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The Sour Gas, Sulfur and Acid Gas Book

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The Sour Gas, Sulfur and Acid Gas Book The Sour Gas, Sulfur and Acid Gas Book Technology and Application in Sour Gas Production, Treating and Sulfur Recovery (SI Units) Edward Wichert (www.grayjay.ventures) Preface The objective of The Sour Gas, Sulfur and Acid Gas Book is to describe the historical development and current applications of the procedures and processes used in the sour natural gas industry to safely produce, gather and treat sour gas, recover sulfur and dispose of waste products in an environmentally friendly manner. The production of sour natural gas in large volumes started in the 1950’s at Jumping Pound, Alberta, and at Lacq, France, and grew rapidly in the following years in Canada and the United States. This required the development of new technologies to handle the production and processing of the sour gas so that it could be used for industrial and domestic purposes. The evolution of improvements in metallurgy for sour gas, well completion techniques, sour gas treating methods and the increases in sulfur recovery efficiency can be traced by reviewing the papers published in the technical literature or presented at various gatherings of industry experts, such as the Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference (LRGCC) held annually near the end of February in Norman, Oklahoma. Up to about the mid-1950’s the topics at such technical conferences dealt mainly with research on natural gas properties and natural gas dehydration. Since that time, the papers dealing with various improvements in sour gas treating and enhancements in sulfur recovery outnumber all other topics at the LRGCC. Currently (2018) the main sour gas developments are taking place in the Middle East, where a major technical conference on Sour Oil and Gas Advanced Technology (SOGAT) takes place annually. Along with the evolution of the sour gas technology there has been the development and evolution of the internet and the personal computer together with powerful software to simulate and refine any operation in sour gas and any other aspect in the hydrocarbon industry. It is now possible for a design engineer to enter any technical term or phrase into a search engine on the internet and extract detailed information on the topic. So why does one need a book? The intention of this book is to provide a historical perspective and a basic description of the various processes and procedures to get the sour gas safely out of the formation to surface, send it through a network of gathering lines to the central treating plant, separate the acid gas components and then describe the processes for handling the acid gas. With the use of computer simulation software it is possible to elaborate on any aspects of the path of the sour gas from reservoir to the ultimate disposal of the various components in the sour gas. Reference is frequently made to key articles published over the years in trade journals and technical publications, as well as papers presented at various conferences, which provide details on the many topics covered in this book. There are several sources of information dealing with the above topics that are available for downloading for free. An attempt will be made to reference such sources throughout the book. Additionally, there are simulation programs available for a fee from providers such as AspenTech, Virtual Materials Group (VMGsim), Bryan Research in Texas, Ops Group, FlowPhase and Optimized Gas Treating, Inc. The book uses SI units (metre-kilogram-second). In a few instances, equivalent Imperial (British) units (foot-pound-second) are also given. A comprehensive explanation of the SI units is available from the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). The brochure can be downloaded by going to a search engine and entering “Supplementary Metric Practice Guide”, then clicking on the appropriate topic, and “Download”. The conversion constants between Imperial units and SI units are listed in Table 4-2 on pages 26 to 29 of the CAPP document. OVERVIEW OF CONTENTS THE SOUR GAS, SULFUR AND ACID GAS BOOK CHAPTER 1 - PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S) AND SOUR NATURAL GAS CHAPTER 2 - SOUR GAS PRODUCTION AND GATHERING PART 1 - DRILLING AND COMPLETION OF SOUR GAS WELLS PART 2 - FLOW CONTROL AND FLUID CONDITIONING FOR TRANSPORT TO PLANT PART 3 - DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOUR GAS GATHERING LINES PART 4 - RECEIVING GAS AND LIQUIDS AT THE PLANT CHAPTER 3 - SOUR GAS SWEETENING PART 1 - SWEETENING WITH REGENERATIVE SOLVENTS PART 2 - PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS PART 3 - OPERATING PROBLEMS IN SOUR GAS TREATING PLANTS PART 4 - NON-REGENERATIVE CHEMICAL (SCAVENGER) PROCESSES CHAPTER 4 – SULFUR RECOVERY AND HANDLING PART 1 - SULFUR RECOVERY BY THE MODIFIED CLAUS PROCESS PART 2 - SULFUR PLANT ENHANCEMENTS PART 3 - TAIL GAS CLEAN-UP PART 4 - RECOVERY PROCESSES FOR LOW SULFUR RATES PART 5 - SULFUR PROPERTIES, HANDLING AND FORMING CHAPTER 5 – ACID GAS COMPRESSION AND INJECTION PART 1 - BASIC PROPERTIES OF ACID GAS PART 2 - MITIGATION OF CORROSION AND HYDRATE FORMATION PART 3 - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR ACID GAS COMPRESSION AND INJECTION FACILITIES PART 4 - OPERATION OF INJECTION FACILITIES CHAPTER 6 - SAFETY SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SOUR GAS OPERATIONS Contents CHAPTER 1 - PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S) AND SOUR NATURAL GAS 1.1 What is Sour Natural Gas? 1.2 Properties of Hydrogen Sulfide 1.3 Conversion Calculations for Small H2S Concentrations in Natural Gas 1.4 Origin of H2S in Sour Gas 1.5 Other Sulfur Compounds 1.5.1 Mercaptan 1.5.2 Carbon Disulfide (CS2) and Carbonyl Sulfide (COS) 1.6 Geographic Occurrences of Sour Gas 1.7 Increase in H2S Concentration in Produced Sour Gas with Time 1.8 Characteristics of Sour Gas 1.9 Sour Gas Sampling and Analysis 1.10 Determination of Sour Gas Properties 1.10.1 Compressibility Factor, Z 1.10.2 Wichert-Aziz Modification of the Redlich-Kwong Equation of State 1.10.3 Wichert- Aziz Modification of the Standing-Katz (S-K) Chart Method 1.10.4 AGA #8 (1992) Method 1.10.5 Equilibrium Water Vapor Content of Sour Gas 1.10.6 Hydrate Formation and Hydrate Temperature Estimation 1.10.7 Dew Point, Bubble Point and Flash Calculations 1.10.8 Enthalpy Change Predictions 1.11 Sulfur Content of H2S in Sour Gas 1.12 Elemental Sulfur in Sour Gas 1.13 Effects of H2S and Sour Gas on Steel 1.13.1 General Metal Loss Corrosion 1.13.2 Corrosion Pitting 1.13.3 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) and Blistering 1.13.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement and Sulfide Stress Cracking 1.14 Effect of H2S on Stainless and High Alloy Steel 1.15 Effect of H2S on Elastomeric Materials 1.16 Design Considerations and Mitigating Techniques for H2S Effects on Carbon and Low Alloy Steel 1.16.1 Materials Selection 1.16.2 Dehydration 1.16.3 Use of Corrosion Inhibitors 1.17 Summary re Sour Gas Corrosion, Carbon Steel and Low Alloy Steel REFERENCES ATTACHMENT 1 Compressibility Factor Calculation for Sour Natural Gases ATTACHMENT 2 Estimation of Water Content of Sour Natural Gas ATTACHMENT 3 Hydrate Temperature Estimation for Sour Natural Gases CHAPTER 2 - SOUR GAS PRODUCTION AND GATHERING PART 1 DRILLING AND COMPLETION OF SOUR GAS WELLS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Properties of Casing 2.3 Casing for Sour Service 2.4 Well Completion - General 2.5 Tubing String Selection 2.6 Special Design Considerations for Tubing Strings 2.6.1 Subsurface Safety Valve 2.6.2 Bottom-hole Equipment 2.6.3 Corrosion Abatement in Sour Well Tubing 2.6.4 Hydrate Prevention in Tubing Strings 2.6.5 Clearing Sulfur Plugs 2.7 Well Cleanup and Testing PART 2 FLOW CONTROL AND FLUID CONDITIONING FOR TRANSPORT TO PLANT 2.8 Wellsite Production Equipment for Sour Gas Wells 2.8.1 Fluid Temperature, Pressure and Flow Rate Control 2.8.2 Wellsite Heater 2.8.3 Production Measurement 2.8.4 Emergency Shutdown (ESD) 2.9 Conditioning Fluids for Transport to the Central Plant 2.10 Pressure Taps PART 3 DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOUR GAS GATHERING LINES 2.11 Overview of Pipeline Design and Materials Standards and Regulations 2.12 Pipe Grade, Category and Estimation of Wall Thickness 2.13 Optimum Pipe Diameter 2.14 Estimating Pressure Drop in Gas Gathering Lines 2.15 Prevention of Gas Hydrates in Pipeline Gathering Systems 2.15.1 Gas Heating with Line Heaters 2.15.2 Gas Heating by Warm Water Tracing 2.15.3 Hydrate Prevention by Chemical Addition 2.15.4 Hydrate Prevention by Gas Dehydration 2.16 Pigging Facilities 2.17 Initiating Sour Gas Production 2.18 Internal Corrosion Inhibition and Monitoring 2.19 External Corrosion Prevention 2.20 Safety Considerations in Sour Gas Gathering Operations PART 4 RECEIVING GAS AND LIQUIDS AT THE PLANT 2.21 Types of Fluids Entering Plant 2.22 Plant Inlet Separator 2.22.1 Separator Design Considerations 2.22.2 Estimating the Size of the Liquid Slug 2.23 Comments on Operating Procedure to Minimize Liquid Slugs REFERENCES CHAPTER 3 - SOUR GAS SWEETENING PART 1 SWEETENING WITH REGENERATIVE SOLVENTS 3.1 Overview 3.2 Typical Process Equipment for Sweetening Sour Gas 3.3 Sweetening Solvents 3.4 Regenerative Chemical Solvents 3.4.1 Primary Amines 3.4.2 Secondary Amines 3.4.3 Tertiary Amines 3.4.4 Hot Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) (Hot Pot) 3.5 Comparison of Chemical Sweetening Solvents 3.6 Computer Simulation of Sweetening Processes 3.7 Physical Solvents 3.7.1 Selexol Process 3.7.2 Fluor Solvent Process 3.7.3 Purisol 3.7 4 Rectisol 3.7.5 Morphysorb 3.8 Proprietary and Mixed Amine Solvent Formulations 3.9 Selective H2S Removal 3.10 Sweetening of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 3.11 Summary Comments on Sweetening Solvent Selection PART 2 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3.12 Overview
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