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Attempt at Conceptualization Krzysztof Brzechczyn Pozna Paths to Democracy of the Post-Soviet Republics: Attempt at Conceptualization L. Introduction - From the perspective of fifteen years after the collapse of the Soviet Union, it is possible to distinguish five basic developmental paths the post-Soviet republics followed. The societies in which an independent civil revolution took place, enter the first developmental path. Hbwever, this path of development bifurcates into two further sub-variants. Namely, civil revolutions in the Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) resulted in their independence and stable democracies. On the other hand, civil revolutions in the Caucasus republics (Georgia, Arme- nia) proved only partially successful. Civil movements in these countries managed to gain independence, yet they were unable to build stable democracies. Countries such as Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine achieved sovereignty *d followed the next developmental path, seceding from the Soviet Union. However, it was mainly local communist nomenclatures that initiated establishment of independent states. Democratization - characteristic of the first period of their inde- pendent existence - was counterbalanced by the subsequent emergence of autocratic tendencies that surfaced with different force and from dif- ferent reasons. And again, this path of development bifurcates into two developmental variants. In the former, growth of power regulation was hampered by successful civil resistance (Ukraine), whereur ir the latter, growth of power regulation did not encotrnter such strong civil reaction (Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova). Finally, the countries of Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) followed the fifth developmental path. ln these societies, independence permitted to presetve dictatorship of local communist nomenclafures. 530 Krzysztof Brzechczyn Pnths to Dentocracy of the Post-Souiet Republics: Attempt at Conceptualizntion 53r Therefore, naturally, a question arises how to identify social in other spheres of human activity, such as politics and culture. mechanisms leading to this developmental differentiation of the post- In each sphere of social life it is possible to distinguish a material Soviet republics. It seems that an answer to this problem lies in the level consistin g of means of coercion, production and indoctrina- nature of real socialism in the Soviet version and the way of its col- tion. Relation to the means of coercion in politics determines the lapse. This view will be systematically presented in this paper which division of society into two social categories: the class of rulers, which is divided into five sections (includin g Introduction). In the second controls the use of means of coercion, and the class of citizens, section, main theses of non-Marxian historical materialism, estab- deprived of such possibilities. In economy, the material level is made lishing a theoretical base for made analyses, are presented.t This ap- up of the means of production, which determines the division into the proach is extended in the third section. Political development of the class of owners and the class of direct producers. In the cultural post-Soviet republics is described in the fourth section. In the last domain, the material level consists of the means of spiritual produc- section, the paper closes with a summ ary of presented conceptualiz- tion - for example printing presses, radio, and television. Between ation and concluding remarks that place this developmental differen- these pairs of social classes: priests and the indoctrinated, owners and tiation of the post-Soviet countries in the global context. direct producers, rulers and citizens, a contradiction of interests arises. In the cultural domain, the class of priests enhances its spiritual domination over the indoctrinated at the expense of their spiritual 2. The Legacy of Soviet Socialism autonomy. In economy, the class of owners maximises its profits lim- a iting income of direct producers. In the sphere of politics, the class According to theoretical categories of non-Marxian historical materi- of rulers enlarges power regulation at the exPense of citizens' alism real socialism in the Soviet Union may be characterised by three autonomy. Social antagonisms, resulting from unequal access to the basic feafures. Firstly, it was a social system where one social class, dis- material means of society (means of coercion, production and in- posing means of coercion, production and indoctrination, controlled doctrination) in each of these three domains of social life have an politics, economy and culture. Secondly, the main interest of this class of autonomous character. Class divisions in other domains of social life triple-lords consisted in the maximisation of power regulation. Thirdly, can only strengthen antagonisms in a given domain or conversely, this social system built up an empire consisting of the Russian metropolis weaken them. and the external provinces: Lafvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia, Thus control over the material means provides the basis for typol- Azerbaijan, Belarus and Ukraine. Let us briefly characterise the three ogy of societies in non-Marxian historical materialism. Applying this above-mentioned aspects of real socialism in the Soviet version. criterion it is possible to distinguish class societies, where existing classes are separated, and supra-class societies where, for example, one social class, keen on increasing the range of its social influence, 2.L. On Three Class Divisions may seize control over the means of coercion, production and mass class of rulers-owners-priests, Class divisions, in accordance with non-Marxian historical ma- communication. A society with a triple culture, exemplifies terialism, exist not only in economy, but also emerge spontaneously monopolising control over politics, economy and a type of supra-class systems. This social system refers to the struc- ture of real socialism. The apparatus of the Communist Party, which t Full presentation of this theory is in: Leszek Nowak, Property and Power. Touards controlled not only political life, but also economy and culture, was non-Marxian historical materialisn, Dordrecht: Reidel, 1983; idem. Power and Ciuil So- the counterpart of the triple-lords class. ciety. Touards a Dynamic Theory of Real Socialism, London: Greenwood Press, 1991. F I ! 532 Krzysztof Brzechczyn Uht :? Drmocracy of the Post-soaiet Republics: Attempt nt Conceptuarization s33 2.2. On Political Nature of Socialism (i-iii) concern static assumptions of such a model, whereas thesis (iii-viii) dynamic ones. Real socialism was the system of triple-rule in a political version (i) Every citizen has a set of preferences, which direct his or her because possession of the means of production and indoctrination by actions. Among citizens' actions it is possible to distinguish the class of rulers-owners-priests was subordinated to the enlarge- those that are autonomous and regulated. Regulated actions ment of power regulation. In order to present the dynamics of social are undertaken under threat of repression from the ruler, but systems of this kind, dynamics of power should be described in the autonomous actions are not restricted by similar sanctions first place. Now, the main theses of the first model of power in non- taken by those controlling means of coercion. This distinction Marxian historical materialism will be presented in brief.2 Theses should not to be conceived too simply because citizens' ac- tions regulated by rulers comprise also administrative ones. Their regulation z Theory of power in non-Marxian historical materialism applies methods of ide- by power is a base of social order; therefore alization and gradual concretization (Leszek Nowak, The Structure of ldealisation, Dor- regulation is profitable for both parties3. The ratio of the num- drecht: Reidel, 1980). Presented theory consists of a sequence of models. The first ber of regulated actions to the number of actions undertaken model of power considers only those factors which are regarded as main ones for the by citizens (universe of action) is called ciail alienation. It is phenomenon of political power. That is why, among other, in the first model, the assumed that intensity of civil resistance depends on the level influence of cultural and economic domain, institutional structure of power, social of civil alienation and can be presented as follows: consciousness of political classes, internal relations, technological growth of means of coercion and faction competition is omitted in the analysis of the evolution of a purely - when the number of regulated actions is low (and thus political society. ln the process of concretization, some idealising assumptions are civil alienation is also low), social peace prevails as citizens cancelled out, transforming the original approach into a multi-model theory of power have no reason to resist; whose level of realism increases (Leszek Nowak, Power and Ciuil Society, op. cit.). - when the level of civil alienation is high, the level of resis- Among nurnerous contributions made to the theory of power in non-Marxian histori- tance is low as declassed and atomised citizens are unable cal materialism, it is worth mentioning, papers refining the concept of revolution in to resist; that theory (Krzysztof Brzechczyn, "Civil Loop and the Absorption of Elites", in: Social System, Ił,ationality and Ralolution, ed. by Leszek Nowak, Marcin Paprzycki, Amster-
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