ERT cover 34-4 1/7/10 16:40 Page 1

CONTENTS THEME: Global Theology

Editorial: Global Theology - issues, perspectives and opportunities E V

page 291 A N

Tribute: Jeremy Mudditt 1938-2010 G E

BRUCE J. NICHOLLS page 292 L I C

Evangelical Theology in : Ways, Perspectives, and Dilemmas A

JAMES NKANSAH-OBREMPONG page 293 L R

Dilemmas in the Evangelical Movement and its Theology: E V I

Argentinean Perspective E DAVID A. ROLDÁN page 300 W The In-Roads of Evangelical Theology and the Evangelical O F

Movement in Latin American Spanish-Speaking Countries T ANIEL ALINAS H J. D S page 307 E Poverty and the Gospel: The Case of Haiti O L DIEUMEME NOELLISTE page 313 O G

Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals Y

KLAUS FIEDLER page 319 V O Articles and book reviews reflecting

A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern Missional L U

Church/Movement M global evangelical theology for the purpose

ELEONORA L. SCOTT page 335 E

3 of discerning the obedience of faith

Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of : Towards 4 ,

an Integrating Missiology from a Latin American Perspective N O SAMUEL CUEVA page 347 4 The Meaning of the Cross in Mark , O

RICHARD A. PRUITT page 358 c t o

Reviews page 370 b e Index page 381 r 2 0 1 0

Volume 34 No. 4 October 2010 Evangelical Review of Theology

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

Volume 34 • Number 4 • October 2010 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ERT (2010) 34:4, 291

ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 34 No. 4 October 2010 Editorial: Global Theology—issues,

Copyright © 2010 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission perspectives and opportunities WEWOULDLIKEto announce some church—and from our cobbler, an changes to the editorial team for this elder in our church, as I sat in his work- General Editor journal. This announcement has been shop for many hours during my teen Dr Thomas Schirrmacher delayed because our July 2010 issue years! I want to convince others that featured papers from the Lausanne working with a diverse range of people Executive Editor Theology Working Group (LTWG) con- and discussing theology with the Bible Dr David Parker sultation held in February 2010 at in hand does not create division but , . Appropriately, its unity in Christ. Committee Editorial was written by Dr Chris I also wish to thank Dr David Wright in his role as LTWG Convenor. Parker from Australia, the former Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission It has been our privilege to be associ- long-term editor of ERT and director of Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Bonn, Chair ated with the LTWG in this project the Theological Commission, who is Dr James O. Nkansah, Nairobi, Vice-Chair since the initial consultation was held now acting as Executive Editor; we are in Limuru, Kenya in February 2007. pleased that we can still draw upon his Editorial Policy I was appointed WEA Theological contacts and editorial abilities. The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the Commission Chairman and ERT Editor There is also the sad news that we authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor early in 2010. I wish to thank my pre- have lost a good friend and supporter, or the Publisher. decessor, Dr Justin Thacker, for his Jeremy Mudditt, who died on 21 April work. During his short term he contin- 2010 aged 71. Please see the generous ued to bring the Theological Commis- tribute from our founding editor, Dr Manuscripts, reports and communications sion and LTWG closer together; these Bruce Nicholls, on the following page. should be addressed to the Editor are the two most influential bodies rep- In this issue we publish several Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Friedrichstrasse 38, 53111 Bonn, Germany. resenting evangelical theology world- short papers from the historic consul- wide. This spirit of cooperation and tation sponsored by the TC in in The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or networking is a welcome development July 2009, representing diverse trans- book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. which both bodies will continue to dis- national perspectives as mentioned Please send clear copies of details to the above address. cuss in the hope of even closer cooper- above. Another helpful article, which ation in the future. could not be included in our last issue, Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] My biography can be found at helps us understand more about the http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/tc/ www.thomasschirrmacher.net, so here recent tragedy in Haiti. Then we reflect I want to introduce myself by mention- on the significance of the 1910 Edin- ing just one matter. Evangelicals live burgh Missionary conference. Two in all countries, which means evangel- other important topics are the ‘Emerg- ical theology must be global and trans- ing Church’ and missions in Europe; national. Therefore we should all learn we conclude with an interesting Bible to study theological insights from as study on the cross in the Gospel of Typeset by Toucan Design, 25 Southernhay East, Exeter EX1 1NS many other cultures as possible. Per- Mark. and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, sonally, I owe my deepest understand- Thomas Schirrmacher, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS ing to Christians from Indonesia, General Editor by AlphaGraphics, 6 Angel Row, Nottingham NG1 6HL and Uganda, and from the persecuted David Parker, Executive Editor ERT (2010) 34:4, 292 ERT (2010) 34:4, 293-299 Jeremy Mudditt 1938-2010 Evangelical Theology in Africa: A Tribute Ways, Perspectives, and Dilemmas

by Dr Bruce J. Nicholls James Nkansah-Obrempong Founding Editor, Evangelical Review of Theology KEYWORDS: Association of • Unite evangelicals in Africa for THE WORLD EVANGELICAL Alliance (for- Jeremy died peacefully on April 21, Evangelicals in Africa, holistic min- holistic ministries that make a merly Fellowship) (WEA/WEF) owes a 2010 after a long battle with cancer. istry, political action, hermeneutics, difference great debt of gratitude to Jeremy Mud- He was only 71 years of age. As Dr poverty, ecumenism • Mobilize and empower evangeli- ditt. As Director of Paternoster Press, Robin Parry wrote, ‘He died, as he cal churches and mission agen- he pioneered a partnership with us in lived, in the hands of Pater Noster— cies to do effective ministries on the publishing of most of our many pub- “Our Father”.’ His passing marks the I Historical Background of the continent, and lications and negotiated an evangelical end of an era. Evangelical Movement in • Transform Africa through evan- publisher for a North American edition. Jeremy was not only a colleague in gelism and effective discipleship When I launched the Evangelical publishing, but also a wonderful Africa To achieve this holistic, transforma- Review of Theology as Editor in October brother in Christ. When the memory of The evangelical movement as an orga- tional ministry, AEA created eleven 1977, Jeremy took on the responsibility his publishing fades, the memory of nized institution in Africa started with Commissions to address the different for Paternoster Press to publish it on him as a person will always remain. He the formation of the Association of needs of the church and society at behalf of the World Evangelical Fel- was a man who loved and served his Evangelicals in Africa (AEA), formerly large. The commissions included the lowship Theological Commission. It Lord with singleness of purpose; he known as AEAM (Association of Evan- following: communications, evange- was a bold step to accept full financial was passionate to share the Good gelicals in Africa and Madagascar). lism and missions, ethics, peace and responsibility for its subscriptions and News of the Kingdom. In his profes- Until this time, there was no organized justice, Pan Africa women alliance, sales. This relationship continues to sion, he was a detailed perfectionist and vibrant evangelical movement on relief and development, theological the present. He then extended the part- and a man with a global missionary the continent. AEA was founded on and Christian education, youth and nership to include our monographs and vision. February 26, 1966 at Limuru, Kenya. It sports, prayer and church renewal, most of our books. He also became the He will be remembered for the twin- brought to that meeting 102 evangeli- stewardship and accountability, evan- publisher for the WEF publications. kle in his eye and his amazing knowl- cal leaders from 23 African nations and gelical focus on children and informa- Jeremy devoted his whole life to edge of literature, art, music, history missionaries from other nations. Its tion technology. These commissions evangelical publishing. In 1957 he and theology. I remember him as an vision and mission were to: have been decentralized and they are joined the family business in , enchanting host at the restaurant • Create, promote and build a unit- currently located in different parts of Paternoster Press; he replaced his whenever I was in England and visited ed movement of the body of Africa. The reason behind this decen- father as its Managing Director in Exeter. He was always courteous and Christ to promote evangelical tralization was to bring the work and 1975. I was privileged to work with gracious in all our business communi- him during the years when Paternoster cations. Above all, he was a family man unity, fellowship, and Christian presence of the commissions near to was located in Exeter (1962-1992). devoted to Meg, his wife (who died on witness in Africa the evangelical fellowships in the Owing to ill health he sold the company Oct 12, 2009). It was a joy to receive to STL and moved with it to Carlisle their annual Christmas letter. (1992-2004) where he continued to We will always thank the Lord for James Nkansah-Obrempong (PhD Fuller), Vice-Chairman of the WEA Theological Commission, is work freelance with the company Jeremy and look forward to a wonder- Professor of Theology at Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of Theology (NEGST). This is an edited version (which is now owned by Koorong ful reunion on the Day of the Resurrec- of a paper delivered at the WEA Theological Commission Consultation on ‘Evangelical Theology and the Books, Australia) until recent months. tion. Evangelical Movement in Latin America’ held 24-25 July 2009 in São Paulo, Brasil. 294 James Nkansah-Obrempong Evangelical Theology in Africa: Ways, Perspectives and Dilemmas 295 regions where AEA serves. Some of the and acceptance of its authority for doc- threatened to vote against the consti- •Old evangelicals—emphasizing commissions are more active than oth- trine and practice, and the presence and tution in a referendum to be held in personal conversion and mass ers. power of the Holy Spirit in effecting August 2010 if the rights for the Today there are over seventy mil- transformation in peoples’ lives. Evan- unborn and religious liberty for all citi- • New evangelicals—acknowledg- lion evangelicals in Africa. These are gelical theology simply is a trinitarian zens are not protected in the constitu- ing social responsibility and made up of Christians from the main- theology. John Stott in his book, Evan- tion of Kenya. apologetics line denominations—Anglicans, Pres- gelical Truth, reiterates this notion of the However, some brands of African • Justice and peace evangelical— byterians, Methodists, Baptists, Pen- evangelical faith.1 have not done so well socio-political activists tecostals, and others from some of the •Evangelical theology upholds- on social, political, and economic •Charismatic evangelicals— new mission founded churches. We biblical revelation and the issues that affect people’s lives. Some stressing the work of the Holy must point out that there are many authority of Scripture for faith of these groups tend to dichotomize the Spirit and speaking in tongues, evangelicals in Africa who are not and practice physical and the spiritual dimensions healing and worship, and members of the AEA, but they hold the • Evangelical theology is commit- of human life. While there are good •Ecumenical evangelicals—con- tenets of evangelical theology. Most of ment to the centrality of the successes that can be celebrated by cerned with unity and coopera- these Christians are in the mainline cross of Christ for humanity’s evangelicals in Africa, we are yet to see tion. denominations in Africa and some of and creation’s redemption noticeable transformation in evangeli- Fackre’s categories are true of the the charismatic and Pentecostal • Evangelical theology recognizes cal , especially its impact evangelical theological perspectives churches. Evangelical Christianity is and accepts the ministry of the on the socio-political and economic life found on the continent of Africa. We growing very rapidly in Africa. There Holy Spirit in the church to effec- of many African societies. must point out that some of his char- are 33 national Evangelical fellow- tively apply the blessings of God On a positive note, since the early acterization overlaps in actual prac- ships, 34 Associate Members—made to his people. 1970s, African evangelicals have tried tices in individual evangelical Chris- up of para-church organizations, and In summary, evangelical Christian- to develop an African evangelical the- tians, institutions or even denomina- 11 special members representing local ity upholds these three fundamental ology that is truly biblical and truly tions. For example, you might find a churches in countries that have no ideas—the word, the cross, and the African. This has been a rewarding but charismatic believer who is also evangelical fellowships. We will now Holy Spirit. Any person who calls very difficult project. The growth of engaged in socio political issues in his look at evangelical theology, its ways, him/herself evangelical will hold to Christianity in recent years in Africa country, and very much committed to perspective, and dilemmas. these fundamental truths of the Chris- may be attributed to some of these ini- personal conversion and mass evange- tian faith. Evangelicals in Africa have tiatives by African evangelicals to lism. upheld these basic tenets of the Chris- make the faith relevant for the African These different perspectives in II Evangelical theology: Its tian faith and have defended them. Church. The challenge lies in being evangelical theology most often pose Ways, Perspectives, and These tenets of the Christian faith, faithful to scripture while taking seri- great challenges for evangelical Chris- Dilemmas evangelicals insist, have social, politi- ously the African cultural, religious, tianity. For example, such different cal, and economic implications for socio-economic and political contexts. perspectives on matters of faith have Christian engagement in society. Cur- caused tensions, fighting, and competi- 1 Ways rently, the evangelical community in tion within the evangelical community. The evangelical movement in Africa Kenya is actively engaged with the gov- 2 Perspectives Unfortunately, accusations, competi- sees itself as the custodian of evangeli- ernment of Kenya and other stakehold- In Africa, different perspectives of the tion, and disunity within the evangeli- cal theology or orthodoxy, and upholds ers in the constitution of Kenya on evangelical faith emerge in actual cal community make cooperation with Christian values and ethos in the issues to do with abortion and religious practice. Gabriel Fackre2 gives six per- other evangelical bodies elusive. respective countries in Africa. There are equality and freedom. They have spectives on evangelical faith: More recently, with the new certain characteristics or distinctives of • Fundamentalist—polemical and hermeneutics gaining grounds in evangelical theology. These includes separatists Africa, new theological perspectives the centrality of the gospel, faith in 1 John Stott, Evangelical Truth: a personal plea are being developed in Africa some of Christ as the means of salvation, faith- for unity (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, which are very questionable and need fulness and obedience to God’s Word 1999), 28. 2 Referred to in Stott, Evangelical Truth, 25f. some critical response from the evan- 296 James Nkansah-Obrempong Evangelical Theology in Africa: Ways, Perspectives and Dilemmas 297 gelical community. But some of the homosexuality and the answers being African evangelicals hold diverse challenge to evangelicals in Africa. We concerns raised by some disadvan- provided by human rights and civil views regarding social engagement. knew what we must do, but we do not taged and marginalized people in soci- society activists need a critical There are those who see social reforms speak candidly to the situation. There- ety are worth addressing. For example, response from the evangelical frater- as part of the mission of the church and fore evangelicals have lost their African women theologians are raising nity. The cultural and sociological there are those who do not see it that prophetic voice. some fundamental theological issues issues associated with HIV/AID pan- way. relating to women’s experiences that demic in Africa and the resultant socio- d) Spiritual Matters they feel are not being addressed by the economic impact on society is one of c) Political Situation on the The Christian population in Africa is current theological discourse. These the challenges facing the evangelical continent fast growing, which means the evan- are causing concerns for evangelical church. Evangelical theology must The question of the church and its gelical movement must take seriously theology, and require evangelical the- address human sexuality in Africa. The involvement with politics has come to discipleship. Failure to disciple Chris- ologians to take gender issues seri- church shies away from these issues the fore in recent years in many African tians can lead to lack of genuine Chris- ously, as well as paying attention to any time they come up. To foster bibli- nations. This was true in Kenya during tian commitment on the part of the the marginalized, such as the poor, cal moral values in a post-modern soci- the last general election. Many evan- believer. children, and the destitute in society. ety can cause some tension. Often gelical Christians got actively involved We lack good discipleship materials These concerns again could push evangelicals have been accused of not in politics by either seeking for an written from an African perspective. evangelical theology in a direction that being tolerant and sensitive to human elected position or in campaigning for We need materials addressing some of will develop a vibrant theology that plight; but this is not true. political parties. This caused uproar in the social, cultural, political, and eco- addresses human needs as well as one the nation. For the first time Christian nomic issues that would help African that engages the intellectual realities b) Economic Challenges of modern Africa. leaders, bishops, pastors, and others Christians live as followers of Christ. Poverty and unemployment on the con- vied for political positions. The media The AEA commission for theological tinent are critical issues for the church followed the trend closely and held talk and Christian education was created to 3 Dilemmas whose members are very poor because shows on the matter. help meet this need. The dilemmas evangelicals in Africa of some of the systemic evils in many Evangelicals must give leadership Lack of trained personnel to pastor face are diverse. African is a huge con- African nations. For example, national in matters relating to social justice and and disciple the growing numbers of tinent and it not easy to foster a com- statistics in Kenya shows the youth economic emancipation for the poor people coming to faith in Christ mon continental voice. In the same form 70% of the population. The major- and the marginalized and maintain its continues to affect the spiritual matu- way, it becomes difficult to foster evan- ity of youth in Kenya are unemployed. prophetic voice. The evangelical com- rity of Christians in Africa. This is gelical unity on the continent. In this This is true of many African nations. munity knows they need to do this but because churches in Africa do not see case, a lot depends on national Evan- These concerns pose a challenge for they do not know how to do it. the importance of training people for gelical Alliances dealing with specific the church. Does evangelical theology Evangelical Christianity wants to ministry. The cost involved in theologi- issues and concerns affecting them. address these problems? engage civil society and advocate for cal training is huge and many churches The help one can give in such situa- Questions of development and holis- good governance. What informs such shy away from training. In order to tions depends on whether the particu- tic mission are always a challenge for engagement will always be a problem. meet these training needs that are rele- lar nation in question will seek assis- evangelical Christianity. The church in Consequently, evangelical Christianity vant for the African church, theological tance from the continental body, AEA. Africa speaks about holistic ministry, has not given clear direction in this institutions must see the need to Here are some specific issues that have but in practice, they do not do holistic area because of the diversity of opin- develop curricula that address the pas- heightened evangelical dilemma in ministry. This can be frustrating for ions on this matter. This can be frus- toral concerns and needs of people. It Africa. many, not only in the church but also trating for many. must go beyond just giving basic theo- outside of the church. Speaking Another dilemma is dealing with logical training. Theological training a) Human Sexuality prophetically to social, economic, polit- dictators and national leaders who must develop the intellectual life of the The evangelical Christian community’s ical, and environmental concerns will have lost their moral right to lead. African Christian to be able to engage response to homosexuality in Africa is always be a challenge to evangelical What is happening in Zimbabwe and effectively the contextual issues facing very critical. The current debate on Christians in Africa. This is because many other places in Africa is a big Christians and the world. 298 James Nkansah-Obrempong Evangelical Theology in Africa: Ways, Perspectives and Dilemmas 299

Discipleship will always be a chal- accommodating or losing the essential Yet, there are not many institutions in Religious pluralism, liberal secular- lenge for the evangelical church in core of evangelical theology can be a Africa training Christian leaders and ism, the prosperity gospel, issues Africa. This requires immediate atten- challenge. Unlike our Catholic counter- workers for the future church. Where relating to post-modern philosophy tion. We must endeavour to help Chris- parts who have given much reflection such training is taking place, there are and the new theological hermeneutics tians integrate their faith into their in this area, evangelical Christians in no adequate resources for the training being developed on the continent are day-to-day lives. There should be a Africa are behind in this effort. It is to be credible. There should be cooper- important challenges for evangelical public witness to evangelical Chris- important that we give theological ation between the west and African Christians. We must reflect, think, and tianity. Theology and ethics must be direction on the complex issues culture institutions to help them to be suc- provide guidance for evangelical Chris- held together. raises for theology. It is encouraging to cessful in this mission. African evan- tians to respond to the issues raised by see the efforts made in this area by gelicals and others from the ‘south’ these ideologies. We must contend for e) Disunity among Evangelicals evangelical Christians in Africa who must live up to this theological respon- the faith that was once delivered to us There is great competition among the have published theological works on sibility. by our ancestors. evangelical churches that is threaten- some theological issues. ing the unity of the body of Christ in Africa. This has thwarted our efforts to g) Globalization work together and present one voice or It is important for evangelical theology a strong Christian witness on the con- to foster, unity, integrity, and faithful- tinent. Despite this shortcoming, the ness to the evangelical faith in a plu- evangelical movement is learning to ralistic religious society so that the engage with society in a way that has evangelical faith is not lost. In this not been the case before. case, evangelical theological institu- However, there is tension between tions can play a critical role to ensure ecumenists and evangelicals. In many the purity of the evangelical tradition. African states, this tension is real and This requires that care must be taken it has fragmented the voice of the to employ professors who are commit- church. There is need to build bridges ted to the essentials tenets of the evan- and mend fences to foster good work- gelical faith as we have outlined earlier ing relationships with other Christian on in this paper. Along with globaliza- communities so that we can fulfill our tion comes the incipient materialism God-given mandate to disciple the and the consumeristic culture that are whole world. creeping into the church. The evangel- ical community must respond to these f) Theology and Culture cultural developments from the west Issues relating to theology and culture which are rapidly gaining ground in the have moved to centre stage in evangel- African church. Modern methods and ical theological reflection on the conti- technology must be used carefully so nent. African Christian theology devel- that we are aware of the dangers but oped as a means to deal with theolo- also exploit the benefits. gies which were imported into Africa. The dilemma African evangelicals h) Theological Responsibility are facing is to develop an African Christianity is declining in the west Christianity that is authentically and the evangelical church in Africa African and truly biblical. The concern has a role to play in preserving evan- to relate theology to culture without gelical Christianity for future posterity. ERT (2010) 34:4, 300-306 Dilemmas in the Evangelical Movement and its Theology 301

most of the intellectual elite (and pas- costalism. By Neo-Pentecostalism I Dilemmas in the Evangelical tors) were absorbed by Liberation The- mean the new forms of being ‘charis- ology and its predecessor movement, matic’ from the 1980s on to the pre- Movement and its Theology. known as Iglesia y Sociedad en sent, including Prosperity Theology; 1 América Latina (Church and Society in the increasing growth in the size of the Argentinean Perspective Latin America, ISAL); it had Protes- churches (very big churches or ‘mega tants roots and was associated with churches’); the strongly centralised names like Richard Shaull, Julio de authority of each ‘mega church’ in a Santa Ana, Jose Miguez Bonino and single pastor or Apostle; the use of David A. Roldán Emilio Castro (so to speak, an Ecu- manipulative techniques in the reli- 5 gious services; emphasis on the doc- KEYWORDS: Neo-Pentecostalism, There are several churches that can menical Protestantism). All of the above mentioned churches trine of sanctification and the search Pentecostalism, , be identified with the evangelical for a true life in the Spirit; the focus on Prosperity Theology, mega-church, movement, including the Baptists including the Pentecostals are called ‘evangelicals’ in . This ‘spiritual warfare’ and the attacks by socialism, integral mission (from the south of the US), Plymouth Satan on Christians. For me, the dis- Brethren (‘Hermanos Libres’), Christ- means that for Hispanic Latin Amer- ica, the word ‘evangelical’ is quite tinctive feature of Neo-Pentecostalism SOME HISTORIANS date the Protestant ian & Missionary Alliance, Mennon- in contrast with ‘classical Pentecostal- ites, Presbyterians, the Evangelical inclusive. presence in Argentina to four hundred As noted above, the main obstacle ism’, is that it is a mass movement and 2 Union of Argentina, the Church of the it has such a wide presence across the years ago. But what happened then that ‘historic Protestantism’ has to Nazarene and the Congregationalists. whole country and in all social classes. were really timid initiatives; the real confront is the risk of disappearance. The remainder of Argentinean Protes- In Buenos Aires, we have three beginning of Protestantism (in its Generally speaking, even the ‘organic’ 3 tantism (and similarly in other coun- associations of Churches: Pentecostal, ‘immigration’ and ‘mission’ models) growth of these churches is in crisis tries of Hispanic language) include the historical Protestantism (with some occurred in the 19th century. So, the (i.e, growth through the birth of chil- ‘historical churches’ rooted in the exceptions), and evangelical. Even Protestant and evangelical movement dren). Furthermore, its polarization in Argentina is still relatively young.4 Reformation, such as the Lutherans, though it is the oldest grouping, the Methodists, Presbyterian and others. with the Pentecostal world is so criti- historical churches have lost their cal that several ‘historical Protestants’ These ‘historical churches’ which hegemony; the Pentecostals have a consider themselves to be more closely 1 This is a small participation given at Brazil were not related to ‘mission Protes- minimum of social presence, but the related to Catholics than to Pente- Consultation of the TC-WEA (Sao Paulo, July tantism’ at the beginning of its pres- evangelicals are bigger and more 2009). So, this explains its oral form. costals or even ‘evangelical’ move- ence in our context, slowly started to socially visible. 2 Arnoldo Canclini, 400 años de Protes- ments, which to some extent is true. offer Sunday worship services in Span- But even in this scene the evangeli- tantismo argentino (Buenos Aires: FIET, The great challenge to the evangel- 2003). ish. They displayed a kind of ‘elitism’ cal perspective has to overcome a chal- ical movement, strictly speaking, is 3 Waldo Villalpando, Las iglesias del related to their European origins which lenge—the ‘pentecostalization’ of its represented by classical Pentecostal- trasplante: Protestantismo de inmigración en la represented an obstacle to the devel- identity. This is a process that seems ism, and even more, by Neo-Pente- Argentina (Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios opment of an ‘incarnational ecclesiol- to be irreversible; we do not have to Cristianos, 1970). ogy’. This type of church faces the big- understand this, prima facie, as a 4 See José Míguez Bonino, Rostros del Protes- ger obstacle, viz., the risk of disap- betrayal or something to worry about tantismo Latinoamericano (Buenos Aires: or to regret. But this is a fact and at the Nueva Creación—ISEDET, 1995). pearance. Generally, in Argentina 5 For some of ISAL’s theoretical products, heart of many of the evangelical see, for example: José Míguez Bonino, Chris- churches. tians and Marxists (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Here I want to focus on a dilemma David A. Roldán is Dean and Professor of Philosophy, Ethics and Hermeneutics at Instituto Teológico (FIET) Eerdmans, 1976); José Míguez Bonino, Doing faced by the evangelical movement, in Buenos Aires, Argentina FIET. He also researches 19th century philosophy at Universidad de Buenos Aires Theology in a Revolutionary Situation (Philadel- while reading for his PhD. He is Editor of Teología y Cultura, (www.teologos.com.ar). This is an edited phia: Fortress, 1975); Richard Shaull, El cris- viz., how to conduct a dialogue with version of a paper delivered at the WEA Theological Commission Consultation on ‘Evangelical Theology and tianismo y la revolución social (Buenos Aires: Neo-Pentecostalism, what to learn the Evangelical Movement in Latin America’ held 24-25 July 2009 in São Paulo, Brasil. La Aurora, 1955). from it, what to criticize in it, and what 302 David A. Roldán Dilemmas in the Evangelical Movement and its Theology 303 to assimilate.6 I will summarize this by the mega-churches are a denom- problem of manipulation. In other fication and other matters; there was saying that the authority of the Bible ination by themselves, but with- words, we cannot use just any method also the emergence of the role of the (and its communitarian reading) seems out the safeguards of an ade- in order to enlarge our churches, or pastor as a ‘chieftain’.7 to be de-centered in the Neo-Pente- quate institutional organization maintain the high commitment of our The disappearance of ‘Real Social- costal model. This, I think, is related to (for example, regulations and fellow members of the community. ism’, the so-called ‘death of ideolo- several features: statutes, periodical changes of I would like to make some com- gies’—in other words, ‘economic glob- a. The strong role of its central roles, democratic representation ments to complement these observa- alization’ and ‘postmodern culture’— leadership. and administration of power, tions at a higher level. I consider that had an impact on the evangelical move- b. ‘Mega Churches’ that equate the etc.). we cannot isolate this regression in the ment too. This was manifested in part criterion of truth with the size of g. As an example (probably an quality of the religious life in the evan- in the Neo-Pentecostal mega- membership. exception, but also as a warn- gelical field (the increasing use of churches. In philosophical terms, prob- c. The loss of the study of the Bible ing), some pastors say in their manipulation, for example), from ably we could translate this as some by the congregation (even in the preaching that the Bible is the another phenomenon in the entire kind of abstract neo-romanticism or a classical form of the Sunday word of God from ‘the past’, but Argentinean society (or even in the (bad) kierkegaardianism.8 This created School). they have ‘the fresh… word of global western culture). The decade of an individualistic Christianity, which d. A hierarchical system of power God for today, given by the Holy the 1960s was a high point in social was non-historicist and without an and administration: God speaks Ghost’. struggle and self-consciousness with eschatological Messianism or the to the pastor, the pastor speaks h. In other cases, the gospel is concerns for freedom, human rights, kerygma of the Kingdom of God. But to the leaders, the leaders speak offered as a ‘product’, as a ver- and autonomy. It was also a time when authentic Christianity cannot offer to the people. sion of Bonhoeffer’s God as a higher cultural levels were reached. ‘easy solutions’ and ‘easy responses’ e. This results in a servile state of ‘patch to cover the holes’. For example, in the area of literature, and does not promise a ‘triumphalistic mind and a loss of autonomy and i. The gospel is offered also as an we had the ‘Latin American boom’, end of our suffering’, or a miraculous critical thought. ‘alternative therapy’ (for exam- with writers and poets like Julio intervention of God in everyday life. f. Beside this, in the Neo-Pente- ple, some female pastors guide Cortázar, Octavio Paz, Gabriel García As the Belgian historian Jean-Pierre costal movement, especially in their sisters in Christ to pray to Márquez, Mario Vargas Llosas and Bastian explains: at the beginning of the mega-churches, there is a God for a beautiful body shape!). Carlos Fuentes. While Argentinean Protestantism in Latin America in the clear tendency not to recognize j. Other brothers completely ignore society was enjoying this higher level, early 20th century, the new movement other Christians, even evangeli- other expressions of Christian we had the same phenomenon in the represented an avant-garde approach cals as valid believers or faith, considering their own churches, with a highly cultured mem- to democratic practices (assemblies, churches, making them almost churches as the only authentic bership. It was a time of critical think- records, periodical renewal of authori- like a sect. Generally speaking, church of Christ. To use an ing. Corruption and manipulation ties, submission of the executive sec- expression from German Ideal- existed, of course, but in a lesser way. retary to a board, etc.); however, by the ism, we could say that they have But secular society itself then expe- end of the same century there is the little ‘evangelical self-conscious- rienced a decline in its critical skills, ironic situation that outside of the 6 Some sociological approaches are: Pablo ness’. its social mobilization and the struggle Semán, ‘Los filtros populares en la recepción From Neo-Pentecostalism, the for emancipation of women and other de la Teología de la Prosperidad’, in XXII Reunión Anual de ANPOCS (Caxambu: Mimeo, evangelical movement must learn bet- social minorities. This process was 7 See ‘charismatic leadership’, in Max 1998); Hilario Wynarczyk et al., ‘Héctor ter organizational skills (how to intensified in the 1980s. In the same Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Aníbal Giménez y Carlos Annacondia’, in develop big projects and events), the way, I think, a ‘mass movement’ took Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley and Los Ange- Nuevos movimientos religiosos y ciencias sociales charismatic fervour (that was present, place in the evangelical and Pente- les, CA: University of Press, 1978). (Buenos Aires: CEAL, 1993), 49-96; Alejandro of course, in classic Pentecostalism) costal areas, resulting in a loss of any 8 For a conceptualization of some kind of Frigerio, ed., El Pentecostalismo en la Argentina and a high level of individual commit- sense of institutional authority over ‘kierkegaardianism’ and the evangelical iden- (Buenos Aires: CEAL, 1994); Daniel Míguez, tity, see Harvey Cox, La religión en la ciudad ‘To help you Find God’: The making of a Pente- ment. Of course, learning these new the pastors or ‘apostles’ and the devel- secular. Hacia una teología posmoderna, trans. costal identity in a Buenos Aires suburb (Ams- attitudes must be carried out critically, opment of extremely polarised think- Jesús García Abril (Santander: Sal Terrae terdam: Vrije Universitat, 1997). taking care to avoid, for example, the ing about good and evil, sin and sancti- [orig. 1984], 1985), 225. 304 David A. Roldán Dilemmas in the Evangelical Movement and its Theology 305 churches there is much more freedom the Latin American Theological towards reductionism in this move- relation to our governments? Are not and democracy than within.9 Fraternity. ment: the reduction of theology to mis- those governments themselves the To conclude this approach, I would e. A Trinitarian view that, for today siology, and from missiology to a non- main agents who must take responsi- say that the Neo-Pentecostal move- in our context, means to revisit political action—so to speak; the FTL bility for these matters? If so, we prob- ment has received great responsibility the Father as the creator of always had to think of itself in relation ably have to make a distinction together with this great power in their heaven and earth, and his inter- to ‘political’ Latin American Liberation between a prophetic role in reclaiming hands. The question is whether they est in a reality far beyond the Theology.10 social justice on the one hand, and cre- (primarily the leaders, pastors or apos- ‘four walls of our churches’. In this sense, the evangelical move- ating theological foundations for this tles) will past ‘the test of power’. f. The structuring and organising ment must think deeply about the process on the other. At the same time, In terms of its own self-conscious- of institutions and processes process of secularization. It is true that we must continue to share the full ness, the evangelical movement should that have previously developed for the people of Israel it was neces- gospel of God and show God’s care for carefully consider in what aspects the in an ad-hoc and independent, sary that the same religious leaders the poor and weak. Neo-Pentecostal movement is an autonomous manner; for exam- were in charge of religious activities as If we focus our theological reflec- example to follow and what aspects ple, the formal education of our well as national social and political tion in a way that takes secularization 11 should be avoided. The symbolic (and leadership, the process of mutual activities. But we can see, in this jux- seriously, claims for human rights, political?) pressure is so great that the learning, etc. taposition, the abuse of the priestly and the value of the law (still very phenomenon should not be ignored. g. An examination of non-formal caste, with no democratic dynamics. In weak in our context), we can see our Let me summarize some criteria that learning—for example, public the process of secularization, which mission more clearly: to preach the evangelical discourse, mass gospel of God and repentance from could be useful in this task: began in Europe in the 17th and 18th media, evangelical journalism, sins. Looking at the strictly theological a. The centrality and authority of centuries, the scene was significantly etc. field, as evangelical Hispanic speakers the Holy Scripture over all kind changed. So the question is whether h. Monitoring (and reduction) of of Latin America, we have a very great of leaders or ‘spiritual chieftains’, we can still consider the churches as manipulation; the fact that Christ responsibility. If I am not wrong, we do and the communitarian reading the main bodies responsible for ‘social wants ‘slaves’ (doulos) does not not have even one ‘systematic theol- of Scripture. justice’ in the world. b. The personal experience of con- mean that we should be slaves of ogy’ developed in our context by an our pastors—probably we need It is clear that we as evangelicals evangelical Hispanic speaking author version and the fullness of the have an ‘integral mission’, but beyond Holy Spirit are experiences that to revisit the metaphor of becom- (with relatively high status). What ing ‘friends of Jesus’. this ‘evangelical self-consciousness’ come closest to this are the must be integrated within the Teología In the strictly theological dimen- (of an integral gospel), and ministry to Abierta, of Juan Luis Segundo, and Lib- community of believers that sion, the evangelical movement is at care for the needy in society, what is eration Theology, of , seeks to renew these experi- present clearly without any focus or our role in reclaiming ‘social justice’ in but both of these are Catholics. ences. serious activity. The exception is the To some extent, the classical evan- c. The development of a sense of Latin American Theological Fraternity gelical movement which we expected personal responsibility, with (FTL), which is, without doubt, the 10 Some classical books are: Gustavo Gutiér- freedom and critical thinking, major movement of Evangelical Latin rez, Teología de la Liberación: perspectivas, 15th and the preaching of a prophetic ed. (Salamanca: Sígueme [orig. 1971], 1994); American theologians. But even this kerygma for the society. Juan Luis Segundo, Liberación de la teología 11 Jürgen Habermas, Der philosophische group of theologians is idle in the pro- (Buenos Aires: Carlos Lohlé, 1975); Juan Luis Diskurs der Moderne (Frankfurt am Main: d. A commitment to ‘Integral Mis- duction of theological thinking; in the sion’, which is a great legacy of Segundo, Teología abierta para el laico adulto, 5 Suhrkamp Verlag, 1985); El discurso filosófico Spanish language it has a diminishing vols. (Buenos Aires: Carlos Lohlé, 1968); José de la modernidad, trans. Manuel Jiménez presence in the publication of new con- Porfirio Miranda, El ser y el Mesías (Sala- Redondo (Buenos Aires: Katz Editores [orig. cepts, although fortunately, in Brazil, manca: Sígueme, 1973); Enrique Dussel, Para 1985], 2008); Harvey Cox, The Secular City. 9 Jean Pierre Bastian, Historia del protes- they are still publishing the classic una ética de la Liberación Latinoamericana, 5 Secularization and Urbanization in a Theological tantismo en América Latina, 2º ed. (México: Edi- vols. (Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 1973); Perspective (New York: The Macmillan Com- ciones CUPSA, 1990); Jean Pierre Bastian, La Boletin Teológico that was discontin- , Igreja: carisma e poder. Ensaios pany, 1965); Hans Blumenberg, La legiti- Mutación Religiosa en América Latina (Mexico: ued several years ago in Spanish. de Eclesiologia militante (San Pablo: Editora mación de la Edad Moderna (Valencia: Pre-tex- Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1997). We can see some clear trends Ática, 1994). tos, 2008). 306 David A. Roldán ERT (2010) 34:4, 307-312 to fill this need (the Latin American turalism,15 and even some kind of Theological Fraternity) passed over Marxism.16 In all these manifestations The In-Roads of Evangelical this task, with its reduction of theology we can find ‘anti-theoretical’ forces. to missiology. Some Latin American The idea of ‘notion’ (Begriff in Theology and the Evangelical theologians must say, ‘Excuse me, I Hegelian philosophy), is not a ‘dead want to do “theoretical theology”’ or thought’ or merely ideal reality that Movement in Latin American ‘I’m interested in academia’. But in say- can be confronted with material real- ing this, we have to be aware that this ity: ‘notion’ is really living and has its is not a ‘privative’ issue of Latin Amer- own activity in history and reality. This Spanish-Speaking Countries ican theology, or theology itself in our approach seems to be obsolete, and time. Other theoretical fields are suf- today the ‘important things’ have noth- fering parallel movements in the ing to do with ‘thought’: instead the J. Daniel Salinas legacy of North-American Pragma- focus is on action or praxis. Now I may tism:12 the legacy of Existentialism,13 be an ‘idealist’ or retrogressive, but I KEYWORDS: Latin American church, and depended heavily on foreign mis- the postmodernist14 mood, post-struc- consider that thought does really mat- ter; as a Christian evangelical, and a Pentecostalism, Latin American evan- sionaries. During the mid 1950s, ‘friend of Jesus Christ’, theology is gelical theology. Colombia, my native land, was recover- vitally important to me and has value in ing from a period of extreme political 12 Related to names like Charles Peirce, itself. So I am pleased to be a member I HAD THE PRIVILEGE of being born in an violence that turned into a religious William James, and recently, Richard Rorty. of the Theological Commission of the evangelical home. My father became an persecution by Catholic priests. Evan- 13 Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (précédé de Question de méthode). World Evangelical Alliance. evangelical in his mid-twenties. He is gelicals were expelled from their farm- Tome I Théorie des ensembles pratiques (: now eighty-one, so he has been an evan- lands and forced to flee to the cities Gallimard, 1960); Jean-Paul Sartre, El existen- gelical for over half a century. Let me without any recourse to reclaim their cialismo es un humanismo (Buenos Aires: Edi- tell you what he has seen in his lifetime properties. My mother’s side of the fam- ciones del 80, 1992); Jean-Paul Sartre, Le Être 15 Michel Foucault, Les Mots et les Choses in the evangelical church. My father’s ily had this experience, losing all their et le Neant (Paris: Gallimard, 1943); El ser y la (Paris: Gallimard, 1966); Jaques Derrida, L’E- nada, trans. Juan Valmar (Buenos Aires: criture et la Différence (Paris: Seuil, 1967). conversion took place while he worked farming land and having to flee to the Losada, 2004); Maurice Merleau-Ponty, ‘El 16 Against this, see Alain Badiou, Manifeste as a truck driver. A mechanic in his city. Furthermore, there was an official marxismo occidental’, in Las aventuras de la pour la philosophie (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, company shared the evangelical faith propaganda campaign where the mili- dialéctica, trans. León Rozitchner (Buenos 1989); trans. Manifiesto por la filosofía, trans. with him and then through Bible read- tary government accused evangelicals Aires: La Pléyade, 1974), 37-69; Maurice Mer- Victoriano Alcantud Serrano (Buenos Aires: ing and conversations with other evan- of having an alliance with communism leau-Ponty, Existencialismo y marxismo, trans. Nueva Visión [orig. 1989], 2007); Alain 2 Bernardo Guillén (Buenos Aires: Deucalión, Badiou, San Pablo. La fundación del universal- gelicals, the Lord changed his heart. in order to destroy national unity. 1954). ismo (Madrid: Anthropos, 1999); Hannah At that time the evangelical church 14 Jean-François Lyotard, La condition post- Arendt, The life of Mind (New York: Harcourt in Colombia was quite small (0.34%)1 moderne: rapport sur le savoir (Paris: Minuit Brace Jovanovich, 1978); trans. La vida del 2 William Beltrán, ‘El Evangelicalismo y el 1979); Marshall Berman, ‘Brindis por la mod- espíritu, trans. Carmen Corral y Fina Birulés Movimiento Pentecostal en Colombia en el ernidad’, in El debate modernidad posmod- (Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2002). 1 P. S. J. Damboriena, El Protestantismo en Siglo XX,’ in Historia del Cristianismo en Colom- ernidad: edición ampliada y actualizada, ed. América Latina: La Situación del Protestantismo bia: Corrientes y Diversidad, ed. Ana María Nicolás Casullo (Buenos Aires: Retórica Edi- en los países latino-americanos (Friburg, Bidegian, 451-480, (Bogotá: Taurus, 2004), ciones, 2004), 87-105. Switzerland: FERES, 1963), Vol.2, 25. 462.

J. Daniel Salinas, MA, PhD, a native of Colombia, serves as the General Secretary of Grupo Biblico Universitario de Paraguay (GBUP), a member group of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES), in Asuncion, Paraguay. This is an edited version of a paper delivered at the WEA Theological Commission Consultation on ‘Evangelical Theology and the Evangelical Movement in Latin America’ held 24- 25 July 2009 in São Paulo, Brasil. 308 J. Daniel Salinas The Evangelical Movement in Latin American Spanish-Speaking Countries 309

Therefore, when my dad became an Bible institute for a year, with the idea tions; consequently the standards for a combination of factors, my father left evangelical he was taking a huge risk. of becoming a minister. There he met pastors were lowered with the subse- the denomination to which he had He was becoming part of a very small and married my mother. Things did not quent loss in depth. Teaching, in gen- belonged for over four decades to sup- minority without any civil rights in the work out as planned in order to become eral, became superficial, emphasizing port a group started by a self-appointed midst of a culturally homogeneous a pastor. After starting a family and external behavior over doctrinal under- ‘apostle’, a new breed of leaders that is Catholic society. returning to his former job, Dad standing. Some strong and charismatic stirring the ecclesiastical waters. I French sociologist Jean Pierre Bas- together with a couple of other believ- pastors wanted to impose their per- was surprised by his strong support of tian described evangelicals in Latin ers opened up a congregation in his sonal agendas and branched out on this person even against his wife’s America as ‘religious dissidents, neighborhood of lower class working their own, forming their private eccle- advice. adopting an exogenous religious people. He became a bi-vocational pas- siastical empires. Many of these events Lately I heard he changed churches worldview’. For Bastian, evangelical- tor, working during the day and were table talk at home and the subject again. This time the reason was more ism constitutes a minority and mar- preaching nights and weekends. He for much prayer at the church. logistical, a long walk to take public ginal ‘continental subculture’, a ‘com- worked non-stop. A few years later, my Another aspect that was lost with transportation and the time of the plex and plural religious movement… father was part of a key movement. the change in leadership from foreign- buses and late services. He now goes to constituted by various types and char- This was the movement from foreign to ers to nationals was the social work of a church a few blocks from home and acteristics’.3 Following this idea of reli- native leadership that took several the church. The congregation my when possible visits other congrega- gious dissidence, Peruvian Samuel years and a tug-of-war with the mis- father helped start also had an elemen- tions in the area. As one of my sisters Escobar explained that, ‘evangelical sionaries who thought the nationals tary school and a small clinic. My sis- says, it’s good he keeps busy and has churches occupied in Latin America were not ready to take over. ters and I attended the school and lots of friends. He has never suffered society the role of contestant groups to The experience that my father had received medical attention at the retirement depression. A life well starting a local congregation was clinic. Both the school and the clinic lived! the official church, critical minorities, extending all over the country, of disappeared when the denomination I would say that my father’s spiri- which together with other social course under the watchful eye of the split and the congregation went local. tual journey reflects in some ways the groups wanted to open to the future a missionaries. When the differences of My sisters and I, together with 80 story of Latin American evangelicals. close and medieval society, marked methodologies, vision and probably other children, were forced to find Churches with a strong missionary still by feudalism’.4 some human pride became impossible schools somewhere else. I guess presence and support were generally I do not think my father would have to overcome, most of the churches of finances were part of it. Most of the the norm until the 1960s—including used these exact words to describe his the denomination with which my father believers, including my father, were even the Pentecostal denominations. experience but for him the official was associated decided to form a just trying to survive with meagre With few exceptions, like the church offered no spiritual life. We national denomination, cutting all ties incomes and growing families. The Methodist Pentecostal Church in Chile, need to remember that the Catholicism with foreign organizations and funds. school and the clinic were a big help to churches were a reflection of the dom- that came to Latin America was a pre- For better or worse my father was in the church. Legal hurdles, lack of inant missionary presence. But soon Reformation, pre-Trent Catholicism. the forefront of a new development of teachers and personnel were probably native leaders started to come up and All the vices and problems of European indigenous churches. I remember well the main reasons. Also, it was not easy thus began a new chapter of the history medieval popular religion were when he told us the new name for our to break with financial dependency. of the church, the chapter of indige- exported to these lands. church. Initially things were done the Over the years my father has also nous churches. Soon after conversion, my father, ‘old way’ but not for long. Nationals been instrumental in starting churches These churches were in constant encouraged by a missionary, went to a proved to be aggressive evangelists in some rural areas, as well as other search of their own identity. Some con- and able administrators, even amidst urban congregations in the fast grow- tinued with the traditions of the mis- continuous divisions and power strug- ing city. He travelled quite a bit during sionaries, while others trod new paths gles. weekends to preach and teach in other and developed different understand- 3 J.P. Bastian, Historia del Protestantismo en América Latina (México: Casa Unida de Publi- The new denomination grew swiftly places where groups of believers ings of their faith. Pentecostalism caciones, 1990), 9. and growth brought new challenges. needed encouragement. This is a prac- became the predominant expression of 4 Samuel Escobar, ‘¿Qué significa ser There were not enough prepared peo- tice he continues today even in his these native churches. But even among evangélico hoy?’ Misión 1 (1982), 17. ple to lead the many new congrega- advanced age. Not long ago and due to Pentecostals there has been room for 310 J. Daniel Salinas The Evangelical Movement in Latin American Spanish-Speaking Countries 311 lots of manipulation and creativity. As explosive combo of religious empires.6 gious field and spirituality.8 When I was able to visit the United I mentioned earlier, personal agendas Access to media and political connec- Furthermore, even with a com- States in my early thirties, I realized and leadership styles have atomized tions have added to this latest ecclesi- pletely Latin American leadership, that the liturgy I grew up with was a the churches into myriads of local con- astical fashion, which enjoys a popu- churches in general have not become direct translation from the Anglo- gregations and denominations each larity seldom experienced before by doctrinally and theologically indepen- Saxon tradition. The music, the organi- one with historical amnesia and a any evangelical denomination or dent. With a few exceptions, even zation of religious ceremonies, the sense of being better than its ances- church. today theological trends from the north Sunday school materials, age separa- tors. Still the question remains if these are accepted and assimilated without tions, etc. were all a copy of how things According to researcher Paul Fre- movements could be considered evan- questioning. ‘Church Growth’, ‘Spiri- were done in the missionaries’ home ston, gelical at all. According to William Bel- tual Warfare’, ‘Spiritual Mapping’, countries. Rene Padilla explains that With variations, one can say that trán, a Colombian researcher associ- ‘New Apostles’ together with the this is a clear sign of theological depen- Latin American Protestantism is ated with the National University, Neo- accompanying methodologies have dency. characterized by being highly prac- Pentecostals do not called themselves inundated these lands. The Latin American church is a ticing and fast-growing, predomi- evangelical mainly because such a I remember a conversation with a church without its own theological nantly lower class, and organized term ‘is highly stigmatized’ as a syn- missionary among Quechuas in reflection. Does anyone doubt it? in a plethora of nationally run and onym of a ‘religious fanatical’. Neither Bolivia. He explained that for a Let them check out how much of even nationally created denomina- have they liked the name Pentecostal Quechua person it usually takes close our Christian literature is translat- tions. Perhaps two-thirds of Latin since they consider traditional Pente- to five years to change the animistic ed from English and how little we America’s fifty million or so costalism ‘fundamentalist’ and highly worldview with spirits (good and evil) have written. Let them see how Protestants are Pentecostals… ‘legalistic’.7 in nature. My missionary friend much of our preaching is reduced to and this percentage is increasing. Another recent study of Colombian explained that it is a huge change when a mere repetition of badly assimi- Protestantism is most pentecostal- Pentecostals describes them as, a Quechua person says that the God of lated doctrinal formulas, without ized in Chile (perhaps 80 percent) •Explosive and dynamic in the the Bible is the only God and the whole any insertion in our historical reali- and least in the Andean countries cities particularly among the earth is his. But when the ‘Spiritual ty. They should look at how many (fewer than half).5 more popular and impoverished Warfare’ doctrine came with its teach- of our churches keep the theologi- Divisions brought not only variety population. ing of regional and local spiritual cal colouring of the founding mis- but also innovation. Somewhere in the • Inarticulate, anarchical, and con- beings and several spiritual hierar- sions and understand theological process a stronger break gave birth to flictive among themselves and chies, it gave the people the idea that studies basically as the study of the the so-called Neo-Pentecostals even with the Catholic Church. their animistic beliefs were right and doctrinal distinctiveness of the though this name is not quite accurate. • Potentially able to mobilize for they did not need to change them. churches to which they owe their Pentecostals say they did not parent electoral purposes, socially pas- According to my friend, the ‘Spiritual origin. They should examine the this baby and deny any connections. sive, and an atomizer of the reli- Warfare’ theory pushed back many faculty and the programs of most of Neo-Pentecostalism has mixed popular years the evangelistic effort among our seminaries and Bible institutes. beliefs, native spiritualities, some Quechuas and made it a hundred times Let them review our hymns and 9 witchcraft, and a little bit of biblical more difficult. songs. The analysis of all these teaching with the latest managerial 6 See, Segura Osías, ‘El evangelicalismo pop- aspects of our ecclesiastical reality theories and models to produce an ular: ¡Una cosmovisión sincrética!’, Paper pre- will show them that our ‘theologi- sented at the FTL consultation ‘Por una igle- 8 Pablo P. Moreno, Escenarios de la presencia cal dependency’ is as real and sia renovada y siempre renovándose’, San evangélica en Colombia 1991-2001, Ponencia urgent as the dependency that José, Costa Rica, October 21st, 2005. presentada en la primera consulta nacional characterizes Third World coun- 7 Cely Beltrán, William Mauricio, Frag- sobre la paz, 49ª asamblea nacional de tries. It is true that here and there mentación y recomposición del campo religioso en CEDECOL, Cali, Colombia, Mayo 27-31, 2002, 5 Paul Freston, ed., Evangelical Christianity Bogotá: un acercamiento a la descripción del plu- 3. some Latin Americans have started and Democracy in Latin America (Oxford; OUP, ralismo religioso de la ciudad (Universidad 9 Personal conversation with D. Delzer, mis- to stammer out their ‘own’ theolo- 2008), 15. Nacional de Colombia, 2009), 180. sionary with the Brethren in Sucre, Bolivia. gy but their efforts are still incipi- 312 J. Daniel Salinas ERT (2010) 34:4, 313-318

ent and do not affect by any means developed in four decades of work. By the total picture the church in Latin and large, theological dependency still Poverty and the Gospel: America presents, that is, a church characterizes the evangelical church in without a theology, without consci- Latin America. The Case of Haiti entious reflection that serves the Thus, evangelicals in Latin America Word of God.10 are still searching for their identity. In What Padilla wrote in the early sev- spite of decades of indigenous leader- enties is still relevant today. There is a ship and national denominations we Dieumeme Noelliste (USA) need to work out a Latin American have not yet answered in unison the question of what it means to be the peo- evangelical theology. Today if we visit KEYWORDS: Theodicy, colonialism, Americas, has been reputed as the ple of God in this continent. Most have a church, a seminary, or a Bible insti- nationalism, missions, evangelism jus- poorest country in the western hemi- their eyes fixed on the North Atlantic tute in any country of Latin America we tice, health sphere. theological and methodological latest will probably find mostly translated For Haitians, this label which has trends. Maybe we are experiencing a textbooks and curricula. For example, become a leading descriptor for the prolonged adolescence, procrastinat- POVERTY IS PERHAPS the most stubborn as of today, there is no systematic the- country has always been a cause of ing as long as possible being responsi- and troubling ill of our world. It is a ology text written by Latin Americans. great angst. It pains us because it vir- ble adults. We need to be centred in the plague that affects a very large What we see in the majority of tually overshadows all the positive fea- Scriptures and totally dependent on portion of the human race and keeps churches is a flood of books by the billions from reaching the potential tures of the country’s culture, its proud the Holy Spirit to take the challenge of evangelical gurus from the North with- that God intends for them. Because it achievements, and the positive traits of becoming an instrument of transforma- out any criteria to filter them. You can interferes with the fulfillment of God’s the character of its people. It grieves tion in God’s hands. find books by Don Carson or Wayne purpose for human life, it is an ill that us even more intensely when we real- But so far we have remained at the Grudem alongside books written by must be combated by the gospel ize that, though pejorative, the descrip- fringes of history. A university student wherever it is found—its stubborn- Benny Hinn and Jerry Falwell. The pre- tion is nonetheless accurate. told me once that if one day evangeli- ness notwithstanding. dominant tendency today is the so The evidence in support of the cals completely disappear nobody will Perhaps in no other part of the called ‘prosperity gospel’ even among unfavourable assessment is irrefutable miss them. They contribute almost world has this enemy of human flour- some traditional denominations. Only and apparent to the naked eye. The sta- nothing to civil society in a macro- a handful of churches know the theo- ishing been more voracious and brutal tistics establishing the country’s level. Since this conversation I have logical proposal that the Latin Ameri- than the Caribbean nation of Haiti—my appalling condition are common tried to show otherwise, but the more I can Theological Fraternity-FTL has homeland. Although situated in a knowledge: eighty percent of the popu- research the more difficult it is to find region of the world classified as middle lation of 9,000,000 live under the hard evidence to prove that is not the income, Haiti has never moved poverty line. Fifty percent of these live case. Perhaps I should revisit more remotely close to that status during its in abject poverty, surviving on a pit- often my father’s journey and see what 10 C. René Padilla, ‘La Teología en Lati- life as a nation. Once recognized as the tance of $1 per day. Well over fifty per- his conversion has meant not only for noamérica’, Pensamiento Cristiano 19, no. 75 most productive of France’s many cent of the population is illiterate. Two- (1972): 206. him but mainly for me. colonies, the country, which has thirds of its workforce is unemployed. earned the distinction of being the first Thousands are working in near slavery independent black republic of the conditions in the sugar cane planta- world and a beacon of freedom in the tions of the Dominican Republic.

Dieumeme Noelliste (PhD Northwestern) is Professor of Theological Ethics and Director of the Grounds Institute for Public Ethics at Denver Seminary, Colorado USA. He was previously President of the Caribbean Graduate School of Theology and of the Jamaica Theological Seminary. He studied law in his home country at the State University of Haiti. 314 Dieumeme Noelliste Poverty and the Gospel: The Case of Haiti 315

Eighty percent of the land, which was because of the inability of a bankrupt argued that theirs was a hybrid religion tion of the country by the colonial pow- once called the Pearl of the Antilles on government to provide the barest of which reflected more their ancestral ers in response to the success of the account of its natural beauty and help to the citizens when they needed beliefs than biblical faith, one must Haitian revolution and the subsequent wealth is denuded and suffers from it most. Poverty was their lot in life and remember that the Christianity to proclamation of its independence from severe deforestation. Hundreds of it continued to haunt them in death. which they were introduced was by no France. Construed as a ‘bad’ example thousands of children are orphans. One The treatment they received in death means virgin. It was itself far from and a dangerous threat to the prevail- in eight suffers from malnutrition, and clearly showed that their predicament being faithful to biblical teaching. ing global colonial system, the powers untold thousands live in virtual slavery was that of poverty of being and per- For its part, immediately following that held sway on the global scene in a condition called ‘restavek’.1 Little sonhood. emancipation and the proclamation of were determined to kill that chicken in wonder that the country ranks 146 of But this land which for two cen- a hard-won independence in 1804, the egg. They did so by denying the 177 when measured by the U.N. turies now has been the bastion of mis- Protestantism made its entry into the country its rightful place in the concert Human Development Index. ery and suffering is not foreign to country with missionaries coming from of nations, arguing that such an admis- As if this situation were not dismal Christianity. It is not one of those the United Kingdom and the United sion would be detrimental to their eco- enough, the country has just been vis- ‘pagan’ places where the name of God States. While Catholicism continued to nomic interest and would deal a devas- ited by the worst disaster in its history. is unknown, where Christ is rejected, remain the dominant and official faith tating blow to the reigning racist ideol- The 7.0 earthquake that shook the the Bible questioned, and the church of the new nation, Protestantism grad- ogy. With its back against the wall, island on January 12 has ravaged Port- persecuted. Indeed, in the midst of ually earned a substantial share of the Haiti was forced to pay a whopping au-Prince, reducing the capital city of 2 their tragic and horrible travail country’s population, with explosive 150,000,000 golden franks to France million to rubble. Mercilessly, it Haitians prayed and sang to God. They growth occurring during the second in exchange for its recognition of the destroyed what little infrastructure the did not heed Mrs. Job’s advice to ‘curse half of the last century. Already by the country’s hard won independence. country had, demolished thousands of God and die’, rather they turned to him mid-1980s Protestantism claimed France’s imprimatur was considered homes and public buildings, and urging their fellow sufferers to ‘accept some twenty-five percent of the coun- by its colonial counterparts a prerequi- claimed some two hundred and thirty Jesus’. There is, of course, a theodicy try’s population. This means that when site for their own recognition and the thousand lives. The disaster will cer- question that could detain us long, but the shares of the two religious sectors subsequent ending of the global eco- tainly result in a further lowering of the I will not allow it. My concern is a dif- are added up, we have a Christian pres- nomic and political embargo that was country’s already poor ranking. Per- ferent one. It is a query to the Christian ence of over eighty percent! Even when slapped against the fledgling and haps now it will be known as the poor- faith about its failure to allow the allowance is made for the phenomenon embattled new nation. est country in the world. Preliminary gospel to exert its transforming influ- of syncretism, which is reportedly It is well established practice that, estimates put the cost of the devasta- ence in the Haitian landscape. more prevalent within Catholicism in wars, the winners get the spoils. In tion at ten billion U.S. dollars. The Since the sixteenth century, the than Protestantism, the Christian pres- Haiti’s case, however, the reverse country’s GDP is only 7.0 billion U.S. Christian presence on the island has ence is still considerable. The obvious obtained! The victor was required to dollars! been strong. Introduced first in the question to Christianity then is: how reward the vanquished for the ‘inso- Most of the victims of the tragedy form of Roman Catholicism by the can so much of it and so much poverty lence’ of winning and the audacity of are the poor. They were those who European colonizers, the Christian coexist so comfortably and for so long? cutting himself from the shackles of lived in the flimsy huts and were pul- religion was received with open arms There are many claimants to the oppression. Hence, instead of concen- verized in the wake of the mighty by both the Indians who inhabited the tragic predicament that plagues this trating on building itself as a nation, shakeup. Others perished needlessly island at the time of the ‘discovery’ and corner of God’s creation. Because for the next hundred years, Haiti would the blacks who were brought in from there are too many to unpack in this be forced to use its very meagre Africa to replace them as slave labour- brief paper, I will focus on the two resources to pay its ‘debt’ to France. At 1 ‘Restavek’ is Creole for ‘living with’. It is a ers following the decimation of the causes which bear more directly, on today’s rate, the crushing indemnity conflation of the French verb ‘rester’ and the original population. Even in the face of the theme of poverty and justice and amounts to $21 billion—three times French preposition ‘avec’. A ‘restavek’ is a the inhumanity of slavery perpetrated the challenge they pose for the authen- the size of the country’s present GDP! child whose condition of deprivation forces him or her to live with a family other than against the Africans by the ‘evangeliz- tic gospel proclamation. Any objective This was an injustice from which his/her own for food and shelter in exchange ers’ themselves, the slaves continued exploration into the Haitian situation the country would be hard pressed to for the performance of unpaid manual labour. to embrace Christianity warmly. If it is cannot fail to focus on the total isola- recover. Any question about its impact 316 Dieumeme Noelliste Poverty and the Gospel: The Case of Haiti 317 on the future of the fledgling new nation’s corporate landscape. Through meticulous empirical in particular. All suffer from such rep- nation should be settled by the recog- The reason for this is to be found in research, Poisset has demonstrated rehensible neglect, but the poor suffer nition that even today, short of war, the fact that, through the years, Hait- that this Protestant desertion of the even more dearly. economic and political isolation is the ian Christianity, in both of its expres- political domain is due to the erection Here again, I don’t want to be mis- most effective weapon that is resorted sions, has left untouched a crucially of a rigid dichotomy between the spiri- understood. The church and the to when efforts are made to bring a important sector of public life: the tual and the temporal, the hereafter numerous social service agencies that country on its knees and force it to fall political sphere. As many thinkers and the now, the church and the world. are working in the country have done a in line. Yet, as has often been the case have shown, Catholicism did so by its For Haitian Protestants, the gospel is lot to alleviate poverty and provide a throughout the history of the church, close alliance with the temporal power. believed to hold sway in the first set of whole gamut of social services to global Christianity was silent in the Recently Laennec Hurbon, for realities, but is said to be persona non assist the poor. As bad as the Haitian face of the crushing injustice that was instance, has demonstrated in his grata in the second.3 The net conse- predicament is, it would have been meted out to Haiti. In both of its book, Religions et Lien Social, that from quence of this stance is the abandon- worse without their effort. But though expressions, it will make valiant the colonial period well into the late ment of the political domain to its own helpful and necessary, such action has efforts to spread the faith by deploying 1900s, the Catholic church in Haiti has devices. It contributed to the emer- its limits. It cannot result in the estab- a constant flow of missionaries in the served as an arm of the state, obedi- gence of a public square bereft of evan- lishment of the kind of structures and country, but by and large it will keep ently executing the bidding of the polit- gelical witness and prophetic chal- institutions which are capable of trans- aloof from justice issues such as the ical directorate. By virtue of its close- lenge. forming the centuries-old culture of one highlighted above. Indeed, such ness to the powers that be, the church In places where rigorous systems of poverty. These can come only from the commitment has been viewed as a nec- lacked all ability to engage the political checks and balances exist, this with- political powers which have control essary trade off for what was deemed sphere critically.2 Laennec took pains drawal from the political arena might over all of the country’s resources. To more valuable: the ‘freedom’ to preach to show that because Francois Duva- not be catastrophic. But in a country deliver these basic goods for the wel- the ‘gospel’. Are there burning justice lier (the Father) knew this well, early such as Haiti where these things are fare of the society in general and the issues in our world today that the on in his regime, he made the subjuga- virtually nonexistent, the absence of a poor in particular, they must be chal- church is willing to overlook in tion of the church a top priority. rigorous gospel critique meant lenged, since it is not in their DNA to absolute power and total lack of exchange for the freedom to preach a For its part, Protestantism con- do so unprompted. truncated gospel? accountability on the part of the pow- In a context such as Haiti, to mean- tributed to the same phenomenon but Besides this external factor, there is ers that be.4 This absence of account- ingfully serve the poor, the church can by adopting the opposite stance: total an internal culprit for the situation of ability, not the country’s economic sta- no longer afford to preach a gospel disengagement. For Haitian Protes- wretchedness that we are bemoaning. tus, is what explains the nonexistence devoid of a political edge. To blunt that tantism, when it comes to the relation- My acquaintance with the Haitian of the most basic structure of services edge is to nullify its transforming ship between the church and the state, landscape, and my life experience in for the society in general and the poor potential and make it into an accom- the watchword and bedrock principle that land of deprivation, leaves no plice of the status quo. The political is a-politicalism. In an exhaustive doubt in my mind that the kind of directorate knows this well. That is gospel that Haitian Christianity has study entitled Le Protestantisme Dans la why it never tires of reminding the propounded in the country over the Societe Haitienne, sociologist theolo- 3 Charles Poisset Romain, Le Protestantisme church that its role is confined to the gian, Charles Poisset Romain has Dans la Sociétéï Haïtienne (Port-au-Prince: years has a great deal to do with the Henri Deschamps, 1985), 234-279. ‘spiritual’ and that it must not trespass condition that prevailed in the land. I shown that for Protestants of all on the political. The church must reject colours, the church should have no say 4 There are certainly good reasons for this don’t want to be misunderstood here. It absence of evangelical critique. The climate of such reductionism and rigid dualism. It is beyond question that Christian faith in things political except praying for political repression and the denial of basic needs to realize that because the has contributed to the salvation and those in authority. human rights throughout the country’s history gospel aims at the enjoyment of the social uplift of countless thousands of and particularly during the Duvalierian fullness of life, of necessity, it carries individual Haitians—myself included. dynasty made such witness extremely danger- serious political implications. The ous. My point here, however, is not to explain But what should be clear is that Chris- 2 Laennec Hurbon, Religions et Lien Social the reasons for the absence of that witness, political sphere bears enormously on tian faith has not been allowed to have (Paris: Les Editions du Cerf, 2004), 217, 224- but to underscore the consequence of that the kind of life that people live. Indeed, a commensurate impact on the 229. absence. its very reason for being is to promote 318 Dieumeme Noelliste ERT (2010) 34:4, 319-334 and enhance the experience of life. Its church could cite repression and the purpose is to serve the common good. fear of reprisals as existential reasons Edinburgh 2010 and the To remove that sphere from the for its posture of disengagement from purview of the gospel and exempt it the political domain, the recent loosen- Evangelicals from its critique is to castrate the ing of the political knot with the advent gospel itself and render it impotent in of multi-party politics and the recogni- a society that desperately needs its tion of some freedom of expression transforming ferment. undoubtedly render such explanation Klaus Fiedler It is beyond question that these no longer compelling. The risks of days of suffering, disgrace, and shame retaliation and recrimination still Keywords: Ecumenical movement, are the darkest in the history of the exist. But the opportunity for the unity, revivals, missionary societies, country. But they will not be its final church to assert itself and reclaim its faith missions, classical missions, con- organized by John Mott of the Student moments. In fact, I see in them a criti- right to speak prophetically has never version, ecclesiology Volunteer Movement (SVM), the fore- cal juncture, a turning point for a bet- been greater. The church must not let runner of the World Student Christian ter tomorrow. I see in these calamities that opportunity slip away. It must Federation (WSCF)? John Mott was the unprecedented opportunity for the seize it, and resolve to no longer allow I Edinburgh 1910 in Context indeed influenced by the SVM, and the church to resolve to proclaim, live, and the political power to take it away. Edinburgh 1910 was a huge success, WSCF was indeed its successor, but demonstrate the full gospel in the Hait- Third, in recent times, various bod- and success always has many fathers, Edinburgh 1910 was not a students’ ian context. Three factors combine to ies within global evangelism have been including some who only claim to be conference. When finally Edinburgh make this moment opportune. awakened to the truth that if the evan- such. As the Christian world (or much 1985 took place, what happened there First, if anyone ever thought that it gelical witness is to have a chance of of it) celebrates this event after 100 seemed to bear little resemblance to was a benign matter for a society to transforming society in any meaningful years, there are several heirs, all what had excited the Christian (or at have a completely unaccountable gov- way, and in so doing improve the plight claiming that they continue with the least the Protestant) world so much 75 ernment, the tragedy of January 12 of the poor, such a witness must go spirit, or the achievements, or the years before. The main speakers were: should disabuse them of such a mis- beyond poverty alleviation and the pro- structures of that conference. Emilio Castro (then WCC General Sec- guided view. In the aftermath of the vision of social services. It must I was first alerted to this syndrome retary), Kosuke Koyama, Annathaie earthquake, it is evident to all that include social action and social advo- when the World Student Christian Fed- Abayasekera, Enrique Dussel, Orlando thousands of lives would have been cacy. At this time, if the Haitian church eration in 1985 seized the opportunity Costas, Mercy Amba Oduyoye and saved if the country were equipped musters the courage to embrace the of the 75th anniversary of Edinburgh Leonardo Appies. They mostly looked with the most basic disaster prepared- challenge of political engagement,5 it 1910 to celebrate it with its own con- for the ‘Greater Christ’ of whom John ness and response system, and if it had will find much encouragement and sup- ference.1 Was not Edinburgh 1910 Mott had spoken at the end of the Con- a government that felt the obligation to port from the broader evangelical ference. The ‘Greater Christ’ was seen provide a modicum of leadership in that world. Let us hope that it will do so. as the liberator from economic and moment of crisis. Feeling completely 1 In the invitation also shared the World political oppression, leaving little room unanswerable, the government was Council of Churches, the British Council of for the ‘smaller’ Christ as saviour and missing in action. And that irrespon- 5 By political engagement, I am not talking Churches, and 15 churches and missions. liberator from sin, or for the mission siveness proved fatal not only to the about involvement in partisan politics. I am poor, but the rich as well. Until help convinced that the church, as a corporate arrived from the international commu- body, should stay out of this in order to main- nity, the people were their own first tain the integrity of its prophetic witness. It is essentially this prophetic witness, this advo- Dr Klaus Fielder (ThD Heidelberg; PhD Dar-es-Salaam University) who has worked in Africa for more than responders, performing rescue opera- cacy and push for the creation of an environ- forty years, is Professor of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies, Mzuzu University, and tions with bare hands. ment conducive to the flourishing of human previously taught at the University of Malawi, Zomba. He is also guest Professor of Missiology at the Second, while in the past, the life, that I call political engagement. Evangelical Theological Faculty, Leuven, Belgium. His best known book is The Story of Faith Missions: From Hudson Taylor to Present Day Africa (2nd ed., Regnun, 1995); he is the author of a number of other works published in Africa. (Contact: [email protected]) 320 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 321 society as a means to spread that mes- to teach at the University. Trained as a new organizations, and missions are mission societies) that changed the sage.2 missiologist, I follow Kenneth Scott most prominent among these. Indeed, religious map of the world. It was the In this article I do not want to give Latourette in my understanding of the mission society was born at the mission societies (and not the an overall account of Edinburgh 1910,3 church history; Latourette bases his beginning of what Latourette calls the churches) that constituted the mem- nor do I want to lodge another claim to monumental work on the premise that ‘Great Century’,7 and it is worth quot- bership of the big Edinburgh confer- paternity; but I want to look at it nar- the Holy Spirit moves forward church ing William Carey for that: ence, 176 of them, 59 from North Amer- rowly from the evangelical angle, try- (and mission) history by bringing in Suppose a company of serious ica, 58 from the European Continent, ing to assess their (limited) share in ever new revivals that produce ever Christians, ministers and private 47 from Britain, 3 from South Africa 5 10 the conference and their (less limited) new organizations. persons, were to form themselves and 9 from Australasia. So I see Edin- place in the developments of the next During my research into the history into a society, and make a number burgh 1910 as the culmination of the 4 one hundred years. and ecclesiology of the [Interdenomi- of rules respecting the regulation of ‘Great Century’, dominated by the clas- 6 Grown up and converted in the Bap- national] Faith Missions movement, I the plan, and the persons who are sical Missions that were the children of tist (revival) tradition, I was brought developed my understanding of mis- to be employed as missionaries, the the . into ecumenical surroundings by a sions as children of revivals. When I means of defraying the expence, I write this article as an evangelical, WCC scholarship to study at Makerere had started in the 1950s to read the etc., etc. This society must consist and I owe my readers my definition of University in Kampala, Uganda; I have journals of the German missions, I saw of persons whose hearts are in the ‘Evangelical’, which may not be uncon- worked as a Christian Brethren mis- repeatedly that the missions are the work, men of serious religion, and testable. The evangelicals are a dis- sionary in Southern Tanzania, as a pas- children of the Revival, meaning the possessing a spirit of perseverance; tinct group among the Protestants, but tor and school teacher sixteen years in Great Awakening, which became there must be a determination not their identity, distinct as it is, is non- Germany, and came in 1991 to Malawi important in Germany around 1815. to admit any person who is not of demarcated. Evangelicals, in their many Thirty years later I realized how true this description, or to retain him groups and many forms, share five that was, but I had to add a plural ‘s’, longer than he answers to it.8 emphases: personal faith, conversion, because the missions by then were love for the Bible, evangelism/missions 2 Klaus W. Müller, ‘Auf der Suche nach We notice that in 1792, after the children of five different revivals, mis- and the translation of such faith in einem größeren Christus—In Search of a sion societies (not the churches) took Larger Christ. Studenten-Missions-Konferenz though the Classical Missions (as I call social engagement. Such evangelicals upon themselves the evangelization of Edinburgh/Schottland, 24.-28. Juni 1985. 75 them), coming from the Great Awaken- (‘in the wider sense’) are found in vir- Jahre nach der ersten Weltmissionskonferenz ing, at that time still strongly domi- the world, as Andrew Walls points out, tually all the Protestant denomina- in Edinburgh 1910’, Evangelikale Missiologie nated. Indeed, the Holy Spirit moves the Holy Spirit had made gentle fun of tions and, at least since the Charis- 1/1986, 7-13. forward church history by bringing in the churches (so well organized and so 3 For the full record of the Conference see: matic Revival, even in the Roman ever new revivals which produce ever busy with their own concerns) by set- Catholic Church. The other definition is World Missionary Conference, 1910 (Edinburgh ting them aside and pursuing his own & London: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier; New historical, in that it includes (only) York, Chicago and : Fleming H. Revell, course with those who were willing and 9 those Protestant groups and denomi- 1910). (These are the reports of the eight com- 5 For a good overview of Christian history interested. It was the revival (and its nations whose spirituality goes back to missions published before the Conference.) under these premises see the chapter, ‘A Brief the Holiness Revival of 1858 as I call it Summary of the Course thus far Traversed’ in After the Conference, the proceedings were or, as others call it, to the Second published as Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the World Missionary Conference, 11 1910. The History and Records of the Conference Expansion of Christianity, vol. 7, Advance 7 Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Evangelical Awakening. In this arti- (Edinburgh & London: Oliphant, Anderson & through Storm (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, Expansion of Christianity, vol. 7, 445, and vols Ferrier; New York, Chicago and Toronto: 51976, 1945), 416-465. 5 and 6 of his Mission History. Fleming H. Revell, 1910). All nine volumes are 6 Klaus Fiedler, Ganz auf Vertrauen. 8 William Carey, An Enquiry into the Obliga- 10 Listed in volume 9 of the conference now available on the Edinburgh 2010 website, Geschichte und Kirchenverständnis der Glaubens- tions of Christians to Use Means for the Conver- report, and summarized in David A. Kerr and www.edinburgh2010.org. missionen (Giessen/Basel: Brunnen, 1992). sion of the Heathen (Leicester: 1792), 82-83. Kenneth R. Ross, ‘Introduction’, in Kerr and 4 For a deep searching and far reaching inter- The English version, reduced by one third, 9 Andrew Walls, ‘Vom Ursprung der Mission- Ross, Edinburgh 2010, 3-20. pretation of the Conference and its relevance rearranged and with an additional chapter, is sgesellschaften—oder: Die glückliche Subver- 11 This ‘historical’ definition also includes read, David A. Kerr and Kenneth R. Ross Klaus Fiedler, The Story of Faith Missions. sion der Kirchen’, Evangelikale Missiologie groups from earlier revivals that were influ- (eds), Edinburgh 2010: Mission then and now From Hudson Taylor to Present Day Africa (1987), 35-40; 56-60; English version, Evan- enced by the piety of the Second Evangelical (Oxford: Regnum, 2009). (Oxford et al: Regnum, 21994). gelical Quarterly 88:2 (1988), 141-155. Awakening. 322 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 323 cle I use both definitions, but since it is While the official churches were once more before the end.16 This were invited, which they refused to a historical study, the latter (evangeli- secure in their rejection of missions, Restorationist Revival provided the organize, for theological reasons based cals in the narrower sense) is the dom- the Puritan and Pietist revival took up subsequent revival, the Second Evan- on their ecclesiologies.18 The only inant one. the missionary task on the Protestant gelical Awakening (Holiness Revival) ‘Restorationist’ representation at the side, with the small Moravian Church of 1858 with its innovative premillen- conference was by three Seventh-day taking the lead.14 The next revival was nial eschatology, replacing the post- Adventist delegates19 and sixteen dele- II The Revivals and the Great Awakening; its beginnings millennial eschatology of the Great gates from the Disciples of Christ.20 Edinburgh 1910 are usually dated to Jonathan Edwards Awakening.17 Though the Second Evangelical With Latourette I therefore see mis- (1734), while the Wesley brothers and In Edinburgh the Reformation Awakening, different from the sion history as based on revival his- George Whitefield are usually men- Revival was not represented by any Restorationist Revival, had largely tory. Every great advance in missions tioned as the great evangelists.15 mission, since the Catholic missions remained within the existing churches, is based on a new revival movement, Against theological opposition from had not been invited and the few it did produce a distinctive group of and I have heard of hardly any mission the churches of the Reformation, Protestant attempts at missions had missions, the interdenominational movement that was not born in revival. William Carey had made it clear that not lasted. (But the Reformation Faith Missions. These were in no way The picture is a bit uneven, but the the Great Commission was still valid Revival was present at the conference opposed to the classical Missions; nei- overall pattern is clear. and binding, and to fulfil it he proposed in the many church leaders and digni- ther did they intend to compete with The revival of the Reformation pro- the mission society as the means to taries who had been invited.) Of the them. Their aim was to continue the duced virtually no missions on the reach the heathen. He was innovative, Puritan/Pietist Revival only the Mora- advance into unreached areas where Protestant side, but plenty on the as revivalists usually are, and his ideas vian Mission survived and was repre- the advance of the classical missions Catholic, with the Jesuits as the lead- were taken up enthusiastically by sented by a dozen delegates; however, had stopped.21 Due to their innovative ing missionary order.12 During the time many in the Great Awakening revival its distinctives had merged with those principles the Faith Missions attracted of Orthodoxy, some leading Lutheran tradition. In kind disregard of the of the classical missions, the many many candidates which the classical theologians even saw foreign missions established churches’ authorities, they missions that the Great Awakening missions would not have wanted; much as sinful, since the Great Commission took up the task of reaching the had brought into existence. These clas- of their support came from the groups had been given to the apostles alone unreached parts of the world, which sical missions were the dominant created or influenced by the Holiness (ad personam) who had indeed fulfilled were many in those days. group in Edinburgh, sending about 95 Revival. Though they cooperated hap- it, preaching even in those parts of the When the fervour of the Great per cent of the delegates. pily with the classical missions, they world which had not yet entered into Awakening had quietened down some- Of the missions from the Restora- were a distinct group right from the the view of either Western or Arab what, another revival came, often tionist Revival, the Brethren and the beginning, a fact blissfully ignored by geography. Since the office of apostle hardly recognized as such, the Churches of Christ could not be repre- the organizers of Edinburgh 1910. The was an extraordinary office of the Restorationist Revival that endeav- sented because only mission societies Faith Missions grew slowly, and in church, to start missionary work after oured to restore the primitive church their death was seen as the sin of usurpation of divine office.13 16 Klaus Fiedler, ‘“A Revival Disregarded 18 The Churches of Christ foreign missionary non-Christian populations were allowed (even and Disliked” or What do Seventh-day Adven- effort was limited, but the ‘Open’ Brethren encouraged) to provide churches for them, too. tists, Churches of Christ, Jehovah’s Witnesses were very strong in foreign missions. 12 Besides the Jesuits, born in the Reforma- 14 Of the Puritan/Pietist missions the Danish and the New Apostolic Church have in Com- 19 Most evangelicals present would have tion Revival, there were other orders like the Halle Mission in India succumbed to the mon?’, Religion in Malawi 15 (2009), 10-19. preferred not to be associated closely with Franciscans and the Dominicans who came Enlightenment, the Puritan missions among 17 Klaus Fiedler, ‘Shifts in Eschatology— them, suspecting them of sectarianism, in from the earlier monastic revival (Kenneth the Native Americans succumbed to the vicis- Shifts in Missiology’, in Jochen Eber (ed), Hope spite of their common roots. Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity. situdes of the American expansion; only the does not Disappoint. Studies in Eschatology. 20 The Disciples have the same revival roots Beginnings to 1500 (Peabody: Prince Press, Moravian Mission survived. Essays from Different Contexts (Wheaton: as the Churches of Christ, but had developed 72007), 416-446. 15 Note should be taken that the Calvinist World Evangelical Fellowship Theological by 1910 a quite liberal theology. 13 The only exception of a kind was that George Whitefield was as great an evangelist Commission; Bangalore: Theological Book 21 See map for Africa in Klaus Fiedler, The Christian princes who happened to rule over as the Arminian John Wesley. Trust, 2001). Story of Faith Missions, 85. 324 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 325

Edinburgh, when the classical mis- opposed to but clearly different from for not recognizing that the Faith Mis- the conference, at its core, conflicts sions had about reached their peak, the classical missions. How did they sions represented a new missionary arose. The Sudan United Mission min- they were still generations away from react to the invitation and how did they movement, having its own history and uted on 30 December 1909: theirs. participate? spirituality. World Mission Conference—dona- The next revival, born in Asuza Among the main speakers there tion—: that before we consider the Street in , that was to 1. The Evangelical Participation was no member of a Faith Missions. voting of any such donation a strong change the face of world Christianity, Three Faith Mission members gave statement should be laid before the Like all the other Protestant missions, was only a baby then, four years old short presentations. Rev. B. Fuller authorities of the conference, of the the Faith Missions were invited to par- when Edinburgh 1910 convened, and (Christian Missionary Alliance, India) very unsatisfactory position of the ticipate, and participate they did. 30 of about two when the research for the spoke on ‘The Work in the Mission whole Sudan question as presented the over 500 British delegates came reports finished. By 1910 the Pente- Field’ as one of eight presenters; Mr. D. to their constituency. costal mission had started, but there from the Faith Missions. North Amer- E. Hoste (China Inland Mission) spoke The Conference organizers took the were no properly organized mission ica, with a similar number of delegates, on ‘Education of Christian Community, point and gave Karl Kumm the oppor- societies yet, and since they could not only brought 13. Of the 98 German del- Adult and Juvenile’ and ‘Should the tunity to present the plea of the Sudan anticipate the future tremendous egates, eight were evangelicals, as missionary devote chief attention in in a side meeting during the confer- growth of Pentecostal missions, the were four among the Swedish dele- raising up and helping to develop a ence, and on 13 June 1910, a day before Edinburgh organizers may be excused gates. At the Conference the Faith Mis- Native Evangelistic Agency, or to doing the Conference opened, £30 was voted for overlooking it. And of course, none sion delegates were a minority, below direct Evangelistic Work himself?’. as the SUM’s contribution, and two of them could foresee that in 1960 yet 5 per cent. The strongest Faith Mission The latter topic was dear to the heart delegates attended the conference. another revival would erupt that again was the China Inland Mission with 17 of the CIM missionaries, as was Mr. W. The report of Commission One would challenge many accepted theo- of the 55 Faith Mission delegates. B. Sloan’s presentation on ‘The Rights recorded not only that one third of ries.22 Their number was small, so was of Native Christians’. Africa was unreached, but also claimed their role at the Conference, and so was I also found two Faith Mission con- that none of the mission agencies had then their role in the worldwide Protes- tributions to the discussions: Dr Karl any plans to reach that remaining III Evangelical Missions and tant missionary movement. The oldest Kumm (Sudan United Mission) spoke third, which must have included the Faith Mission was only 45 years old,23 Edinburgh 1910 during the discussion on Africa, and Dr Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), For this section I employ the narrow not just one more mission, but a mis- Lepsius of the Deutsche Orient Mis- the Sudan Belt and the Congo Basin as definition of evangelical, since the con- sion of a new type. It took thirteen sion contributed to the discussion on its main components. ference was a conference of mission years for Fanny Guinness to found the the ‘Missionary Message in Relation to The heart of Africa constitutes a societies. Though in other areas the Livingstone Inland Mission (1878) as Islam’. One special recognition was 24 vast unoccupied field… more than demarcation of evangelical is fuzzy, as the second Faith Mission. Most of the accorded to them during the Confer- a third of the entire continent with- far as mission societies are concerned, major Faith Missions were less than 20 ence. When, on 30 June 1910, the news out any existing agency having the definition is clear: it was the years old, and many of them had had to was received that Grattan Guinness, plans actually projected for their 1858/59 Second Evangelical Revival struggle over years just to get estab- the Faith Mission pioneer in Britain evangelization.25 that produced its own distinct class of lished and to survive. So maybe the after Hudson Taylor, had died, the Con- missions, the Faith Missions, not conference leadership can be excused ference rose to honour him and sang a hymn. In Edinburgh the evangelicals played their (limited) role well, but it 25 World Missionary Conference, 1910, ‘Car- was not their conference. rying the Gospel to all the Non-Christian 22 Over the last years the World Council of 23 Klaus Fiedler, ‘The Principles of the China World, Report of Commission I’ (Edinburgh Churches has strongly taken note of the Pen- Inland Mission’, Story of Faith Missions, 33, and London: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier; tecostals, pushed by the successes of the and chapter 2, ‘A New Missionary Movement: 2. The Neglect of Inner Africa New York, Chicago and Toronto: Fleming H. Charismatic Movement and is trying to orga- The Early Faith Missions’, 32-69. Revell, 1910), 281/282. For more see Andrew nize a partnership that does not require WCC 24 Fanny Guinness, The New World of Central Edinburgh 1910 was organized to pro- F. Walls, ‘Commission One and the Church’s membership under the theme of the World Africa. With a History of the First Christian Mis- mote the evangelization of the non- Century’, in Kerr and Ross, Edinburgh 2010, Christian Forum. sion in the Congo (London: 1890). Christian world. In the preparations for 27-40. 326 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 327

In making this statement, they over- did John Mott, the chairman of Com- sionary land,28 but equally so Russia, No expression of opinion should be looked the several evangelical mis- mission I (Carrying the Gospel to all Belgium, Guinea Bissau and the Cape sought from the Conference on any sions that not only had plans to enter the Non-Christian World). But the Verde Islands. They did not see the matter involving any ecclesiastical the remaining third of Africa but who Commission simply was not in touch Roman Catholic Church as a true Chris- or doctrinal question on which had been doing that for a good number with what the evangelical missions tian church, though they accepted the those taking part in the Conference of years.26 They had overlooked the were doing and planning; the mission- possibility of Roman Catholic individu- differ among themselves.31 evangelical missions in the Maghreb ary advance into the unreached areas als being true Christians.29 The evan- This statement, no doubt honest, (North Africa Mission (1881), Algiers of Africa had started to slip into Evan- gelicals did not accept the sacramental overlooks the fact that the decision not Mission Band (1888), Southern gelical hands. definition of being a Christian; for them to include any missionary work in Morocco (Medical) Mission (1888), it was not baptism that made the differ- Catholic or Orthodox countries was a and they had overlooked the fact that 3. Not South America ence, but the new birth, which had serious doctrinal question which the Sudan Interior Mission had started always been the central point in the raised deep differences in ecclesiology. The more fundamental conflict erupted to approach the Sudan Belt in 1902, revival tradition. At stake was the definition of what the on the issue of missionary work in through Central Nigeria, with the church is. In the revival tradition, even Latin America. Here the Conference Sudan United Mission joining them in the majority section that remained organizers decided plainly against all 4. Personal Faith versus four years later after the attempts to within the traditional denominations, that was crucial for evangelicals. The Baptism reach the Sudan from Aswan in 1900 to be a Christian (and thereby a mem- minutes of the Regions Beyond Mis- had not succeeded.27 The decision not to look for personal ber of the church) was defined as hav- sionary Union of 13 October 1909 read. In the decade before the Africa faith but for sacramental treatment is ing a personal faith, not as having Inland Mission had started the work in A communication was also read crucial for the understanding of Edin- received the sacrament of baptism. Inner Kenya in 1895 with the aim of from the Secretary of the World burgh 1910, as it marks a major turn- Edinburgh 1910 changed this position, advancing to Lake Chad. The Commis- Missionary Conference in answer ing point in the history of the classical and that changed the whole develop- sion had equally overlooked the fact to the protest of the Directors at missions. The report, in its terse lan- ment of the missionary movement that that the Gospel Missionary Union the exclusion from the delibera- guage, expresses it like this: It was had emanated from the Great Awaken- (later Christian Missionary Alliance) tions of the conference of work in agreed ‘to confine the purview of the ing. The emphasis, gradually, shifted Roman Catholic lands. Conference to work of the kind in from converting the unconverted to had started in 1889 to reach the Sudan 30 Belt from Sierra Leone and that mis- On 13 January 1910 the issue was which we are all united’. The Faith keeping the converted (plus many sionaries related to the East London discussed further: Missions had to accept that if they unconverted) together. This switch in were to participate; they accepted for Training Institute had since 1878 been ecclesiology made it possible that a After some discussion it was unan- the Conference, but did not change on their way into the interior of the conference, convened ‘to consider mis- imously resolved to arrange a meet- their ecclesiology. Congo Basin. sionary problems in relation to the non- ing to consider the advisability of The new departure in ecclesiology Edinburgh 1910 did not discrimi- Christian world’ became the starting calling a Conference with reference was clearly expressed by Lord Balfour, nate against the Evangelicals, neither to work in Roman Catholic coun- point of a movement for the unity of the chairman of the Conference, in his churches. tries, and as to whether the Roman inaugural address: Catholic Church is to be looked upon as a sister church or not. 5. ‘Unitedly working to 26 They also overlooked the [classical] Church Missionary Society, which was then Such a conference did not take 28 Lucy Guinness and E.C. Millard, South denominationalize men and making serious attempts to reach the Sudan place, at least not soon, and the RBMU America. The Neglected Continent (London, means’ through Nigeria’s Middle Belt. did participate in Edinburgh 1910 with 1894). Another entry in the minute book of the 27 On these attempts they could have read five delegates. They made no fuss about 29 Evangelical Alliance. Report of the Proceed- Sudan United Mission, written three ings of the Conference, held at Freemasons’ Hall, Karl Kumm, The Sudan (London, 1907). For a the issue, but all evangelicals were months after Edinburgh 1910, reveals scholarly study see Christof Sauer, ‘Reaching London, from August 19th to September 2nd the Unreached Sudan Belt. Guinness, Kumm, agreed that faith makes you a member inclusive, 1846 (London, 1867), 263-270. and the Sudan-Pionier-Mission’, DTh Univer- of the church, not any sacrament. They 30 World Missionary Conference, 1910, 8; cf sity of South Africa, 2001. did not only see Latin America as a mis- Kerr and Ross, Edinburgh 2010, 7. 31 World Missionary Conference, 1910, 8. 328 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 329 another far reaching criticism of the ism, it cooperated closely with the version to a Department of the World icals were able to see such ‘comity’ as Conference and the trends it repre- Faith Missions;33 however, conflicts Council of Churches. a means to work more effectively, sented. arose about the demands of the High though they neither realized nor antic- [Karl Kumm] expressed the view Church (Anglo-Catholic) branch. The 6. Unity does not Promote ipated that the ‘native’ Christians were Faith Missions saw the Anglo-Catholic anything but glowing adherents of the that ‘the Layman’s Foreign Mission Missions Movement, the Student Volunteer understanding of baptism as highly comity system.36 Movement, the Edinburgh World Mis- sacramentalistic, and they were in no For another major conflict the Evan- Another concept was to build a sionary Conference are all unitedly way willing to accept that any territory gelicals had around Edinburgh 1910 I ‘united native church’,37 at which futile working to denominationalize men and which had been Christianized must be have found no entry in the minute attempts were made soon after Edin- means’.32 The minutes give no evidence excluded from missionary work. The books, but I find the conflict in their burgh in Kenya, Malawi and Nigeria, for his assumptions, but Karl Kumm Broad Church presented lesser prob- assumptions and in the actions based and probably in other countries.38 seems to have captured an important lems when it came to participation, but on them. One of the big catchwords of Though the Faith Missions usually trend: away from the society as a vol- its broadly anti-conversionist theolo- Edinburgh 1910 was ‘Christian unity’. went along a certain distance on the untary association (which after all was gies opened the way for increasing the- The assumption that greater organiza- path to unification, finally their differ- the key to the beginnings of the classi- ological liberalism and the replace- tional unity would promote greater effi- ent ecclesiology, affirming not the cal missions) right into the wide open ment of evangelism by social improve- ciency in fulfilling the worldwide mis- sacraments but personal faith, could 34 arms of the (organized) churches. The ment. sionary task seems to have gone not be accommodated, nor could they interesting touch to his opinion is that So this denominationalization of the unchallenged. When John Mott, the be convinced to see the ‘threefold the agents of denominationalization missionary movement (others would chairman of Commission One, empha- office’ as the precondition for a church call it ‘integration of mission and 39 were voluntary associations them- sized the need and the chance to enter to be a true church. church’) in Edinburgh 1910 paved the ‘the so-called unoccupied fields’ of the selves who seem to have lost touch Another assumption that went way for turning the missionary move- non-Christian world in the present with their origins. unchallenged in Edinburgh but was ment of the Great Awakening into a time, he also emphasized that a divided The Conference did much to give the quietly disregarded by the evangelicals movement for church unity. And since Christendom was no match for the denominations prominence. Earlier was that greater unity would bring this church unity was understood to be challenge.35 conferences had been dominated by greater efficiency in missions. In Ger- corporate, the evangelicals with their If such a quest for unity could find mission leaders and missionaries; in many, before and after the big Confer- concept of individual unity were bound, its expression in missionary coopera- ence, the complaints of the classical Edinburgh denominational leaders over time, to lose interest or to come tion, evangelicals were happy to go missiologists, led by Gustav Warneck, were included as much as possible and into conflict with the idea. It was the along. Usually they were willing to the ‘Father’ of German missiology, that were given leading roles. Their inclu- logical (and detrimental) consequence agree on comity of missions, an agree- sion, as far as the (in England then still of the developments which were ment that divided the mission field into dominant) Anglican Church was con- reflected in Edinburgh 1910 that in spheres of work and influence. This cerned, was achieved successfully, but 36 For details and perceptions see Fiedler, 1961 resulted in the termination of the kind of agreement also obliged each at a price, too high for the evangelicals The Story of Faith Missions, 188-193. existence of the International Council mission to accept members in good to pay. The Anglican Church had three 37 ‘to plant in each non-Christian nation one of Missions in New Delhi and its con- standing of another mission, who ‘branches’ then: Low, Broad and High. undivided Church of Christ’ (World Missionary moved into their ‘territory’, as equal to Conference, Cooperation and the Promotion of The Low Church had produced the their own members, with the participa- Unity, 83). Church Mission Society as the second tion in the sacraments included. With 38 In Kenya the crucial event was the Kikuyu mission society of the Great Awaken- 33 The China Inland Mission, the first of the the mainstream of Edinburgh, evangel- 1913 conference. In Malawi the Church of ing (1795), and, as the Evangelical (in Faith Missions, not only had a distinct Angli- Central Africa (CCA) was envisaged, but only the wider sense) branch of Anglican- can section, but even produced an Anglican Presbyterian missions joined, making the CCA bishop. to be the CCAP (Church of Central Africa, 34 Cf. Rose Dowsett, ‘Cooperation and the Presbyterian). Promotion of Unity: An Evangelical Perspec- 35 World Missionary Conference, 1910, Car- 39 An attempt to go again in this direction tive’, in Kerr and Ross, Edinburgh 2010, 250- rying the Gospel to all the Non-Christian World, was more recently made by the Lima Docu- 32 SUM minutes, 4 October 1910. 262 [254]. 403. ment 330 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 331 the evangelical missions were just too it took a long time to find this out, with Edinburgh the two children of revivals eration and the Promotion of Unity). many, too small and usually working in great losses for the poor. met. They recognized the same father, Thus Edinburgh 1910 was a major the wrong places (as among Muslims,) but it seems to me that the elder milestone in the transition from the never fell silent. They were members of brother did not recognize that the little Great Awakening to the World Council the German Mission Council (Mission- IV Evangelicals in the sister had a different mother. of Churches, pointing rather forward srat), but quite junior members. When ‘Broader Sense’ In his opening speech at the Lau- than backwards. Julius Richter, in Edinburgh honoured In my article I have concentrated on sanne Congress on World Evangeliza- Of the 35 places on the Continuation with an honorary doctorate,40 pub- the Faith Missions as the ‘organized’ tion in 1974, , its orga- Committee, the China Inland Mission lished a compendium on the German evangelicals. I think this is justified nizer and moving spirit, called Edin- was offered one. They did not accept [Protestant] Missions, he gave every because it was a conference of the rep- burgh 1910 ‘the most historic confer- the offer, and that virtually finished the classical mission a chapter of its own, resentatives of mission societies. Still, ence on evangelism and missions’ and participation of the evangelical mis- but the Faith Missions were bundled evangelicals in the broader sense must identified two streams that came out of sions in the stream that flowed from into one, with the misleading heading also be considered. Many of them were Edinburgh, due mainly to the shift from Edinburgh 1910 through the Interna- 42 ‘Gemeinschaftsmissionen’ (Missions there, with a piety that comes from the mission society to church. With due tional Missionary Council to the World of the Fellowship Movement). In spite Great Awakening (and sometimes with respect to Billy Graham, I see only one Council of Churches. The Evangelical of all these complaints the evangelical added Holiness aspects). It is impossi- stream. Ten years before, the leader- [Faith] missions had been a new mis- missions continued to remain on their ble to count them, even to estimate, as ship of the New York World Missionary sionary movement, with its own (and own, do their own thing, and multi- evangelicals have a non-demarcated Conference had explicitly rejected the separate) revival roots, its own spiritu- ality and missionary concepts. Their plied, if not so much before the Second identity, so they can equally support idea of establishing a Continuation central tenet was (individual) conver- World War, but then indeed after it. the Faith Missions or the classical mis- Committee. In Edinburgh, with its denomina- sion, and their ecclesiology was based Though the claim that unity pro- sions. But since the Conference was an tional bias, it was logical for Commis- on that principle. Their concept of motes mission is repeated again and organized event that proposed and sion VIII to propose ‘to perpetuate the unity was individual, not sacramental. again, I do not see the evidence for that took new organizational steps, what idea and spirit of the Conference and Right from the beginning they had their in history. In the last half century it has counts is not personal piety, but struc- become obvious that the churches embody it in such further practical own separate identity, but this sepa- tural developments. 43 which emphasize (organic) unity are action as should be found advisable’. rate identity was, unlike that of the Fundamentalists, a non demarcated usually churches in decline, and that The Continuation Committee was not one.44 new advances in mission are usually V Edinburgh 1910 and After proposed by Commission I (Carrying the Gospel to all the Non-Christian The little sister from the later made by those that are not united, at Latourette argues that ever new World), but by Commission VIII (Coop- revival was there and played her role, least not united organizationally. I am revivals give birth to ever new organi- fairly well in my opinion, but she had convinced that the evangelical concept zations. The classical missions, which not come to stay, neither was she of ‘individual unity’ comes closer to ful- had organized the Conference, all came inclined to move into the same house filling Christ’s prayer that all be one from the Great Awakening, and they 42 James Dixon Douglas, Let the Earth Hear with her big brother. She continued on than the concept of ‘organic unity’. His Voice: Official Reference Volume, Papers and had made a tremendous contribution to her own way, without enmity and with- Responses (Minneapolis: World Wide Publica- A cautious look at economics may the evangelization of the world, freeing out separation. But her own way she support this idea. Communism tried to Protestant Christianity from its Euro- tions, 1975), 26-27. For more details see Anne-Marie Kool, ‘Changing Images in the continued to go. improve the economic well being of the pean/American captivity. The evangel- Formation for Mission: Commission Five in The Faith Missions first organized poor by eliminating competition and icals came from a different revival, the Light of Current Challenges. A World Per- their cooperative effort in America by duplication of effort. The result was Second Great Awakening of 1858.41 In spective’, in Kerr and Ross, Edinburgh 2010, exactly the opposite, but unfortunately 158-177 [162]. 43 ‘It was felt that it would stamp an aspect 41 Some of the missionaries (and more of the of unreality upon the conference if it simply 44 This made it possible, to use later termi- concepts) came from the Christian Brethren, dissolved without an act of patent obedience to nology, for one person to be evangelical and 40 World Missionary Conference, 1910. The who have their origin in the Restorationist the heavenly vision it had seen’ (Report, vol. 9, ecumenical at the same time, and that also History and Records of the Conference, 22. Revival. 26). made possible the participation in Edinburgh. 332 Klaus Fieldler Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals 333 forming in 1917 the Interdenomina- Jerusalem 1928. In the delegates’ list of Europe is quite resistant to evangeliza- to get the whole Church of England in, tional Foreign Mission Association of Tambaram 1938 I identified three dele- tion, but what little progress is made in the Evangelical Faith Missions had to (IFMA), followed by the gates from a Swedish mission in Inner evangelizing heathen Europe must abandon their ecclesiology. founding of the Evangelical Fellowship that may have been evangelicals. usually be credited to Evangelicals, This meant that the goal of missions of Mission Agencies (EFMA) in 1945. Evangelical non-participation was not a Pentecostals and Charismatics. was no longer to save the lost (includ- In Europe the process was slower. The sign of protest; the evangelical mis- That Edinburgh 1910 (gradually) ing those with a Christian name and a Evangelical Missionary Alliance in UK sions were simply not there. abandoned the mission societies in baptismal certificate), but to spread was founded in 1958 and the Arbeits- Between the two wars, the evangel- favour of the churches, was accompa- Christianity to those lost in non-Chris- gemeinschaft Evangelikaler Missionen ical missions remained the minority, nied by a (gradual) abandonment of the tian religions. By pushing the Evangel- [Fellowship of Evangelical Missions] struggling to hold their own. This concept of missions (plural), replacing icals (gently) out, the missionary in Germany in 1968. The Evangelicals changed dramatically, starting from it by a concept of mission (singular).48 movement after 1910 (and later the in Europe had been going their own the 1950s. The classical missions, hav- The issue at stake was no longer the Ecumenical Movement) cut itself off way(s) anyhow, and the decision of ing overcome the setbacks of the war, missions to the non-Christian world, from probably the most forward mov- 50 New Delhi 1961 to abandon the con- continued to grow for a time. But their but the ‘mission of the church’ and, as ing missionary elements; by rejecting cept of the mission society and to leave growth was soon eclipsed by the Stephen Neill once said, ‘when every- the concept of the mission society, the mission responsibility to churches growth of the evangelical missions of thing is mission, nothing is mission.’.49 which had made the movement great, it 46 that had other priorities than missions, various descriptions. Edinburgh’s aim was to promote the blunted the prayed for advance. seems to me to be the consequence of In the same period of the 1950s, the evangelization of the whole non-Chris- Many of the great expectations of decline of the main-line denominations the Conference were not fulfilled. As Edinburgh’s turning away from its tian world. The discussions at the Con- started in both Western Europe and the world plunged itself into two world revival roots. ference made many contributions to North America. These churches talked wars in quick succession and Chris- that. But the organizational energies of much about mission, even ‘Mission in tianity plunged into the fourth reces- the Conference were scheduled not pri- Six Continents’ (Mexico City, 1963). sion, the missionary advance of the VI The Evangelical Turn marily to the task of missions (Com- but they could rarely reach the ever classical missions largely came to a At Edinburgh 1910 there was (limited) mission One), but to the task of unity cooperation between the mission move- increasing number of heathen in halt. Classical missiologists often pro- Europe or America. This decline was (Commission Eight). The argument vided the rationale for the recession; ment that emanated from the Great was, of course, that unity promotes Awakening and the Evangelical Move- accompanied by a rise in ‘liberal’ the- one way was to replace ‘missions’ (in ologies, and if it is difficult to prove mission. While I can see that coopera- the plural: specific efforts to win non- ment that came two generations later. tion (of those willing and capable) pro- The unity that had become Edinburgh’s that such theologies emptied the Christians) by ‘mission’ (in the singu- motes mission, unity (when used as a lar: ‘the mission of the church’). The aim excluded the Evangelicals.45 I could churches, it is easy to show that they did not fill them.47 Post-Christian means of domination) does not. Unity mission of the church (singular) is far not trace any evangelical mission rep- at Edinburgh 1910 meant that, in order more comprehensive but far less excit- resented in the process leading to the ing. International Missionary Council in It has been argued that over the 1921. Equally I could not find a repre- 46 For statistics on the USA see Ralph D. next hundred years Christianity did not sentative of any evangelical mission at Winter, ‘The Twenty-Five Unbelievable Years, 48 This is nicely expressed in one of the head- grow.51 The statistics are true, but the the next world mission conference 1945-1969’ in Kenneth Scott Latourette, ings in Samuel Kobia’s contribution to the Advance through Storm. A.D. 1914 and After Edinburgh 2010 volume: ‘From the “Evange- with Concluding Generalizations (Grand Rapids: lization of the World in this Generation” to Zondervan, 1976), 507-533 [527]. “This Generation’s Mission in a Globalized 45 ‘What is beyond doubt is that while Edin- 47 Rudolf Bultmann designed his theology of World”’, in Samuel Kobia, ‘Cooperation and 50 Edinburgh 1910 had not even realized that burgh 1910 has come to be regarded as a mile- demythologization as a missionary theology to the Promotion of Unity: A World Council of the Faith Missions were doing exactly that for stone in the development of unity in mission, attract ‘modern man’ to the Christian faith. Churches Perspective’, in Kerr and Ross, the totally unreached third of (Inner) Africa. it in fact led to a far more significant parting of But modern man rarely came. The same seems Edinburgh 2010, 237-249 [ 248]. 51 Samuel Kobia, ‘Cooperation and the Pro- ways in global mission.’ (Rose Dowsett, to be true of current ‘inclusive’ theologies of 49 Stephen Neill, Creative Tension: The Duff motion of Unity: A World Council of Churches ‘Cooperation and the Promotion of Unity: An the Episcopal Church in the USA with regular Lectures, 1958 (Edinburgh House Press, Perspective’, in Kerr and Ross, Edinburgh Evangelical Perspective’, 255). negative growth rates. 1959), 81. 2010, 237-249 [245]. 334 Klaus Fieldler ERT (2010) 34:4, 335-346 concept is wrong. Christianity grew unity and the concept of God’s activity tremendously, most strikingly in in the secular world. A Theological Critique of the Africa. It was the spiritual darkness At that time some classical missiol- that engulfed much of the Global North ogists even found themselves on the Emerging, Postmodern Missional that brought the numbers down to blot wrong side of the equation, arguing out the advances in the Global South.52 that God has set aside the churches in Church/movement And the advances made in Africa were China (hopefully only for a time) so in the interior mostly the results of the that he could work (more effectively) work of the evangelical missions, and through the Cultural Revolution for the in the other two thirds of Africa, where liberation of China’s millions. A hun- Eleonora L. Scott the advance was mostly made by the dred years before Hudson Taylor had classical missions, their character was been convinced that China’s millions KEYWORDS: Contextualization, cul- ‘church and mission’ to ‘missional more evangelical then in the Global should be liberated by faith in Jesus ture, evangelism, spirituality, para- church’ will be considered. After Christ. North. dox, praxis, consumerism, spiritual reflecting on EM’s relevance and appli- Edinburgh 1910 expected great warfare cation for ministry, it will be concluded advances in Eastern Asia. Advances VIII Conclusion that the movement’s contribution to were made there, but far less than At Edinburgh 1910, elder brother and ecclesiology outweighs the concerns hoped for, at least initially. And when little sister met, recognized the same I. Introduction presented. Thus, the movement should finally the great advance was born dur- Father, but did not start living in the This paper presents a theological cri- be encouraged. ing the Chinese Cultural Revolution, same house, and I am convinced that tique of the emerging movement (EM), the baby looked much more evangelical that was right. Big brother has grown which is understood as a conversation than ecumenical. Not that the united older since, little sister has become a about how to contextualize the gospel II. Defining the Emerging Three Self Church did not grow, but its mature woman, and while growing for the emerging postmodern and post- Movement growth was eclipsed by that of the dis- they have met and should meet more colonial culture, and a call to action in There is scholarly consensus that the united House Churches. Without over- often. Since then, two more sisters this regard. It will be argued that EM western church is undergoing a mas- looking the work of the Holy Spirit, I have been born, to the elder siblings’ makes important contributions to our sive paradigm shift in response to sim- argue that diversity and evangelical surprise. Let them all recognize each ecclesiology, but that it is not without ilar changes in culture. Discussions piety promoted the expansion of the other, and together fulfil that great some concerns. regarding the effects of postmodernity Christian faith in China far more than vision to reach the non-Christian world After defining EM, this critique or postcolonialism1 on the church have with the gospel of Jesus Christ. The focuses on three main issues. The first geography has changed since 1910,53 issue raised is EM’s desire for cultural the task has not, and (too) much of it 52 In the ‘Edinburgh’ part of the Global North relevancy, with an evaluation of its (the Protestant countries dominated by the still needs to be done. approach to spirituality and engage- 1 McLaren suggests ‘postcolonialism’ is a churches of the Reformation), the darkness ment with culture. The second issue is more helpful term than ‘postmodernism’. B. grew faster and remained deeper than in the the contention that our lives are the McLaren, ‘Church Emerging: Or Why I Still Use the Word Postmodern but with Mixed Roman Catholic sections of it. In the USA 53 For an excellent study of these changes, main medium through which the many mainline churches lost half of their Feelings’, in An Emergent Manifesto of Hope, including all the numbers, see: Todd M. John- emerging culture will understand the members in half a century while evangelical son and Kenneth R. Ross (eds), Atlas of Global eds. D. Pagitt and T. Jones (Grand Rapids: churches frequently grew and the new Charis- Christianity 1910-2010 (Edinburgh University message. Thirdly, the shift from Baker Books, 2007), 143 and 146. matic denominations flourished. Press, 2009).

Eleonora Scott (BA Wheaton, GD SPSIL, MDiv ACT) serves with Wycliffe Bible Translators and is currently undertaking post-graduate research in Brisbane, Australia. She can be contacted at [email protected]. 336 Eleonora L. Scott A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern, Missional Church 337 become commonplace.2 Consequently, of mini movements’,5 I contend that the sary and commendable. Indeed the By creating space for others to it seems that God has ignited concern extent to which it is permeating and gospel is relevant for all cultural con- explore their spirituality,14 EM has for the generations emerging from transforming the existing church is evi- texts as it ‘transforms and sanctifies built bridges with emerging genera- postmodernist and postcolonialist con- denced by the many groups identifying traditions, speaks to specific world- tions; and this is obviously a positive texts, exemplified in the following with it. In this sense, EM can be com- views, and employs vernacular expres- contribution as it affirms that natural example of a church’s vision, pared to the charismatic movement: it sions and modes of argumentation’.9 human instinct speaks to a sense of is bigger than one group can claim, Although there are some concerns to be divinity.15 Certainly welcoming who- Our Dream—To bring together although some groups may be more noted, EM has great potential to reach ever will come (Is. 55:1-7; Mt. 22:1- Christians from all walks of life, committed to it and are transformed a generation that is growing up not 14), even unbelievers, and furthering including pastors, church planters more fully by it. knowing the Lord (Judg. 2:10).10 interest in Jesus are to be encouraged and leaders across denominational While the emerging church resists One of the strengths of EM is its (Acts 17).16 Christians authentically and national borders, who want to 6 being ‘boxed-in’, we can identify three view of the gospel as being about com- and passionately worshipping God, reach out to people in postmodern core characteristics: ‘identifying with munity and creating community (Eph. recognizing the mystery and paradox culture, and who understand that, the life of Jesus, transforming secular 2:14-19; Rev. 21:1-5).11 This develop- in the Bible as it is studied, enjoying in order to do so, significant space, and commitment to community ment challenges the existing church to creativity and art, and connecting to changes need to be made in the way as a way of life’.7 Foundational to this examine the ways in which it has been Christianity’s ancient traditions can 3 we run and organize our churches. understanding are congregations who too accommodating to modernism indeed convey an experience of God to Some see an ecclesiological shift as are deliberately engaging with the out- regarding individualism.12 The impor- the spiritually hungry.17 essential if the church is going to be side culture.8 The term ‘Emerging tance of community is easily defend- However, issue must be taken with able to reach the emerging generation,4 churches’ is thus used for those con- able biblically, so EM’s drive is a good any attitude that spirituality can be and EM is the result. gregations who are positively respond- corrective to the existing church, In contrast with Sayers who con- ing to the EM conversation, and for which can often reduce ‘fellowship’ to 13 tends that EM has begun, ‘to fracture those churches associated with the a greeting and small talk. 14 T. Perry, ‘Young People Consider Them- and…now has broken up into a number movement. selves Spiritual’ (15 April 2009, cited 9 C. Ott and H. Netland, Globalizing Theology: 20 April 2009). III. Three Issues in the Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christian- 15 See J. Calvin, ‘John Calvin on the Natural 2 See for example, D. Kimball, The Emerging Emerging Movement ity (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), Knowledge of God’ in The Christian Theology Church (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003), 44, 212. Reader, ed. A. McGrath (Oxford: Blackwell, 63-64; E. Gibbs and R. K. Bolger, Emerging 1. Cultural Relevancy 10 Kimball, The Emerging Church, 58. See 1995), 57. also Barna Group, ‘Christianity is no Longer Churches: Creating Christian Community in Post- EM’s desire to contextualize the gospel 16 D. Kimball, They Like Jesus but not the modern Cultures (Grand Rapids: Baker Acade- America’s Default Faith’ (2009, cited 20 April 41; cf. Acts 2:1; 1 Cor. 14:23-25). the Emerging Church: Understanding a Move- 5 M. Sayers, ‘The Emerging Missional Church 2009). 17 T. Bronsink, ‘The Art of Emergence: ment and Its Implications (Grand Rapids: Zon- Fractures into Mini Movements’ (2009, cited 21 April 2009). 12 M. Horton, ‘Better Homes & Gardens’, in Also, Kimball, The Emerging Church, 26, 36, dervan, 2006), 32, 43. 6 Kimball, The Emerging Church, 14. The Church in Emerging Culture: Five Perspec- 115. Also, Conder, The Church, 84. See also, 3 Next Wave, ‘About Next Wave’ (2009, cited also 45. Heaventree’ in The Church in Emerging Culture: 20 April 2009). 8 Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging Churches, 330; Five Perspectives, 158; Conder, The Church, (2009, cited 03 April 2009); and Emergent Vil- 4 T. Conder, ‘The Existing Church/Emerging J. Long, Emerging Hope: a Strategy for Reaching 163. lage, ‘Values and Practices’, (2009, accessed 03 April ship’ in An Emergent Manifesto of Hope, 103. refers to being outside of the church. 2:14-20; Phil. 2:1-2; Col. 3:11-15; 1 Tim. 3:15. 2009). 338 Eleonora L. Scott A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern, Missional Church 339 self-generated or found within (Jn. of our consumer-driven culture to ation may well place Jesus alongside Because of their confidence in 1:18; Rom. 1:21),18 for God chooses to accept ‘pure interest’ as enough to other religions’ beliefs, even if there is Jesus, members of emerging be known only in Christ;19 there is no gain access into a spiritual community. an apparent contradiction between churches venture out and truly lis- ability to hear or understand God on EM is right to be critical of con- them.29 This is an obvious danger that ten to those of other faiths and our own part unless God first reveals.20 sumerism infiltrating the church, but it emerging leaders themselves seem to even seek to be evangelized by This is something that EM leaders must also realise how immersed our be holding in tension.30 For example, them. They no longer feel that they must address. Because spiritual expe- society is in consumerism, and how dif- McLaren recognises that, ‘The gospel need to argue for the faith. Instead, riences are unverifiable, they must be ficult it is to break free from culture. must be translated into postmodern they believe their lives speak much interpreted in the light of theology Nonetheless, the commitment to culture, just as it has been in modern louder than their words.33 rather than vice versa.21 It is absolutely culture. In that translation there is include others in authentic community Thus many EM leaders recognize essential that good teaching and theol- danger, of course: of being neutered or and the reticence to speak against the idolatrous danger34 inherent in dia- ogy accompany experience. 25 domesticated by the culture.’31 Addi- other belief systems are necessary loguing with those of other faiths35 and While trying to avoid becoming a tionally, Kimball affirms that, ‘All the components in contextualizing the they also are concerned about main- ‘consumer-driven church’,22 the emerg- emerging churches I know believe in gospel for a generation that associates taining the uniqueness of Christ.36 EM ing church must recognize that 26 the inspiration of the Bible, the , exclusion with ethnic cleansing. As highlights the need to empathise with attempts to create a spiritual experi- Kimball says, the atonement, the bodily resurrection, ence may actually be encouraging a and salvation in Jesus alone.’32 the high value the current generation I hope we will consider how to new kind of self-centredness and con- Furthermore, Gibbs and Bolger clar- places on tolerance in order to contex- believe that Jesus is the only way sumer-driven church.23 Care must be ify: tualise the gospel for emerging cul- and yet show the utmost respect ture. taken that our ‘future hope’ does not Emerging churches hold to for those who practice other faiths, However, the movement is in dan- become associated primarily with a Christian orthodoxy, affirming the changing the perception that we ger of neutralizing spirituality. In our spiritual experience of the ‘now’ uniqueness of Christ. This under- think that everything about all attempts to be holistic, tolerant, and instead of with the ‘not yet’ of Christ’s standing, however, rather than 24 other religions is wrong and that accommodating, we must never lose return. Additionally, it is a by-product 27 being a reason to exclude, empow- we arrogantly slam other faiths. the distinction between light and dark ers them to include those of other Some see EM as being too culturally (1 Pet. 2:9).37 For example, Carson pre- 28 faiths, cultures, and traditions. 18 Wells, The Courage, 69, 237; Grenz, Theol- accommodating in this regard, espe- dicted that emerging church leaders ogy, 240-241. cially as this paradox-accepting gener- would address concern about evil in 19 M. Luther, ‘Martin Luther on Revelation in Christ’, in The Christian Theology Reader, ed. 29 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to McGrath, 55-57. Ecclesiology: Ecumenical, Historical & Global 20 K. Barth, ‘Karl Barth on Revelation as 25 See, for example, Emergent Village, ‘Val- Perspectives (Downers Grove: InterVarsity 33 Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging Churches, 133. God’s Self-Disclosure’ in The Christian Theol- ues and Practices’. Press, 2002), 159; Kimball, The Emerging 34 For an accusation that such accommoda- ogy Reader, ed. McGrath, 69. 26 See M. Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A The- Church, 73; S. J. Grenz, Theology for the Com- tion is idolatry, see R. S. Smith, Truth and the 21 A. E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An ological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and munity of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, New Kind of Christian: the Emerging Effects of Introduction, second edition (Oxford: Black- Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2000), 13. Postmodernism in the Church (Wheaton: Cross- well, 1997), 226-227; Bloesch, The Church, 34. 1996), 57. 30 Conder, The Church, 21. For a good exam- way Books, 2005), 189. 22 Kimball, The Emerging Church, 95. 27 Kimball, They Like Jesus, 184. ple, see B. McLaren, ‘Seeking to Do One Thing 35 See the comment made by E. R. McManus 23 Kärkkäinen, An Introduction, 228; Wells, 28 D. Wells, The Courage to be Protestant: Well: A Response to Three Helpful Reviews’, to B. McLaren in B. McLaren, ‘The Method, The Courage, 107, 111, 123, 229; Carson, Truth-lovers, Marketers, and Emergents in the Reformation and Revival Journal 14 (3) (2005): the Message, and the Ongoing Story’, in The Becoming Conversant, 140-141. Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 124. Church in Emerging Culture: Five Perspectives, 24 A. Crouch and also response by E. R. 2008), 92; D. Wells, Above All Earthly Powers: 31 McLaren, ‘Seeking’, 124. ed. L. Sweet (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, McManus in A. Crouch, ‘Life After Post- Christ in a Postmodern World (Leicester: Inter- 32 D. Kimball, ‘Please Don’t Stereotype the 2003), 206. modernity’, in The Church in Emerging Culture: Varsity Press, 2005), 313, 316; D. G. Bloesch, Emerging Church’. Blog Post. (05 December 2006, Spirit (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 5. Tit. 2:11-13. 2002), 110, 246. cited 20 April 2009). 37 Volf, Exclusion, 52. 340 Eleonora L. Scott A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern, Missional Church 341 other religions by pointing out the evil and his minions are real.41 If EM suc- avoid criticism. All things must be doctrine (1 Tim. 4:16), and as long in our religion too.38 However, emerg- ceeds in drawing people to Christ, then tested, and just because something is as we are producing disciples (Mt. ing church leaders do not seem to have Satan will seek to devour EM leaders ‘new’ or ‘dynamic’ this does not mean 28:19), we should press ahead in addressed the issue at all. and new believers (Eph. 6:11-13). It is we should accept it on equal terms seeking to reach others for Christ. While people may no longer be moti- essential to remember that Satan dis- with our traditional expressions of But our modern categories and val- vated to faith by hell and God’s wrath,39 guises himself as an angel of light and faith; the ‘new’ is by nature under ues just might need to be we must not altogether ignore that we is a deceiver.42 So it is a matter of con- scrutiny until it proves itself to be rearranged if we want to reach are under God’s wrath and judgment cern that in his criticism of McLaren, authentic. This does not invalidate EM emerging generations.48 outside of his covenant with us. Frame twice mentions the fact that he anymore than we would invalidate chil- Encounters with the holy God in the does not address spiritual warfare, yet dren as humans; but children are chil- 49 Bible cause fear, trembling, confes- in his response McLaren fails to dren, not adults, and only time and rig- 2. The medium IS the message sion, and awareness of our sin and acknowledge or address this point.43 If orous testing will reveal their true The emerging church rightly insists weakness (Is. 6; Hos. 1:9-10). EM avoids discussion of spiritual war- character. that orthodoxy is meaningless without Thus EM must recognize the ten- fare, it will be restricted inevitably in Conder helpfully suggests that the orthopraxy.50 Of course, this is the view sion and maintain the awareness that extending its influence beyond the existing church needs to analyse criti- of faith found in the Bible, whose some things are not of God. Things are western church, regardless of the cally its culture from within, thus chal- authors arguably never conceived that not intrinsically sacred, and spiritual global effects of a postcolonial world- lenging the fallacy of a pure church belief might become so abstracted as to experiences are ‘holy’ only if God view. which is ‘unadulterated by external be elevated above praxis.51 Many exist- declares them thus and accepts our The movement must also take care cultural threats’. However, the emerg- ing churches also call for practice to worship (Mt. 21:43-44). EM desires to that its revolutionary mindset is not a ing church also needs to apply the flow from belief. But EM differs in see- see the church more affected ‘by the defence against being ‘open to authen- same cultural critical analysis to avoid ing our authentic witness in practice as transforming presence of the living 44 tic scrutiny’. For example, some becoming ‘so enamored with our the primary message to reach our cul- God’ through spiritual experiences.40 accuse those with reservations about engagement of culture that essential ture, thus reallocating the evangelistic However, EM must take care not to the ‘new’ insights as being immovable distinctives and practices of the Chris- message from written media to con- confuse experience with genuineness, 45 or wanting certainty, but this could tian community vanish or become crete living and relating.52 So experi- nor to elevate tolerance above discern- perhaps be seen merely as a tactic to indiscernible’.46 It is thus essential that ence and action become the way of ment, nor to substitute acceptance for 47 love. Spiritual experiences and inter- the movement be self-critical. faith dialogues ought to be tested While there are some concerns regarding engagement with culture, against God’s Word. 41 Barna Group, ‘Most Americans Do Not 48 Kimball, The Emerging Church, 64-65. Additionally, EM must acknowl- Believe that Satan or the Holy Spirit Exists’, EM’s commitment to the contextual- 49 Long, Emerging Hope, 206. edge and fight against the spiritual (2009, cited 20 April 2009). existing church. Thus, it is agreed with 2007): 36-37. which no longer believes that Satan 42 See G. E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Tes- Kimball, 51 See N.L. von. Zinzendorf, ‘Nicolas Ludwig tament, revised edition (Grand Rapids: Eerd- von Zinzendorf on Reason and Experience’ in mans, 1993), 47-48; Erickson, Christian Theol- As long as we are not conforming The Christian Theology Reader, ed. McGrath, ogy, 472-473; Jn. 8:44; 2 Cor. 4:4; 11:14; Eph. to the world (Rom. 12:1-2) and not 62; Job 28:28; Ps. 19:13; 24:3-6; 37:27-28; 38 Carson, Becoming Conversant, 134. 2:2. failing to pay attention to sound 97:10; 119:1-3; Ezek. 33:30-32; Mt. 7:16-27; 39 B. McLaren, and also response by M. Hor- 43 J. M. Frame, ‘The Road to Generous 12:33; 13:19-23; Lk. 3:8-9; 6:43-45, 49; 8:11- ton in the same article, McLaren, ‘The Orthodoxy’, Reformation and Revival Journal 14 15; 11:28; Rom. 2:11-16; 3:30-31; Gal. 5:22; Method, the Message, and the Ongoing Story’, (3) (2005): 100, 102; B. McLaren, ‘Seeking’, Eph. 5:8-9; Phil. 2:13; Tit. 3:8, 14; Heb. 6:9-12; 213-214. 121-140. 46 Conder, ‘The Existing’, 104. Carson also 13:20-21; Jas. 1:22-25; 2:14-26; 1 Pet. 2:20- 40 E. R. McManus, ‘The Global Intersection’ 44 Conder, ‘The Existing’, 107. expresses this concern. Carson, Becoming 21; 2 Pet. 1:3-5; 1 Jn. 3:18; Rev. 22:12-14. in The Church in Emerging Culture: Five Per- 45 D. Pagitt, ‘Communities of Hope’ in An Conversant, 125. 52 Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging Churches, 70. spectives, 247. Emergent Manifesto of Hope, 75. 47 See Moltmann, The Church, 6. Also, Long, Emerging Hope, 206. 342 Eleonora L. Scott A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern, Missional Church 343 translating the gospel into the emerg- associate hesitancy and distaste for dence we used to.’58 Surely it is com- Unfortunately, some within EM are ing culture’s local language.53 This has reductionist propositions with a rejec- mendable that EM is seeking to per- guilty of provoking those within the significant merit in providing context tion of authority and outright denial of sonalize the objective truth about Jesus evangelical tradition by using poten- and understanding to a world that is no any absolutes. Ericson points out that in relationships rather than in proposi- tially inflammatory phrases like ‘the longer familiar with Christian ethics believing there are many perspectives tions about Jesus.59 message itself changes’61 (cf. Ps. and terms (cf. Mt. 5:13-16; Jn. 3:21; to consider inherently means that Still it must be recognized that 119:89-91; Is. 40:6-8; Lk. 21:33; Rom. 13:34-35).54 there is something ‘objective’ to con- organising a set of beliefs and system- 14:1, 13). It difficult to see what is EM consequently de-focuses the sider from varying viewpoints.57 atizing theology is not just about fol- actually meant or intended by this idea, written word and doctrinal statements EM’s defocusing of dogma is per- lowing propositions and rational and evangelicals are likely to be dis- in favour of relationships and actions. haps necessary for contextualising the logic—there is a beauty in this when it turbed by it. Evangelicals rightly strive For example, consider The Emergent gospel for the emerging generation. is done well, an order that shows our to, ‘preserve the gospel at all costs. Village ‘Statement of Faith’, which For example, if the emerging genera- Creator’s character; it also attempts to When the gospel is modified, the vital- says, tion learns in school that ‘always’ and understand and embody the whole of ity of the church is lost.’62 Yet McLaren We believe in God, beauty, future, ‘never’ statements on tests can be Scripture as it relates to current acknowledges that if the gospel, and hope—but you won’t find a tra- assumed to be false, then using issues. The emerging culture may ‘changes to the point that it stops being ditional statement of faith here. We absolute statements in evangelism appreciate the tensions with which about Jesus…it has stopped being the don’t have a problem with faith, but undermines its reception. If the emerg- theology wrestles—for example the gospel’.63 If that is what is intended, with statements. Whereas state- ing generation is trained to disregard idea that God is transcendent and then it would be less provocative to ments of faith and doctrine have a generalised claims, then a generalised imminent. The emerging generation say, for example, that the message tendency to stifle friendships, we or simplified message will be disre- may agree with the suggestion that, translates into new situations, or that hope to further conversation and garded. Furthermore, television shows ‘The more irreconcilable various theo- what is highlighted varies according to action around the things of God.55 focusing on forensic investigation have logical positions appear to be, the context. This might avoid putting the This leads some to question indoctrinated the emerging generation closer we are to experiencing truth’; evangelical church on the defence. whether absolute truth and authority with a ‘burden of proof’ that must and that by practising such an Likewise, some who consider them- are being rejected, or whether the Bible extend beyond ‘circumstantial evi- ‘orthoparadox theology’ we can better selves ‘emergent’ must also guard is somehow seen as insufficient for the dence’ (arguments, reason, and propo- hold, ‘competing truth claims in right against a reductionist view of the church’s life.56 However, it is unfair to sitions) to concrete evidence, such as tension.’60 If the emerging culture Reformation64 and a misrepresentation fingerprints and DNA. So using argu- indeed accepts paradox, then we of sola Scriptura65 in ways that suggest ments and reason in evangelism is should be giving a higher place to the- the exclusion of the Holy Spirit’s work, unlikely to meet the ‘burden of proof’ ological evidence and logic in the cur- 53 McLaren, ‘Seeking’, 124. Mathewes- required by this generation—there Green, ‘Under the Heaventree’, 159. rent climate. must be concrete evidence of trans- 54 Crouch, ‘Life’, 88. 55 Emergent Village, ‘About Emergent Vil- formed lives, spiritual experience, and lage’. loving action in community too. Thus, 61 McLaren, ‘The Method’, 210, 215. 56 Wells, The Courage, 4, 8, 16, 227, 230. D. EM is absolutely right to offer such liv- 58 Kimball, They Like Jesus, 137. See also Groothuis, ‘Truth Defined and Defended’, in ing ‘DNA proof’ of the gospel through Conder, The Church, 75. 62 Erickson, Christian Theology, 1075. Reclaiming the Center: Confronting Evangelical relationship and action. As Kimball 59 See, for example, Crouch, ‘Life’, 91; Kim- 63 McLaren, ‘The Method’, 218; See also Michael Horton’s response to B. McLaren in Accommodation in Postmodern Times, eds. M. J. explains, ‘We can no longer with ball, The Emerging Church, 76; McLaren, ‘The Method’, 200-201, 205; Mathewes-Green, this same article, 224. Erickson, P. K. Helseth, and J. Taylor integrity merely quote a few isolated (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2004), 78-79. C. ‘Under the Heaventree’, 155; McManus, ‘The 64 Some take issue with their treatment of O. Brand, ‘Defining Evangelicalism’ in verses and say “case closed” with the Global’, 248, 256; Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging history in general. See Carson, Becoming Con- Reclaiming the Center, 304. Carson, Becoming sometimes heartless and naive confi- Churches, 63, 70; R. S. Smith, Truth, 133; Kim- versant, 64. Conversant, 131, 145-146, 188-200, 216-219. ball, They Like Jesus, 208. 65 For the historical understanding of sola See also T. N. Smith, ‘A Generous Orthodoxy 60 D. J. Friesen, ‘Orthoparadoxy: Emerging Scriptura, see McGrath, Christian Theology, 71- or the Garden Path?’, Reformation and Revival Hope for Embracing Difference’, in An Emer- 72, 219-220; and Bloesch, The Church, 289- Journal 14 (3) (2005): 89. 57 Ericson, Christian Theology, 171. gent Manifesto of Hope, 208-209. 290. 344 Eleonora L. Scott A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern, Missional Church 345 ignoring human fallibility66 or ‘the cre- focus makes a valuable contribution to belongs to God73 who is filling all who join God’s mission to those in ation of a paper pope in place of a flesh theology: things: other countries (Mt. 28:19). Our mis- 67 and blood one.’ If provocative lan- What we have to learn from them is There is no outside. There is no sional ecclesiology must develop a guage can be avoided on both sides not that the church ‘has’ a mission, place where God is not, even now. strong theology of intervention for (Eph. 4:1-3), EM stands to offer the but the very reverse: that the mis- Even those who do not know the social justice and Kingdom reasons. existing church an approach to reach- sion of Christ creates its own truth of Christ are also created, ing a generation that requires substan- church. Mission does not come beloved, and known by Him. He is IV. Relevance and Application tial proof. from the church; it is from mission closer to them than their own EM challenges the existing church to While it is commendable to call and in the light of mission that the breath, though they do not know question the ways it has adapted to Christians to be living testimonies of church has to be understood. The Him.74 modernity, and calls the church to biblical truth, we must confess that we preaching of the gospel does not are highly insufficient as messages. However, EM can have merit only if transform its practices so it can better merely serve to instruct Christians Michael Horton reminds us ‘the gospel the whole world is kept at the forefront reach the emerging generation. By and strengthen their faith; it is never anything that we do. To iden- of our understanding of ‘missional’. It practising ‘cultural exegesis’, the always serves to call non- tify out struggles for justice, our com- is good to encourage cooperation with gospel can thus be contextualized for Christians at the same passion, our sacrifices, as the gospel is local initiatives and avoid being ‘an any place and for any generation.76 This time….Mission embraces all activi- 75 a confusion of law and gospel.’68 But if extension of colonialism’, but we is relevant for any ministry. As we con- ties that serve to liberate man from orthodoxy and orthopraxy do indeed must not forget that there are still textualize the gospel, we benefit from his slavery in the presence of become inseparable in the movement, places in the world with little or no deepening our understanding of God Godforsakenness.70 it will undoubtedly show its superiority Christian witness and insufficient and the cultures he has called into to existing ecclesiology. So we are no longer waiting for resources for evangelism. If by ‘mis- being: 71 unbelievers to come into the church; sional’ we neglect the church’s respon- As the gospel engages new cul- rather, we join God in his mission. sibility to other nations, then we intro- 3. Everything is mission tures within various contexts, and There is much here to applaud. This duce a new kind of cultural imperial- as the translation of the gospel Van Gelder recognizes EM’s reframing attitude recognizes the patience ism—deciding that our culture’s spiri- takes place in these new cultures, of ‘church and mission’ in declaring required in evangelism, seeing it as a tual needs are more important (or just missional congregations anticipate itself a ‘missional church’—for the 72 process and relationship. This cor- as important) than that of other new insights into the fuller mean- church is thus ‘missionary in its very rectly de-focuses our programs, our nations. While everything is mission ing of the gospel. The very act of nature’.69 Moltmann sees that this strategies, our buildings, and our- and everyone should be a missionary, translating the gospel into new ver- selves as religious specialists and this must not marginalise the needs in nacular languages often opens up emphasizes that everything ultimately other countries, or the needs of those fresh understandings regarding its 77 66 W. Samson, ‘The End of Reinvention: Mis- meaning. sion Beyond Market Adoption Cycles’, in An It is also extremely helpful to Emergent Manifesto of Hope, eds D. Pagitt and 73 F. Mathewes-Green’s comment to M. Hor- remember that how we engage in min- T. Jones (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), ton within Horton, ‘Better’, 105-138; H. Kirk- istry now may not be appropriate in 155-156; tual Ministry, ed. C. Van Gelder (Grand Rapids: Davidoff, ‘Meeting Jesus at the Bar: Or How I twenty or thirty years’ time. As culture 67 P. Tickle, The Great Emergence: How Chris- Eerdmans, 2007), 27. For an example of the Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Evange- tianity is Changing and Why (Grand Rapids: emerging church calling itself missional, see lism’, in An Emergent Manifesto of Hope, 36; is always changing, so we must remain Baker Books, 2008), 46. For a contrary view Emergent Village, ‘Values and Practices’. Horton, ‘Better’, 119; Van Gelder, ‘How Mis- flexible in our methods in order to of sola Scriptura, see Wells, The Courage, 21. Also, Kimball, They Like Jesus, 20. siology’, 30; Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging reach all people with the gospel (1 Cor. 68 M. Horton as a response to B. McLaren in 70 Moltmann, The Church, 10. Churches, 152-153. 9:19-23). EM prompts us to provide McLaren, ‘The Method’, 214. 71 Origen, ‘Origen on the Church and Salva- 74 Mathewes-Green, ‘Under the Heaven- 69 C. Van Gelder, ‘How Missiology Can Help tion’ in The Christian Theology Reader, ed. tree’, 178; M. Scandrette, ‘Growing Pains: The Inform the Conversation about the Missional McGrath, 260. Messy and Fertile Process of Becoming’ in An Church in Context’, in The Missional Church in 72 Long, Emerging Hope, 220. Also, Kimball, Emergent Manifesto of Hope, 28. 76 Conder, The Church, 54. Context: Helping Congregations Develop Contex- The Emerging Church, 201. 75 Conder, The Church, 173. 77 Van Gelder, ‘How Missiology’, 39. 346 Eleonora L. Scott ERT (2010) 34:4, 347-357 more context for the ‘unChristianized’ remarkable. Embracing those who are emerging generation. Practically, this different and including them in authen- Mission, Missionaries and the means that we must provide more tic community is extremely important background as we teach from Scrip- in redeeming the church’s image as Evangelization of Europe: ture. For example, we cannot assume elitist and irrelevant. As Ian Mobsby understanding of phrases like ‘doubt- says, Towards an Integrating Missiology from a ing Thomas’ without first supplying The elitism that is so prevalent in Latin American Perspective context. In any ministry, we should the church has created a chasm seek to be living examples of the between the church and popular gospel and join in God’s mission. Exist- culture…The gap between tradi- ing churches and ministries would no tional church and contemporary Samuel Cueva doubt benefit from entering into the culture reveals the sin of the EM dialogue. Let us pray that God will church in failing to be incarnational use this movement for his glory. and requires repentance an innova- KEYWORDS: Encounters, reciprocal ask has to do with diachronic mission tion that the emerging church encounter, spontaneous evangeliza- and synchronic mission for the present seeks to live and create.78 tion, reciprocal integration, amalga- millennium. What legitimizes the mis- sionary presence of Latin Americans in V. Conclusion Contextualizing the gospel with our mation. There are issues that EM must con- Europe? To attempt an answer, we very lives is a crucial marrying of shall focus on three topics: missions sider. Experience should not be ele- orthodoxy and orthopraxy. Realizing vated above theology, although they and their present reality in Latin Amer- that mission is not something we do I Introduction ica; missionaries and their present may sit side by side. Spirituality must but is who we are meant to be is note- not be seen as self-centred or as neu- The purpose of this essay is to promote reality in Europe, and evangelization worthy. and its present reality in Europe. Our tral, and spiritual conflict must be Time will tell whether EM is as sig- reflection on the missionary task expected and addressed. The move- which will help foster an integrating methodology involves an analysis of nificant as it appears; EM could very both the past and the present; we shall ment must remain self-critical, critical missiology between missions, mission- well be another Reformation of sorts. explain the reason for certain encoun- of current culture, and open to the crit- aries and the need for evangelization in Kimball suggests that we measure ters as well as disencounters (related icisms of others. Phrases that unnec- Europe. The spiritual need of Europe is EM’s success ‘by looking at what our to missiological dislocation or frag- essarily incite the existing church and practices produce in the called people no longer simply the subject of missio- mentation, which produces a lack of reductionist views of church history of God as they are sent out on a mission logical reflection, but rather a reality mission reciprocity; i.e., failures of must be avoided. And God’s mission to to live as light and salt in their com- which requires new models through people and groups to encounter each the wider world must not be marginal- 79 munities (Mt. 5:13-16)’. This is cer- which the redemptive mission can be other authentically and reciprocally). ized. tainly reasonable. accomplished. We shall therefore In so doing we shall propose a practice However, the contributions that the assume the integrating model which which is motivated by an alternative EM has to make to ecclesiology and the we find in the initial missiological missiology which promotes more existing church outweigh these issues. 78 Quoted in Gibbs and Bolger, Emerging encounter between Peter and the Gen- encounters and fewer disencounters. Tapping into the current culture’s Churches, 71. tiles as related in Acts chapter 10. Through its mission activity, the desire for spiritual experience is 79 Kimball, The Emerging Church, 15. The question which we would like to evangelical movement produces differ-

Samuel Cueva is Executive President of Mission for the Third Millennium, which promotes two-way mission bridges to every continent. A member of the Latin American Theological Fraternity and Global Connections Latin American Forum, UK, he has planted a Spanish-speaking church in London and is concluding a PhD at the University of Wales; his most recent publication is Al Cumplimiento de la Missio Dei. (email [email protected]) 348 Samuel Cueva Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe 349 ent realities. Here, with encounters as out the world. These changes provide while a conservative figure is at 60 mil- 24,504, and Latin America: 41,544) by well as disencounters in mind, we us with new prospects for mission, lion.5 These figures are related to vari- the year 2001.9 analyse three of these in the light of the which must be discerned in the light of ous change factors which are religious, These figures provide evidence that movement’s history that can help us to God’s kairos and of an interpretation of missiological and economic. the mission enterprise has been devel- understand the challenge of an inte- the biblical message guided by the con- When it comes to the religious fac- oped under the influence of the west- grating missiology. We shall suggest textual lens of a God who makes him- tor, it is important to note that Latin ern models. Accordingly, Michael Jaf- the integration of conventional and self known to his church and who acts America produced the kind of cultural farian argued in 2004 that it is not true non-conventional missionaries, and an in history. This is called the missio Dei, Catholicism in which it was assumed that there are more non-western mis- alternative which is aimed at fostering in which the church serves a God who that to be a Latino one had to be sionaries than western missionaries.10 a twofold integrating missionary is creator, redeemer and owner of mis- Catholic. Missiologically, following the Thus new statistics for 2010 will endeavour based on flexible reciprocal sion.2 Panama Congress of 1916 there was a reveal if this figure has changed. How- integration and an intentional strength- b) New prospects for mission in flow of foreign missionaries, primarily ever, the fact is that in the case of Latin ening of bridges of reciprocal missionary Europe. We acknowledge with humil- from the United States and Great America the number of missionaries encounter. Also, we have attempted to ity the fact that the missio Dei is not sta- Britain, but also from Sweden and Ger- has grown considerably in recent formulate a credo for an integrating tic, but rather dynamic, tension-laden, many, such that by 1990 there were years. reciprocal missiology. opening up new mission fields. It is 12,000 Protestant missionaries work- On the third front, economic dynamic because the Holy Spirit blows ing in Latin America.6 In contrast, it changes have led to unimaginable where he wills (Jn. 3:8), and tension- was predicted that by the 1990s social transformation which has pro- II Missions and their present laden because redemptive action 100,000 missionaries from the ‘North’ duced a great migration from South to reality in Latin America through the church is always in ten- and 85,000 from the ‘South’ would be North. Preferred nations for immigra- sion, whether positive or negative. working on the field, and by 2000 the tion are the United States, Spain, Swe- number of missionaries from the North den, Great Britain and France. This 1. Present Reality c) The creation of new models of mission. We have been able to identify was estimated at 120,000, while the factor has caused a movement of the In his book The Missionary Movement in at least ten models of mission through- number from the Southern hemisphere evangelical community as a massive Christian History, Scottish missiologist 160,000.7 However, Operation World but unexpected missionary movement 1 out the history of evangelization in Andrew Walls described a shift in the Latin America, including Bible distrib- lists 91,837 non-Western missionar- to the North, especially Europe. 8 centre of gravity in Christianity from ution, church planting, faith missions, ies and the World Christian Encyclope- North to South, accompanied by a and mission through migration.3 In dia gave a figure of 336,070 Western 2. Point of Encounter decline of Christianity in Europe and 1916 there were 170,000 Protestants, missionaries (Europe: 192,346; North- massive growth in Latin America, ern America: 135,222, and Oceania: There have been various congresses and it is calculated that by 1990 there which have helped to create points of Africa and Asia. This interpretation 4 8,502), and 83,454 non-Western mis- were 48 million. At present, the opti- missionary encounter in Latin Amer- leads us to consider the following three mistic figure is at about 80 million, sionaries (Africa: 17,406, Asia: aspects of a new reality for mission. ica. Among those of great historical a) Analysis of change. Both Andrew Walls and Samuel Escobar warned the church of coming changes during the 2 See further Chris Wright, The Mission of 5 Emilio A. Nuñez and William Taylor, Crisis 9 David B. Barret, George Thomas Kurian 1980s and 1990s. Today, many of us God (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2006). and Hope in Latin America (Pasadena, C.A: and Todd M. Johnson (editors), World Christian are privileged to experience in person 3 For the Latin American model see further William Carey Library, 1996), 161. Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of these changes in God’s redemptive Miguel A. Palomino ‘Latino Immigration in 6 Escobar, Toward the 21st Century, 28. Churches and Religions in the Modern World Vol- mission which are being felt through- Europe: Challenge and Opportunity for Mis- 7 Larry D. Pate, From Every People: A Hand- ume I: The World by Countries, Religions, sion’, Issue 28:2 (April 2004), 54-58. book of Two-Third World Missions with Direc- Churches, Ministries, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford 4 Samuel Escobar, in James M. Phillips and tory/Histories/Analysis (Monrovia, California: University Press 2001), 1:843. Robert T. Coote (Editors), Toward the 21st Cen- MARC 1989), 51-52. 10 Michael Jeffarian, ‘Are There More non- 1 Andrew Walls, The Missionary Movement in tury in Christian Mission (Grand Rapids Michi- 8 Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Western Missionaries than Western Mission- Christian History (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis gan: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993), Operation World: When we Pray God Works, 6th aries?’, International Bulletin of Missionary Books, 2004), p. 41. 127. ed. (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2001), 747. Research, 28:3 (July 2004), 131-132. 350 Samuel Cueva Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe 351 and theological importance we can present millennium. With a wider mis- we may mention ‘Cape Town 2010’, an III Missionaries and their mention first of all CLADE (s) I (1969), sion consultation among the evangeli- evangelical congress in the spirit of the present reality in Europe II (1979), III (1992), IV (2000), cals in mind, it is worth mentioning the Lausanne movement, scheduled to together with the formation of the ‘Iguassu Dialogue’, organized by the gather 4,000 mission leaders from Latin American Theological Fraternity WEA-Missions Commission held in around the world in October 2010. 1. Present reality in 1970, which emerges as a vital Brazil in October 1999,12 which The new presence of Latin American, movement of critical theological and brought reflective practitioners to 3. Point of Disencounter Asian and African missionaries in missiological reflection and of new analyse their missiological founda- Europe is in keeping with a missional mission proposals from within a Latin tions, commitments, and practices and One of the distinctions within Latin process which emerges not from American context. Then there was the to propose new prospects for mission American groups that promote holistic human action, but from the divine, July 1976 Curitiba Congress in Brazil, in the new millennium. mission is their rejection of the influ- from the owner and Lord of redemptive which brought together more than 500 Similar congresses were planned ence of a managerial missiology; this mission. Therefore, we assume that Latin American university students, for 2010 such as the ‘Edinburgh 2010’ approach lays stress on the verbal the new fact of missionaries of the and which concluded with the ‘Curitiba with an ecumenical view,13 and ‘Tokyo proclamation of the message and the South presently in Europe is a mission Declaration’ and a dedication to pro- 2010’,14 which was more related to the church’s numerical growth as the most of the Triune God in which the Father, moting mission within and beyond Third World Mission Associations significant elements in Christian mis- the Son and the Holy Spirit are mobi- Latin America in the spirit of the Lau- (TWMA) under the influence of Ralph sion. One of the factors giving rise to lizing new missionary forces on two sanne Covenant of 1974. The Curitiba Winter’s missiology of ‘unreached peo- this distinction is the imperialistic fronts: conventional missionaries Covenant affirms the historic evangeli- ple’. However, it now seems that there nature and the sense of triumphalism (those who go through the traditional cal Latin American mission, the is a new emphasis on ‘Discipling all in regard to statistics and the control of route, i.e. established mission agen- church’s missionary vocation and the Peoples’ because the missiology of the church growth data which are found in cies), and non-conventional missionar- church’s new missionary situation in ‘unreached’ is tending to disappear, or Latin America.16 This situation has cre- ies (who are sent through social, polit- the world. It likewise recognizes the at least to have less impact among the ical and global economic forces, such need to cross geographical boundaries, ated an atmosphere in which Latin evangelicals due to the fact that it has American missiologists have felt the as immigration, ‘business as mission’, but also those of inequality, injustice been challenged by a wider mission new tentmakers, etc.). The basic ques- 11 need to issue a call for integrity in moti- and idolatry. tions to address in this new mission theology such as holistic mission or vation for mission and a challenge to Another congress which set a new 15 context are: what sort of missionaries mission as transformation. Finally, live out a gospel of integral mission not course in Latin American mission was is Europe receiving at present? And only in word but also in deed. the first Latin American Missionary what sort of missionaries does Europe From this historic angle we might Congress, known more commonly as really need? In particular, does Europe COMIBAM, which took place in Sao 12 William Taylor, Global Missiology for the say that any theology of missiology need conventional highly-professional- (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Paulo, Brazil, in 1987, with the partic- 21st Century which is put into practice generates a ized missionaries? ipation of 3,000 delegates. Of special 2000), 1-13. meeting of minds as well as conflicts in note was the enthusiasm with which 13 Metropolitan Coorilos Geevarghese, the life and mission of the church. Latin America was declared as a mis- ‘Towards and Beyond Edinburgh 2010: A His- 2. Point of Encounter torical Survey of Ecumenical Missiological Therefore, in relation to the present sionary force instead of mission field. Developments since 1910’, International mission in Europe, the new reality that If we stop in for a coffee break at Star- With this brief description of these Review of Mission, 99. 1 (390), (April 2010), is before us should be understood, bucks to analyse the type of missionary congresses our aim has been to explain 14. analysed and directed in the power of that Europe is receiving we shall real- the process whereby God has been 14 Ralph Winter and David Taylor, ‘The the Holy Spirit. ize that the majority belongs to the changing the missionary axis point so Story of a Movement from William Carey to non-conventional category. One reason that it will become an alternative or Tokyo 2010’, Mission Frontiers (September— for this is that nearly the entire con- October 2009), 19-23. complementary missionary force in the ventional missionary force has been 15 See the new emphasis in David Taylor, ‘Discipling All Peoples: Today’s Imperative directed toward the 10/40 window. It and the Vision of Tokyo 2010’, Mission Fron- seems to me that the U.S. Centre for 11 Escobar, Toward the 21st Century, 131. tiers (September—October 2009), 6-13. 16 Escobar, Toward the 21st Century, 131. World Mission, under the leadership of 352 Samuel Cueva Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe 353

Ralph Winter, since the 1970s, has enthusiasm of spontaneous preaching mission is the fact that a weakness in IV Evangelization and its been one of the most influential tools in because it is part of their evangelical the Latin American missionary force is present reality in Europe the mobilization of conventional mis- culture; an understanding of this on its lack of a worldview which would sionaries towards specific targets, fun- the part of the European church can allow it to be integrated with the cul- damentally the ‘unreached people’. help to create bridges of reciprocal mis- ture of its adopted country; something 1. Present reality This can be seen through its Mission sionary encounter. which requires sustained study is its In order to better understand why a 17 Frontiers’ bulletin. This mission theol- On the other side, learning the lan- failure to participate more fully in the missiological trend aimed at the evan- ogy has profoundly impacted the Latin guage and becoming familiar with the life of established national churches in gelization of Europe exists today, we American evangelical movement, ecclesiology at work in one’s adopted Europe. In the case of Spain, for exam- must answer two questions: What is which is evident in Latin America’s land become opportunities to develop ple, the language helps, but this is evangelization and what is God doing conventional missionary force. what I call a reciprocal missionary amal- insufficient for cultural integration. In presently? We assume that we must In the case of Europe, in one sense, gamation. As amalgam is made of silver the case of Germany, Sweden or the remember that in the first instance perhaps, Latin American missionaries and mercury and serves to treat dental United Kingdom, the language is a what we need is to recover an under- can develop their ministry and mission cavities, so a reciprocal missionary great barrier to integration, given the standing of what evangelization means service with fewer financial resources amalgamation is a fusion of resources Latin American missionary force’s for the European continent. In this than other models. This can be seen in and missiological interpretations missiological pragmatism, whereby sense the offers a the hundreds already in Europe. We which serves to heal those things intentional language study is not taken good definition: are under the impression that in these which weaken the church’s mission. into consideration. So we might ask To evangelize is to spread the Good circumstances it is not necessary to how many of those from the South have News that Jesus Christ died for our create more exotic forms of missionary 3. Point of Disencounter become integrated into the European sins and was raised from the dead sending/receiving structures, but church. according to the Scriptures, and rather to improve existing ones. If the mixture in a reciprocal mission- ary amalgamation is inadequate it is, in Another issue is the lack of the kind that as the reigning Lord he now One task of a reciprocal encounter of national leadership which is willing offers the forgiveness of sins and would be to make an effort to recognize my view, because the dialogue between the Latin American and European mis- to take the risk relating to a flexible rec- the liberating gifts of the Spirit to that Latin American missionaries are iprocal integration, i.e. one which will all who repent and believe. Our guided by a worldview whose spiritual- sionary forces is still in embryo or infancy stage. The basic reason for this provide forms of cultural and social Christian presence in the world is ity is based on spontaneous evange- integration, as well as integration into indispensable to evangelism, and lization. For this reason I call them view is that we observe that European leaders appear to be searching for the life of the European church, whose so is that kind of dialogue whose ‘wartime missionaries’, since they are flavour differs from that of Latin Amer- purpose is to listen sensitively in inclined to withstand considerable Latin American missionaries whose ica. Integration also involves finding order to understand. But evange- spiritual and economic hardship until perspective is the conventional one. theological common ground which will lism itself is the proclamation of they achieve their goals. This can lead to frustration in both mis- forge a society characterized by more the historical, biblical Christ as We observe that Latin Americans sion contexts, for while one group tries justice and less discrimination, more Saviour and Lord, with a view to who work in Europe must make the to assume that God has brought them, harmony and less social conflict in the persuading people to come to him effort to become integrated into the the other group tries to submit this to the scrutiny of conventional missiol- midst of the church’s mission.18 A flex- personally and to be reconciled to culture of the country in which they do 19 ible reciprocal integration would assist God (italics mine) mission. Latin Americans enjoy the ogy. To this we add the tension of the apparent triumphalism of those in introducing and strengthening mis- Regarding evangelization, the Lau- described as non-conventional mis- sion forces, whether conventional or sanne Covenant ends with a categori- sionaries, which can create an atmos- non-conventional. 17 Mission Frontiers is the bulletin of the U.S. phere of disencounter with regard to Centre for World Mission founded by Ralph the national leadership of the estab- Winter in 1979. See Rick Wood, ‘Join Mission 19 John Stott (Editor) Making Christ Known: Frontiers in Celebrating our 30th Year’, Mis- lished churches in Europe. 18 John Stott, Issues Facing Christians Today Historic Mission Documents from the Lausanne sion Frontiers (January-February 30:1, 2008), Another key element worth consid- (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1984), Movement 1974 -1989 (Carlisle, Cumbria: 24. ering in this process of new changes in 270. Paternoster Press, 1996), 20. 354 Samuel Cueva Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe 355 cal reminder that we are not at liberty ogy in Latin America and Europe. This between similarities and differences both conventional and non-conven- to dilute the cost of discipleship, nor to assumption implies that missions as within the Christian faith and other tional. avoid identifying with the new commu- organizations are losing their ability to religions. Something which can be rescued nity, which is the church. For this rea- obtain human and material resources For Kraemer, the key point of con- from traditional mission is precisely son biblical evangelism ‘includes obe- for mission. Second, there is a need to tact among all subsequent ones is the the effort which goes into training peo- dience to Christ, incorporation into his redistribute mission resources accord- missionary. This focal point helps us to ple before sending them out in cross- church, and responsible service in the ing to a contextual mission perspec- understand that the missionary is the cultural mission. This prospect of care- world’.20 In this sense, the church of tive. That is, spiritual resources need key channel or messenger in Christian ful training (which must be improved) both South and North needs to analyse to be applied to areas of spiritual need, mission, but that the missionary repre- for evangelization in a post-Christian more profoundly, in the light of this and material resources to areas of sents the community of believers. It is world may help minimize the number of definition, the way in which it is carry- material need. In some cases a parallel not an individualized mission, but more casualties in the new atmosphere of ing out the church’s task of evange- application of both will be necessary. properly a corporate one, since the globalized missiology. In this sense, lization. By nature the church should Nevertheless, integral mission is fun- church or community of believers is the Worth Keeping24 offers an exhaustive experience an evangelizing mission damental in either case. focal point of all mission activity, the proposal for better long-term mission- which proclaims in word and deed the The current stress on multidirec- source from which the missionary and ary practice in global perspective. The redemptive and transformative mes- tional missiology does not mean that mission structures are continually fed. point of encounter which we propose sage which Christ has given to his the global church must practise a The missionary as instrument, how- emerges from a Trinitarian mission church. ‘mutinational’ philosophy in which ever, is not a disinfected or antiseptic theology which is grounded in a rela- What God is doing at present can be resources are transferred from one tool which is not completely involved in tional and communitarian mission in 23 summarized in the words of Mennonite place to the other while decision-mak- the process of evangelization. which the church is the focal agent for missiologist Wilbert Shenk regarding ing power is retained. An alternative We see this in John 15 with the mission rather than simply certain new strategies for mission. Shenk model involves a democratic mission- metaphor of the vineyard; it is also individuals. In this regard we agree explains first that the ideal held forth ary theology in which there is greater used by the apostle Paul in the with Lesslie Newbigin, the missionary in the new forms of mission involves participation in fundamental (not only metaphor of the ambassador (1 Cor. in India, who spoke of the local church secondary) decision-making on the interdependence with a recognized 5:20). Both metaphors demonstrate as the hermeneutic of the gospel, part of all those involved in mission. total involvement on the part of the system in which decision-making is rather than the individual. We propose that we need to foster messenger in evangelization which shared; then that the Asian, African what we call a ‘from countryside to carries with it the task of representing and Latin American missionary forces city’ missiology, in which strategic the kingdom of God. 3. Point of Disencounter at present demonstrate great vitality cities are converted into sources of Consequently, it is necessary to pro- and dedication to mission, but with few Since the 1990s the evangelization of nourishment for those places with mote a type of missiological training in resources and finally, that the pres- Europe has become an unfinished task fewer resources, both in terms of peo- order to carry out that representative in which the church of the South must ence of the suffering church demon- ple as well as opportunities for evan- work in a way that is appropriate, wor- take part. It is not a recent phenome- strates the role of the Holy Spirit in gelistic efforts. thy and consistent. Mission training non, as some assume, but rather a present mission.21 models, whether conventional or oth- move of the Holy Spirit which has man- To these three strategic processes erwise, must become a fundamental ifested itself slowly and quietly, but we would add two more that are 2. Point of Encounter activity and, on that basis, be taken as also firmly and steadily. Providing evi- impacting the new forms of mission. More than seventy years ago, Dutch a point of encounter through which we dence for this process are missionary First, there is a need for a parallel theologian Hendrick Kraemer22 pro- might become worthy representatives movements which have emerged, such strengthening of missionary ecclesiol- posed a mission theology of contact of the missio Dei. I assume that Europe can become a channel of reciprocal aid for the better training of missionaries, 24 Rob Hay, Valerie Lim, Detlef Blocher, 20 Stott, Making Christ Known, 20. 22 David Bosch, A Spirituality of the Road et.al, Worth Keeping: Global Perspectives on Best 21 Wilbert Shenk in Toward the 21st Century, (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, Practice in Missionary Retention (Pasadena, Cal- 231. 1979), 42. 23 Bosch, A Spirituality of the Road, 42. ifornia: William Carey Library, 2007). 356 Samuel Cueva Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe 357 as the Latin American Theological Fra- tered Latin American churches in rather as a work of the Holy Spirit, who the same time united and diverse, ternity, Mission for the Third Millen- Barcelona alone. Without exaggera- wills to establish new ambassadors of I believe in the need to learn from nium, COMIBAM, SEPAL, BACK to tion, some say that that number could the kingdom in a continent in which the the missional encounters and dis- EUROPE, and others. The need, we easily double. church is need of new spiritual vitality, encounters of history with an suggest, is for greater dialogue, as well Thus, we have an idea of the not because it has lost it completely, approach which is biblical, motivat- as familiarity on the part of the North changes that mission groups, mission- but because the vitality of the past is ing, encouraging and challenging with the growth of the missionary force aries and the evangelization of Europe gradually weakening, perhaps not for today’s church, and from the South. are experiencing in our day. Therefore because of the church alone, but I believe in practising a Trinitarian Who is making this new global mis- we must accept the great responsibility because of the post-Christian environ- integrating missiology with the sion reality known? Clearly, informa- of fostering an integrating missiology ment which Europe is experiencing at presence of the love of God the tion comes from mission leaders who which is characterized as unifying, present. Father, the grace of God the Son, have the means to disseminate infor- diverse, flexible, and whose theology is What follows is an attempt to for- and the power of God the Holy mation systematically, ‘from above’. a missionary one. An appropriate mis- mulate a credo for an integrating reci- Spirit, acting in the church which The other source of information in inte- sionary theological understanding is procal missiology, which might serve seeks to integrate models between gral mission is ‘from below’; this cre- that missional integration does not do to foster a new missionary theological missionaries and mission organiza- ates a new mission consciousness away with diversity in mission. On the 25 thinking and missionary reflection: tions. regarding the presence of a new mis- contrary, it makes it dynamic in the sion force. For some, this new reality is context of the missionary life of the I believe that an integrating work Finally, what we propose as an still the source of headaches, even church. between the missionary forces of alternative is aimed at fostering a though they have already taken the the North and the South is possible, twofold integrating missionary required dose of tranquilizers so as to I believe that to find more points of endeavour that bears two factors in deal with the missiological pain of V Conclusion encounter than disencounter in mind: first that flexible reciprocal inte- imminent changes. Others, however, To conclude, we understand that the God’s mission through the church gration is to be fostered intentionally, have already managed to forge a new trend of missiological change will con- is feasible, bearing in mind the socio-cultural con- missiology of reciprocal collaboration. tinue to grow and that the involvement I believe that it is possible to forge text, as well as the life of the church; second, that These are the new processes with of the missionary force from the South more positive tensions than nega- bridges of reciprocal mis- sionary encounter are to be strength- which we must be acquainted in order will gradually increase until it becomes tive ones in the midst of a mission- ened intentionally, bearing in mind the to be encouraged as we face changes in integrated with the life of the European ary endeavour which is at one and the missionary task. The reality is that churches. These changes, however, context of evangelical cultural mis- new ethnic churches are opening in will take time, and will require a revi- sion. Europe as the missionary force of the talization of missionary ecclesiology We end with the following question: Might it be possible to replace the con- South continues to grow with its con- for two reasons: first, the church of the 25 For a critical analysis of the Apostolic tagious evangelistic enthusiasm, just South will need to become more aware Creed and its influence in church’s mission see cept of North and South with a more as the trend toward the evangelization of the need to train and send qualified Nicholas Lash, Believing Three Ways in One integrating approach such as ‘Nor- of Europe grows from day to day. missionaries to the European context, God: A Reading of the Apostles’ Creed (London: south’, or perhaps integrating global Here is an illustration of what is and second, it is essential that Euro- SCM Press, 1992). mission? taking place: We arrived in Barcelona pean churches become more open to in 1991. We were, perhaps, the first helping the missionary force which is semi-conventional missionaries sent present in Europe, and indeed new mis- by a local church in to plant a sionaries who are already on their way church among Latin Americans. At from Africa, Asia and Latin America, in that time there were few Latin Ameri- a more integral way. can missionaries in Spain. Today the This must not be interpreted as a situation is quite different, as there are missiological avalanche, nor as some at present more than seventy regis- sort of post-imperial conquest, but ERT (2010) 34:4, 358-369 The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 359

that the meaning of the Cross in Mark significance of Jesus’ suffering and The Meaning of the Cross in Mark serves as a central concern of and cli- death.7 max to the narrative and (2) that the Mark’s prologue (1:1) indeed sets Cross serves as evidence of Jesus’ iden- the stage for his Gospel and it is his Richard A. Pruitt tity. I propose to do this by analysing particular claim of Sonship that finds the narrative of Mark as a literary resolution at the foot of the cross.8 whole, through a brief survey of vari- Even if one maintains that the phrase KEYWORDS: Gospel of Mark, cross, By the term Cross, I intend all that ous academics who have contemplated ‘Son of God’ is not original to the text, identity, passion predictions, Son of encompasses the prediction and pas- the subject, and by focusing attention as many have, the subsequent addition God. sion of Jesus. Consequently, ‘Cross,’ on how the passion predictions, may reasonably indicate that an early with a capital ‘C,’ serves as a metaphor namely Mark 8:31, 9:30-32, and 10:32- copyist recognized the same plot reso- for the efficacious nature of Jesus’ suf- 34, are used within the context of lution suggested in this paper and I Introduction fering while ‘cross,’ with a lower case Mark’s gospel.5 added the phrase for clarity.9 Thus, this What is the meaning of the Cross in the ‘c’, serves to identify the specific mode Furthermore, this paper approaches paper argues that Mark uses the Gospel of Mark? For some, any historic or occasion of Jesus’ death. In this Mark’s presentation of the passion episode of the cross as proof for the meaning emerging from Jesus’ passion paper, I will argue that the Cross (as a predictions as authentic sayings of thesis of his narrative, namely that is difficult to determine and, as a motif) serves as an overarching theme Jesus even if recollected from tradi- Jesus Christ is the Son of God. 2 result, may be lost to the modern in Mark’s story. As a story, the second tions contained within the early ‘pre- reader altogether.1 Granted, the Gospel reveals the narrator’s beliefs Gospel’ church. The arrangement of 3 process of looking to antiquity for and values. But more specifically, as a the predictions indicates that Mark II Mark as a Literary Whole meaning, while not simultaneously proclamation, Mark arranges sayings believed Jesus anticipated his death in projecting contemporary meaning into and events from the life of Jesus to Jerusalem and that meaning was to be 1 Genre the narrative, remains a challenged if draw specific theological conclusions gained from Jesus’ experience on the ‘Gospel’ is the most frequent post- not impossible task. Attempts to ascer- and calls his readers to embrace the cross.6 From this position, it is reason- Apostolic designation assigned to the tain meaning from ancient contexts meaning of the Cross. Mark combines able to assume that Mark was not first four books of the New Testament ultimately require a lens—that is, an the passion predictions, issues of iden- attempting to explain what the disci- to distinguish them from other types of angle of observation through which tity, and the cross event into one over- ples believed about Jesus’ predictions meaning emerges. arching motif—the Cross—to proclaim of death or their understanding of the Jesus as the Son of God. meaning of the Cross. To the contrary, 4 7 See Martin Hengel, Studies in the Gospel of In this paper, I will demonstrate (1) he is attempting to explain what his Mark (trans. John Bowden; Philadelphia: readers should understand about the Fortress, 1985), 33 and R. T. France, The 1 See R. W. Funk, R. W. Hoover and the Jesus Gospel of Mark: A Commentary on the Greek Text Seminar, The Five Gospels: The Search for the (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 23. Authentic Words of Jesus (Sonoma: Polebridge, 2 It is beyond the scope of this essay to dis- 8 Cf., Rikki E. Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus in 1993), 24; David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of cuss the question of criteria in searching for 5 Although Mark 9:12 is a saying about the Mark (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 53-57, Jesus Critically Examined (trans. George Eliot; authentic sayings of Jesus. suffering of the Son of Man, it does not include especially 54, n. 13 and Robert H. Gundry, New York: MacMillan, 1892), 563-74, esp., 3 See David Rhoads, Joanna Dewey, and Don- a reference to his death. Since the context Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the 566. Strauss states, ‘[T]he minute predictions ald Michie, Mark as Story: An Introduction to seems directly related to John the Baptist, and Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 30-32. which the Evangelists put into [Jesus’] mouth the Narrative of a Gospel (Minneapolis: does not include a prediction of Jesus’ death, must be regarded as a vaticinium post eventum’ Fortress, 1999), 7. 9 On textual issues regarding ‘Son of God’ in this passage is not included in the passion pre- (prediction after the event). 4 All Scripture citations are from the NRSV. Mark 1:1 see France, The Gospel of Mark, 49 dictions under review in this paper. and Alexander Globe, “The Caesarean Omis- 6 Peter Balla, ‘What did Jesus think about his sion of the Phrase ‘Son of God’ in Mark 1:1”, approaching death?’ in Jesus, Mark and Q: The HTR 75:2 (Apr 1982): 209-218. Cf., Jan Slomp, Teaching of Jesus and its Earliest Records (ed. ‘Are the Words “Son of God” in Mark 1.1 Orig- Richard A. Pruitt is a PhD candidate at Regent University School of Divinity and is an adjunct instructor of Michael Labahn and Andreas Schmidt: inal?’, BT 28 (1977) 143-50. Slomp argues religious studies at Columbia College (Missouri). He presented this paper at the 2008 Society of Biblical Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), that the phrase, ‘Son of God’, is secondary and Literature International Conference in Auckland, New Zealand. 249. should be omitted. 360 Richard A. Pruitt The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 361 biblical literature, such as Epistle or Efforts to categorize Mark largely were not authentic to Jesus but were events of Jesus’ suffering and death Apocalyptic. Furthermore, the classifi- as historical or biographical in nature post-Easter creations later attributed and what significance they attached to cation of ‘Synoptic’ Gospel identifies are difficult because they require to him. Others, such as Raymond it in light of their own experience.17 So, the similarities found between establishing historicity and determin- Brown, however, conclude that the in what way does his manner or style Matthew, Mark, and Luke—with Mark ing what meaning the central charac- passion predictions were probably not address the community’s concerns? serving as the primary source for the ter attached to his/her actions. From the invention of the writer. Brown most It is possible that Mark’s commu- others. However, as Willi Marxsen has this perspective, the goal for under- forcefully concludes, nity or audience was suffering perse- noted, the use of the term gospel is standing the meaning of the Cross in I judge very unlikely the thesis that cution and could neither understand unique to Mark’s writing and its use is Mark would be to determine what the none of these sayings anticipating the role suffering might fulfil in the substantially different from how it is historical Jesus believed his suffering a violent death stems from Jesus. community’s experience or, for that generally applied to the writings of or death might mean either for himself Clearly early Christian preachers matter, what role it fulfilled in the life Matthew or Luke.10 Here, euangélion or for his followers. However, Mark enlarged and intensified the motif of Jesus. Thomas Boomershine argues reveals the content rather than the may only incidentally address that con- of Jesus’ foreknowledge of the that Mark is addressing the believer’s form of the book.11 cern. In other words, Mark’s goal was divine plan, but such massive cre- fear in the early church as they faced Hengel supports this notion when not necessarily to reveal what Jesus ativity without some basis in Jesus persecution in proclaiming the gospel he states, ‘At the beginning of his was thinking about the cross so much 18 himself is implausible.15 of Christ. Ellen Bradshaw Aitken Gospel the [euangéliou Iesou Christou] as what he (Mark) or the post-resur- elaborates on how the early church as an objective genitive means the rection apostolic witness believed it found comfort in the life of Jesus when gospel about Jesus Christ, i.e. the sav- meant, not only for himself but also for 2 Manner and Style she states, ing events of the ministry and death of his readers. Writing as a theologian, Mark Stories were told, songs were sung, Jesus in the “biographical” work that is Perhaps a more accurate way to arranges and interprets the tradition to and rituals were performed in such now beginning.’12 This does not sug- regard Mark’s genre would be that of a meet the needs of his audience.16 As a a way that Jesus’ death became the gest that Matthew and Luke are not 14 theological biography. As a theologi- gospel (kerygmatic proclamation) or central point in the reenactment of Gospels, rather Marxsen and Hengel cal biography, the inclusion and theological biography, the meaning of the cultic life of the community. accentuate Mark’s use of euangélion arrangement of selected information is the Cross takes on new and possibly Moreover, the performance of the (gospel, 1:1) in a manner similar to specific to the theological emphasis greater implications than whatever memory of Jesus’ death… was that in Paul—as the core of the intended by the author. Although Mark Jesus may or may not have indicated, closely related to the self-definition kerygma. In contrast to Paul, however, may have arranged the story with spe- with neither perspective necessarily and constitution of the community. Mark’s proclamation (kerygma) of the cific interests in mind, it is not the contradictory or antithetical. As has To tell a story about Jesus’ death gospel draws upon the earthly life and intention of this paper to suggest that already been noted, the primary con- was also to tell a story about the teaching of Jesus to demonstrate the he invented the tradition on which the 19 13 cerns of this paper are not questions of identity of the community. essentiality of the Cross. story was based. Some might suggest validity or accuracy of oral or written that arranging material in a narrative Aitken’s approach is unique in that accounts; rather at issue is how those for specific purposes may constitute, in she does not look at the passion narra- preaching the gospel understood the tives themselves, but rather at texts 10 Willi Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist: Stud- the strictest sense, an invention of the ies in the Redaction History of the Gospel (trans. story. As noted earlier, some scholars James Boyce, Donald Juel, William maintain that the passion predictions Poehlmann, and Roy A. Harrisville; Nashville: 15 Raymond Brown, The Death of the Messiah: 17 Consider Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist, Abingdon, 1969), 207-16. From Gethsemane to the Grave (New York: Dou- 183, esp., n. 126. 11 See France, The Gospel of Mark, 53. bleday, 1994), 1487. Also Balla, ‘What did 18 Thomas E. Boomershine, ‘Mark 16:8 and 12 Hengel, Studies in the Gospel of Mark, 53. 14 See Craig L. Blomberg, ‘The Diversity of Jesus think?’, 244-45 and Joachim Gnilka, the Apostolic Commission’, JBL 100:2 (June Cf., France, The Gospel of Mark, 53. Literary Genres in the New Testament’, in Jesus of Nazareth: Message and History (trans. 1981): 237. 13 See Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist, 214, n. Interpreting the New Testament: Essays on Meth- Siegfried S. Schatzmann; Peabody: Hendrick- 19 Ellen Bradshaw Aitken, Jesus’ Death in 14 and Paula Fredrikson, Jesus of Nazareth: ods and Issues (ed. David A. Black and David S. son, 1997), 245, n. 20. Early Christian Memory: The Poetics of the Pas- King of the Jews (New York: Random House, Dockery; Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 16 See Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus in Mark, 2- sion (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999), 35. 2001), 275. 3. 2004), 16. 362 Richard A. Pruitt The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 363 that provide indications of the process within a story may develop while a human voice declares Jesus to be ‘the easily recognizable as a constant’.28 of telling of Jesus’ suffering and remaining consistent with, but not Holy One of God’ in 1:24 and ‘Son of the Irrespective of how Mark’s centurion death.20 exaggerating, the original context. In Most High God’ in 5:7. However, Mark may have conceived the title, ‘Son of Building on the work of Gregory this sense, Nagy states, ‘Meaning is attributes the knowledge of the latter God’, such a title is the one Mark high- Nagy,21 Aitken suggests that there is a thus “inherent” in the context, not human assertions to an evil spirit. Fur- lights for Jesus and one that may be ‘linguistic phenomena of memory in “conferred” exclusively by the con- thermore, Mark’s version of Peter’s properly understood only in light of and community and that “recollection” of text.’25 Mark’s proclamation endeav- confession in 8:29 does not include the after Jesus’ death on the cross.29 the “there and then” is a matter of ours to describe the role suffering title, ‘Son of the living God’, as in retelling the story and redoing the ritu- plays not only in the life of Jesus but Matthew 16:16. And, although the als in the “here and now”.’22 Although also in the life of the believer. High Priest (by way of accusation) III The Cross and Jesus’ Nagy’s focus is on Homer and archaic comes very close to using the expres- Identity at a Glance Greek lyric poetry, he demonstrates 3 Plot and Resolution sion, ‘Son of God,’ Mark is careful to Numerous scholars have contemplated how each time a story or description avoid the phrase and recounts the High In 4:41, the disciples ask, ‘Who then is the role of the Cross in Mark. In 1983, (epithet) is repeated or performed, ‘it is Priest’s words as, ‘Son of the Blessed this?’ The answer to the disciples’ Craig Evans suggested a growing con- both [the] same and different in mean- One?’ in 14:61. sensus among scholars that Mark’s quest for Jesus’ identity looms large in Thus, Mark informs the reader at ing….with each of its countless Gospel ‘should be understood as devel- Mark’s plot. In the narrative, the pas- the onset that Jesus is the Son of God returns (recountings) the epithet oping a theologia crucis’ and that this sion predictions function as the domi- but reserves any human witness of this refers [not only] to the same thing, but theology of the Cross is understand- nate and recurring theme. In the claim until Jesus’ death on the cross. to a new instance of the same old able in Mark in ‘terms of suffering and 23 scheme of Mark’s writing, Jesus does Within Mark’s structure, the plot is thing’. the cross rather than in terms of mira- not offer his death as a proof of any- able to resolve only by way of the What Nagy refers to as ‘recollecting cle, vision, and apparition’.30 Ten years thing. However, Mark offers the Cross cross.27 forward’, Aitken describes as ‘reactu- later Robert Gundry published perhaps as evidence of Jesus’ divine Sonship. Similarly, it is Jesus’ death on the alization’ entailing the ‘identification An element of irony occurs when the the most extensive work to date on of the “there and then” of scripture and cross, rather than the resurrection, first to ‘see’ is not one of the apostles that serves as the pivotal action and is Mark’s use of the Cross. For Gundry, the “here and now” of the present situ- but the Roman centurion (15:39)—a the hinge-pin, so to say, on which the Mark does not use a ‘theology of suf- ation of the community’.24 In other particular twist that would have pos- story swings. Once it is clear that it is fering’ to correct an overemphasis on a words, a deeper meaning inherent sessed poignant meaning if Mark’s ini- only after Jesus’ death that the revela- ‘theology of glory’. To the contrary, he tial audience were in fact Roman tion of Jesus as the Son of God can be nationals who did not possess a Jewish grasped, then it is possible to see the 20 E.g., 1 Cor. 11:23-26 and 15:3-5; 1 Pet. heritage. Here, the centurion’s declar- manner by which Mark weaves the 28 Roy A. Harrisville, Fracture: The Cross as 2:22-25; select passages from the Epistle of ative claim of Jesus as ‘Son of God’ Irreconcilable in the Language and Thought of the Barnabas; and Hebrews 5:7-10, 6:4-8, and Cross through the book. serves as the climax of the narrative, at As Roy Harrisville demonstrates, Biblical Writers (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 13:10-16. 2006), 125-26. For a detailed description of 21 See Gregory Nagy, Poetry as Performance: least in so far as evidence for Mark’s when one reads the Gospel of Mark this reverse reading, see 126-27. 26 Homer and Beyond (New York, NY: Cambridge claim in 1:1 is concerned. from end to beginning, ‘that is, from 29 See Nickelsburg, ‘The Genre and Function University Press, 1996), 52. Granted, a ‘voice from heaven’ Jesus’ cry of dereliction on the cross in of the Markan Passion Narrative’, 175. ‘The 22 Aitken, Jesus’ Death in Early Christian declares, ‘You are my Son’ in 1:11 and 15:34 to the report of John the Bap- anarthrous [without the article] form of the Memory, 15. See also Shmuel Feuerstein, Bib- tist’s arrest in 1:14, the death motif is noun (hyios) may not express Mark’s view of lical and Talmudic Antecedents of Mediated the uniqueness of Jesus’ sonship. However, Learning Experience Theory: Educational and even if it does not, the language is appropriate Didactic Implications for Inter-Generational Cul- 25 Nagy, Poetry as Performance, 52, n 39. to a pagan soldier;’ For a more extensive treat- tural Transmission (Israel: ICLEP, 2002), 135- 26 See George Nickelsburg, ‘The Genre and 27 Gnilka, Jesus of Nazareth, 264. Also, ment, see France, The Gospel of Mark, 660 and 138. Function of the Markan Passion Narrative’, Christopher Bryan, A Preface to Mark: Notes on Watts, The Gospel of Mark, 24. 23 Nagy, Poetry as Performance, 52. HTR 73 (Jan-Apr 1980): 175. Cf., France, The the Gospel in its Literary and Cultural Settings 30 Craig A. Evans, ‘The Function of Isaiah 24 Aitken, Jesus’ Death in Early Christian Gospel of Mark, 610 and 659 and Fredrikson, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 6:9-10 in Mark and John’, NovT 24:2 (April Memory, 22-23. Jesus of Nazareth, 32. 119. 1982): 137-8. 364 Richard A. Pruitt The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 365 suggests that Mark has glorified the sins and in doing so, he demonstrates the tions with Jesus’ identity and high- ley, and as noted earlier in this paper, passion.31 As an unabashed apology for link between his death and the kingdom lights the combination of ‘Christ, the the reader is informed early in the story the Cross, he insists that Mark con- (emphasis original).’36 Son of God’ (1:1) and ‘Christ, the Son that Jesus is the Son of God, first by the tains ‘no ciphers, no hidden meanings, For Bird, suffering is not the of the Blessed One’ (14:61). Further- narrator and then through the witness [and] no sleight of hand’.32 antecedent to glory but, so to say, two more, he argues that Mark uses Son of of a heavenly voice (1:1, 11; also 9:7). Gundry confirms Mark’s gospel as a sides of the same coin. He argues that God as a messianic title and that he He highlights how the reader must proclamation but maintains that the centurion’s confession serves as intends it as such in 15:39, even if the have been amazed as Jesus silenced Mark’s intention was evangelistic in the climax of Mark’s Christology and centurion did not understand it on that the evil spirits that recognized him nature (i.e., for the unconverted) and demonstrates how it points to Jesus level.40 For Juel, the Cross reveals the (1:25, 34) and later calls his own disci- not for a supposed-suffering commu- kingship. He states, ‘As sonship Messiah as the Son of God. Others have ples to silence (8:30). nity of believers.33 He argues that the engenders a commission, it is likely offered similar conclusions.41 From this Taking a different perspective, John phrase ‘Son of God’ is original to the that Jesus’ sonship entails going to the perspective, Mark’s Jesus does not Keenan contemplates the Cross motif prologue but maintains that 1:1 does cross…it is only at the cross that reject the title of Messiah, even if he from a Mahayana perspective as the not function as the overarching theme Jesus’ sonship is properly recognized favours the title ‘son of man’. Rather, sign of true abandonment.44 Upon view- 37 of the book. Here, Gundry joins others and acclaimed.’ Bird maintains that Mark seeks to demonstrate how Jesus ing the abandonment of Jesus on the who link 1:1-8 as the opening of Mark connects divine issues of Son- reinterprets the concept. In opposition cross, Keenan suggests that the centu- 34 Mark’s gospel. Furthermore, even ship and kingship, with Jesus’ mission to first-century notions about the com- rion makes his confession of Jesus as though he highlights Jesus’ experience of redemption, at the cross. ing Messiah, Mark presents Jesus as ‘son of God’. He argues that Mark con- on the cross as a critical moment in For Donald Juel, the themes of Mes- the Messiah who is the Son who must sistently suppressed the human con- 42 revealing his divine identity as the Son siah and temple are so closely related die and rise again. fession of this title because of its ‘link- of God, he suggests that the tearing of to Jesus’ death that the story of Jesus James Bailey demonstrates how age with miracles’ and proffers instead the temple curtain (15:38)—and not the crucified Messiah is the ‘second Mark used the so-called ‘secrecy motif’ that the title ascribed by the centurion the cross or manner of death—pro- level [underlying theme] of the to show his audience how the cross must be linked with Jesus’ death on the 43 vides the occasion for the centurion’s story…even if Jesus never made such a reveals the identity of Jesus. For Bai- cross. He states, ‘Here, where no mir- 35 38 ‘son of god’ claim (15:39). statement.’ Building on Juel’s work, acles happen, the centurion, not a dis- Michael Bird traces two prominent Nickelsburg presses the issue of Mes- ciple, sees the truth that Jesus, dying in themes in Mark: Jesus’ inauguration of siah and Temple further by suggesting 40 See Juel, Messiah and Temple, 83. Also abandonment of all self-support, is the that ‘the death and resurrection of the kingdom of God and Jesus’ pending William Wrede, The Messianic Secret, trans. J. son of God.’45 From Keenan’s perspec- Jesus means the end of the old order crucifixion. He indicates that the Cross C. G. Greig; (UK: James Clarke, 1971), 76-77. tive, the centurion witnessed Jesus’ signifies the coming of the kingdom of and the Messiah’s building of a new, 41 See William Campbell, ‘Engagement, Dis- abandonment and emptying of self— God in power. Bird suggests that the spiritual temple—the church’.39 engagement and Obstruction: Jesus’ Defense acts that genuinely displayed divine- connection between Jesus’ death and Juel links all three passion predic- Strategies in Mark’s Trial and Execution like qualities in ways the religious the coming kingdom is not explicit but Scenes’, JSNT 26:3 (Mar 2004): 289, Gnilka, practice of the day never had. In only indirectly linked in Mark 2:18-22, Jesus of Nazareth, 252, and Wrede, The Mes- sianic Secret, 73-81, esp., 76-77. regards to abandonment, I suggest 14:22-25, 14:62, and 15:1-40. He 36 Michael Bird, ‘The Crucifixion of Jesus as 42 For issues related to first-century percep- that Keenan is referring to Jesus relin- states, ‘Jesus speaks of his death as the Fulfillment of Mark 9:1’, 24:1 (2003): TJ tions of the Messiah, see Nickelsburg, ‘The quishing all attachments and desires of establishing a new order and fulfilling 27, 29. Genre and Function of the Markan Passion self and that it is in this moment of the hope of Israel by redeeming their 37 Bird, ‘The Crucifixion of Jesus’, 29-30. Narrative’, 168. Also consider Campbell, 38 Donald Juel, Messiah and Temple: A Study ‘Engagement, Disengagement and Obstruc- of Jesus’ Trial before the Sanhedrin in the Gospel tion’, 290, n. 24 where he states, ‘Mark’s of Mark (Dissertation series—Society of Bibli- gospel devotes considerable energy to correct- 44 John P. Keenan, The Gospel of Mark: A 31 Gundry, Mark, 1-15, 1022-26. cal Literature; no. 31; Missoula: Scholars, ing this [Messianic] misconception (e.g., 8:29- Mahayana Reading (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1995), 32 Gundry, Mark, 1. 1977), 57. 37; 10:33-11:10; 12:13-17, 35-37; 14:61-62).’ 384. In regards to abandonment, I suggest 33 Gundry, Mark, 1022-26. 39 Nickelsburg, ‘The Genre and Function of 43 James L. Bailey, ‘Perspectives on the that Keenan is referring to Jesus relinquishing 34 Gundry, Mark, 29-33. the Markan Passion Narrative’, 177. Compare Gospel of Mark’, CuTM 12:1 (Feb 1985): 18. all attachments and desires of self. 35 Gundry, Mark, 950-951. with Juel, Messiah and Temple, 208-9. Cf., Wrede, The Messianic Secret. 45 Keenan, The Gospel of Mark, 384. 366 Richard A. Pruitt The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 367 abandonment that Jesus’ divine nature lescing of these three components— Jesus suffers. His use of the word dei Thus, the goal for Jesus was not suf- is publically revealed for all to see. the Cross motif in the story—becomes (must), in 8:31, demonstrates Mark’s fering, death, or resurrection; rather it In light of this cursory review, I Mark’s proof for the opening claim in intent in the story. Jesus must (dei) go was obedience to God and serving one affirm Gundry’s analysis that Mark 1:1. In order to consider Mark’s three- the cross before his identity can be another.52 essentially glorifies the passion and sided or triangular argument, it may fully known. Bryan suggests Mark’s Finally, issues of identity-or status- Bird’s assertion that it is only at the prove helpful to identify similar char- use of dei as a ‘veiled reference to are of critical importance in the pas- cross that Jesus’ Sonship is properly acteristics in each passion prediction God’s purpose,’47 which is then sion predictions. For Mark, identity is recognized. However, I would argue (Mk. 8:31, 9:30-32, and 10:32-34). answered in 10:45, while Brooks indi- revealed through suffering. Obedience that Mark constructs his story in this Each passage contains (1) an element cates that this verb implies divine and servanthood define the status or manner in order to demonstrate the of misunderstanding or secrecy, (2) a necessity and connects its use to Isa- identity of Christ and his followers. connection between Jesus’ suffering prediction of suffering, death, and res- iah 52 and 53.48 In similar fashion, Juel Juel notes how Jesus’ words seem to and the suffering of his audience rather urrection, and (3) an element involving translates dei as ‘necessary’ indicating call for martyrdom with talk of denying than primarily for evangelistic pur- the identity of either Jesus or his fol- that Jesus’ death ‘occurs according to self, taking up the cross, and losing 46 49 poses. lowers. the will of God’. one’s own life but concludes, ‘It is not In contrast to Juel, I do not think First, elements of secrecy exacer- In light of this emphasis, one might so much the prospect of death that is that Mark is endeavouring to highlight bate issues of misunderstanding or con- conclude that Jesus’ death in and of the focus. The issue seems more a mat- 53 directly the Jewish conception of Mes- fusion. When speaking to the disciples itself was the will of God. However, ter of status [identity].’ The disciples siah but I do agree with him that the about his mission or purpose, Jesus Balla nuances the use of dei in a ask, ‘Who is this man?’ But Jesus’ passion predictions and cross event either calls them to silence or speaks to slightly different manner by suggest- response is in regard to who they must them in private (away from the crowds). ing that Jesus’ obedience to God’s will be. are intended to highlight the identity of 50 Jesus. The confession of the centurion From the disciples’ point of view, Jesus would result in his death. The impor- After hearing Jesus’ prediction for does not point to Jesus’ work of does not explicitly address the source tant distinction in Balla’s translation the second time (9:31), the disciples indicates that Jesus did not seek death redemption but as a revelation of his of their confusion. To the contrary, exhibit their lack of understanding by per se, but that he sought to do God’s arguing over ‘who was the greatest’ identity and affirms Mark’s claim in lessons on identity or predictions of suf- will even if God’s will meant dying in (9:33-34). Mark follows this episode 1:1. fering only worsen the situation. I sug- gest Mark used issues of confusion or the process. Furthermore, Mark not with the pericope of ‘the first being last As noted at the beginning, Mark matters of secrecy in the passion pre- only includes the notion that Jesus and servant of all’ and with a lesson on combines the passion predictions, dictions in order to demonstrate that must suffer and die but that he must the position of children in the kingdom issues of identity, and the cross event the believer’s confusion over matters of also rise again. If Jesus anticipated of God (9:35-37). Here Mark empha- into one overarching motif in order to identity and suffering could be that his obedience to God would result sizes his point—that identity and sta- demonstrate to his audience that the explained only when contemplated ret- in his death, he could likewise expect tus among Jesus’ followers will not be revelation of Jesus’ identity is truly 51 rospectively through the lens of the that God would vindicate him as well. measured in terms of human greatest made known through the Cross. The Cross. In other words, the disciples but in matters of submission and question to explore now is how Mark’s must ‘see’ Jesus die on the cross before humility. point correlates to the experience of they can understand the significance of 47 Bryan, A Preface to Mark, 104. The issue of status is most clearly his audience. either his or their own suffering or iden- 48 James A. Brooks, Mark, (Nashville: Broad- developed following Jesus’ final predic- tity. man, 1991), 136. ‘The most obvious Scripture tion of death in 10:35-45. Here James is Isa 52:13-53:12, which also avoids the title IV The Passion Narratives in Second, Peter’s resistance to Jesus’ and John request, ‘Grant us to sit, one mention of dying in 8:31ff is followed “Messiah”’. See also France, The Gospel of at your right hand and one at your left, Perspective Mark, 335 and Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus in in your glory’ (10:37). Mark does not by a pericope of what a true disciple , 257-65, 270-84. As an author, Mark uses the cross Mark ‘looks’ like. For Mark, a follower of 49 Juel, Messiah and Temple, 98. event, which was a source of confusion 50 Balla, ‘What did Jesus think about his for the Twelve, as a lens to give mean- approaching death?’, 249, esp., n. 41. 52 See Bryan, A Preface to Mark, 100-01 ing to Jesus’ lessons on suffering (pas- 46 See also Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus in 51 See Balla, ‘What did Jesus think about his 53 Donald Juel, The Gospel of Mark sion predictions) and identity. The coa- Mark, 269-70, for a similar construction. approaching death?’, 249. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1999), 129-31. 368 Richard A. Pruitt The Meaning of the Cross in Mark 369 explain what the sons of Zebedee only to the apostles but, in some man- rather it was obedience to God and guiding principle in his gospel. Even if meant by the term ‘glory’. However, ner or another, to Jesus himself. Fur- serving one another. Obedience and one maintains that the phrase ‘Son of Jesus’ response indicates the brothers’ thermore, the value Mark places on the servanthood are what define the status God’ is not original to the text (1:1), the failure to understand what Christ’s Cross as a theological concept was also or identity of Christ and what must subsequent addition may reasonably glory entailed or even how to obtain consistent with an early tradition. For identify his followers. indicate that an early copyist recog- such positions. Jesus rather cryptically even the writings of the apostle Paul, Finally, Mark uses the episode of nized the same plot resolution main- answers by telling them that they will generally accepted as pre-dating the the cross as evidence that Jesus Christ tained in this paper and added the indeed suffer and be identified with writing of Mark, provide numerous is the Son of God. The cross event phrase for clarity. Consequently, the him (10:39)—although it is unlikely examples of the Cross motif, commonly serves as the pivotal action in Mark’s narrative of Mark challenges the that they understood his answer at the known as ‘Paul’s gospel’, demonstrat- plot and provides what I have reader to ‘see’ who Jesus is in light of time. Furthermore, he indicates that ing its central importance within the described as the third side to Mark’s the Cross and then to understand who the ‘right and left-hand’ positions are early church.54 The manner in which triangular presentation (lessons of they are in light of their own sufferings. not for him to bequeath. Ironically, of Mark unites the passion predictions, identity, predictions of suffering, and Mark invites the reader to see as the course, the positions James and John lessons on identity, and the cross event the cross event). Each element centurion saw and proclaim Jesus as covet end up being occupied by two (the Cross motif in the story) serves as depends upon the other, forming the the Son of God. thieves at the crucifixion—one on the a lens enabling the recipients to see right and one on the left—an honour Jesus the Son of God and to hear the they earned by breaking the law! proclamation of ‘Mark’s gospel’. Nevertheless, Mark constructs his Using a narrative critical approach, story in such a way to demonstrate that I have attempted to explain what role the chief seats next to Jesus in his glory the Cross motif plays in the story of are not positions of exaltation or Mark’s Gospel. The arrangement of respect, rather they are positions of the passion predictions in Mark indi- suffering and rejection. By ending the cates that Jesus anticipated that his discussion with a lesson on servant- obedience to God would result in his hood, Jesus explains that identifica- death in Jerusalem. Lessons involving tion, rather than position, with him status and identity—for Jesus and of comes by obedience to God and his followers—are of primary impor- through service to one another. The tance. Here, the horizons of Christ and declaration in 10:45 effectively sum- his followers become fused. As Aitken marizes the lessons on status and iden- remarks, ‘the fate of the individual and tity, both for Jesus and for his follow- the constitution of the community are ers, and provides substance and mean- inextricably woven together.’55 Within ing, not only to the impending cross the construct of Mark’s proclamation, event, but also to the present suffer- the goal for Jesus was not suffering, ings of Mark’s audience.

V Conclusion 54 Consider Rom 6:6; 1 Cor 1:13, 17-18, 23- The argument in this paper maintains 24; 2:2; 2 Cor 13:4; Gal 2:20, 3:1, 5:11, 24, that Mark used the passion predictions 6:12-14; Phil 2:8, and 3:18. Also, the central nature of the Cross motif consistent with consistently within an established tra- Paul’s gospel is evident in Eph 2:16, Col 1:20, dition. Sufficient scholarship exists to and 2:14-15. indicate that Mark was building on a 55 Aitken, Jesus’ Death in Early Christian well-known tradition traceable not Memory, 26. ERT (2010) 34:4, 370-380 Book Reviews 371

approach is a mainly descriptive one, to non-Jewish believers and theologians. Books Reviewed ‘mapping’ the various examples of theolo- Messianic Judaism is a movement that is gy to be found in the movement, but also both new and one that is simply the mod- Reviewed by David Parker Reviewed by Terrance L. Tiessen ‘constructive’ in making suggestions ern expression of something that has Richard Harvey Daniel M. Bell Jr. about where more work needs to be done. been in existence from the beginning. So He usefully adopts Byron L. Sherwin’s Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology: a Just War as Christian Discipleship: it is of great interest for outsiders to see criteria for a ‘valid Jewish theology’— how it goes about developing its own constructive approach Recentering the Tradition in the Church authenticity, coherence, contemporaneity thinking as it wrestles with the particular Reviewed by Carlos Bovell rather than the State and communal acceptance. issues that it faces. It is also of value as Craig Allert Reviewed by Martin Olando The major part of the book (chapters 4 to a case study in how to deal with the par- A High View of Scripture? The Authority Douglas Waruta and Hannah Kinoti 8) covers the three major topics for ticular context in which any form of of the Bible and the Formation of the (eds.) Messianic Judaism—the doctrine of God Christian faith finds itself; this is espe- cially so in dealing with ‘Torah in prac- New Testament Canon Pastoral Care in African Christianity (including Jeshua as Messiah), the Torah (in theory and in practice) and the future tice’ where the details of daily life and Reviewed by Richard V. Pierard Reviewed by Jim Harries of Israel (including eschatology and the worship are discussed: that is, to what Michael A. G. Haykin and Kenneth J. Michael Pfundner land). As an exercise in ‘mapping’, the extent are the traditional ways of their Stewart (eds.) Think God, Think Science: conversa- viewpoints of a wide range of theologians past faith and culture to be maintained by The Emergence of Evangelicalism: tions on Life, the Universe, and Faith are described with helpful summaries at people with a new faith. Of course, it is a Exploring Historical Continuities the end of each section. Often the treat- more pressing issue for Messianic Jews ment is terse (especially in the earlier because their cultural background is part), making it both easy and hard to drawn in large from the Old Testament. read—it is possible to make rapid This is also a valuable study for Book Reviews progress scanning the catalogue of views, Christians who themselves must take but the range of material, the number of account of the Old Testament background theologians to be considered and the lack ERT (2010) 34:4, 370-372 in contrast with similar movements in the of their faith, and decide what is the of in-depth explanation sometimes proves past which have mainly lost their Jewish impact on this heritage of believing in problematic. It should be noted that, characteristics (although it is interesting Jesus as Messiah. Of special importance Mapping Messianic Jewish because the prime aim of the book is to Theology: a constructive approach to note that some groups of Messianic is the extent to which the ‘orthodoxy’ produce an understanding of the various which they have inherited (whether it be Richard Harvey Jews are made up of significant numbers theologies, it is a definite drawback not to of non-Jews!). The current movement, the confessional statements of the early Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2009 have more personal and other relevant with its main strengths in USA and Israel church in its Hellenistic period as seen in ISBN 978-1-84227-644-0 background of the theologians discussed. but also found around the world, wants to the ecumenical creeds, some later form of Pb., pp 316, Glossary, Indices Because the central theological topics retain and express its Jewish heritage evangelicalism, or a local culture in a treated in this book (Theology proper, ‘missionary’ context) has been condi- Reviewed by David Parker, Executive while holding to the messiahship of Torah, and eschatology) are of such cru- tioned by the prevailing culture rather Editor, Evangelical Review of Theology Yeshua; this is often a controversial posi- cial importance to Jewish believers in than by the inherent truth of the biblical tion and one that is frequently misunder- Richard Harvey, tutor and Director of Jeshua, Harvey has made a vitally impor- story. Historically, this study is of impor- stood by both Christians and Jews. Training at allnations, a Bible college in tant contribution to the movement in tance in understanding more about the Ware, UK, has produced a pioneering Being a new movement, there is ample which he personally is an integral part. development of doctrine (and practice) in study of the theology of the new move- scope for research, and the author pro- His suggestions about the limitations and the early church period as Messianic Jews ment of Jewish believers in Jesus (or vides an outline of some of the major gaps in current theological understanding consider the role of Rabbinic Judaism in Yeshua), known as Messianic Judaism. approaches in disciplines such as anthro- and further aspects which need to be the formation of their traditional Jewish Conservatively estimated to number in pology, social psychology and historical developed should provide his Messianic culture. This is also a matter which is rel- excess of 150,000, this movement which theology (chapter 2). However, his con- Jewish readers with plenty of ideas to evant to Islamic views on developments emerged in its present form in the 1970s, cern is with the theology of the movement strengthen their movement in the future. in the early Christian church and its straddles both Judaism and Christianity, which has not been tackled before. His However, his work is also of importance emergence at the end of that period. 372 Book Reviews Book Reviews 373

The author treats the wide range of top- ERT (2010) 34:4, 372-374 servative traditionalism that has believers tion presently enjoys over a wide segment ics and authors with fairness and equali- instinctively defending ‘fundamentals’ of North American conservative evangeli- ty, making quite clear his own point of A High View of Scripture? without regard for historical perspective. calism. Indeed, the work goes to great view and offering recommendations for The Authority of the Bible and Although one would expect evangelical lengths to expose such a monopoly and further theological reflection. The final the Formation of the New scholars to be more historically sensitive help readers who find themselves subject chapter consists of a comprehensive sum- Testament Canon when they theorize about the authority of to it escape its ideological clutches. Allert scripture, key pivotal thinkers (e.g., B. B. concedes, candidly enough, that ‘[m]uch mary of the various positions on the three Craig Allert main topics, together with an eight-fold Warfield) have influenced posterity in is at stake for me in this study, for as an Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, typology of Messianic Jewish Theology, ways that have proven all but oblivious to evangelical I have been taught and still 2007 a proper understanding of history. Hence maintain that the Bible is central in the ranging from a conservative approach ISBN 978-08010-2778-9 right through to a more radical one. Allert’s grave concerns for specious mis- Christian life; this has not been a merely Pb, pp 203, bibliog., indices conceptions regarding scripture that have academic study…Before I began my seri- The ‘constructive’ part of the project is Reviewed by Carlos Bovell, NJ, USA managed over time to form a central part ous study of the formation of the New mainly confined to the last few pages dis- of the popular church’s self-understand- Testament canon, I subscribed whole- cussing the characteristics of the current Craig Allert confronts the evangelical ing and, especially within the North heartedly to the creed (!) ‘No creed but theological positions, and mentioning sev- claim that the only ‘high’ view of scrip- American churches, the perceptions of the Bible.’ But I soon came to the realiza- eral additional topics for future treat- ture in contemporary bibliology is the ver- ministers and lay persons, Allert’s target tion that the Bible grew in the cradle of ment, including revelation and tradition, bal plenary view of inspiration. In his audience. the church.’ ecclesiology and Israelogy, Christology experience as an evangelical scholar and Far from encouraging a naturalistic Why would an obvious historical point and election, Holocaust theology, and teacher, he has observed how proponents understanding of the Bible’s formation, like this have such a profound impact on pneumatology. The work is concluded of verbal plenary inspiration insist their Allert sees God’s providential hand an evangelical scholar? What spiritual with some particular questions for future position represents ‘the only possible always at work in the lengthy, historical ramifications are there for someone like research such as theological models and high view of scripture. And since evangel- process that gradually produced the the author who was taught to approach methodology and detailed studies of par- icals traditionally hold a high view of Bible. The treatment of canonical forma- his faith in such a way as to have ‘No ticular theologians. Scripture, all evangelicals are virtually tion is not intended as exhaustive, but creed but the Bible’? ‘The assumption is’, Harvey has succeeded in his aim of pro- locked into this view for fear of espousing rather extensive enough to give readers a he explains, ‘that one group or person the dreaded low view of Scripture’ (empha- viding the ‘first account of MJT taste for the canonical process. As such, can be closer to true Christianity solely sis added). Allert will have none of this. [Messianic Jewish Theology] from a theo- the book strategically sets out to accom- by studying the New Testament docu- In his mind, ‘what the Bible is has much logical perspective by an engaged practi- plish two main goals: indicating the ments.’ This remains a widespread belief. importance for what the Bible says, and a tioner’. His work is understandably large- unlikelihood of a second century canon Yet for Allert, it was his very efforts to high view needs to take this into consid- ly descriptive rather than prescriptive, and illustrating the crucial role of the carry out this spiritual mandate that eration’. Specifically, ‘a high view of and as such, leaves the reader desirous of church in the canon’s four-century-long caused him to face the fact that ‘not only Scripture demands an understanding and formation. The implications of these [did] the Bible [grow] in the cradle of the much more. This work draws on US and integration of the Bible’s very formation’, Israeli theologians only, so there is scope developments are then explored for con- church, but also that the leaders of the which is precisely what the book helps templating an evangelical doctrine of institutional church had a significant for considering a wider geographical map. set in motion. There is frequent emphasis on the wide scripture, not least its inerrancy and hand in forming our New Testament A High View of Scripture? is offered to variety of points of view and perspectives inspiration. canon’. The predicament can be variously readers as the third volume of Baker’s expressed: How can there possibly be no amongst Messianic Judaism, so its future The subject of canon formation remains Evangelical Resourcement series, edited by creed save the Bible when creeds were as a coherent movement should be contentious in scholarly circles. D. H. Williams. The series aims to help fundamental to the Bible’s own forma- watched with interest. McDonald’s and Sander’s The Canon contemporary churches retrieve the Debate (Hendrickson, 2002) is a prime tion? How can one possibly get closer to resources of the early church for theologi- example. To expect A High View of ‘real’ Christianity than the early church cal appropriation today. Scripture? to further this debate would be by going directly to the New Testament if Underlying the book’s proposal is a grow- to misunderstand it. Rather, what Allert it was within the early church that the ing concern that some evangelicals have so effectively does is help account for the New Testament was actively formed? fallen into a dead traditionalism, a con- uncanny monopoly verbal plenary inspira- An evangelical view of scripture that 374 Book Reviews Book Reviews 375 claims to be ‘high’ would presumably explored the links between evangelical- religion, Timothy Larsen. As one whose al movement that was the Enlightenment take these considerations to heart, doing ism and the most significant intellectual books are usually ignored, I had a twinge was the catalyst for the creation of the all that it possibly can to understand movement of its time, the Enlightenment. of envy as Larsen worked through the orthodox Christian movement known as scripture on its own terms. Surely a theo- For years I have sought to provide a forty-four reviews that he had located of evangelicalism. logical account that owns up to the active workable definition of evangelicalism in Evangelicalism in Britain. But it was Strikingly absent in a symposium of this involvement of the church in New my own works, and I found the remarkable to reflect on the diversity of magnitude, especially in the twenty-first Testament formation would rank among ‘Bebbington Quadrilateral’—conversion- opinions that the book evoked and the century, is the involvement of any women the ‘highest’ available to evangelicals ism, activism, biblicism, and crucicen- high respect even the critics held of scholars and the unique perspectives they today. Yet it is precisely here that the trism—to be quite useful. The second Bebbington’s work. The symposium then would bring to the table. There are plenty verbal plenary monopoly rears its ugly point—positing the 1730s as the begin- includes a critique of the Enlightenment of them out there who are producing head. Unfortunately and without some ning of the movement was more problem- connection, five regional perspectives— noteworthy and even ground-breaking irony (as evinced by at least one commen- atic, as I had seen evangelical character- Wales, Scotland, Calvinist Methodism in works in the history of evangelicalism. tator’s judgment), Allert’s high view of istic in Puritanism and Pietism, almost a England proper, New England prior to the Could that be a reflection of the conserva- scripture is ‘far too low’ for the likes of century earlier. The third—the connec- Great Awakening, and a Dutch proto- tive denominational backgrounds of the those who are in greatest need of reckon- tion with the Enlightenment especially evangelical movement; six ‘era’ perspec- editors, where women are denied any ing with it. Notwithstanding, A High View intrigued me. I have been very suspicious tives—Martin Luther, John Calvin and A. meaningful place in theological education of Scripture? is a credible and edifying pre- of the efforts of so many evangelical writ- M. Toplady, Cranmer and Tudor evangeli- and scholarship? The same is true of sentation of New Testament formation ers to blame all the things in the modern calism, Puritanism, Jonathan Edwards, Pietism. As a member of the Pietism and how it should inform views of scrip- era that they did not like upon the and nineteenth-century perceptions of Study Group of the American Society of ture worthy of evangelicalism. Enlightenment, from the use of reason evangelicalism; and a treatment of four Church History, I can assure readers that and empiricism to the separation of specific questions—conversion autobi- numerous people are labouring in this church and state, and Bebbington gave us ographies, epistemology and assurance, vineyard. To be sure, the leading English- ERT (2010) 34:4, 374-376 the opportunity to reflect more carefully eschatology, and doctrines of Scripture. language scholar of German Pietism, and sympathetically on this crucial peri- The main bone of contention was the Professor W. R. Ward, Emeritus of the The Emergence of Evangelicalism: od. issue of continuity—when did evangeli- University of Durham (and a Methodist no Exploring Historical Continuities The book under discussion is a multi- calism begin? Several writers were less!), is cited now and then, and I get Edited by Michael A. G. Haykin author response to Evangelicalism in unwilling to exclude the Reformers or the feeling that some contributors are and Kenneth J. Stewart Britain. The editors are strong confession- Puritans from the model. Others raised aware of the absence of this perspective. Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, alists, one a Baptist and the other a questions about specific items in the This brings up a larger problem. For years 2008 Presbyterian, and they are sympathetic to quadrilateral. I have encouraged the scholars of trans- ISBN 978-1-84474-254-7 the enterprise as well as critical of it in In a concluding essay Bebbington Atlantic evangelicalism to pay more atten- Pb, pp 432, Index some points. They assembled a team of responds to his critics and he does not tion to the important connections with Reviewed by Richard V. Pierard, eighteen writers, many of whom share back down from his position. He shows European continental evangelicals and the Hendersonville, NC, USA their concerns. Like all collective works, that the activism of the earlier figures cross-fertilization that resulted from them. the quality of the contributions ranges was not the same as that of the eigh- I have mentioned this again in reviews of David W. Bebbington’s Evangelicalism in widely, from the brilliant to the average, teenth-century evangelicals, particularly a couple books in the current IVP series Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s and it is easy to fault the editors for not when it came to overseas missions. Then on the history of evangelicalism. Actually, to the 1980s (1989; originally Unwin always having the best scholars on board. he exposes the greatest weakness in The one writer does focus on an obscure Dutch Hyman, now Routledge) is an extraordi- As one who has edited volumes like this, Emergence of Evangelicalism, namely, how group and Stewart almost gets there in nary book that I devoured almost as soon I know how difficult it is to enlist the peo- thin it is on English Methodism. There his comments on Robert Haldane and F. as I got my hands on a copy. It was mem- ple you want and to then to extract manu- were no contributors from that tradition S. L. Gaussen. But without a full-orbed orable for three reasons: it provided a def- scripts from them, and Haykin and and a failure to address the novelty of treatment of the Erweckung in German- inition of evangelicalism that now has Stewart have done remarkably well in Methodism skews the evidence favouring speaking and the Reveil in French-speak- become virtually standard among writers this regard. continuity between the seventeenth and ing Europe, the rich and stimulating dis- on the topic, it offered a chronological It opens with a ‘review of the reviews’ by eighteenth centuries. He stands by his cussions of trans-Atlantic evangelicalism starting point for the movement, and it that indefatigable scholar of Victorian argument that the cultural and intellectu- are somewhat impoverished. 376 Book Reviews Book Reviews 377

The Haykin and Stewart volume is a note- structing his account of Just War (CD). peace as much as it does in war. ERT (2010) 34:4, 377-379 worthy contribution to the ongoing defini- He finds Just War (PPC) to be separated Bell’s book makes a very fine contribu- tion discussion of evangelicalism. It has from Christian faith and practice, even tion to the life of the church in the world Pastoral Care in African raised points and provided insights that when its sources are explicitly Christian but it raised two primary questions for Christianity will enrich our conversations in the years writers. Whereas the purpose of Just War me. As an heir of the radical reformation Edited by Douglas Waruta and to come. We can be grateful for their (PPC) is to guide national states, Just tradition, I found myself sometimes Hannah Kinoti endeavour. War (CD) aims to guide the church uncomfortable with the role defined for (including Christian politicians). Just War Acton Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya, the church in society. Bell’s perception of 2005. (PPC) is law centred but Just War (CD) this role best suits a church-state or ERT (2010) 34:4, 376-377 focuses on character because it can be ISBN 9966-888-12-8 Christendom framework. Though his pro- Pb, pp 276, Bibliog., Index lived out only by those who are spiritually posal will challenge separatists in a Just War as Christian formed within a Christian community that healthy way, many of us will envision the Reviewed by Martin Olando Discipleship: instructs, sustains, supports, corrects and church as living out the principles that is a Recentering the Tradition in the forgives. Only people who are mature in Bell defines well in a somewhat different Pastoral care in African Christianity Church rather than the State the virtues of temperance, prudence, manner than he proposes. book that consists of challenging essays patience, love, courage, and fidelity, and about this important topic, written by top Daniel M. Bell Jr. The second question has been more who find their strength in God, can follow African theologians such as Mary N. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2009 unsettling. I have long been convinced Jesus faithfully in the use of force for the Getui, Associate Professor of Religious ISBN: 978-1-58743-225-5 that Christians should participate in wars common good, seeking peace through jus- Studies, Kenyatta University, Dr. Laurent Pb, pp 267, Index. fought justly for the common good, but I tice for both friends and enemies. Magesa from Tanzania, Dr. Peter Reviewed by Terrance L. Tiessen, have been helped by Bell’s exposition of Kanyandago Director of African Research Accordingly, Bell considers questions Providence Theological Seminary, MB, the distinct ways in which just war is pur- Documentation Centre, Uganda, et al; it is such as who has the authority to decide Canada sued as a Christian discipleship. I now edited by Douglas Waruta and Hannah that a nation should go to war, what Daniel Bell interprets the just war tradi- see, however, that those differences nar- Kinoti. tion ‘in terms of concrete practices that cause justifies military action, with what row considerably the situations in which Key issues tackled in this book range might contribute to the church’s ability to intent soldiers must fight to do so justly, Christians can faithfully serve in the from the meaning of pastoral and general make faithful moral judgments regarding how last resort and the reasonable armed forces of their nations. Ironically, theology, healing as a pastoral concern, justice in war and then to live out those chance of success, and how they should this fine argument for discriminate judgments’ (15). To that end, he con- be understood as criteria for the initiation Christian participation in military action pastoral response to violence in Africa, cludes each chapter with a reflection on or termination of military action, and how may serve to decrease significantly the domestic violence against the vulnerable the challenges that a particular dimen- the means of just fighting are determined gap between Christian pacifists and groups such as women and children and sion of the tradition presents to the by the principles of discrimination and Christian just war theorists. This is not a marriage and family in contemporary church. Unlike books that defend a theory proportionality. bad result but it has far reaching implica- African societies. concerning the use of violence in compari- I am unaware of another book that so tions that churches and their members General counsel is important in Africa son with other Christian alternatives, Bell astutely details the challenges faced by will not enter into easily. because it touches physical, emotion and focuses on the ways in which Just War the church as a people committed to liv- Bell is associate professor of theological spiritual nurturing. It is also useful for theory and practice, when worked out as ing in love that seeks the common good ethics at Lutheran Theological Southern the support of family and society. The a form of Christian discipleship (CD), dif- of all its neighbours, striving for peace Seminary in Columbia, South Carolina society can thrive well if the unit of the fers from Just War theory that approach- through justice for everyone. Bell knows and is an ordained elder in the United family is stable. Human beings need the es the issue with a public policy check well that this is a very difficult way of Methodist Church. support of each other, which at times is list (PPC). Whereas the latter approach life. The commitment to justice for all, not forthcoming. Counselling helps indi- often views war as a necessary evil, Bell even when its pursuit entails costly sacri- viduals and groups understand them- explains why, when and how the use of fice on the part of those who oppose selves better and relate to fellow humans military force can be an act of Christian injustice, can be lived only in community in an accepted manner. love in pursuit of justice. by the strength of God. Living in a com- In contemporary Africa, professional Bell reviews the historical development of munity that forms its people like this counselling has not been well established, Just War theory and practice before con- affects the way Christians live in times of though informal counselling goes on 378 Book Reviews Book Reviews 379 through family relationships, elders and the church has been set by Christ in these There has been a breakdown of tradition- the spiritual and cultural factors that cre- neighbours. This contrasts with pastoral words: ‘to heal, the sick, cleanse the lep- al values. Churches, hospitals, schools, ate or compound human suffering. It counselling whose approach is theologi- ers, raise the dead, cast out demons’ (Mt. courts and other social agencies have should use God-given knowledge of cally based. It assumes that human life is 10:8). This means that healing offered by gained predominance, replacing tradition- human nature, psychology and scientific sacred and must be preserved since the the church in Africa is very relevant and al institutions of the African society. The tools available in dealing with the human basis of human life is on the basis of valuable. An holistic understanding role of elders and parents with regards to suffering. There should be an engagement Imago Dei (Image of God). The image of should determine the African understand- marriage is becoming less important as between faith, science and culture, which God is reflected in humankind through ing of health and diseases because the the marrying couple and their ‘young are gifts from God. The role of pastoral creativity, companionship, immortality, African worldview includes spiritual, mys- friends’ assume responsibility for mar- counsellor does not need to be restricted dominion of the human kind over creation tical and physical aspects. The church in riages. Parenting is being replaced by to pastors or a church ministers, but it is and the fellowship between the Africa should bring salvation to the whole house helps, nannies, nursery schools, a role that can be fulfilled by any person humankind and God. person through healing ministry. primary schools and the entire education- within the church who is engaged in tasks of restoring fellow human beings to Violence to women in Africa has become The pastoral counselling is not the al process. The African society is bringing physical, emotional and spiritual well- a common occurrence, especially through responsibility of bishops and clergy alone, up a generation which does not under- being. civil wars in many African countries. One but the whole body of Christ. The maxim stand what their values ought to be. of the contributors in this book, Teresia of the ‘priesthood of all believers’ serves Because of these emerging trends, it is Hinga, from De Paul University, USA, dis- to illustrate that it is the Christian family important that pastoral care and coun- ERT (2010) 34:4, 379-380 cusses violence against women from the commitment to care for one another. selling should be available to the African families. Credible and strong families wider perspective of the society and When there is a sick person who needs Think God, Think Science: church. She gives illustrations from bibli- pastoral care, it would be unfair to travel have their roots in the types of marriages contracts and customs observed. The conversations on Life, the cal and traditional cultures which influ- thousand miles to get the clergy or wait Universe, and Faith ence Christianity in Africa. She calls on for their presence as the sick desperately weakening of the family in Africa is a women to be pastors amongst themselves look for help. Pastoral care given to the matter of concern for Christian theolo- Michael Pfundner and the church too. She challenges the sick should inspire hope, faith and gians, social analysts, leaders and pas- Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2008 church to show appropriate pastoral encourage the sick. The church has an tors. The African church undertakes dis- ISBN 978-1-84227-609-9 response to violence against women. This obligation to continue with the healing cussion and research on marriage-related Pb., pp 112 could be achieved by appreciating ministry of Jesus Christ. issues and offers direction, since the church is the light of the world in this Reviewed by Jim Harries, Kima women’s woes being actively involved in The impact of the new influences from International School of Theology, Kenya crooked universe. the process of raising social conscious- the west, growth of cities, and the intro- ness on the issues. duction of monetary economies have had Pastoral ministry should be to both young This small book is written as if it is a dis- Africa needs healing as a result of many a drastic negative impact on the tradition- and old. The church in Africa owes the cussion between Pfundner (as a well factors that have caused problems. al African institution of marriage and aged as much pastoral care as it does informed student) and Ernest Lucas his Chapter four emphasises that healing family, resulting in weakness and decay. other sectors of society. Some old people mentor. The question-and-answer style should be a pastoral concern in the This confusion has led to unstable indi- are longing to be useful if only they would assists readability and divides the book church in Africa today. Though the viduals and social disorder. Marriage was be recognized for what they can give. The into small sections as well as chapters. church is aware of the importance of considered a lifelong union, but with ade- church should be in the forefront in pro- After a survey of ‘the issue’, the book healing, more efforts ought to be shown. quate , it could be dissolved. moting forums between the young and the attends in turn to the sky (the origin of This should be a combined, integrated or Divorce in African societies was not com- old. The younger generations have much the universe), the cell (the origin of life) holistic approach to health care instead of mon, but possible. Major grounds for to learn from the old people about family and faith (an apologetic for Christianity). a piecemeal one that caters for only one divorce were cruelty, laziness, adultery life, social and morality. This would go a It seems to be aimed at the thinking per- aspect of an individual’s personality. and in some cases childlessness. long way to improve care for each other son whose faith is being challenged by Already, Africa is witnessing healing min- Marriage could be monogamous or polyg- and the young would be living according ‘science’, or the non-believer evaluating istries in Pentecostal churches, amous. Due to cultural value of children to the biblical teaching that the young the claims of Christianity in the light of Charismatic renewal movement, African in traditional African society, polygamy should respect the old. science’s sometimes hegemonic preten- independent Churches and traditional was probably the ideal form of marriage It is important that pastoral counselling tions. African healing practices. The mission of particularly for those who could afford it. in Africa should be conversant with both The first section that considers ‘the 380 Book Reviews issue’ is in my view the most helpful and makes it clear that Darwin never claimed most profound. It suggests that Christian to have proven evolution, although in evangelism’s ineffectiveness may at times Lucas’ own view, evidence continues to arise because those being ‘reached’ con- mount up in the theory’s favour. In the sider the gospel to be illegitimate in the arena of faith, we are told that Evangelical light of science’s discoveries about the Fundamentalism’s efforts at countering world. The book does not claim to be a liberal theology have at times been Review of proof for Christianity, but points out that counter-productive as they have been the Christian gospel had a key role to forced to play by the rules of the latter. play in the development of rationality The terms of the debate are, for Lucas, as Theology itself. It gives an outline course of the critical as its object. Despite all the history of western civilisation that shows attacks on the New Testament account, that the Christian faith has at times been however, Lucas finds overwhelming evi- EDITOR: DAVID PARKER misrepresented when portrayed either as dence in favour of the truth of the histori- the ‘enemy of’ or ‘victim of’ science. cal claims of the Christian faith. Science’s limitations and its need for an A lot of the ground covered by Lucas is Volume 34 underlying ‘philosophy’ are well articulat- not new, especially in the last three chap- ed. Science, according to Lucas, is ters. This makes this book suitable for 2010 ‘expectation’ rather than ‘truth’ because the undergraduate or as an introduction it must assume, without certainty, that to ‘apologetics’ in relation to science. It is what is observed today will continue to Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical oriented to a western audience, so makes theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith happen tomorrow. As Lucas observes, sci- no mention of any objections to ence ‘hangs in the air’ in the absence of a Christianity outside of those of science in ‘theological framework’. the English speaking world. This is not The bridge between ‘big bang theories’ untrue to its title, but makes it in my and the Christian faith, according to view slightly narrow, given today’s glob- Published by Lucas, is ‘the area of interpreting the alising post-modern age. It is a good book Bible’. The book of Genesis should be to give to someone asking the questions read properly, and we do not have to sup- that it addresses, where it stakes out the port narrow creationist lobbies. Lucas lay of the land in contemporary debate.

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission Index 383

RANDALL, IAN M. Articles Outgrowing Combative Boundary-Setting: Billy Graham, Evangelism and ACOSTA, MILTON Fundamentalism ...... 103 Ethnicity and the People of God ...... 58 ROLDÁN, DAVID A. BECKETT, JOHN Dilemmas in the Evangelical Movement and its Theology: Argentinean Evangelical Catholicity—A Possible Foundation for Exploring Relational Perspective ...... 300 Responsibility in a Global Community? ...... 131 SALINAS, J. DANIEL CUEVA, SAMUEL The In-Roads of Evangelical Theology and the Evangelical Movement Mission, Missionaries and the Evangelization of Europe: Towards an in Latin American Spanish-Speaking Countries...... 307 Integrating Missiology from a Latin American Perspective ...... 347 SCHAFROTH, VERENA ENG LOOI TAN, CAROLYN Theological Education by Extension in South Sudan ...... 167 Humanity’s Devil ...... 136 SCOTT, ELEONORA L. FIEDLER, KLAUS A Theological Critique of the Emerging, Postmodern Missional Church/ Edinburgh 2010 and the Evangelicals...... 319 Movement ...... 335 HARRIS, PETER VAN DER MEER, ERWIN Towards a Missiology of Caring for Creation ...... 220 Strategic Level Spiritual Warfare and Mission in Africa ...... 155 HUGHES, DEWI VAN ENGEN, CHARLES (CHUCK) The Whole Church as a Transformed and Transforming Society ...... 44 Biblical Perspectives on the Role of Immigrants in God’s Mission . . . . 29 KANG-SAN, TAN WRIGHT, CHRISTOPHER J.H. Can Christians Belong to More than One Religious Tradition? ...... 250 ‘The Whole Church’—Brief Biblical Survey ...... 14 The World in the Bible ...... 207 LAUSANNE THEOLOGY WORKING GROUP Statement on The Prosperity Gospel ...... 99 Statement on The Whole Church ...... 4 Statement on The Whole World Beirut 2010 ...... 196 Case Studies MICHENER, RONALD T. Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, The Kingdom of God and Postmodern Ecclesiologies: A Compatibility ‘Unwanted Sectarians’: Spirit, Migration and Mission in an African-led Assessment ...... 119 Mega-Size Church in Eastern Europe ...... 71 NICHOLLS, BRUCE J. Bauman, Stephan J. Tribute: Jeremy Mudditt 1938-2010...... 292 Way of Hope in Cambodia ...... 88 NKANSAH-OBREMPONG, JAMES Bhakiaraj, Paul Joshua Evangelical Theology in Africa: Ways, Perspectives, and Dilemmas . . . 293 New Faces of the Church: An Indian Case Study ...... 79 NOELLISTE , DIEUMEME Ewell, C. Rosalee Velloso Poverty and the Gospel: The Case of Haiti ...... 313 Peacemaking amidst urban violence in Brazil ...... 265 PRUITT, RICHARD A. Haskell, Rob The Meaning of the Cross in Mark ...... 358 eVangelism: The gospel and the world of the internet ...... 279 RAMACHANDRA, VINOTH Ndikumana, Emmanuel The Global Public Square ...... 233 The gospel amidst ethnic violence in Burundi ...... 268 384 Index

Nygaard, Birger The separation of beliefs and religion in Europe ...... 285 Salinas, J.Daniel Lessons from My Daughter: Reflections of Church and Ethics ...... 84 Wigg-Stevenson, Tyler The world threat of nuclear weapons, and the church’s role...... 273 Vargas, Marcelo A Neopentecostal Experience of Aimara People...... 92

Books Reviewed Allert, Craig, A High View of Scripture? The Authority of the Bible and the Formation of the New Testament Canon ...... 372 Bell, Daniel M. Jr., Just War as Christian Discipleship: Recentering the Tradition in the Church rather than the State...... 376 Copan, Paul and Craig, William Lane (editors), Passionate Conviction: Contemporary Discourses on Christian Apologetics...... 184 Greene, Chris (editor) A Higher Throne: Evangelicals and Public Theology . 186 Harvey, Richard, Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology: a constructive approach ...... 370 Haykin, Michael A. G. and Stewart, Kenneth J. (editors), The Emergence of Evangelicalism: Exploring Historical Continuities ...... 374 Magesa, Laurenti, Christian Ethics in Africa ...... 188 McGowan, A. T. B., The Divine Spiration of Scripture: Challenging Evangelical Perspectives ...... 179 Morgan, Christopher W. and Peterson, Robert A. (editors), Faith Comes By Hearing: A Response to Inclusivism ...... 182 Pfundner, Michael, Think God, Think Science: conversations on Life, the Universe, and Faith ...... 379 Ramachandra, Vinoth, Subverting Global Myths: Theology and the Public Issues Shaping our World ...... 190 Rosner, Brian S. (editor), The Consolations of Theology ...... 178 Sider, Ronald J., Perkins, John M., Gordon, Wayne L. and Tizon, F. Albert (editors), Linking Arms, Linking Lives...... 181 Warrington, Keith, Pentecostal Theology: A Theology of Encounter . . . . . 176 Waruta, Douglas and Kinoti, Hannah (editors), Pastoral Care in African Christianity ...... 377 ERT cover 34-4 1/7/10 16:40 Page 2

ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box STUDIES IN CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND THOUGHT 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. Healing in the Early Church It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: [email protected], Web: The Church’s Ministry of Healing and Exorcism from the First to www.atla.com/ the Fifth Century MICROFORM Andrew Daunton-Fear This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, This is the most comprehensive investigation yet made into the healing activity of the Early MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 Church. Subscriptions 2010 The author shows that there was a vigorous healing and exorcism ministry in the centuries *Sterling rates do not apply to USA and Canada subscriptions. Please see below for further information. that followed the apostles, though it fluctuated somewhat and changed its mode. The pre- Nicene Fathers recognized its great apologetic value as a dramatic demonstration of the Institutions and Libraries Individuals superiority of the Christian God over pagan rivals. The place of anointing with oil, baptismal healing, the growing role of the shrines of martyrs in the post-Nicene church, and the Elsewhere Elsewhere Period UK Overseas* UK Overseas* positive view of the medical profession are amongst the issues explored. One Year: Andrew Daunton-Fear is a Lecturer in Church History and Pastoral Studies at St Andrew’s hard copy £55.00 £60.00 £37.00 £40.00 Theological Seminary, Manila, Philippines electronic version £55.00 £60.00 £37.00 £40.00 978-1-84227-623-5 / 229 x 152mm / 350pp (est.) / £24.99 (est.) joint subscription £67.00 £72.00 £44.00 £48.00

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All USA and Canada subscriptions to: This study examines whether British Protestant missionaries really did seek to build the EBSCO Subscription Services, P.O. Box 1493, Birmingham, AL 35201-1943, USA British Empire alongside the kingdom of God. All UK and International subscriptions to: The author concludes that where missionaries did aid imperial development it was largely Paternoster Periodicals, c/o AlphaGraphics, 6 Angel Row, Nottingham NG1 6HL UK incidental, an ‘imperialism of result’ rather than an ‘imperialism of intent’. Tel: UK 0800 597 5980; Fax: 0115 852 3601 Tel Overseas: +44 (0)115 852 3614; Fax +44 (0)115 852 3601 John Darch lectured in Church History at St John’s College, Nottingham. Email [email protected] 978-1-84227-560-3 / 229 x 152mm / 300pp (est.) / £24.99 (est.) Subscriptions can be ordered online at: www.paternosterperiodicals.co.uk (Non USA and Canada subscriptions only) Special Offer Religious Dissent in the Local Community All orders placed via our websites will receive a 5% discount off the total price. The Covenanter Movement in Fife Rates displayed on the websites will reflect this discount Alison G. Muir Important Note to all Postal Subscribers This work examines the covenanter movement in Fife. When contacting our Subscription Office in Nottingham for any reason always quote your Subscription Reference Number. Beginning with an analysis of protestant dissent in Fife between c.1610 and 1637/ 38 consideration is given to the period of covenanter rule before tracing the continuation of Photocopying Licensing protestant dissent during the Restoration period. Finally, by focusing closely on four areas of No part of the material in this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- Fife the impact of the events of the period on local institutions and behaviours is analysed. mitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise Alison Muir works with Historic Scotland. without the prior permission of Paternoster Periodicals, except where a licence is held to make photocopies. 978-1-84227-438-5 / 229 x 152mm / 300pp (est.) / £24.99 (est.) Applications for such licences should be made to the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Totten- ham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK It is illegal to take multiple copies of copyright material.