CHAPTER-3: CONSIDERING RADHAKRISHNAN'S CRITICS

In considering the full spectrum of critiques concerning Radhakrishnan's appraisals, it is necessary for us to understand why the thinker is both (A) revered and (B) reviled, the overall (C) criticisms leveled against him, and to chart the (D) evolving estimation of Radhakrishnan's approach within mainstream philosophy throughout the past century. Very few individuals, especially philosophers, elicit such extreme se~timents as Radhakrishnan. A vast majority of thinkers are.·simply considered in neutral terms. Some are abjectly dismissed and discarded. A few are elevated to stratospher:ic · heights. It is quite rare to fmd a single individual who is simultaneously venerated and vilified, revered and reviled, exuberantly commended and sharply criticized. This one paradoxical fact alone, perhaps more than all others, singles-out Radhakrishnan's philosophy as being worthy of our attention and close consideration.

Section-A: RADHAKRISHNAN REVERED FOR MANY REASONS

Radhakrishnan was revered for many reasons, primarily because of his (1) balanced perspective on spirituality, his (2) comprehensive view of philosophy and his (3) broad familiarity with cultures. For these reasons and many more, Radbakrishnan was regarded as a world-class philosopher. He was reverenced as a spiritual giant. He was renowned as a literary genius. He was recognized as a rhetorical dynamo par excellence. He was respected as a noble and dignified gentleman. He was reputed to be an exceptional exponent of India's ideas and ideals. Moreover, be was fondly remembered as the embodiment of wisdom-in-action. Within the current section, · we shall attempt to carefully consider these three aspects of Radhakrishnan' s thought that garnered for him the greatest acclaim and respect. In responding to the philosophic approach of Dr. Radbakrishnan, many of his critics· have raised a number of issues that will be discussed in this chapter of research. In his sharp departure from the Advaita (non-dualist) tradition of Adi Satikara, did Radbakrishnan concede too much in his desire to bring harmony with the Western

87 mindset? Did his approach lend itself to successful furtherance of inter-religious dialogue? Can Radhakrishnan be considered a champion of comparative religions - a victorious East-West bridge - or is he simply an over-reaching eclectic? Dr. Radhakrishnan held chairs of philosophy at several universities, both in India and in the West; this fact alone paves a way for viewing this philosopher as a natural bridge in understanding between East and West. He achieved the very highest academic appointments, honors and distinctions - both at home in his native India, and abroad. Such accolades and opportunities are not gratuitously doled-out, except to the most desetving of individuals. He had no advantage whatsoever of either fmancial or political .power in order to influence the appointment of any of these posts; many, . . nowadays, are able to purchase such accolades with wealth or power. The only aspects of wealth that enabled him to secure such honors were a broadness of mind, a deep sensitivity of spirit, a mastery of communication, and an overwhelming heart for service. Whilst lecturing in Chennai in his early years, Radhakrishnan studied and wrote about Hindu sacred and philosophical literature. His interpretation argued for both a personal god, and a single, personal self- two aspects that are more-easily digested by the Western mindset. In this approach, Radhakrishnan departed sharply from Sailkara's philosophical tradition (and much of Hindu thought, in general). Though he attempted to bridge · up the gap between East and West for many ocCidental philosophers, Radhakrishnan may simply have overstepped his bounds beyond the comfort level of his oriental colleagues. The mass appeal Radhakrishnan held (and continues to hold) for the Western scholars is entirely understandable. In detailing specific nuances of Indian thought employing the parlance and idiom of the West, Radhakrishnan makes the philosophical systems of India more accessible and even recognizable to the non-Indian mindset. He may, however, have gone a bit too far by capitulating too much to the West with regard to technical terms and precise ideas; after all, his audience was for a wide, general readership, and not strictly for the intelligentsia or the philosophically-savvy academicians. However, as we shall see, it is further suspected by the critics that Radhakrishnan's eloquence and style may also cover for whatever might be lacking in

88 terms of content. We shall attempt to consider each of these aspects within the current section

1] Balanced: Perspective on Spirituality Organized religion must give way to deepening spirituality: 1 Typically, nowadays, laypersons of all stripes have simply outgrown their inherited creed of birth, not so much because they have become completely irreligious, but because humanity in general ~-s in the midst of a quantum leap to the next higher

layman alike. The sweet nectar of Radhakrishnan's ~sdom is a great source of both intellectual stimulus and spiritual enrichment. He reminds us that mind must always remain above matter. His voluminous corpus of writings are, themselves, an extraordinary work of mutual understanding and meaningful expression, which successfully promote renewed respect for spirituality, morality and noble thoughts. Stick to Religion, Let religions Go:6 Lord Kr~Qa, in His final instruction at the very close of the Bhagavad-Gitii, encourages us to give up common religion, and embrace transcendental religion: "Abandon all varieties of religion, and simply surrender to Me."7 The holy prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) likewise endorsed a religion of full surrender to the One, true and living God. Such is the highest teaching of each of the world's living faiths - a most exalted teaching, indeed! Radhakrishnan, praising the philosophy of India's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, echoes this vital

89 sentiment: "Rabindranath's religious message is simple: Stick to Religion, let religions go."8 Division, Discord and Disintegration: According to Radhakrishnan, "Religions which make for division, discord and disintegration, and do not foster unity, understanding and coherence .. ." 9are indeed dangerous. As integrality is the overarching quest of Radhakrishnan, it is fascinating to note that he is adamantly against institutionalized religions that breed disintegration. By indicating that the world 10 would be better off without organized religions - a shocking statement indeed - Radhakrishnan belies his own·ot:Qerwise deeply spiritual orientation to demonstrate that· . . 1 1 creedal divisions and dbgm~tic discords represent the very ~ntithesis of true spiriruality ~ . · · The Need for True Spirituality. 12 In his autobiographical sketch, Radhakrishnan was asked to describe the driving force behind his extensive philosophical publications. From an early age, surveying the religious landscape of his native South India, he was ever aware of the move of the spirit and the tug of the pursuit of eternal truths. Later on in his life, he was moreover interested in promoting true spirituality, than any one specific creed or system. 13 Indian philosophy delights in intricate nuances of metaphysical exactitude and logical precision. Even in the 21st Century, Western philosophers are coming to discover that - far from being an other-worldly mishmash of magic and superstitions, as some have supposed - the various schools of Indian philosophy represent quite elegant and highly-sophisticated systems of rigorous intellectual penetration. In demonstrating this tremendous philosophical capacity, unfortunately, a few things get easily become muddled or completely lost along the way - including essential spirituality and down-to­ earth praxis. This is the primary bone of contention says Radhakrishnan, for whom the chief glories of Indian philosophy are not merely metaphysical precision or logical 14 .exactitude , but direct firsthand experience and a praxis of selfless. service to humanity. Creative Spiritual Religion: 15 Radhakrishnan's integral system of spirituality endorses neither an exclusive creed nor the dead wood of dogmatism, but a vital and dynamic way of life; there simply is no room in his worldview for dusty ritual and dry ceremonial piety. In this respect, the broad-minded philosopher of the spirit settles for

90 nothing short of the complete inner transformation of both the specific individual and civilization in general. 16 During the crescendo to World War II in 1942, Radhakrishnan's lectures delivered at the University of Calcutta were later published as Religion and Society. 17 In this solemn and important work, he traced the cause of war to 'the serious distemper' between social institutions and the overarching world purpose of bringing about a cooperative commonwealth resulting in dignity, noble living and prosperity for all. The way out, he suggested, was "the restoration of the lost relationship between the .· individual and. the eternal;" hence the relevance of religion. Establish¢, institutional 8 however, simply satisfy the world's need for a·sou1: · · reliilons~. cann~t . ~ Beginning in the 20th century, Radhakrishnan observes, we began noticing a global shift towards mysticism and experience (higher intuition), and away from doctrinal creeds and dogma (intellectualism). 19 For better or worse, this most certainly appears to be the general trend even until today; Radhakrishnan would, in fact, argue in favor of such a development. Whilst intellectualism tends to separate and compartmentalize, higher intuition demonstrates a more comprehensive and integral spirit. "The half­ religious and the irreligious fight about dogmas," says Radhakrishnan, "and not the truly religious ... the more religious we grow, the more tolerant of diversity we become."20 the Srimad Bhagavatam21 instructs us to give up fruitive religiosity (meritorious Karmic activity), monistic specu1ation (dabbling in the philosophies of impersonalism) and the cultivation of knowledge (acquisition of facts for the sake of knowledge). Instead, as Radhakrishnan echoes, true spirituality must be the standard and guide for both our faith and practice.

2] Comprehensive: View of Philosophy Personal Encounter with the Absolute Reality is the Beginning of Wisdom.22 Radhakrishnan was not interested in philosophy strictly for the gratification of its intrinsic rational rigor and airtight logic - satisfying as these may be for some; philosophy, for him, was strictly a means to an end. The overarching goal of his life was to facilitate expansion and growth within society. It is the collective Self-realization and

91 the raising of universal consciousness that were his primary agenda - global perfection, freedom and enlightenment, his primary passion. Indian Philosophy is Integral.23 Rarely does Radhakrishnan's philosophy begin with well-founded premises, argue from airtight logic and rigorous discursive reasoning, to arrive at solid conclusions that are indisputable. He is indeed quite rational, and many would hold him to be reasonably sound and insightful in matters of spirit, as well. And yet, he flatly disappoints those who would insist upon more rigour and less fluff within philosophy. Of course, these same tough-minded critics would likewise be ,• , • disappointed by much of Indian philosophy in . general, which traditionally is unapologetically couched in the poetic milieu, heavily laden with aphoristic accents, and intensely idealistic and spiritualistic in purview. Radhakrishnan's philosophical style -though admittedly free-spirited and non-conformist by Western standards - is squarely in keeping with the venerated tradition of Indian thought. For Radhakrishnan, religious truths are not relative, they're perspectival. Clearly, this demonstrates that Radhakrishnan was heavily steeped in the classic literature of his native India. Early in his career as a researcher and philosophy lecturer, Radhakrishnan thoroughly immersed himself in becoming well versed with ancient scriptures and the traditional philosophical commentaries - and it shows! Not only in his extensive commentaries on the triple cannon and voluminous history of Indian Philosophy, but moreover, within the very fibre of each of his writings. With his acute spiritual insight, wide religious sensibility and elegant philosophical style, Radhakrishnan befittingly typifies the glorious and profound sophistication and style of the fmest cogitations of Mother India. Philosophy, for Radhakrishnan, is necessarily an integral enterprise that begins in phenomenology.24 Arguing from such an individual, first-person, subjective experience of Reality may have_been the philosophical fad in Europe during Radhakrishn_an's day, yet India had known for centuries that such integral experience is a reliable source of comprehending Reality. Ultimately, he would argue that genuine philosophy could be defmed as the art and science of whole-person knowing and the practical embodiment (realization) of wisdom in action.

92 3] Broad: Familiarity with Cultures The Comparative Approach Breaks Down Barriers and Builds Upon Commonalities:25 The comparative methodology serves to dispel both our ignorance and illusions concerning the uniqueness of our own tradition of faith. 26 Radhakrishnan rightly reports that "when we enter the world of ideals, the differences among religions become negligible and the agreements striking." 27 Within the Christian theology of sanctification, for example, when we explore the various transformative "fruits of the sp~~." for example, we ·can't help but be reminded of the v~e ethics of the ancient Greek philosophers and the nunierous divine qualities and noble traits exhibited among the Indian pantheon of de~ties. · These connections should readily come to our n:lln4s; · how poverty-stricken we would be if our parochial culture were all we could envision. The broad treasury of our single world civilization opens wide her doors before us, and invites us to come and discover. Not Rivalry, but Revitalization: 28 Experiencing new ideas and customs can initially be quite offsetting for one who is relatively new to encountering foreign cultures. Culture. shock is a universal experience, lessened substantially only within those who are predisposed to adventurous, open-minded interaction. Radhakrishnan encourages all such culture-vultures to see new ideas and different creeds not in terms of rivalry, but to open the doors for cooperation. Exchange amongst the living faiths of the world should not be undertaken in an atmosphere of suspicion or competition, but rather it should be conducted in a spirit of mutual appreciation and coordination. Each new encounter should serve as an opportunity for development and enrichment of our own worldview. Experiential Comparative Religion:29 When Radhakrishnan lived for an extended period of time in Oxford and Moscow, he undoubtedly felt somewhat at home; and yet, the overwhelming experience of being a minority within a foreign culture - r~ligiously, racially, even politically - inevitably produces. a lasting impact upon any visitor. Radhakrishnan's close encounters with Christian academics and communist party leaders, for example, admittedly drove him to rethink a good portion of his underlying philosophical assumptions. Whilst abroad, he regularly engaged in church speaking opportunities, and read widely within Lenin's and Marx's ideologies- which no doubt served to colour his worldview.

93 The easiest (and least-impactful) opportunity to engage in comparative religion is to take the armchair philosopher's approach of simply reading for curiosity's sake. A more effective (and more impactful) study arises with the intentional pursuit of active dialogue - either in routine encounters with members from other faiths and cultures, or in international conferences. Nowadays, within our shrinking global civilization, if one waits long enough, the world will eventually come to your neighborhood. Today, it's not uncommon to have families from half way around the world move in next door to your home. However, ~ . , . by far the most impactful approach to· comparative religion is to live, as Radhakrishnan did, as a minority within a foreign cultu:i-e for an extended duration. Broad-minded foreigners are typically receptive and sympathetic to their host culture; closed-minded ones are usually repulsed and indifferent. And yet, all are impacted in myriad ways. Exchange students, especially in early childhood, are perhaps the luckiest beneficiaries of such encounters. Every parent desires their child to reach as far as possible in terms of education and degrees; unfortunately, only a small minority of parents fully comprehends the far greater effect that living abroad will have upon their development as global citizens. It is indeed a wonderful thing to have successfully completed a Master's degree, but if you've never visited or lived abroad, can you truly be called a citizen of the world? Direct experience of other cultures and religions has a profound effect upon one's worldview. Some visitors will undoubtedly dig in their heels, and defend their native views as superior. Others will become overly sympathetic, and either put down their own culture or creed, or outright convert to another faith. A blessed few will naturally come to cherish and deepen their own personal faith commitments, whilst empathetically appreciating or even simultaneously accepting the rich heritage of their host country.

Section-B: RADHAKRISHNAN REVILED FOR MANY REASONS

Radhakrishnan was reviled for many reasons, primarily because of his (1) universalized concept of man, his insistence upon the necessity of (2) intuition and his

94 over-emphasis upon (3) idealism and the mystical within the philosophical endeavour. In the context of these charges, Radhakrishnan would argue that one's outlook must grow and expand beyond selfish, fragmented and parochial perspectives. Radhakrishnan was deeply appreciative of the numerous accolades showered upon his work, especially by his academic colleagues; on a few occasions, he himself conceded that such glowing tributes were often a bit over-the-top in terms of their generosity, especially with regard to his earlier works. By and large, Radhakrishnan was ostensibly unruffled by the occasional sharp jab of his harshest critics. His overall demeanour of detachment towards both positive and negative critique stemmed from the fact that his writings were pnrn:arily intended for consumption by ~ far. more general readership, and not specifically targeted for the professional philosophical community, per se. Still, the modem researcher is compelled to closely examine Radhakrishnan approach, and observe those areas that are in need of refmement and improvement.

1] Questions of Individuality: A Non-Divided-Duality? The Individual Must Get Back to the Principle of Unity:30 Radhakrishnan's Concept of Man was a joint effort together with his friend and colleague P.T. Raju. Within Christian systematic theology, this philosophical pursuit is collectively known as anthropology (inquiry into human nature), and is the initial consideration within any theologian's grand system of thought. Non-Indian critics often blasted Radhakrishnan for over-compartmentalizing the nature of the individual into four poises or general aspects. Some preferred the tripartite model of body, soul and spirit, whilst other thinkers insisted upon a bipartite template <>f body and soul. This type of criticism is naturally to be expected within the context of

. world philosophy. The important thing to remember wh~n reading Radhakrishnan is not so much the exact number of elements, but the myriad ways in which the fully integrated individual can respond to the entirety of Reality. What is an Individual?:31 One important puzzle that commonly arises in both Eastern and Western circles of thought is: What is an individual? It is the heart ofthis probing question that seeks to explore the significant area of inquiry that might be coined

95 philosophical anthropology - an adventurous and holistic existential field of investigation that endeavors to plumb the depths of the integral nature of the individual human being. Upon closer linguistic examination of the actual English term individuality, we can immediately intuit its originally-intended formulation. Though we may have used the word perhaps hundreds of times over, a deeper and more meaningful relevance begins to emerge in light of our present study: upon careful inspection, the term individuality can be properly parsed to denote a "non-divided-duality" - an immensely helpful and significant insight with regard to what Radhakrishnan refers to as integral experience.

Broaqly speaking, according to Pataiijali's respect~d assessment, the· complete human personality is, in fact, precisely this: a non-divided-duality. Though unquestionably understood by a majority of scholars to be definitively singular in nature - the human individual (Atman) can roughly be classified into four fundamental philosophical aspects or rudimentary existential elements (as can Brahman itself, as we have seen in chapter two). Radhakrishnan has repeatedly recognized these fourfold distinctions - both within he individual, and within the ever-unchanging, indivisible Brahman. Furthermore, for each generalized category comprising the individual, the corresponding yoga practice best suited for each paralleled component is thus highlighted. Also juxtaposed alongside these rudiments of individuality and their related yogic practices are the associated realms of knowing. Correspondingly, these allied epistemological domains can, according to the present thesis, be strengthened, further developed and even refined over time via diligent and disciplined application of the most apropos yogic practice. 32 Truth be told, each individual has myriad avenues available for accessmg the Universal Consciousness: these various ways of knowing include the biological (lower) mind, which operates within the realm of the senses, and the psychic (higher) mind, which operates within the various realms of intuition. Though for sake of comparison these are herein systematized as belonging to differing groupings or classifications, it is important to remember that there are, in fact, no such hard and fast distinctions for the fully-integral individual.33

96 Though apparently quite elementary and straightforward, it is believed that further exploration into Radhakrishnan's modest model of comparative systematics may well yield quite profound results in the significant area of inquiry that might be coined practical epistemology - the pragmatic philosophical field of investigation that aspires to bring to light the nature of how individuals know - in order to strengthen, improve and even expand our collective capacity for Self-realization. All things considered, the practical application of strengthening and developing the various elements of the human individual via diligent application of these ~. .. corresponding Yogic practices holds the key to expon~ntial possibilities of growth within the associated realms of knowing. Quite . si.ffiply, this model embodies what Radhakrishnan refers to as the ''whole individual" approach to knowledge, or integral experience.

2] Questions of Integrality: Whole-Person Knowing? The Mystical Experience of Intuition Must Become our most Mature Way of Knowing: 34 The Christian tradition emphasizes the existence of spiritual gifts. 35 The Holy Bible indicates that all believers are endowed with one or more such abilities. One gift of particular relevance to our topic at hand is the spiritual gift of discernment. It is, undoubtedly, closely related to RadhakrishJ:lan's concept of Dadana - clear, spiritual vision or insight. According to Radhakrishnan, one's ability to distinguish between truth and falsity, the real and the unreal, the temporary and the eternal - this requisite soul sight - is the hallmark of both discernment and Darsana, and the most essential necessity of all who would professionally wrestle with truth or work as the lovers ofwisdom. Lao-Tzu, the revered Chinese philosopher, and author of the Tao-te-Ching,

repeatedly cautio~ against the basis of intellect alone in understanding the Tao. The Way, he argues, cannot be realized solely by theoretical arguments, but rather via the virtue of mystical intuition. Traditionally regarded as the founder of the Tao, this celebrated Chinese thinker addressed his philosophies primarily to the rulers of his day. It is precisely this balanced sense of Mystic Virtue that must be recaptured within our own day-in-age, if our own leaders hope to establish any semblance of harmony

97 within today's society. Quite simply, we must be governed by a higher sensibility and an idealist mindset; the strictly Western, materialist mindset simply can no longer adequately speak to the myriad hopes and fears of our 21st Century society. This gentle, aristocratic and austere thinker had a profound influence upon society in his day. We see echoes of this approach flashing from the governance of President Radhakrishnan, who was widely respected as the embodiment of wisdom-in-action. A titan of practical morality, human dignity, and spiritual sensibility, Radhakrishnan's example approaches the closest approximation to Plato's philosopher-king in our recent merp.ory as a global village. 36 Intuition and Reason; _ Personal experience of the divine is the beginning and e~d . . of our religious quest as a seeker. Adherence to doctrine alone simply will not suffice - we must have a first-hand experience of divine truth directly and personally. This litmus test of spirituality has been handed-down, as it were, from Radhakrishnan's spiritual forebears, Swami Vivekananda, and his guru Sri Ramakrishna. Undoubtedly, direct experience of the divine has been a hallmark of Indian spirituality for a considerable span of generations. "Knowledge when acquired must be thrown into logical form," holds Radhakrishnan, "and we are obliged to adopt the language of logic, since only logic has a communicable language."37 For Radhakrishnan, spiritual meaning is best conveyed through symbols, poetry and metaphors. As such, it must be conceded that our fmest representations are only approximations of the Ultimate Reality; admittedly, the complete scope of our intuited insights is otherwise obscured, and known to be ineffable. For Radhakrishnan, the rational discourse of logic is the only valid means by which we are able to systematize and present to the minds of others the empirical facts one has intuited. Comprehensive Charity in Thought:38 It is very important, in examining the direct experience of Reality, to distinguish between the actual experience itself and the cultural baggage in which it comes wrapped. There is simply no such thing as a raw, undigested experience. In fact, our mental apparatus mediates all one's experiences. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, in his Idealist View ofLife , pointed this out early last century. Accordingly, intuitive experience is immediate, and operates on a supra-conscious level, though it is eventually filtered through our consciousness. In other words,

98 says Radhakrishnan, there is " ... no such thing as pure experience, raw and undigested. It is always mixed up with layers ofinterpretation."39 The Hindu model of morality seeks creative ways in which to advance the world. Sometimes, this involves challenging established cultural convention and fixed social mores. In terms of ethics and practice, dogmatism is as stagnant and undesirable in Radhakrishnan's model as the propositional variety associated with creeds and doctrines. Broad-mindedness and an ever-widening worldview must necessarily extend to include social tolerance and accommodation. Unfortunately, those clinging to a fixed and fmal form of faith and practice often refuse such extravagant hospitality: Hinduism, claims Radhakrislnian, has rightly "developed an attitude of comprehensive charity, instead of a fanatic faith in an inflexible creed,'.4° with regard to both the faith and practice of others.

3] Questions of Idealism: The Mystical Mind? We Must Renounce the Narrow Horizon, the Selfish Interest and the Unreal Objective:41 When asked by the attending angel if she could see the myriad children of God en route to the New Jerusalem, the teenage American mystic Ellen G. Harmon cried and reported that she could not. "Look a little higher," was the angelic encouragement, t? which she exclaimed in rapturous joy lifting her perspective that she absolutely did behold the beauteous scene of the countless faithful ones marching towards the Promised Land. In the mid-nineteenth century, her first vision sparked the Great Awakening of spiritual revival, which quickly spread throughout Europe and the rest of the world. Look a Little Higher: It is incumbent upon us to try to see Reality from the perspective of the heart of our Heavenly Parent. These selfsame words provide angelic wisdom for our own philosophical and religious outlook - especially today. Radhakrishnan's model of Emergent Evolution, as highlighted in chapter one of the present research, indicated a number of heightening and widening prescriptions that are in keeping with this tradition. Critics have often mocked Radhakrishnan for claiming to speak for God. And yet, if the Self-realizing goal of Indian philosophy is on-target, then this is precisely

99 the perspective we are hoping to eventually develop. Radhakrishnan did not become overtly defensive about such critiques, primarily because the development of such a perspective is an entirely predictable and desirable outgrowth one's lifelong pursuit of truth. Radhakrishnan patiently proclaims that our parochial perspective is in need of widening, our selfish interests are in need of higher objectivity, and only the ultimately Real is worth pursuing. Conversion as Personal Self-Transformation:42 Conversion is one of the most beautiful of words when it means a spiritual change within oneself, resulting from a personal transformation - an improvement in one's .character, an inclination towards holiness, or a more enlightened outlook. To understand truth in the depths, one should first uplift one's character. Quite frequently, a direct encounter with the divine invariably results in some element of healthy conversion. Conversion can also be among the ugliest of words, when it connotes a religious change imposed and compelled upon someone else - often resulting from bribery, coercion, or force, which can be physical, psychological, philosophical or spiritual. All too often, a direct encounter with fundamentally dogmatic religions invariably results in some element of unhealthy individual conversion or in spiritual manipulation within a particular society. Quite often, even the healthy experience of conversion is an all too commonly misunderstood concept. Conversion is not a one-time activity, but rather an .ongoing process throughout one's lifetime. In addition, there are actually two primary components involved in the process of conversion - divine and human; the divine aspect is the regenerating grace of God by the power of His Spirit, whereas the human aspect is the voluntary, repentant surrender of one's heart to God. Radhakrishnan firmly believed that the philosophical pursuit was pointless, unless is resulted in a healthy integration (or unification) of the individual within the larger civilization. Even among atheists within the various schools of Hinduism and Buddhism, personal transformation and enlightenment were understood to be the means and ends of philosophy, according to Radhakrishnan.43 Religious Imperialism Proselytism and Dialogue: 44 Exclusivity, for Radhakrishnan, is morally repugnant. The Hindu proverb relates: "There is nothing Th- \'3333 100 noble in being superior to some other man. The true nobility is in being superior to your previous self." As a respected international academician, Radhakrishnan participated in the International Missionary Council in Jerusalem in 1928. In his footnote to the Council's Final Report, Radhakrishnan includes the following observation: "We would repudiate any symptoms of religious imperialism that would desire to impose beliefs and practices on others in order to manage their souls in their supposed interests. We obey to 5 God who respects our wills, and we desire to respect those of others. ,,4 In other words, one must eradicate any sense of superiority, and the base arrogance of intolerance. Carefully considering the . underlying Greek and Latin roots of the word p~oselytism46 , we can deriv~ . tlie meaning ~s an ' 'appro~ch to convert a stranger.'; . The clear agenda is to intentionally change the other person's philosophy or worldview, in a context wherein the other is considered to be an alien or stranger. In an environment of proselytism, not only are the unsuspecting victims considered to the other, but their faith is also assumed to be far inferior, and in grave need of replacement. An alternative to this model is dialogue, according to Radhakrishnan.47 Inter-Faith and Inter-Cultural Dialogue:48 Inter-faith and inter-cultural dialogue constituted the true model of approach in Jesus' day. In fact, within the context of today's rich religious diversity, we would do well to imitate this relational approach. Too often, we're more concerned about being right than relational; in our war-torn world, it's time to give-up our right to be right. In dialogue, we find no such hidden agenda, other than to mutually exchange and freely share ideas and words of life among equal members of our global family. It is assumed that whatever is found as parallel to one's own tradition will naturally nurture and deepen an individual's already-held convictions. Whatever ideas have the genuine ring of truth and are attended by the inner voice of conviction will result in positive conversion of the individual undertaking in the nourishing quest. Sometimes, even new and challenging concepts - if freely and objectively considered - hold the potential of being adopted and incorporated into one's own web of philosophical convictions and religious practices;49 we must ever be on the lookout to supplement, and not to supplant.

101 Section-C: RADHAKRISHNAN'S CRITIQUES

Specifically, Radhakrishnan's critiques fall into five basic categories regarding questions concerning: his (1) orthodoxy and originality, his (2) mysticism and otherworldliness, his (3) overall perspective and objectivity, his (4) ambiguity and inconsistency and his apparent over-emphasis upon (5) synthesis and fusion. Facing these allegations, Radhakrishnan responds that clarity and expansion of one's perspective promote a widening worldview .. We shall attempt to deal with each of these

accusatioll$, ~ the order in which they are mentioned above.

1] Queries: Regarding Orthodoxy and Originality Philosophy is the unseen foundation on which the structure of a civilization rests: 5°China is one of the world's most ancient civilizations. Evidence of her enduring philosophical ideas and honorable ethical ideals are clearly recognized within the lives of her culture even today. One prominent, ancient philosopher who undoubtedly influenced his civilization for millennia was Confucius. Countless lives - even of ordinary men and women, religious and irreligious - harmoniously reflect the unseen philosophical foundatiop. established millennia ago as an undercurrent that shaped the wider culture. And so it is with India and all other countries and cultures. Quite often, philosophical and religious underpinnings of a civilization are easy enough to trace from an anthropological standpoint. As Radhakrishnan reports, we soon discover that historical "parallelism of spiritual development is an expression of the fundamental unity of mankind." 51 The previous centuries have witnessed momentous leaps in terms of advancement. There have been giant strides forward, in terms of biological adaption or discoveries in science or time-saving inventions. Moreover, philosophical ideas and religious ideals have blossomed over the millennia to shape entire continents. Such growth has transpired separately and yet simultaneously. Originality of a Thinker: 52 Many have indicated that Radhakrishnan is a teacher of philosophy only - strictly a lecturer and compiler of the history of thought. Numerous critics point-out that within Radhakrishnan's writings there is no shred of

102 evidence whatsoever of originality. The same, however, could also be said of Confucius - undoubtedly recognized as one of the fmest philosophers of all time. By his own admission, Confucius' teachings were not original ideas; he was not driven to invent some high-minded, original thesis. He was not impelled to be progressive or pioneering in formulating new truths; as a philosopher, he was neither a bold revolutionary nor a groundbreaking upstart. Confucius was utterly unconcerned with taking credit for new and fresh discoveries or avant-garde inventions. Confucius say: "I communicate, and do not invent. I have faith in antiquity, . . and consecrate all my affection to its cause." This original statement (uncertain) sounds . . strangely fani.iliar when juxtaposed with Radhaknshnan's own position on th~ issue - thousands of years later - as indicated in the previous quotation. Within this context, one might inquire as to whether Radhakrishnan's quote was itself borrowed, paraphrased or even plagiarized from Confucius. Of course, this would be a silly question, indeed. For, even in his own masterful way of claiming no originality, Radhakrishnan's striking comparative approach is evident to all who are familiar with Eastern philosophy. His tip-of-the-hat to the celebrated Chinese sage shows profound insight, demonstrates wide familiarity, reveals warm hospitality and exhibits historical perspicacity - all of which amounts to the endearing and ultimately enduring quality ofRadhakrishnan's original mind ... and unique contribution to philosophy. As Radhakrishnan himself admits, "A literary genius, it is said, resembles all, though .no one resembles him."53 Like Radhakrishnan, Confucius understood that the ancients had collectively grasped the true essence of living; his task was to plumb the depths of the ancient paths and then distill their essence for his contemporary listeners. China's noble sage was able to construct and communicate a thoughtful and organized system, which was rendered as true to the authority of the ancient wisdom, and yet suitably adapted for practical use within the culture of. his own day and age; in effect, this is precisely what Radhakrishnan. has done. Moreover, this is a model for what a vital and living philosophy must do going forward. In fact, Radhakrishnan would argue, this is the very defmition of what is best in authentic religion today: Philosophy is not a dry and dusty museum of fixed dictums, but rather a living laboratory of fresh ideas. Religion is not a static and stately artifact of established dogma, but rather a dynamic and ever-evolving work in progress.

103 Universality, Rather Than Originality: The deeply spiritual American writer Walt Whitman - when pressed about his sources of inspiration - wisely noted: "These are really the thoughts of all men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me." Like Radhakrishnan himself, the author rightly lays claim to universality, rather than originality. Commentaries - An Original Contribution?: 54 Any commentary on classic scripture bears the distinctive, constructive and original contribution of its translator. Sir Arnold's Gitii, for example, has a uniquely poetic flavor that is quite distinct from Sir . . Radhakrishnan's stoic and straigh~orward academic translation; Fosse's universal reading sounds distinctly different·from Swami Prabhupada' s intensely devotional tone. Certainly, the original text of scripture remains unchanged (except for a smattering of emphases, nuisances or linguistic twists), and yet, the commentaries are as wide and varied as the spectrum of the rainbow. How can this be, if indeed the. underlying scripture is one? Unabashedly, Radhakrishnan's entire corpus of writings is a direct outgrowth of his first-hand, mystical experience - which is what makes it so charming and inviting (original) to read. Given the preference, it must be admitted that we ourselves would not be inspired by Hermetically sealed discourse - completely sterile reasoning and lifeless logic. When one attempts to · research a philosopher, more than half of the joy comes from savoring their life, along with their logic. In reading the works of any good thinker, we are examining their words, no doubt; but, in the process, a little bit of their soul rubs off on us. Reading the Person: Within the Christian tradition, when a church member walks through the door to attend weekly services, often the most pressing inquiry after the exchange of routine greetings is "who's speaking today?" - not "what is the subject It matter. ," or even ''what is the title of the sermon," but who.. seems that we human beings crave authentic connection and a genuine relationship based upon mutually shared experience. The great reformer John Calvin is purported to have encouraged that we should "preach often ... and use words, if necessary." It seems we are typically more eager to read the person, rather than their words. And so it is in philosophy. Who could help but notice Plato's childlike sense of wonder or Augustine's deep spiritual yearning?

104 Who has not relished Sarikara's devotional caliber, or thrilled by Swami Vivekananda's rousing zest for life? Whilst we read their works, we really read the person. It is often observed that within ordinary human conversation, our words account for only about l 0% of what is actually communicated - the remaining content of our exchange is something more profound than mere words. Reading a philosopher's translation and commentary on the Gftii, for example, is tantamount to reading an original work of philosophy - because along with the great spiritual classic, we are also reading the person; the thinker's background, inclinations, prejudices, motivations and beliefs directly colour anq shape each and every page. Comparative philosophy is not different. Jewish scholarS have long-noted the importance of comparing two texts from different sources, in order to generate novel and meaningful original ideas; this rabbinic process of Midrashim- placing line upon line in order to elicit additional meaning - has been understood and applied for millennia. And so it is with Radhakrishnan; when he compares ideas from among various traditions, his very selection of a particular combination is, indeed, in and of itself, an original and unique contribution to the wider philosophical endeavour. An Orthodox Interpreter?: Some scholars look upon Radhakrishnan as a champion of orthodoxy; quite often, even a fair number within heterodoxy consider his unyielding ·stance to be "the Brahmin philosophy." Yet, in many other respects, he is equally offensive to both the camps - many-a-times considered far too liberal for the conservatives, and then again, exceedingly traditional for the progressives. These facts provide a good indication that some ample and authentic truths may yet be found among his ideas. When you offend both the camps, you are typically on the right track. If you are a stick-in-the-mud conservative, progress and practicality are probably not your strong suits. If you are a far-left freethinker, you have lost touch with the continuity of your tradition. In this respect, Radhakrishnan wants to have his cake, and eat it too. Critics have often rebuked Radhakrishnan for reinterpreting the Vediis to suit the whims of recognition within the Western audiences. Furtively and indirectly referring to the unorthodox practices of Radhakrishnan, Swami Prabhavananda, in the introduction to his own contemporized translation of the Bhagavad-Gita, critiques: "The translator who uses reassuring topical equivalents, and twists the meaning of the Sanskrit terms,

105 may think he is 'building a bridge' between two systems of thought, when actually he is reducing both of them to nonsense." Such a scathing rebuke (within the context of an introduction to devotional scripture, nonetheless) seems out-of-place for a variety of reasons. In one sense, it is a bit like the pot calling the kettle 'black.' For both of these Twentieth-Century Indian philosophers were striving in earnest to communicate the "living contemporary message" of the timeless Vedanta to a modem, Western audience. Within the scope of the present research, we will revisit this important theme of redefining words within the next chapter.

Not only within his native tradition of Hinduis~ do we see such a polarizing effect in terms of reception. Even among ·the Christian communities. in the West, Radhakrishnan was reviled by conservatives, and praised and applauded by the liberals. Radhakrishnan knew these facts, and over time his writings became even more polarizing in nature - almost as if intentionally employing Hegel's dialectic in order to reach a grand synthesis. This, however, is simply not the case. The apparent opposites fought for by Radhakrishnan are proclaimed both be true simultaneously - yet, only those with · an enlightened consciousness will be able to see the whole picture. In Radhakrishnan's purview, for example, Maya is illusion, yet the world is conventionally real; an impersonal Absolute coexists together with a personal Deity; all is indeed One, yet individuality is retained throughout eternity - baffling, and truly unorthodox! Radhakrishnan himself, however, believed his own antithetical views to be the most orthodox and universal of all. As philosophy and religion are considered by him to be a work-in-progress, one who is truly in-sync with the move of the spirit will clearly see the unification or harmony of opposites - not a clash with a grand synthesis or something entirely newly combined. Quite a few commentators are quick to label Radhakrishnan a synthesizer, yet this is simply not the case. He doesn't simply water­ down, dumb-down or simply do a quick combination with his apparent opposites. He moreover claims that those who are spiritually awake will have the insight to see how both positions are simultaneously true.

106 2] Qualms: Regarding Mysticism and Otherworldliness Cultivating Elements of the Spirit Establishes Balance and Meaning within a Culture: 55 In petitioning to conduct research on Radhakrishnan's comparative philosophical approach for the present thesis, a number of professors candidly scoffed as to his status as a legitimate philosopher. They were certain that Radhakrishnan was simply to be discarded as a religious quack or insignificant spiritualist. In fact, the overarching critique leveled against Radhakrishnan over the years has been his overly religigus outlook. And yet, he is right at home within the conte~t of the classical Indian philosophers, who are perhaps more idealistic and spiritually minded than in other . cultures. For example, with~ our contemporary environment, if you were to inquire of one thousand philosophy professors throughout India whether they believed in God or not, over 90% would answer in the affirmative; the same proposition within the United States would return well more than a 90% negative response. A Proper Integral Approach is Simultaneously Heavenly-Minded and Earthly-Grounded:56 Undoubtedly, some critics object to Radhakrishnan's premise of mystical insight or otherworldly intuition on the grounds that they themselves are not personally very religious at all: "This notion is definitely not for me," some might argue, "it all sounds like a rather inspiring, though overly-spiritualized way to see the world." The truth is, much like the success of Patafijali's Sutras, the science simply works - whether you are an individual of devout religious observance, or an avowed atheist. Instead of words like faith, belief or prayer, we might just as easily substitute intentionality, mutual convictions, shared perspectival shift, cultivating a more global view of life, or the like. Gravity simply works, whether we believe in it or not ... and so it is with the transformative power of a spirit-filled worldview. Radhakrishnan's system of philosophy of universal consciousness infers not

a ~sion, but a fellowship - not a forced syncretism, but a d~p sympathy - it facilitates a shared, global vision of our relationship to the Absolute Reality. This light at the end of the tunnel represents complete spiritual maturity of civilization - the culmination of philosophy. Very soon, according to Radhakrishnan, a full enlightenment will dawn upon our entire civilization. Humanity will awaken from its slumber, and begin to realize and implement the simple, yet profound teachings of the perennial wisdom of the ages.

107 Our Global civilization will then experience a quantum leap forward in terms of emergent evolution. Once we become fully conscious of the living principle of our universal Oneness and harmony, and absolutely realize the magnificent nature of our True Self, the Kingdom of Heaven will become fully manifest, by God's grace. The Epistemic Two-Step - A Dance with Lord Kr~Qa: 5 7 The ancient seers have often likened the pursuit of deepening philosophical and spiritual knowledge to a dance with Lord Krishna ... and rightly so! Epistemologists (and dancers alike) readily recognize the classic two-step pattern, which is universal among· various cultures and times. lii.itially ·comes the effortless, involuntary and often enjoyable eJq)erience of a flash of insight, when the germ of an idea sprouts; a momentary spark of genius commences the dance, as a seminal notion is directly realized. Once this kernel of truth has initially popped, next comes the daunting and often arduous task of effectively communicating, developing and logically supporting the intuited insight. According to Radhakrishnan and numerous other thinkers, every scientific invention, religious realization or other intellectual discovery begins in this manner - with a flash of insight! No less a luminary genius than Albert Einstein has correctly pointed out that when it comes to discovering the hidden mysteries of the universe, our logic and reasoning abilities are critically important, to be sure. Yet, he hastens to remind us, that amid all our formulat.ing and calculating, "the only real valuable thing is intuition." 58 Accordingly, that initial flash of insight, according to Einstein, is indispensable. One celebrated philosophical dancer - the Father of Modem Philosophy, Rene Descartes - also acknowledged this epistemic two-step pattern in recognizing "the two operations of our understanding, intuition and deduction, on which alone we have said we must rely in the acquisition of knowledge." Radhakrishnan' s system unapologetically originates in religious insight, communicates through discursive reasoning, and culminates in noble living - phenomenology, logic and ethics, or a waltz of philosophical advancement.

108 3] Questions: Regarding Perspective and Objectivity As Our Consciousness Increases in its Scope, We See More Clearly: 59 In reviewing the evolution of Radhakrishnan's agenda over the course of his career, critics have noted that he initially exhibited a heavy defensiveness in his tone - especially in the early stages, as he was attempting to demonstrate parity (or even superiority) of the Indian system compared to non-Indian systems of philosophy. As a self-proclaimed apologist seeking to protect or justify the creed of his native

South India, his perspective _!Uld objectivity were perhaps quite narrow. His philosophi~.al endeavours took on a heavy polemical or corrective .tone in the middle stages; Radhakrishnan' s system sought an adjusting, a chastening, a pushing and prodding for continual advancement, as he was convinced that religion was an ongoing work in progress. A heavy sense of propaganda marked his outlook in the later stages; like a salesperson, politician or evangelist pleading a point, Radhakrishnan was ever enunciating his conviction that the Hindu view, or Indian philosophy in general, might serve as a proper basis for a worldwide fellowship of faiths. Global Perspectival Shift:60 Radhakrishnan was well ahead of his time with regard to paradigmatic changes and the corresponding quantum leaps in terms of the widening of intellectual perspectives. Many thinkers today are positing the notion that the time is rip~ for a substantial shift (philosophically speaking) in our col~ective perspective, We have reached a pivotal moment in history - a significant threshold - beyond which it will be impossible for modem humanity to survive without fully realizing the ancient wisdom of the ages. Some believe this knowledge to be contained within a single word- the verbum signi.ficatium - a solitary incantation or mantra that has the power to galvanize worldwide dissemination and implementation of the wisdom of the ages. Others hold out that the rediscovery of an ancient archaeological artifact might

in fact hold the key. Religious scholars representing the world's living faiths have n~arly unanimously upheld that nothing short of an apocalyptic return of a divine or messianic figure will suffice to save humanity. According to Radhakrishnan's philosophy, the greatest likelihood is that the transformation we seek as a global civilization will come as the result of a planet-wide paradigm shift in our collective worldview.

109 What exactly will occur to induce this shift towards universal consciousness ... is anyone's guess. Whatever the tipping point, it is greatly anticipated that this watershed philosophical event will indeed be quite revolutionary, with tremendously significant and far-reaching effects. It is anticipated by Radhakrishnan that this healing wave of saving knowledge will undoubtedly spread very quickly throughout our global village. Collectively, on an ongoing basis, we monitor the worldwide response to various natural disasters, economic hardships, ecological calamities and senseless acts of terror. These occurrences are increasingly reinforcing the global perception of our undeniable interconnectedness and oneness. . nus global consciousness has been reinforced repeatedly within the recent generation. What still remains elusive, however, is a forthcoming perspectival shift towards complete universal consciousness. Collectively, we stand poised to walk through a new door of understanding as a truly united global civilization. Apple Computers launched a successful multimedia advertising campaign - think different! This may well turn out to be the predominant battle cry of peacemakers in the 21st Cen. In the world of investments, contrarians quite often emerge as winners by swimming against the stream, and not following the herd mentality. Truth be told, every great global philosophical shift in worldview, has historically commenced as a profound and surprising statement of fact: The Earth is round, not flat.. . Our sun is the center of the solar system (heliocentrism), not the Earth ... Sail West in order to fmd the East. 61 The fact is, once our collective worldview or perspectives are transformed, a new reality begins to emerge. Speaking in terms of transformative truths, Radhakrishnan reminds his readers how we have observed on a number of occasions throughout history that humanity has a vast, untapped potential latent within. We already contain (in seed form) the promise of full enlightenment, both individually and collectively. Many have speculated that we are . . on the very threshold of a global transformation in terms of our collective philosophical outlook. There is no doubt about it. Philosophy (especially collective worldview) holds a tremendous power and a promise. Truth has incredible power to transform!

110 4] Quarrels: Regarding Ambiguity and Inconsistency Global-Mindedness is Superior to Narrow Definiteness: 62 Historically within India, the paradoxical norm was commonly embraced. As Radhakrishnan often explains, truth is many-sided, and different views contained different aspects of truth, which no one can fully express. This knowledge inevitably bred a spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and appreciate the opponent's point of view. Moreover, " ... we fall into error by refusing to comprehend simultaneously, apparently opposite

truths, which are really complim~ntary. Exclusion [and] fanatical denials are the causes of heresy, but the truth is one.'.63 Certainly, it is wonderful to look for parallels among the world religions, for they are aplenty; a vast majority of the time, there is harmony and nearly exact parallel. It might be more constructive and useful, however, to search for apparent opposites, and then earnestly wrestle to discover the harmonizing principle in which both (seemingly contradictory) aspects show forth elements of universal truth simultaneously. This approach seems to hold the most promise with regard to meaningful inter-religious dialogue going forward. The Jaina tradition has a valuable contribution to make in this conversation, as well. The non-absolutistic perspective known as Anekiinta-viida (manifold views)

in Jaina J?hilosophy provides for a multi-faceted point of view. W~dely recognized and employed in the East, this most useful philosophical tool in the arsenal of comparative philosophy is either widely unknown or underappreciated in Western philosophical circles. This technique, certainly employed by Radhakrishnan, holds terrific potential in the sphere of inter-religious dialogue, as well. When considering intricate or highly nuanced facets or aspects of reality, it is likened unto appreciating the numerous facets of a precious jewel - each aspect is true and shining from a particular vantage point.

In other words, for Radhakris~, truth is perspectival (a matter of one's point-of-view, . or vantage), but not relative (a matter of one's opinion, or a cherished idea that is "true-for-you"). This is an important distinction, as we must properly understand our approach to truth not simply in a loosy-goosy sort of relative manner, but perspectivally. For example, let's consider an asteroid traveling thousands of miles per minute. If we have the

111 perspective from the sideways view while we ourselves are standing still, it appears to be moving quickly. If we have the perspective from the sideways view while we ourselves are rapidly moving in an opposite direction, it appears to be moving twice as fast. If we have the perspective wherein the space rock is moving either directly towards us or away from us, the mass appears to be standing perfectly still. We can't simply say that according to one observer it is moving incredible fast, whilst I know it to be standing still; the speed of the asteroid's motion is not relative or arbitrary, but perfectly consistent - only our perspective changes. One has only to recall the story of the six blind men encountering the elephant to realize it. is not simply relative, but perspectival (and directly experiential, to boot). Ambiguity or Ineffability: Herman Hesse, author of Siddhartha, relates, "Knowledge can be communicated, but not wisdom." The truth is, being wise is quite different from merely knowing things. In order to be knowledgeable, one must acquire facts and information. In order to be wise, our knowledge must be tempered by extensive experience and deep perspective. One can readily obtain knowledge from others, but to gain wisdom involves a solitary quest over a lifetime. Henri Bergson's Introduction to Metaphysics may have inspired Radhakrishnan in formulating particular aspects within his concept of intuition. Bergson's two classic examples serve to probe both the limits of concepts to represent reality, and the ability of our personal experience of intuition to grasp the absolute. The first image is that of walking in a city. Extensive maps may be drawn up, and photos taken from a variety of angels; even a scale model of the city might be prepared and thoroughly analyzed. Still, nothing can compare with the firsthand, personal experience of walking through that city. Sri Ramakrishna once remarked that ''to explain God after merely reading the scriptures, is like explaining to a person the city ofBanares after seeing it only in a map."64 The next image is that of reading a line of Homer's prose. You can compare the various scholarly articles, and research what the fmest commentaries have to say about a particular line. Still, nothing can compare with directly enjoying and personally savoring the original line itself.

112 There is good reason that saints and sages are reticent to communicate their flashes of insight. They are unspeakable - something is always lost in translation. And so it is with Radhakrishnan' s seemingly ambiguous language. And he is in good company, as Pataiijali likewise compiled his threads with aphorisms aplenty! Plenteous Platitudes- Aphorisms Aplenty!: Radhakrishnan is herein accused of sloppily employing ambiguous words, as he often says things fifteen different ways, each from different angles and various approaches. To some critics, his apparently conflicting ideas demonstrate an utter lack of philosophical consistency throughout his entire system. Why do you say ambiguity as if it were a naughty word? .It,.tentional ambiguity is a style or tact that is commonly utilized among a certaiti: portion of the classic scriptures of India. Pataiijali is a notable exponent of this approach. No doubt, Radhakrishnan would be familiar with this approach, as he was steeped in the classic literature during his early days as a researcher. Aphorisms play a significant role in Indian Philosophy (ie. Yoga-Sutras of Pataiijali). Often times, ambiguity is considered to be a strength within the Indian model of thought. As precise as the Yoga-Sutras are in terms of content and instruction, they are intentionally vague in other respects. In such a context, for example, they can be more widely utilized in both theistic and atheistic applications - such is the creative strength and usefulness of intentional ambiguity. Inconsistency - If You Change Your Mind: Generally speaking, this critique of inconsistency is leveled against Radhakrishnan in a twofold manner. At times he appears to be quite inconsistent as his ideas often represent polar opposites, and he is caught speaking out of both sides of his mouth. Still, at other times, he simply does an about­ face. Only by reading the full scope of his writings can one determine when he is celebrating polarity, or when he is simply changed his mind. Radhakrishnan's conception and presentation of many highly-nuanced concepts and ideas should necessarily evolve and mature over the span of his five decades of thought. If, in fact, over a half-century of writing, a thinker's views did not change, we should then be worried. As the American boxer Muhammed Ali once quipped: " .. .if you're the same person at 50 as you were at 20, you've waster 30 years of life." We should, therefore, not be surprised by inconsistencies throughout a writer's career

113 when we uncover them. Instead, we should seek to discover the motivations and impulses that have impacted the thinker's maturing views. Politicians, philosophers, and the like should be granted broader license to change their views. Quite often, it is not merely a flip-flop for sake of expedience, or forgetfulness that breed inconsistency. Rather, it may well be the welcome and sweetening impulse of expansion and growth that is blossoming within an individual's intellect. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 65 observed: "We must always change, renew, rejuvenate ourselves; otherwise we harden." The inherent nature of the human . .· mind is to develop, grow, expand and mature, Stick-in-the-mud rigidity and inflexibility of outlook are telltale signs of an intellect on life-support. Shifting views are a thing to celebrate, not a basis for scorn. The primary task is not in pointing-out the inconsistencies, but in discovering the rationale behind the shifts.

5] Quandaries: Regarding Synthesis and Fusion Our New World Outlook is Grounded in Fellow-feeling, not Synthetic Fusion:66 Many critics, believing they are paying a high complement to Dr. Radhakrishnan, claim that he is among the greatest synthesizers of the twentieth century; and yet, this was neither his intention nor his approach. In fact, the overall agenda for both comparative religion and inter-religious dialogue are adamantly against the agendas of synthesis or fusion. The agenda for inter-faith activities always includes respect, understanding, sometimes even an adventurous opportunity for personal experience - but never with the intention to combine or fuse one or more faiths into an amalgamation (synthesis) or a single entity (fusion). Unification of East and West: 67 Radhakrishnan stands accused by critics for perpetuating the classical East and West characterizations that typified comparative religious s~dies of the 18th and 19th Cen. colonialists. It was generctlly believed that Western philosophy and religion are fixed in dogmatism, intellect, logic, external experience, materialism, and second-hand authority. By contrast, Eastern philosophy and religion were largely believed to be fluid in openness, integrality, mysticism, inner experience, spirituality, and first-hand intuition. While some of these generalizations still hold, modern critics have argued against Radhakrishnan that "East" and "West" are

114 unfair mental constructs imposed by imperialist and "orientalist" scholars. Understandably, such generalizations and stereotypes are certainly waning in today's shrinking global village, or were, perhaps, not even true to begin with. While it is true that the colonial mindset did not envision a level playing field in terms of these ''us" versus ''them" characterizations, Radhakrishnan does not appear to be simply parroting or perpetuating such notions unconsciously. Even following India's independence, he purports to stand by his observation of divided hemispheres, with regard to psychological mindset and philosophical outlook. As with the "East" and "West" hemispheres of our planet, scientific evidence today seems to suggest that the human brain is itself .simllarly characterized by "Left" and "Right" modes of thmight. Similarly, the notions of distinctly "Male" and "Female" modes of thought might likewise lend further support such polarized characterizations. Whilst the crude (and often politically-driven) generalizations about East and West may not ultimately stand the test of time as our world shrinks and eventually becomes one, there may be something of truth to the notion of the "global brain" - the possibility that the East and West of our planet might in some way mirror the Left and Right of our human brain. Right or wrong, Radhakrishnan digs in his heels on this topic, relentlessly advocating a harmony or unification of the divided extremes in world view.

Section-D: EVOLVING ESTIMATION OF RADHAKRISHNAN'S PIDLOSOPHY

In evaluating the evolving estimation of Radhakrishnan's philosophy within professional circles of thinkers over the past century, it becomes apparent that Radhakrishnan's thought was initially (1) overvalued, then widely (2) respected and eventually (3) undervalued. Knowledge of Self and understanding of others promotes a practical perspective inclined towards wisdom-in-action.

1] Overvalued: Radhakrishnan's Thought Should be Plumbed The Destiny of Man is to Know Himself, and Thereby Further the Universal Life:68 That each individual is an integral part of the fabric of the whole is a recurring

115 theme in the philosophy of Radhakrishnan. Accordingly, the destiny of man is to know himself, and thereby further the universal life. Radhakrishnan was one who exhibited tremendous self-awareness and self-confidence - in his speaking, in his writing, and in his life in general. Whether teaching freshmen in college, advising heads of state, or representing his national ideals to the world, Radhakrishnan was hailed as a celebrity among philosophers in the twentieth century ... and for good reason. In addressing the World Congress of Faiths in London in 1936, Dr. Radhakrishnan's insights were later recorded in his· popular book Eastern Religions and Wes.tern Thought. At the international conference, RadhakrisQ.nan proudly spoke of his .native Indian culture that readily recognizes the " .. :·reality of the unseen world and the call of the spiritual life. Their self-possession and self-command, their strange deep wisdom, their exquisite courtesy, their humility and gentleness of soul, their abounding humanity." Just a half-century after Vivekananda made his striking appeal on the world stage to the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago, Radhakrishnan was likewise hailed as a genuine exponent of his living faith and an authentic embodiment of his noble culture. Celebrated Ambassador of Indian Culture: 69 In the early 20th Century, Radhakrishnan was internationally acclaimed as the leading exponent of Indian culture - sandwiched historically between Swami Vivekananda . and Mahatma Gandhiji, who were the recognizable faces of India to the world. As India's chief diplomat to the Soviet Union under Stalin, and later as Vice-president and President of the then most populous nation on the planet, Radhakrishnan fulfilled Plato's dream of a philosopher­ statesman. 70 He exuded a spirit of humility, simplicity, eloquence, and deep wisdom and learning. Yet, perhaps the most endearing aspects of Radhakrishnan's mass appeal were his unshakable poise and self-possession, borne of Self-knowledge. He was well-acquainted with his deepest Self, and the supreme cultural ideals which had shaped his overall personality. Wisdom is ever an attractive quality; wisdom of the Self is the most winsome of all distinctions. Because he exuded so much confidence and was so very well spoken, most within his circle of influence were quick to give him the benefit of the doubt; young students, respected philosophers and world leaders alike each applauded who he was and what he

116 represented. Often times, this acclaim was over-the-top - especially towards the beginning of his appearance on the world stage. Even as he was inducted into the Library of Living Philosophers - a rare honour, indeed - most of his critics could not stop gushing with praise, even when asked to write a critical review of his overall philosophical approach. Self-knowledge is truly a badge of honour. The Science of Self-Realization: 71 The gnostic sage Monoimus once challenged his followers: "Abandon the search for God... instead, take yourself as the starting point." Whilst scientists have begun to explore outer space in earnest over the last half- . .· century, we do not see the same levels of ferv:or or enthusiasm for exploration of the ultimate frontier of scientific investigation ~ mquiry into the inner science of the Self. 72 This grand theme of the Upani$ads 73 was inscribed upon the pronaos of the 74 Temple of Apollo at Delphi - -yvro8t Avidya and Maya represent the greatest obstacles 77 to knowing our true Self • Avidya (personal ignorance) is responsible for our impression of individuality, which amounts to falsity within - an internally-generated sense of separateness; this false projection of differentiation leads to an abiding sense of isolation and alienation from our original, authentic Self. Maya (cosmic illusion) is responsible for our mirage of multiplicity, which amounts to falsity without - an externally-generated delusion of

117 duality; this false misperception of heterogeneity leads to an abiding sense of pennanence and plurality in the phenomenal, material world. 78 Ignorance is ... Bliss?:79 Radhakrishnan's system of thought continually requires us to take off the blinders; it's simply not a badge of honor to stubbornly remain unaware, fixed or final in our views. When one is satiated as having arrived at final truth, there is 80 no need to look any further; in this respect, ignorance is not bliss, it's stupor - there's a difference! In overcoming the obstacles to our Self-knowledge, Radhakrishnan is most concerned about three prim~ aspects of ignorance (Avidya) 81 that can be successfully rectified by exercising. dUe diligence - particularly with regard to our lack of faetual awareness, mutual understanding and direct experience. The three aspects of Avidya according to Radhakrishnan include a lack of information (listening), a lack of understanding (reflection) and a lack of experience (meditation). We have seen this pattern before (chapter 1), in tracing the arc of Radhakrishnan's own career: from researcher (factual awareness), to Ambassador (mutual understanding) to President (direct experience). The most basic aspect of ignorance is lack of information; not having the awareness, or simply never having been exposed to the facts, is the mot easily rectified aspect of Avidya. An intentional study of the liberal arts, for example, provide for expanding exposure to a wide variety of objective topics. This is why post-secondary education is an essential ingredient in the philosophy of Radhakrishnan - it is not so much about a degree or a career, it is about overcoming ignorance, which ultimately leads to various levels of freedom. Our lack of mutual understanding is tackled next; we might be well aware of the facts as a highly infonned individual, but quite often we have simply not reflected upon the significance of such details. Ultimately, the direct experience of truth is transformative; more than simply knowledge or understanding, we are called upon to live the truth - in essence, to embody wisdom. In the context of comparative religion, Radhakrishnan observes concerning individuals within the living faiths of the world: most have the facts, and many have indeed reflected upon their significance, yet very few have had that direct, firsthand, transcendental personal experience, which constitutes genuine spirituality.82

118 For Radhakrishnan, the reversal of these three lacking elements of ignorance ­ via proper listening, reflection and meditation - constitutes the method of understanding the tradition.

2] Respected: Radhakrishnan's Ideas Should be Promulgated The Development of a Spirit of Comprehension Mitigates Misunderstanding:83 The ideals enshrined within Radhakrishnan's quest for integration are not a new-fangled

·invention of the previous century, th~y are the enduring principles of Indian philosophy that. have. guided an entire civilization for millennia - with a fresh coat of paint. · 1-listorically, India has endured many of the same hardships ~at other great empires have faced; yet she has done so with a degree of patience and forbearance that is recognized the world-over. According to Radhakrishnan, this universal life and catholicity of outlook - this spirit of comprehension in India - " ... has not been interrupted for nearly fifty centuries."84 This incredible record bears testimony to the power of a worldview in which integration, rather than competition, is the inherent characteristic of her native systems of philosophy. Summiting the Mountaintop of Mukti - The Integrated Approach: It may have been true in days gone by that "all roads lead to Roma." So, how about today - philosophically-'speaking? It is often observed that all streams lead to the same ocean, . . and that all paths lead to the same mountaintop. The question is: "Do, in fact, all roads lead to Riima?" Is it fair to say that, in order to summit the mountaintop of Mukti, there are numerous, equally-viable, alternative approaches? Depending upon one's natural inclination, are we simply free to pursue our selected approach from among a variety of distinct paths? One might declare, "I'm following the path of devotion (Bhakti)," while another asserts "I'm approaching liperation through service (Karma)." Certainly, it is fair to say that each individual possesses a natural proclivity for one certain avenue or the other. Yet, it is becoming strikingly clear to many within the field of comparative religion that there is but one, single path to freedom - the integrated approach. 85 Mountaineering Along the Integrated Path: Selecting the analogy of mountain climbing, let us briefly consider different ways of approaching mountains.

119 Having encountered a variety of approaches, seasoned mountain climbers will tell you that it is not enough simply to reach the top by any means necessary. The approach is the point. This is often true in the path of life, as some are fortunate enough to discover: Too often, we are so absorbed in pursuing the destination that we fail to realize the success and joy in the journey itself. Dadan (while including the connotation of holy pilgrimage) has in its sights the meaning of cognition, spiritual vision, or seeing without the aid of our natural five senses; philosophy, or one's view or approach, may also be encompassed in this meaningful . .· pursuit. Indian philosophy often speaks quite ~apologetically about the sixth sense - . . that spiritually discerned, intuitive source ~f kriowledge that is available to each one of us. As Sri Aurobindo observes: "What the soul sees and has experienced, that it knows. The rest is appearance, prejudice and opinion."86 Fuji is a mountain that cries-out for an integrated approach; it is not enough simply to pursue the path of least resistance in summiting this mammoth mount. Mountain climbers have long-appreciated taking in this precious gem from all angles; artists, poets, photographers and painters alike have each painstakingly attempted to capture the various approaches to Fuji from a variety of different angles, vistas and perspectives. This should be our approach to union; we must learn to see our pilgrimage from an integrated view. As in climbing Mount Fuji, there is but one path in reaching the mountaintop of Mukti - the integrated path. In light of these facts, according to Radhakrishnan, we can clearly see how the development of a spirit of comprehension - that way of thinking that takes into account a wide range of various approaches - can be effective in mitigating misunderstanding and fostering a greater appreciation for philosophical perspectives other than one's own. Moreover, we can begin to realize how one's ability to see from another person's point of view is essential, both in the proper pursuit of comparative religion, and in the larger goal . . of integrality within civilization at large. Hybridization Model of Organic Consciousness: 87 Cross-fertilization of ideas is a recurring theme within Radhakrishnan' s writings. Within the scientific field of botany, cross-fertilization refers to a form of hybridization, in which the new breed of plants retain their full, original genomic distinctiveness, whilst incorporating the best features -

120 those resilient qualities - of the newly-introduced sister plant species. This fantastic 88 hybridization model holds tremendous potential for the future of comparative religion. If we can begin to understand how cross-fertilization works within the natural, scientific world, we would be far less inclined to remain pure-breeds, philosophically-speaking. The amazing fact that each hybrid (in both the plant and animal kingdoms) retains its own full genetic identity (not one iota in its genomic script is lost or destroyed) whilst taking on the complementary and strengthening aspects of the conjoined breed, demonstrates that- cross-fertilization or hybridization can serve as a viable and advantageous model for inter-religious dialogue ... and the new breed of inter-spirituality .. Radhakrishtlan ~seits that all of the ~ecessary components for the new . wofld order are here - " ... what is lacking is the integration - the completeness, which is organic consciousness - the binding together of the different elements, making them breathe and come to life."89 By organic consciousness, Radhakrishnan implies global awareness of our worldwide inter-connectedness - our inherent oneness, as in a single, animate organism - a complete, living, whole entity with interdependent parts. Can't See the Forest for the Trees?: What is the largest, single living organism90 on the planet? Astute school children might quickly respond by citing the tyrannosaurus rex, the African elephant or the blue whale - the largest animal ever to inhabit the earth; and they would indeed be quite correct, in terms of the animal kingdom. However, insofar as the complete spectrum of organic thh"tgs is considered, the largest, single living organism on Earth is not the blue whale, but the yellow aspen. With apparently separate, distinct, individual trees on the surface, the single aspen grove's massive, intertwined and interconnected underground root structure covers the span of several states within North America. Genetically, scientists have determined that this single clonal colony of male Quaking Aspen (populus tremuloides) is indeed one, single living organism. Year after year, some new sprouts are born, aging trees eventually die-out, and the entire grove continues to spread and expand. From all above ground appearances, the new stems look just like separate, individual trees; and yet, just below the surface, unbeknownst to the casual observer, each individual tree is but an interconnected part of one single, living, breathing whole organism.

121 As in botany, so it is in the realm of spirit, according to Radhakrishnan. From all appearances, each human being appears to be a separate and distinct individual; and yet, we are each part and parcel of a grand Whole; the Rishis (ancient seers) would often compare a single individual with a wave in the ocean, in order to make the same point. In the grand respiration cycle of Brahman, the whole macrocosm is perfectly reflected in even the tiniest detail of the partial microcosm. In the cosmic involution from spirit to matter, this truth of wholeness, as advocated by Radhakrishnan, can be ·observed among the human, organic, and even the inorganic or mineral realms of our holograp~c universe. For example, whoever said that "no man is an i~land"91 was clearly ·unaware of plate tectonics, ·and the larger spiritual principle of integration. As William James, the American father of psychology and contemporary of Radhakrishnan once observed: "We are like islands in the sea: separate on the surface, but connected in the deep."92

3] Undervalued: Radhakrishnan's Wisdom Must be Practical The Practical Bearing of Philosophy on Life must Become our Central Interest:93 Critics have often pointed out that Radhakrishnan's system - in fact, much of Indian philosophy - is an entirely selfish pursuit. And yet, amidst the clamor of two world wars

in the first h~lfof the twentieth century, a new nation emerged with ~he vision to lift herself and transform the world; India had come into her own, with the foresight and maturity to realize that the greatness of any new nation is often embodied in the practical application of her ancient ideals. The battle cry of India's early freedom fighters, including Radhakrishnan, was social justice - the lifting of the entire civilization. The burgeoning nation was not understood to be the prize of the powerful elite and the well connected, but the inheritance of the entire fa!llily of humanity between her shores. This renewed passion for social justice sprang, with new zest and enthusiasm, from the pages of her ancient scripture, and from the mouths of her leading int( llectuals who were well acquainted with the practical bearing of philosophy. Universal Salvation: 94 Within Radhakrishnan's system of thought, no one is completely liberated until all of the cosmos has attained perfect freedom. This notion of

122 universal salvation, or Sarvamukti, understands deeply that "The redemption of the human race as a whole is the goal of human history."95 According to Radhakrishnan, "Hindu and Buddhist systems aim at universal salvation ... " In Mahayana Buddhism, for example, the Buddha deliberately refrains from entering into " ...the final term of enlightenment in order to help others on the way ... " Such a realized soul will refuse to enter "into nirvana until everything that exists, every particle of dust, has reached the goal." 96 This profound universality of outlook characterizes the individual for whom .. · .. · 97 perfection is more than merely a selfish pursuit. . The Neo-Hindu revival of the early twentieth centurY recognized that the e~ · ·of the mystical recluse . was over; such a withdrawal from the world was simply not in keeping with the spirit of the sacred scriptures.98 Radhakrishnan was ever keen to point out that when we lift ourselves above the ordinary, base conditions in life, we simultaneously lift our wider culture to a proportional degree. Perspectival Evolution: For Radhakrishnan, philosophy represents an ever-widening worldview. Within his theme of perspectival evolution, the four perspectives in worldview expand upon our myriad ways of seeing the truth (interior and exterior, individual and collective). As pointed-out at the beginning of the present chapter, it is now possible for us to pay attention to Radhakrishnan's contribution, especially restricting ourselves to comparative religion. In which case it is obviously essential to analyze his conception of religion, his conception of culture, his conception of civilization and his conception of universalism. The first and foremost important question is: what is it that compelled him to reconstruct the above mentioned concepts, and on the basis of which one can evaluate exactly what he has newly contributed - where his originality lies? Otherwise, the charges leveled against him by his opponents will stand. Hence, it is essential philosophically to pay attention to his reinterpretations of these concepts, and to side-by-side pay attention to his responses to the various challenges. To undertake such an inquiry is the aim of Chapter IV.

123 Notes and References

1 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought. London: Oxford University "The indifference to organized religions is the product not so much of growing secularism, as of deepening spirituality."

2 What is your baby's Religion? During the course of the present research, a child was born to a family in Mumbai in which the father was Muslim and the mother Hindu. When the parents refused to indicate the child's "religion" for her birth certificate, the case went as high ~ the Supreme Court, which for the first time in the nation's history -· allowed for this required detail to remain omitted - thereby enabling the individual to decide for herself later in life, without the baggage of inherited labels.

3 Radhakrishnan, Indian Religions (Sarvepalli Gopal, Ed.) New Delhi: Vision ·Books Private, Ltd., 1979, p. 171 "What we need today is a spiritual view of the universe."

4 Indifference ofMetaphysics: Reading his paper at the World Congress of Philosophy in Seoul, South Korea, an insightful Eastern European with a heavy English accent was understood by the audience to have said "indifference of metaphysics," when in fact, upon closer examination, his article actually read "in defense of metaphysics." No so with Radhakrishnan, who clearly indicates indifference to (organized) religion.

5 Swami Agehananda Bharati, Radhakrishnan and the Other Vedanta, The Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (The Library of Living Philosophers) (Paul Arthur Schilpp, Ed.) New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1952, p. 479 "There may be many pundits in India who know Sanskrit better, and show more specific erudition than does sir· Sarvepalli - yet, on the scale of worldwide contacts, which may yet give some hope in a mire of hopelessness, their weight must be less than that of the man who in our days holds out to the world the light of an ancient, serene, and sometimes mysteriously profound way of thinking and living."

6 Radhakrishnan, Idealist View of Life (Hibbert Lectures, University of Manchester, December 1929 I University College, London, January 1930). London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1932, pp. 44,45 (emphasis added) "Nothing is so hostile to Religion as other religions. We have developed a kind of patriotism about religion -with a code and a flag, and a hostile attitude towards other men's codes and creeds._. The world would be a much more religious place if all the religions were removed from it."

7 Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadg'itii. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1948

8 Radhakrishnan, The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. London: MacMillan & Company, Ltd., 1918, p. 61

124 "Rabindranath gives us a pure religion, which is substantially the same in all ages and all climates, in which the purified spirit of man can fmd its congenial home."

9 Radhakrishnan, Religion, Science and Culture. New Delhi: Hind Pocket Books Pvt., Ltd., 1968, p. 9

10 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections. (Bently Memorial Lectures, McGill University, 1955). London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1956, p. 41 "When religion becomes organized, man ceases to be free. It is not God that is worshipped, but the group or authority that claims to speak in His name. Sin beco~es disobedience to authority, and not violation of integrity_."

. li Ibid:, p. 41 "When religion becomes organized, man ceases to be free. It is not God that is worshipped, but the group or authority that claims to speak in His name. Sin becomes disobedience to authority, and not violation of integrity."

12 Radhakrishnan, My Search for Truth, Anthology, p. 3 "I have had firm faith in the reality of an unseen world behind the flux of phenomenon - a world which we apprehend not with the senses, but with the mind."

13 Ibid. , p. 57 "These two things, wisdom and love - they constitute the essence of every religion."

14 Ibid., p. 55 " . ~.enlightenment and service constitute the essentials of any religion."

15 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 121 "The world is groping not for the narrow, stunted religion of the dogmatic schools, not one of fanaticism that is afraid of the light, but for a creative spiritual religion. It should not be inconsistent with the spirit of science. It should foster humanist ideals, and make for world unity."

16 Radhakrishnan, True Knowledge, p. 54 What is demanded is "Religion, not in the sense of dogmatic, sectarian religion, which makes us hate one another - but the true spirit of religion, inward awareness and outward compassion ... "

17 Radhakrishnan. Religion and Society, p. 7

18 Ibid. . Religion and Society, p. 10

125 "Everywhere round about us we hear the sound of things breaking, of changes in the social, in the political and economic institutions, in the dominant beliefs and ideas, in the fundamental categories of human thought. Men of intelligence, sensitiveness and enterprise are convinced that there is something radically wrong with the present arrangements and institution ... "

19 Avatar Meher Baba, Discourses, p. 4 "The coming civilization of the New Humanity shall be ensouled not by dry intellectual doctrines, but by living spiritual experience."

20 Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife , pp. 43,44

21 SrimadBhagavatcim 10.14.3

22 Radhakrishnan, My Search for Truth, Anthology, p. 13 "There is always a difference between textual learning, logical reasoning, and personal encounter with the Absolute Reality."

23 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 25 "To be spiritual is not to reject reason, but to go beyond it. It is to think so hard, that thinking becomes knowing or viewing (Dadana) .. . Philosophy and religion are two aspects of a single movement."

24 Ibid., p. 25

25 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 59 "A study of comparative religion has broki:m down the barriers behind which dogmatists seek to entrench themselves, and show that their own religion is unique."

26 Holy Bible: "He has broken down every wall of separation ... "

27 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 35

28 Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife , p. 43 "The different religions are slowly learning to hold out hands of friendship to each other in every part of the world."

29 Ibid., p. 43 The work of inter-faith research serves to " .. . promote mutual understanding and harmony. The study of comparative religion is developing a fairer attitude to other religions. It is impressing on us the fundamental unity of all religions."

30 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 129 (emphases added)

126 "The individual.. . must get back to the principle ofunity ... must become one instead of being many."

31 Radhakrishnan, Faith Renewed, p. 121 "Man is a duality ... This duality, this dichotomy in his nature, has to be overcome. Man must become one ... "

32 Radhakrishnan's Philosophical Anthropology and the Associated Applications for Practical Epistemology: The Categories of Being include the active, emotional, rational and .· integral elements. · · The Associated Yogic Prictice.s include Karma-yoga, Bhakti-yoga, Jiiiina-yoga and · Raja-yoga, respectiyely: These further parallel the Epistemological Domains of the · Realms of ordinary sense experience, emotive intuition, rational intuition and spiritual intuition.

33 H.H. Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Celebrating Silence, p. 181 "There are three kinds of understanding," according to Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, guru-ji for the international Art of Living organization: "intellectual understanding, experiential understanding and existential understanding. Intellectual understanding says - yes, it agrees. Experiential understanding feels - it is obvious. Existential understanding is irrefutable- it becomes your very nature."

34 Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 44 (emphasis added) " Darsana is a spiritual perception, a whole view revealed to the soul sense. This soul sight ... is the distinguished mark of a true philosopher."

35 Holy Bible, Epistle of St. Paul to the Church at Ephesus, Chapter IV: 11-14

36 Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife , p. 14 " ... spiritual perception, like other kinds of perception, is liable to error and requires the testing processes of logical thought. .. in order to transform religious certitude into logical certainty, we are obliged to give an intellectual account of the experience."

37 Radhakrishnan, Idealist View ofLife , p. 177

38 . Ibid., p 178 "Something is directly experienced but it is unconsciously interpreted in the terms of the tradition in which the individual is trained. The frame of reference which each individual adopts is determined by hereditary and culture."

39 Ibid., p. 99

127 40 Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife, p. 37

41 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 95 "We must renounce the narrow horizon, the selfish interest, the unreal objective. This is an ethical process."

42 Radhakrishnan, World Fellowship, Reply to receiving the Peace Prize in Frankfurt, Germany (1961), Anthology, p. 551 (emphasis added) "The discipline which helps us to become masters of ourselves is religion ... religion is understood as inward change." ·

43 Ibid., p. 551

44 Radhakrishnan, Inaugural Address, International Congress of World Fellowship of Faiths, Tokyo, Japan, October 3rd, 1956. "We must develop a spirit of cooperation among the different religions. Mutual respect helps us to interpret other religions at their best, and learn from them. We cannot have respect for another religion when all the time our attempt is to obliterate it. We should not try to undermine the faith and allegiance of other peoples ... By preaching that we have the only method of social and religious salvation, we separate ourselves from others."

45 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 76

46 Ibid., p. 76

47 Ibid., p. 76

48 White, Ellen G. The Ministry ofHealing, p. 143 Relational in all His dealings with people, "Christ's method alone will give true success in reaching the people. The Saviour mingled with men as one who desired their good. He showed His sympathy for them, ministered to their needs, and won their confidence. Then He bade them, 'Follow Me."'

49 An Educated Mind: Aristotle once remarked that the mark of an educated mind is one's ability to fairly and objectively consider an idea, without necessarily adopting it.

50 Radhakrishnan, The Conscious Principle and its Evolution, pp. 244,245 ... the future of humanity depends more on those who live in the close companionship of ideas, then on the achievements of men of action. Philosophy ... is the unseen foundation on which the structure of a civilization rests ... [it] gives the impulse and direction to the general life of the community."

128 51 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 14

52 Radhakrisbnan, The Principal Upani$ads, p. 48 (emphases added)

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: "(a) I am not born endowed with knowledge. (b) I am a man who loves the ancients, (c) and has made every effort to acquire their learning." Confucius: "(a) I cgmmunicate, and do not invent; (b) I have faith in antiquity, . ·(c) and consecrate all my affection to its cause."

53 Radhakrisbnan, My Search for Truth, p. 23

54 Radhakrisbnan, Fragments ofa Confession (Schilp Ed.), p. 11 " ... a writer may at times allow his personal bias to determine his presentation."

55 Radhakrisbnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 17 "Ideals, faith, morality, and cultivating things of the spirit ... These balance and give meaning to both individuals and societies. When spiritual beliefs are eroded away, cultural decline is inevitable."

56 Radhakrisbnan, Hindu View ofLife, p. 85 "The wise plan is to keep our feet on the earth and our eyes steady on the stars.;,

57 Radhakrisbnan, My Search for Truth, Anthology, p. 5 "Religious feeling must establish itself as a rational way of living ... Religion must express itself in reasonable thought."

58 Ibid., p. 5

59 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 88 "Our conceptions of the universe answer to our degrees of consciousness. As our consciousness increases in its scope, we see more clearly."

60 Radhakrisbnan, Religion in a Changing World, p. 7 "We are now in one of those great periods of history when humanity is taking a leap into the future and shifting its axis ... We are transitional figures involved in a new stage of history."

129 61 Christopher Columbus' success was largely based upon an altered/expanded worldview. He gambled not only with the coffers of a king and queen, but with his own life, and the lives of his fellow sailors.

62 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 25 "Truth is of the universal order... Beliefs, opinions, and dogmas belong to the contingent order, and are variable and changing, while truth is eternal and changeless."

63 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 41

64 Sri Ramakrishna MatJ,., Flashes From Sri Ramakrishna. Chennai: Ramakrishna Math., 2008, p. 7.·

65 Ibid., p. 9

66 Radhakrishnan, Fragments ofa Confession, (Schilpp Ed.), p. 73 "The new world society requires a new world outlook, based on respect for and understanding of other cultural traditions."

67 Radhakrishnan, Idealist View ofLife, p. 129 "While the dominant feature of Eastern thought is its insistence on creative intuition, the Western systems are generally characterized by a greater adherence to critical intelligence."

68 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, p. 35 " ... the destiny of man is to know himself, and thereby further the universal life ... of which he is an integral part."

69 Radhakrishnan, Search for Truth, p. 93 "Knowledge of the self is truth- the highest kind of knowledge."

70 See Plato's Republic

71 Radhakrishnan, Search for Truth, p. 90 "Adhyiitma vidyii: of all sciences, the greatest science is knowledge of your own self."

72 Mencius: "Who knows his own nature knows heaven."

73 Hindu Proverb: "The Three great mysteries: air to a bird, water to a fish, mankind to himself."

74 Attributed to Socrates

130 75 Radhakrishan, Faith Renewed, p. 120 "Man is here called upon to complete himself. The great... spiritual adventure - the process of trying to move forward from stage to stage ... the human individual is a co­ creator with the Divine, who is assisting the purpose of the universe - trying to lead it from one stage to another."

76 Radhakrishnan, Brahma Sutra, p. 35 "The Pure Self appears as many individuals and as God through the veil of miiyii."

77 Radhakrishnan's Twin Sisters ... Mara (ignorancy) and Miiyii (illusion) Deceptive TrickSter Mara . Described as the deceptive trickster. Mara, our personal ignorance ( avidyii) of the temporary plurality of individual beings stems from one's innate lack of conscious awareness, understanding and experience; this ignorant, false view concerning the nature of Being ultimately leads to untruth regarding the immanent, personal Self (Atman ). Protective Mother Miiyii Portrayed as the protective mother Miiyii, our cosmic illusion (miiyii) of the temporary multiplicity of phenomenal things is created by the gracious, veiling power of Brahman; this illusory, false view concerning the nature of Reality ultimately leads to untruth regarding the transcendent, impersonal Self (Brahman).

78 Stephen Hawking: "The Greatest enemy of knowledge is not ignorance, it is the illusion ofknowledge."

79 Radhakrishnan, Brahma Sutra, p. 21 " ... the cause ofbondage ... avidyii is not intellectual ignorance, but spiritual blindness."

80 stupere is the common linguistic root of both stupid and stupor

81 Three Aspects of Avidyii According to Radhakrishnan: Include the Lack of Listening (shravana), the Lack of Reflection (Manana) and the Lacko Meditation (nididhyasana). (i) One's shortcomings in Information can be overcome by Objective Study, Wide expgsure and Dispassionate, detached Withdrawal (Uparati). (ii) One' s shortcomings in Understanding can be overcome by Contemplation, a deepening Grasp and Steady, consistent Concentration (Dharana). (iii) One's shortcomings in Experience can be overcome by Constant awareness and Single-mindedness, and Disciplined, one­ pointed Meditation (Dhyana).

13 1 82 Radhakrishnan, Brahma Siitra, p. 108 (author's emphasis) " ... the realization of the Supreme is the goal of human existence. What we aim at is not thinking, but seeing." This is precisely the meaning of Darsana, the Sanskrit word for philosophy, which implies much more than knowing mere facts or even genuine understanding; Darsana goes beyond knowing, to the realm of integral insight - seeing (and being) the truth.

83 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Though, p. 306 (emphasis added) "The different religions ... must develop a spirit ofcomprehension which Will break down prejudice and misunderstanding, · and bind them together as varied expressions of a single truth."

84 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Though, p. 306 (emphasis· added)

85 Sri Aurobindo, Thoughts and Aphorisms, No. 409 Commenting upon the Triple Path, Aurobindo recognizes that "Devotion is not utterly fulfilled till it becomes action and knowledge."

86 Sri Aurobindo, Thoughts and Aphorisms, No. 10

87 Radhakrishnan, Fragments ofa Confession, p. 13 (emphases added) "The different religious traditions ... embrace and fertilize each other, so as to give mankind a many-sided perfection."

88 Hagime Nakamura, A Comparative Study ofthe History ofIdeas, p. 567 Nakamura wrote that future investigations into "the world history of philosophy will help contribute to a ·perspective of philosophical ideas with global scope, and bring about mutual understanding among the peoples of the world - thereby fostering a concept of mankind as one."

89 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Though, p. 335 (emphases added)

90 Technically, the definition of the word organism connotes a whole with interdependent parts, likened unto a living being. This idea can be juxtaposed with Radhakrishnan' s notion of holons, as discussed in the fmal chapter of his Idealist View ofLife.

91 This famous line is from Meditation XVII, by the English poet John Donne.

92 Ibid.

93 Radhakrishnan (Ed.), The Spirit in Man, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, p. 475 "The practical bearing of philosophy on life became my central interest from the time I took up the study of the subject."

132 94 Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought, pp. 100,101 "The liberated individual works for the welfare of the world ... He is conscious of the wider destiny of the universe ... Freed individuals share, though in a disinterested spirit, in the work of the world."

95 Radhakrishan, Faith Renewed, p. 121

96 Radhakrishnan, East and West, Some Reflections, p. 29

97 . Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife, p. 46 . "When one individual completes his purpos~ , he· d~velops the universality of outlook characteristic of perfection, but retains his individuality as a centre of action. When the whole universe reaches its consummation, the liberated individuals lapse into the stillness of the Absolute."

98 Radhakrishnan, Hindu View ofLife, p. 4 7 "The only useful work which the liberated souls do is to help struggling humanity. So long as there are individuals who are... in need of saving knowledge, the liberated have some work to do."

133