischen Besetzern; nicht nur Japaner, sondern auch koreanische Kapitalisten ignorierten sie. Zweitens wurden die isolierten städtischen Armen in den 1920er-Jahren unter dem japanischen Kolonialkapitalismus Teil des Pöbels. Sie übernahmen die gewalttätige Gesinnung des Nationalismus, der darauf abzielte, Chinesen zu massakrieren. Diese waren 1931 das Hauptziel der Rassendiskriminierung in Pjöngjang. Drittens schien die Gesellschaft nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs trotz der japanischen Kolonialisierung eine gewisse Freiheit wiederzugewinnen. Unter dem Einfluss der Sowjetunion akzeptierte Nordkorea das sozialistische System und die Idee, in allen Nationen gerechte Gesellschaften zu gründen. Gleichzeitig wurden Statuen von Kim Il-Sung für die Idolisierung errichtet und der Weltraum bedingte die Einschränkung des Handels sowie die politische Voreingenommenheit, die iii wiederum als Sprungbrett für die Errichtung einer totalitären Stadt diente. Schließlich wurden 1967 alle politischen Gegner von Kims Regime beseitigt und 1974 wurde die totalitäre Ideologie des Jucheismus proklamiert. Der ursprüngliche Raum von Pjöngjang wurde freigemacht und die Maske einer sozialistischen Stadt wurde entdeckt, um den Raum für eine totalitäre Stadt zu formen. Die räumlichen Beweise für die totalitäre Stadt waren Terror und Ideologie. Totalitarismus erfordert positiv einen Raum des Terrors und der Raum kann Zeuge der Existenz einer totalitären Gesellschaft sein. Nachdem die Juche-Ideologie verkündet und der Machtprozess um 1980 durch Kims Sohn erfolgreich weitergetragen worden war, wurden viele gekennzeichnete Personen aus Pjöngjang in ein Arbeitslager deportiert. In Nordkorea gibt es fünf Konzentrationslager, in denen etwa 80 000 bis 120 000 Menschen inhaftiert sind. Im Lager konnte niemand seine Menschenrechte geltend machen und politische Gefangene konnten der Inhaftierung nur durch den Tod entkommen. Obwohl sich das Lager nicht in der Stadt Pjöngjang befand, weckten alltägliche Erfahrungen und Gerüchte bei den dort verbliebenen Bürgern die Angst vor dem Tod – ein zweiter Beweis für den ideologischen Raum der totalitären Stadt. Das Leben eines Bürgers in einer totalitären Stadt ist davon geprägt, dass er jeden Tag und überall im Raum der unausweichlichen Ideologie lebt. Pjöngjang hat viele abstrakte, symbolische und religiöse Denkmäler; diese großen Gebäude im nationalen Stil haben die Bürger dazu inspiriert, nicht nur Ehrfurcht, sondern auch Angst zu empfinden. In ganz Pjöngjang wurden Propagandastrukturen mit drei Achsen errichtet, um Kims Familie zu preisen, und manchmal wurden die Bürger selbst zum Vehikel der Propaganda, indem sie an Gruppenaktionen oder Märschen teilnahmen. Schließlich führte der Raum der totalitären Stadt zu einem falschen Lächeln der Menschen. Das totalitäre System versuchte, den Raum der Bürger selbst zu regieren und zuletzt ihren eigenen. Der totalitäre Raum von Pjöngjang war nicht nur ein Ergebnis politischer Aktionen, sondern brachte ein System hervor, das für den Fortschritt des Totalitarismus geeignet war. Die Merkmale der Stadt unterscheiden sich räumlich und zeitlich von denen anderer totalitärer Städte. Im Gegensatz zum Nationalsozialismus und Stalinismus, die den klassischen Stil Roms und Griechenlands übernahmen, wurden in Pjöngjang viele monumentale Gebäude im koreanischen Stil aus der Zeit der Monarchie errichtet, die nationalistische Emotionen hervorrufen. Aufgrund des langjährigen Aufbaus der totalitären Stadt koexistieren verschiedene Stile wie Neoklassizismus und Konstruktivismus sowie der transparente Raum, iv der die Räume moderner kapitalistischer Städte widerspiegelt. Der Hauptunterschied zwischen Pjöngjang und anderen totalitären Städten ist die zeitliche Beständigkeit von Erstgenannter. Im Gegensatz zur hypnotischen Erfahrung des Nationalsozialismus, die nicht länger als 13 Jahre dauerte, wurde die totalitäre Gesellschaft von Kims Regime über einen Zeitraum von 75 Jahren von drei Generationen aufgebaut und besteht bis jetzt. Dies bedeutet, dass die neue Generation, die in ein Lager oder eine völlig kontrollierte Stadt hineingeboren wurde, in propagandistischen Räumen lebt, die auf der Juche-Ideologie basieren. Die Menschen kennen ihre Vergangenheit und Zukunft nicht, weil sie keine Erfahrungen oder Dokumente zum Vergleich haben. Diese Beständigkeit erklärt, warum Nordkorea trotz der großen Hungersnot und des Markteintritts nach 1989 nicht zusammengebrochen ist. Nach dem Fall der Berliner Mauer und der Hungersnot in den 1990er-Jahren wurde das Marktsystem in Pjöngjang eingeführt und als Instrument verwendet, um Kims Macht über den armen totalitären Staat zu erhalten. Diese ungleiche Strategie von Pjöngjang hat das Spiel des Standortaustausches durch Bestrafungen und Belohnungen auf dem Markt aufgenommen. Für diese Strategie wurden drei Hauptbereiche herangezogen: das Camp, der Markt und der Foreign-Currency-Shop. Diese Räume dienen als Kontrollmittel und wecken den Wunsch nach Konsum. Im Laufe der Zeit bezieht sich dieser nicht nur auf materielle Objekte, sondern auch auf die Konzepte von Freiheit und Wahrheit. Gegenwärtig erschüttern diese Entwicklungen das Fundament und den Raum von Pjöngjang, die in der Vergangenheit geschaffen wurden. Die Wirtschaftsstruktur Nordkoreas ist bereits zusammengebrochen und die ungleiche Strategie mit dem Marktsystem gerät an ihre Grenzen. Die neue Generation hat keine Erinnerungen an die vergangene liberale Gesellschaft
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