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Producers, Mediators, and Users in the History of Video Arcade Games, 1971-1985

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Producers, Mediators, and Users in the History of Video Arcade Games, 1971-1985 Defining Play: Producers, Mediators, and Users in the History of Video Arcade Games, 1971-1985 A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Jonathan Scott Clemens IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Advisor Thomas J. Misa August, 2015 © Jonathan Scott Clemens, 2015 Table of Contents I. List of Figures ................................................................................................iv II. Introduction ....................................................................................................1 1. Categories and Definitions ..............................................1 2. Overview of Sources ........................................................6 3. Methods and Theories ......................................................13 4. Summary of Chapters ......................................................17 III. Chapter One – Video Arcade Games .............................................................21 i. Part One – Precursors...................................................................22 1. Coin-Op Amusement Devices .........................................23 2. Computer Hacks...............................................................33 ii. Part Two – 1971: The First Video Arcade Games .......................39 1. The Galaxy Game ............................................................40 2. Computer Space ...............................................................45 3. Different Philosophies, Different Outcomes....................49 iii. Part Three – 1972-1978: The Pong Boom and Bust ....................52 1. Pong .................................................................................53 2. Boom – 1972-1975 ..........................................................57 3. Bust – 1976-1978 .............................................................62 iv. Part Four – 1979-1983: The Golden Age ....................................67 1. Space Invaders .................................................................68 2. “Video Madness” .............................................................71 v. Part Five – The North American Video Game Crash of 1983 .....76 1. Stagnation and Saturation ................................................77 2. Moral Panic ......................................................................81 3. The Crash .........................................................................88 vi. Part Six – A Different Technological Paradigm ..........................91 1. Aftermath .........................................................................91 2. From Coin-op Amusements to Home Electronics ...........93 IV. Chapter Two – Producers...............................................................................95 i. Part One – Distilling the Producer Perspective............................96 ii. Part Two – Envisioning Video Arcade Games ............................101 1. Initial Ideas.......................................................................103 2. Pong and Opportunity ......................................................105 iii. Part Three – A New Technology, an Old Industry ......................107 1. Video Arcade Games and Other Coin-op Amusements ..110 2. Perceptions of Early Video Arcade Games .....................116 iv. Part Four – Business Practices and Models at Atari ....................121 i 1. Manufacturing ..................................................................121 2. Innovation ........................................................................124 v. Part Five – The Video Game Industry .........................................129 1. Imitation as Common Practice .........................................132 2. Who Video Games Were For ...........................................138 3. Video Games under Fire ..................................................150 vi. Part Six – The Decline of Video Arcade Games .........................153 1. Home Consoles as Paradigm ...........................................154 2. Exodus from Atari............................................................155 3. Moving Away from Video Arcade Games ......................162 V. Chapter Three – Mediators ............................................................................164 i. Part One – Distilling the Mediator Perspective ...........................164 ii. Part Two – Distributing and Operating Video Arcade Games ....168 1. Initial Mediator Responses ..............................................169 2. Early Video Arcade Game Spaces ...................................175 iii. Part Three – Mediators and Market Feedback .............................179 1. Making Machines for Mediators ......................................180 2. Controlling Video Arcade Games ....................................189 3. Buying Video Arcade Games ..........................................194 iv. Part Four – The Height of the Market ..........................................197 1. Crafting Video Arcade Game Spaces ..............................200 2. Public Resistance .............................................................205 3. Troubling Signs ................................................................209 v. Part Five – Retrenchment.............................................................212 1. Video Arcade Game Spaces and the Crash......................213 2. Back to Basics ..................................................................215 VI. Chapter Four – Users .....................................................................................219 i. Part One – Distilling the User Perspective ..................................219 ii. Part Two – Users and the Market ................................................223 1. Reasons for Play ..............................................................223 2. The Economy of the Arcade ............................................229 iii. Part Three – Gamer Communities ...............................................233 1. Forming Community ........................................................234 2. In-Group/Out-Group Boundaries .....................................241 iv. Part Four – Users and Non-Users ................................................245 1. Non-Users and Moral Panic .............................................248 2. Defending Play.................................................................251 3. Competing Meanings .......................................................254 v. Part Five – From Arcades to Homes ............................................255 ii 1. Home Video Gaming .......................................................257 2. Different Kinds of Play ....................................................258 VII. Chapter Five – Defining Play ........................................................................261 1. Defining Play ...................................................................261 2. The History of Video Arcade Games in the History of Computing........................................................................265 3. The History of Video Arcade Games in the History of Technology ......................................................................268 VIII. Bibliography ..................................................................................................275 1. Archival Sources ..............................................................275 2. Oral Histories, Interviews, and Autobiographies .............275 3. Online Image Resources ..................................................277 4. Books and Articles ...........................................................278 iii List of Figures I. Fig. 1-1: Interior of Automatic Vaudeville, ca. 1904 ..............................25 II. Fig. 1-2: Shoot the Bear ...........................................................................27 III. Fig. 1-3: “Grim Pay-off for the Pinball Mob” .........................................31 IV. Fig. 1-4: New York City Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia tipping over a pinball machine, ca. 1938 ........................................................................32 V. Fig. 1-5: Tech-Model Railroad Club members Dan Edwards and Peter Samson playing Spacewar!, ca. 1962 .............................................36 VI. Fig. 1-6: Space Wars ................................................................................38 VII. Fig. 1-7: Students playing The Galaxy Game in Stanford’s Student Union, 1977..............................................................................................43 VIII. Fig. 1-8: Refurbished version of the second Galaxy Game machine displayed at the Computer History Museum ...........................................44 IX. Fig. 1-9: Computer Space ........................................................................48 X. Fig. 1-10: Pong play screen .....................................................................56 XI. Fig. 1-11: Pong ........................................................................................59 XII. Fig. 1-12: Pro Tennis ...............................................................................64 XIII. Fig. 1-13: Winner video arcade game ......................................................65 XIV. Fig. 1-14: Cover of Time magazine, Jan. 18, 1982 ..................................69 XV. Fig. 1-15: Space Invaders play screen .....................................................70 XVI. Fig. 1-16: Asteroids ..................................................................................73
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