JASC: Journal of Applied Science and Computations ISSN NO: 1076-5131

NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON FUTURE FOR HUMAN LIFE

MD MOSARRAT HUSSAIN

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

G.B.COLLEGE,NAUGACHIA,BHAGALPUR,BIHAR,INDIA

ABSTRACT

Micro/Nano ElectroMechanical Systems. The ability to create gears, mirrors, sensor elements, as well as electronic circuitry in silicon surfaces allows the manufacture of miniature sensors such as those used to activate the airbags in your car. This technique is called MEMS (Micro- ElectroMechanical Systems). The MEMS technique results in close integration of the mechanical mechanism with the necessary electronic circuit on a single silicon chip, similar to the method used to produce computer chips. Using MEMS to produce a device reduces both the cost and size of the product, compared to similar devices made with conventional methods. MEMS is a stepping stone to NEMS or Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems. NEMS products are being made by a few companies, and will take over as the standard once manufacturers make the investment in the equipment needed to produce nano-sized features. Molecular Manufacturing. Researchers are working on developing a method called molecular manufacturing that may someday make the Star Trek replicator a reality. The gadget these folks envision is called a molecular fabricator; this device would use tiny manipulators to position atoms and molecules to build an object as complex as a desktop computer. Researchers believe that raw materials can be used to reproduce almost any inanimate object using this method.Current developments in the reflect the fact that products unimaginable today may be possible. Developments in the field of electronics are expected to be propelled with the advancement of nanotechnology. With the advantages of ultra-high-purity materials and innovative techniques, many of the barriers like poor dissipation of hea, and contamination of particles will not be major issues anymore. Therefore smaller computer chips with higher speeds may be easily produced using these techniques. Miniaturized electronic products will be more convenient to produce than today. Capacitors with amazing capacitance values are already being produced using that are hard to even imagine using conventional materials. With the

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advantage of these developments, we may expect to buy extremely fast computers, tiny mobile devices, and other miniaturized electronic devices in the near future.

KEYWORDS: Nanotechnology,Humanlife, Nanomaterials, Nanoscale Materials, ,

INTRODUCTION

A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Through 2012, the USA has invested $3.7 billion using its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the European Union has invested $1.2 billion, and Japan has invested $750 million.Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic , molecular biology, semiconductor physics, energy storage, microfabrication,[6] , etc. The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly,from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

NANOMATERIALS

The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.1

1 Narayan, R. J.; Kumta, P. N.; Sfeir, Ch.; Lee, D-H; Choi, D.; Olton, D. (2004). "Nanostructured Ceramics in Medical Devices: Applications and Prospects". JOM. 56 (10): 38–43. Bibcode:2004JOM....56j..38N. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0289-x.

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• Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other , and various and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast transport are related also to and . • Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor. 2 • Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine. • Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells. 3 • Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display , lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see quantum dots. • Recent application of nanomaterials include a range of biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and biosensors.

BOTTOM -UP APPROACHES

These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.

• DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson–Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids. • Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis (Inorganic and organic synthesis) also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides [40] ). • More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of , and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.

2 Cho, Hongsik; Pinkhassik, Eugene; David, Valentin; Stuart, John; Hasty, Karen (31 May 2015). "Detection of early cartilage damage using targeted nanosomes in a post-traumatic osteoarthritis mouse model" . Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine. 11 (4): 939–946. doi :10.1016/j.nano.2015.01.011 . 3 Kerativitayanan, Punyavee; Carrow, James K.; Gaharwar, Akhilesh K. (May 2015). "Nanomaterials for Engineering Stem Cell Responses". Advanced Healthcare Materials. 4 (11): 1600–27. doi:10.1002/adhm.201500272. PMID 26010739.

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• Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen . This technique fits into the larger subfield of nanolithography.4 • Molecular Beam Epitaxy allows for bottom up assemblies of materials, most notably semiconductor materials commonly used in chip and computing applications, stacks, gating, and .

TOP -DOWN APPROACHES

These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.

• Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, [41] as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics. [42] • Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS. • Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100 nm sections of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy. • Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a resist, which is then followed by an etching process to remove material in a top-down method.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES

4 Gaharwar, A.K.; Sant, S.; Hancock, M.J.; Hacking, S.A., eds. (2013). Nanomaterials in tissue engineering : fabrication and applications. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85709-596-1.

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These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.

• Magnetic assembly for the synthesis of anisotropic superparamagnetic materials such as recently presented magnetic nano chains.5 • Molecular scale electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device. For an example see rotaxane. • Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so-called nanocar.6

BIOMIMETIC APPROACHES

• Bionics or biomimicry seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is one example of the systems studied. • Bionanotechnology is the use of biomolecules for applications in nanotechnology, including use of and lipid assemblies. 7 Nanocellulose is a potential bulk-scale application.

SPECULATIVE

These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its societal implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be created.

• is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields, and many of its proposed techniques are beyond current capabilities.

5 Kralj, Slavko; Makovec, Darko (27 October 2015). "Magnetic Assembly of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Clusters into Nanochains and Nanobundles". ACS Nano. 9 (10): 9700–9707. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b02328. PMID 26394039. 6 Lubick N; Betts, Kellyn (2008). "Silver socks have cloudy lining". Environ Sci Technol. 42 (11): 3910. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.3910L. doi:10.1021/es0871199. PMID 18589943. 7 Gaharwar, A.K.; Peppas, N.A.; Khademhosseini, A. (March 2014). "Nanocomposite hydrogels for biomedical applications". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 111 (3): 441–53.

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• Nanorobotics centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine, 8 but it may not be easy to do such a thing because of several drawbacks of such devices. 9 Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and methodologies has been demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing devices for future commercial applications, which also progressively helps in the development towards nanorobots with the use of embedded nanobioelectronics concepts. 10 • are "systems of nanosystems" which will be complex nanosystems that produce atomically precise parts for other nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent properties, but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing. Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution. Mihail Roco, one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative, has proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex nanomachines and ultimately to productive nanosystems. 11 • seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally controlled though a fusion of information science and . • Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words and have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally.

8 Leary, SP; Liu, CY; Apuzzo, ML (2006). "Toward the Emergence of Nanoneurosurgery: Part III-Nanomedicine: Targeted Nanotherapy, Nanosurgery, and Progress Toward the Realization of Nanoneurosurgery". Neurosurgery. 58 (6): 1009–1026. 9 Shetty RC (2005). "Potential pitfalls of nanotechnology in its applications to medicine: immune incompatibility of nanodevices". Med Hypotheses. 65 (5): 998–9. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2005.05.022. PMID 16023299. 10 Cavalcanti, A.; Shirinzadeh, B.; Freitas, R.; Kretly, L. (2007). "Medical Nanorobot Architecture Based on Nanobioelectronics". Recent Patents on Nanotechnology. 1 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2174/187221007779814745. PMID 19076015. 11 Boukallel M, Gauthier M, Dauge M, Piat E, Abadie J (2007). "Smart microrobots for mechanical cell characterization and cell convoying". IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 54 (8): 1536–40. doi:10.1109/TBME.2007.891171. PMID 17694877 .

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NANOTECHNOLOGY- HUMAN LIFE AND POSSIBILITIES

Nanotechnology is the engineering of molecularly precise structures and, ultimately, molecular machines, basically conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. The prefix “nano-” refers to the scale of these constructions, meaning one billionth in science. Nanomedicine is the application of nanotechnology to medicine. 12 The ultimate tool of nanomedicine is the medical nanorobot—a the size of a bacterium, composed of molecule- size parts somewhat resembling macro scale gears, bearings, and ratchets. Medical nanorobotics holds the greatest promise for curing disease and extending life span. 13

A nanorobot will have motors to make things move, and perhaps manipulator arms or

12 Kurzweil R (2005). The Singularity Is Near. New York City: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03384-3. OCLC 57201348 13 Freitas RA (2005). "Current Status of Nanomedicine and Medical Nanorobotics" (PDF). Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience. 2 (4): 1–25. Bibcode:2005JCTN....2..471K. doi:10.1166/jctn.2005.001.

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mechanical legs for mobility. It will have a power supply for energy, sensors to guide its actions, and an onboard computer to control its behavior. A nanorobot that would travel through the bloodstream must be tiny enough to squeeze through even the narrowest capillaries in the human body. Such machines must be smaller than the red cells in our blood. However, medical nanorobots are just theory. To actually build them, we need a new technology so called molecular manufacturing. 14

For nanomedicine, Nanotechnology is already being used as the basis for new, more effective drug delivery systems to deliver drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles. The technology is in early stage development as scaffolding in nerve regeneration research. In addition to this, the National Institute, in the United States has created the Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer hoping that the investments in this branch of nanomedicine could lead to breakthroughs regarding detection, diagnosis, and treatment of various forms of cancer. Moreover, nanotechnology has been started to be used for visualizations such as ultrasound, MRI etc, blood purification, tissue engineering and much more. 15

14 Gobin AM, O'Neal DP, Watkins DM, Halas NJ, Drezek RA, West JL (August 2005). "Near infrared -tissue welding using nanoshells as an exogenous absorber". Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. 37 (2): 123–9. doi:10.1002/lsm.20206. 15 Lalwani G, Henslee AM, Farshid B, Parmar P, Lin L, Qin YX, et al. (September 2013). "Tungsten disulfide nanotubes reinforced biodegradable polymers for bone tissue engineering". Acta Biomaterialia. 9 (9): 8365–73. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.05.018. PMC 3732565. PMID 23727293.

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A conceptual design of Nano-

Nanotechnology medical developments over the coming years are supposed to have a wide variety of uses and save a great number of lives potentially. Nanotechnology is already moving from being used in passive structures to active structures, through more targeted drug therapies or “smart drugs.” These new drug therapies have already been shown to cause fewer side effects and be more effective than traditional therapies. 16 With the development of nanomedicine, nano- robots will be able to increase the human lifespan by fixing the cells damaged from aging and building new mechanical ones nearly identical to the originals. In the future, nanotechnology shall aid to form molecular systems that may be strikingly similar to living systems. These molecular structures could be the basis to regenerate or replace various body parts that are currently lost to infection, accident, or disease. In fact, each and every damaged cell may be fixed up in upcoming future with the nanomedicine.Although there are various arguments about nano-robots supposed to help us with everlasting life, these robots cannot promise an immortal life. These limitations consists constraints on their mobility, energy availability, mechanical and geometric limits, and biocompatibility requirements. However, nano- robots are much more effective, easier to control, and superior in comparison to biotechnology. 17 To sum up, nanomedicine and the development of nano-robots will not only affect human aging, but will also improve the quality of life of human beings, reduce the economic costs associated with

16 Herrmann IK, Grass RN, Stark WJ (October 2009). "High-strength metal nanomagnets for diagnostics and medicine: carbon shells allow long- term stability and reliable linker chemistry". Nanomedicine (London, England). 4 (7): 787–98. doi :10.2217/nnm.09.55 . PMID 19839814 . 17 Yung CW, Fiering J, Mueller AJ, Ingber DE (May 2009). "Micromagnetic-microfluidic blood cleansing device". Lab on a Chip. 9 (9): 1171–7. doi :10.1039/b816986a . PMID 19370233 .

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healthcare as medical treatments and procedures will be less frequent and necessary with the capabilities of the nano-robots, offer early detection of medical conditions, reduce the side effects involved with therapy and treatments, and finally improve a human’s medical outcome, increment of the lifespan of human much more compared to today. 18

FIVE WAYS NANOTECHNOLOGY IS SECURING YOUR FUTURE

The real challenge is using such techniques reliably to manufacture working nanoscale devices. The physical properties of matter, such as its melting point, electrical conductivity and chemical reactivity, become very different at the nanoscale, so shrinking a device can affect its performance. If we can master this technology, however, then we have the opportunity to improve not just electronics but all sorts of areas of modern life. 19

MEDICAL NANOBOTS . SHUTTERSTOCK

1. DOCTORS INSIDE YOUR BODY

Wearable fitness technology means we can monitor our health by strapping gadgets to ourselves. There are even prototype electronic tattoos that can sense our vital signs. But by scaling down this technology, we could go further by implanting or injecting tiny sensors inside our bodies.

18 Schumacher CM, Herrmann IK, Bubenhofer SB, Gschwind S, Hirt A, Beck-Schimmer B, et al. (18 October 2013). "Quantitative Recovery of Magnetic Nanoparticles from Flowing Blood: Trace Analysis and the Role of Magnetization". Advanced Functional Materials. 23 (39): 4888– 4896. doi:10.1002/adfm.201300696. 19 Kafshgari, MH; Voelcker, NH; Harding, FJ (2015). "Applications of zero-valent silicon nanostructures in biomedicine". Nanomedicine (Lond). 10 (16): 2553–71. doi :10.2217/nnm.15.91 . PMID 26295171 .

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20 This would capture much more detailed information with less hassle to the patient, enabling doctors to personalise their treatment. 21 The possibilities are endless, ranging from monitoring inflammation and post-surgery recovery to more exotic applications whereby electronic devices actually interfere with our body’s signals for controlling organ function. 22 Although these technologies might sound like a thing of the far future, multi-billion healthcare firms such as GlaxoSmithKline are already working on ways to develop so-called “electroceuticals”.

2. SENSORS , SENSORS , EVERYWHERE

These sensors rely on newly-invented nanomaterials and manufacturing techniques to make them smaller, more complex and more energy efficient. 23 For example, sensors with very fine features can now be printed in large quantities on flexible rolls of plastic at low cost. This opens up the possibility of placing sensors at lots of points over critical infrastructure to constantly check that everything is running correctly. Bridges, aircraft and even nuclear power plants could benefit.

WORRIED ABOUT YOUR HAIRLINE ? SHUTTERSTOCK

3. SELF -HEALING STRUCTURES

If cracks do appear then nanotechnology could play a further role. Changing the structure of materials at the nanoscale can give them some amazing properties – by giving them a texture that

20 Lee JJ, Jeong KJ, Hashimoto M, Kwon AH, Rwei A, Shankarappa SA, Tsui JH, Kohane DS (January 2014). "Synthetic ligand-coated magnetic nanoparticles for microfluidic bacterial separation from blood". Nano Letters. 14 (1): 1–5. Bibcode:2014NanoL..14....1L. doi:10.1021/nl3047305. PMID 23367876. 21 Rajan, Reshmy; Jose, Shoma; Mukund, V. P. Biju; Vasudevan, Deepa T. (2011-01-01). "Transferosomes - A vesicular transdermal delivery system for enhanced drug permeation" . Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research. 2 (3): 138–143. doi :10.4103/2231- 4040.85524 . PMC 3217704 . PMID 22171309 22 Kurtoglu M. E.; Longenbach T.; Reddington P.; Gogotsi Y. (2011). "Effect of Calcination Temperature and Environment on Photocatalytic and Mechanical Properties of Ultrathin Sol–Gel Titanium Dioxide Films". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 94 (4): 1101–1108. doi :10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.04218.x . 23 Nano in computing and electronics Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine. at NanoandMe.org

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repels , for example. In the future, nanotechnology coatings or additives will even have the potential to allow materials to “heal” when damaged or worn. For example, dispersing nanoparticles throughout a material means that they can migrate to fill in any cracks that appear. This could produce self-healing materials for everything from aircraft cockpits to microelectronics, preventing small fractures from turning into large, more problematic cracks. 24

4. MAKING BIG DATA POSSIBLE

All these sensors will produce more information than we’ve ever had to deal with before – so we’ll need the technology to process it and spot the patterns that will alert us to problems. The same will be true if we want to use the “big data” from traffic sensors to help manage congestion and prevent accidents, or prevent crime by using statistics to more effectively allocate police resources.Here, nanotechnology is helping to create ultra-dense memory that will allow us to store this wealth of data. But it’s also providing the inspiration for ultra-efficient algorithms for processing, encrypting and communicating data without compromising its reliability. 25 Nature has several examples of big-data processes efficiently being performed in real-time by tiny structures, such as the parts of the eye and ear that turn external signals into information for the brain. Computer architectures inspired by the brain could also use energy more efficiently and so would struggle less with excess heat – one of the key problems with shrinking electronic devices further.

24 Mayer, B.; Janker, L.; Loitsch, B.; Treu, J.; Kostenbader, T.; Lichtmannecker, S.; Reichert, T.; Morkötter, S.; Kaniber, M.; Abstreiter, G.; Gies, C.; Koblmüller, G.; Finley, J. J. (2015). "Monolithically Integrated High-β on Silicon". Nano Letters. 16 (1): 152–156. Bibcode :2016NanoL..16..152M . 25 Cassidy, John W. (2014). "Nanotechnology in the Regeneration of Complex Tissues". Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights. 5: 25–35. doi:10.4137/BTRI.S12331. PMC 4471123. PMID 26097381.

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FROM NANO TECH TO GLOBAL WARMING . SHUTTERSTOCK

5. TACKLING CLIMATE CHANGE

The fight against climate change means we need new ways to generate and use electricity, and nanotechnology is already playing a role. It has helped create batteries that can store more energy for electric cars and has enabled solar panels to convert more sunlight into electricity. The common trick in both applications is to use nanotexturing or nanomaterials (for example or carbon nanotubes) that turn a flat surface into a three-dimensional one with a much greater surface area. This means that there is more space for the reactions that enable energy storage or generation to take place, so the devices operate more efficientlyIn the future, nanotechnology could also enable objects to harvest energy from their environment. New nano- materials and concepts are currently being developed that show potential for producing energy from movement, light, variations in temperature, glucose and other sources with high conversion efficiency. 26

CONCLUSION

Nanofibers are used in several areas and in different products, in everything from aircraft wings to tennis rackets. Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis. Researchers have found that when rats breathed in

26 Cassidy, J. W.; Roberts, J. N.; Smith, C. A.; Robertson, M.; White, K.; Biggs, M. J.; Oreffo, R. O. C.; Dalby, M. J. (2014). "Osteogenic lineage restriction by osteoprogenitors cultured on nanometric grooved surfaces: The role of focal adhesion maturation". Acta Biomaterialia. 10 (2): 651–660. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.11.008. PMC 3907683. PMID 24252447. Archived from the original on 2017-08-30.

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nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs, which led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response and that nanoparticles induce skin aging through oxidative stress in hairless mice. Neuro-electronic interfacing is a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, magnetic, or biological electrical sources, while a nonrefuelable strategy implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained. A nanoscale enzymatic biofuel cell for self-powered nanodevices have been developed that uses glucose from biofluids including human blood and watermelons.One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference or leakage or overheating from power consumption is possible. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body's immune system. Nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles.The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered significantly by depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than needed. Targeted drug delivery is intended to reduce the side effects of drugs with concomitant decreases in consumption and treatment expenses. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices. A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices are less invasive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter. These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery. The efficacy of drug delivery through nanomedicine is largely based upon: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b) successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of the drug.

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REFERENCES

• Boukallel M, Gauthier M, Dauge M, Piat E, Abadie J (2007). "Smart microrobots for mechanical cell characterization and cell convoying". IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 54 (8): 1536–40. doi:10.1109/TBME.2007.891171. PMID 17694877. • Cassidy, John W. (2014). "Nanotechnology in the Regeneration of Complex Tissues". Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights. 5: 25–35. doi:10.4137/BTRI.S12331. PMC 4471123. PMID 26097381. • Gaharwar, A.K.; Peppas, N.A.; Khademhosseini, A. (March 2014). "Nanocomposite hydrogels for biomedical applications". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 111 (3): 441–53.

• Gobin AM, O'Neal DP, Watkins DM, Halas NJ, Drezek RA, West JL (August 2005). "Near infrared laser- tissue welding using nanoshells as an exogenous absorber". Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. 37 (2): 123– 9. doi:10.1002/lsm.20206.

• Herrmann IK, Grass RN, Stark WJ (October 2009). "High-strength metal nanomagnets for diagnostics and medicine: carbon shells allow long-term stability and reliable linker chemistry". Nanomedicine (London, England). 4 (7): 787–98. doi :10.2217/nnm.09.55 . PMID 19839814 .

• Kurtoglu M. E.; Longenbach T.; Reddington P.; Gogotsi Y. (2011). "Effect of Calcination Temperature and Environment on Photocatalytic and Mechanical Properties of Ultrathin Sol–Gel Titanium Dioxide Films". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 94 (4): 1101–1108. doi :10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.04218.x .

• Nano in computing and electronics Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine. at NanoandMe.org

• Schumacher CM, Herrmann IK, Bubenhofer SB, Gschwind S, Hirt A, Beck-Schimmer B, et al. (18 October 2013). "Quantitative Recovery of Magnetic Nanoparticles from Flowing Blood: Trace Analysis and the Role of Magnetization". Advanced Functional Materials. 23 (39): 4888–4896. doi:10.1002/adfm.201300696.

• Kafshgari, MH; Voelcker, NH; Harding, FJ (2015). "Applications of zero-valent silicon nanostructures in biomedicine". Nanomedicine (Lond). 10 (16): 2553–71. doi :10.2217/nnm.15.91 . PMID 26295171 .

• Lalwani G, Henslee AM, Farshid B, Parmar P, Lin L, Qin YX, et al. (September 2013). "Tungsten disulfide nanotubes reinforced biodegradable polymers for bone tissue engineering". Acta Biomaterialia. 9 (9): 8365–73. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.05.018. PMC 3732565. PMID 23727293.

• Kurzweil R (2005). The Singularity Is Near. New York City: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03384-3. OCLC 57201348

• Freitas RA (2005). "Current Status of Nanomedicine and Medical Nanorobotics" (PDF). Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience. 2 (4): 1–25. Bibcode:2005JCTN....2..471K. doi:10.1166/jctn.2005.001.

• Leary, SP; Liu, CY; Apuzzo, ML (2006). "Toward the Emergence of Nanoneurosurgery: Part III- Nanomedicine: Targeted Nanotherapy, Nanosurgery, and Progress Toward the Realization of Nanoneurosurgery". Neurosurgery. 58 (6): 1009–1026.

• Shetty RC (2005). "Potential pitfalls of nanotechnology in its applications to medicine: immune incompatibility of nanodevices". Med Hypotheses. 65 (5): 998–9. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2005.05.022. PMID 16023299.

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