Tallinn '67 Jazz Festival: Myths and Memories

Tallinn ’67 Jazz Festival

Tallinn ’67 Jazz Festival: Myths and Memories explores the legendary 1967 jazz gathering that centred Tallinn, Estonia as the jazz capital of the USSR and marked both the pinnacle of a Soviet jazz awakening as well as the end of a long series of evolutionary jazz festivals in Estonia. This study offers new insights into what was the largest Soviet jazz festival of its time through an abundance of collected materials – including thousands of pages of archival documents, more than a hundred hours of interviews and countless media reviews and photographs – while grappling with the constellation of myths integral to jazz discourse in an attempt to illuminate ‘how it really was’. Accounts from musicians, jazz fans, organisers and listeners bring renewed life to this transcultural event from more than half a century ago, framed by scholarly discussions contextualising the festival within the closed conditions of the Cold War. Tallinn ’67 Jazz Festival details the lasting international importance of this confluence of Estonian, Soviet and American jazz and the ripple effects it spread throughout the world.

Heli Reimann is a postdoctoral researcher at the Sibelius Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki. Transnational Studies in Jazz

Series Editors: Tony Whyton, Birmingham City University, UK, and Nicholas Gebhardt, Birmingham City University, UK

Transnational Studies in Jazz presents cross-disciplinary and global perspectives on the development and history of jazz and explores its many social, political, and cultural meanings. Recent Titles Austral Jazz The Localization of a Global Music Form in Sydney Andrew Robson Jazz Diaspora New Approaches to Music and Globalisation Bruce Johnson Voices Found Free Jazz and Singing Chris Tonelli Remixing European Jazz Culture Kristin McGee Jazz on the Line Improvisation in Practice Petter Frost Fadnes Tallinn ’67 Jazz Festival Myths and Memories Heli Reimann Women in Jazz Musicality, Femininity, Marginalization Marie Buscatto

For more information, please visit: www.routledge.com/Transnational-Stu dies-in-Jazz/book-series/TSJ Tallinn ’67 Jazz Festival Myths and Memories

Heli Reimann First published 2022 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Taylor & Francis The right of Heli Reimann to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-41567-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-07294-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-81529-5 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9780367815295 Typeset in Bembo by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India To jazz idealists – those who made the festival happen

Contents

List of figures ix Series foreword xi Acknowledgements xii Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1 Transnational Trajectories – Estonian, American and Soviet Jazz 1 Jazz as a Subject of Academic Research 6 About the Book 8 Method and Chapters 10

1 Setting the Scene: Estonian Jazz Popularisers Uno Naissoo and Valter Ojakäär and Official Organising Procedures of Tallinn ’67 14 Uno Naissoo: The Initiator of the Jazz Festival Tradition 15 Valter Ojakäär: Broadcasting and Writing the History of Jazz 19 The Official Initiation of the Festival 23 Festival Organisers 26 The Festival Schedule 36

2 Individual Memories 42 Leningraders Vladimir Feyertag and Yuri Vikharev 43 Muscovites Boris Frumkin, Anatoly Kroll and German Lukyanov 56 Latvians Valdis Eglītis, Leonid Nidbalsky and Artur Nikitin 64 Lithuanian Representatives Vyacheslav Ganelin and Oleg Molokoyedov 70 Estonian Participants Tiit Paulus and Els Himma 74 Swedes 89

viii Contents 3 Americans at the Festival 94 George Avakian and the Soviet Union 94 Planning the Soviet Tour in 1966 95 Preparation for the Tour in 1967 100 Festival in Tallinn 108 Epilogue 113 Ron McClure 115 Charles Lloyd 121 Willis Conover 124

4 Post-Festival Reviews: Media and Official Reports 132 TV and Radio 133 Reviews in Estonian Media 140 Vasily Aksyonov and Alexey Batashev 141 Heinz Peter Hofmann, Melodie und Rhythmus 147 Norwegian Randi Hultin 150 Poland: Józef Balcerak 152 Lloyd’s Visit in the American Press 155 Official Reports 158 Neither Allowed nor Forbidden: The Fate of Tallinn’s Jazz Festivals 160

Conclusions: Tallinn ’67 as an Affective Event 165 The ‘Global Affect’ of the 1960s 165 The Willis Conover Sensation 166 American and Soviet Conflicting Realities 168 Myths 170 Soviet Jazz in 1960s and Tallinn ’67 Festival 172

Literature 178 Appendix I: List of Participants 182 Appendix II: The Executive Committee of the Tallinn Council of People’s Deputies (CPD) of the ESSR 185 Index 187 Figures

0.1 Festival poster. Author Valery Smirnov 2 1.1 Uno Naissoo (personal collection of Heli Reimann). Uno Naissoo’s caricature by Hugo Hiibus (personal collection of Ksenia Naissoo) 18 1.2 Valter Ojakäär giving his opening speech. Photographer: Gustav German 19 1.3 Heinrich Schultz in his office in 1967. The portrait of the communist leader Vladimir Lenin was an obligatory element in Soviet office environment (personal collection of Uno Schultz) 28 1.4 Czesław Bartkowski and Jan Johansson conducting the mas- terclasses in Olav’s Hall at the YCP. Photographer: Viktor Salmre (ERM Fk 2644: 13829; ERM Fk 2644: 13849) 37 1.5 Press conference at the YCP. From left: Juhan Undusk – Head of the Executive Committee of the Tallinn CPD; Uno Naisoo; Valter Ojakäär; Vladimir Gurfinkel – orgkomitee mem- ber from Leningrad; Rein Ristlaan – Head of the orgkomitee; Kaido Okk – instructor of the Cultural Department of the Executive Committee of the Tallinn CPD (ETMM) 38 1.6 Jazz Parade entering Kadriorg Park (UNTL) 38 2.1 Vladimir Feyertag emceeing concert at Leningrad Philharmonic Hall. Photographer: Heli Reimann 44 2.2 Boris Frumkin playing the piano at the Hall of Union of Composers, Moscow in 16.11.2017. Photographer Heli Reimann. Portrait (personal collection of Frumkin) 57 2.3 Zvyozdochka: Gunārs Rozenbergs trumpet, Uldis Stabulnieks piano, Valdis Eglītis bass, Dzintars Beķeris drums rehears- ing for the preliminary round of the festival at the Latvian Composers’ Union on 6 April 1967 (personal collection of Eglītis) 65 2.4 Riga’s Dixieland from the left: Vladimir Yermolovich bass, Leonid Marukhno banjo, Eduard Klovsky trombone, Leonid Nidbalsky drums, Yuri Mutulis clarinet. In the second row: Shirley and Willis Conover (personal collection of Nidbalsky) 67

x Figures 2.5 Raivo Tammik trio: Raivo Tammik, Tiit Paulus and Jüri Plisnik. Tiit Paulus at Tallinn ’67. Photographer: Jaan Rõõmus 78 2.6 Els Himma. Photographer: Viktor Salmre (ERM Fk2644: 6447; ERA F_efa0252_000_0000000_61255_ft_Himma_ Tammik) 83 3.1 Avakian at the final banquet. Photographer: Viktor Salmre (ERM Fk2644: 13861). Promotional postcard of Lloyd, carry- ing the note ‘Mir’ (peace) 103 3.2 Lloyd warming up backstage before his performance on the second day (personal collection of Viktor Dubiler) 109 3.3 Performance of Lloyd’s Quartet. Photographer: Viktor Salmre (ERM Fk 2644: 905; ERM Fk 2644: 891; ERM Fk 2644: 13821; ERM Fk 2644: 906) 112 3.4 Conover giving autographs (WCC, UNTML). Conover on stage in the banquet at Restaurant Kevad with interpreter Vladimir Gurfinkel (ETMM) 125 3.5 The Conovers at Vikharev’s home party in Leningrad in May 1967 (WCC, UNTML) 129 4.1 Masses of people around Kalev Sports Hall (ERRA: JAZZ- 67; https://arhiiv.err.ee/vaata/jazz-67) 134 4.2 The ‘Three sisters’. Photographer: Randi Hultin (NJL, RHC). Festival emblem on invitation card and festival badge of Tallinn ’67 135 4.3 Festival paparazzi. Photographers: Gustav German, Viktor Salmre (ERM Fk 2644: 1383) 137 4.4 The festival stage with flags. On the stage the group led by Vladimir Vitikh. Photographer: Gustav Germann 138 4.5 Leningrad Pantomime of Grigory Gurevich. Photographers: Valdur Vahi, Samuel Rosenfeld (ETMM) 148 4.6 Intourist Hotel Tallinn, dancers in front of the hotel, monu- ment of Lenin, the banner of the festival at the Draamateater. Film of Randi Hultin (NJA, RHC) 153 Series Foreword

Since the 1990s the study of jazz has changed dramatically, as the field con- tinues to open up to a variety of disciplinary perspectives and critical models. Today, as the music’s meaning undergoes profound changes, there is a pressing need to situate jazz within an international research context and to develop theories and methods of investigation which open up new ways of understanding its cultural significance and its place within different historical and social settings. The Transnational Studies in Jazz Series presents the best research from this important and exciting area of scholarship, and features interdisciplinary and international perspectives on the relationships between jazz, society, politics, and culture. The series provides authors with a platform for rethinking the methodologies and concepts used to analyze jazz, and will seek to work across disciplinary boundaries, finding different ways of examining the practices, values and meanings of the music. The series explores the complex cultural and musical exchanges that have shaped the global development and reception of jazz. Contributors will focus on studies of the music which find different ways of telling the story of jazz with or without reference to the United States, and will investigate jazz as a medium for negotiating global identities. Tony Whyton Nicholas Gebhardt Series Editors

Acknowledgements

First of all I am grateful to the Finnish Kone Foundation for the award of a three-year grant that made it possible to initiate and carry out this project. I am also thankful to the University of the Arts, Helsinki and specifically the History Forum, for providing me with a ‘roof’ and some finances, and the Tallinn University Astra Foundation. I thank the adviser and translation editor Bruce Johnson for helping me to bring this book to fruition; Michael Haagensen for fast and flexible assistance in language issues and Martin Gatski for taking care of the visual side of the book. My very special thanks go to Uno Schultz who supported me in many ways with his knowledge and encouraged me to continue through the low moments during this four-year journey and not losing belief in my work. I am especially grateful to Vladimir Feyertag who always replied to my e-mails regarding the checking of historical details, and Tiit Paulus for so honestly allowing me to delve deeper into the twists and turns of human life. I am in debt to the many interviewees who have been generous in the time they have given to me to kindly share their memories: Els Himma, Boris Frumkin, Arnold Grudin, Leonid Nidbalsky, Dmitry Ukhov, Valdis Eglītis, Anatoly Kroll, Tõnu Naissoo, Vyacheslav Ganelin, Oleg Molokoyedov, Charles Lloyd, Ron McClure, Roland Keijser, Silja Vahuri, Arne Vahuri, Tõnu Sal-Saller, Jaan Rõõmus, German Lukyanov, Artur Nikitin, Elvira Mutt, Alexander Kan, Georgy Vasyutochkin, Cyril Moshkow, Toivo Unt, Kurt Järneberg, Viktor Dublier, Vaado Sarapuu, Paavo Roolaid, Heino Tandre and finally Yuri Vikharev who talked to me through his book and taught how to be Human with capital ‘h’. I also thank Maristella Feustle, Per Husby, Alexey Sobisevich, Ene Kuljus for helping with archival materials and Aigi Heero, Natalya Sindetskaya, Alissa Ivanova and Helen Taurus for language translations. Finally I am grateful to my mother for tolerating me especially during corona quarantine which happened to coincide with my most intense period of writing.

Abbreviations

Abberviations Used in the Endnotes ERM Eesti Rahvusmuuseum. Estonian National Museum ERR Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu. Estonian National Library ERA Eesti Riigiarhiiv. National Archives of Estonia ERRA Eesti Rahvusringhäälingu arhiiv. Archive of Estonian Public Broadcasting ETMM Eesti Teatri ja Muusikamuuseum. Estonian Museum of Music and Theatre GAAAP George Avakian and Anahid Ajemian’s papers in NYPL JMS Džässmuusikasõpradele. For jazz music friends – broadcast in ERR KÖP Keskööprogramm. Midnight program – broadcast in ERR NJL, RHC Norvwegian Jazz Library Randi Hultin’s Collection NYPL New York Public Library MT Muusikaline tund. Musical Hour – broadcast in ERR SDAG State Department Airgram. The 1967 Tallin Jazz Festival, The Charles Lloyd Quartet and the Visit of Willis Conover. 26 May1967 TLA Tallinna Linnaarhiiv. Tallinn’s City Archive UNTL, WCC University of North Texas Library, The Willis Conover Collection VOC Valter Ojakäär’s Collection in ETMM

Introduction 10.4324/9780367815295-1

Introduction

In April 1997, the major Estonian jazz festival Jazzkaar organised a concert dedicated to the 30th anniversary of the Tallinn ’67 jazz festival. The guest on stage was Charles Lloyd, the American saxophonist who had attended the festival three decades earlier. The general sublime mood and the ecstatic reception with long ovations created an atmosphere of a return- ing messiah. Even the concert venue was in a way symbolic – the former venue for Communist Party congresses. It was mockingly nicknamed after the leader of the Estonian Communist Party Karl Vaino as Karla Katedraal (Karl’s Cathedral) and established emblematic connections with the Soviet era with its Soviet style glory. My personal motivation to attend the concert was, first, to see Lloyd as a prominent jazz figure playing live, since in 1997 I was not much aware of the broader significance of the Tallinn ’67 festival. Almost a quarter century later, after four years of research on the festival through an abundance of collected materials including archival documents, oral interviews, media reviews and photographs, I had come to recognise the importance of the event, its multi-levelled meanings, its cross-borders significance, and the plenitude of myths surrounding it, the extreme fanaticism of its Soviet fans and musicians, and the political games affecting its course (Figure 0.1).

Transnational Trajectories – Estonian, American and Soviet Jazz Tallinn ’67 took place in Estonia, a tiny country with a little over one mil- lion inhabitants on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland which, at that time, was annexed by the Soviet Union. Yet the ripples of the festival spread around the world. The reasons why an event that took place more than half a century ago deserves a book length study may be discovered in the networks of trajectories of Estonian, Soviet and American jazz. The brief overview of Estonian jazz history and the exposure of the music’s developments in the Soviet post-Stalinist era while paralleled with some reference to the course of American jazz, illuminate the preceding historical path towards the event in a transnational setting.

DOI: 10.4324/9780367815295-1 Introduction

Introduction 2

Figure 0.1 Festival poster. Author Valery Smirnov. Introduction 3 Jazz has been a transnational music from its very inception on American soil. The encounters between the musical forms of African-American and European traditions in the beginning of the twentieth century generated the musical hybrid which immediately circulated all over the world, especially with the growing need for entertainment after World War I. Estonian cultural space received jazz during the mid-1920s as a part of the dispersal of American popular music and dance genres into Europe. The first Estonian jazz ensemble, The Murphy Band, began regular performances in 1925 in the Café Marcelle. The number of jazz groups grew to around 110 by 1940 involving approxi- mately 750 musicians (Lauk 2008: 75). In 1940s’ America, against the background of the Swing Era’s popular and accessible melodic lines in bright dance halls, emerged the complex bebop solos of saxophonist Charlie Parker played in smoke-filled Minton’s Playhouse, New York. In the first half of the decade, Estonian jazz moved to completely different environments while undergoing the most turbulent period of its entire history. During the war under the German occupation,1 jazz musicians played a light swing-influenced repertoire and worked in Landessender Reval Tanzkapelle, the dance orchestra of the local radio station. Those musicians who fled the German occupation formed the Jazz Orchestra of the Art Ensembles of Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic in Yaroslavl, entertaining the Estonian Army Corps with swing-style dance music and schlagers. The year 1944, when Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union for the second time,2 marked the beginning of a period when, over six years, the music’s official status drifted from one, where it was tolerated, to a situation in which it was subject to total prohibition. In the immediate post-war period, when jazz was associated with victory and friendship with the Allies, numerous swing-style groups were active on the Estonian musical scene. The beginning of the Zhdanovshchina doctrine in 1946,3 establishing strict controls over the entire creative sphere, led to increasing attacks on jazz in the written media, finally leading to the complete disappearance of the music from public discourse in 1950.4 Despite the Soviet authorities’ attempts to obliterate jazz from cultural life, rather than disappear, performers moved into more secret, private spaces. For example, the Swing Club led by composer and jazz enthusiast Uno Naissoo continued its activities in the House of Culture of Working People and even issued a compilation of jazz writings called Almanac in 1950.5 In the late 1940s, jazz found a new mode of appearance with the emergence of the jazz festival tradition. ‘Festivalisation’ again confirmed the transnational orientation of jazz – the first jazz festivals of international significance were held in Nice and Paris respectively in 1948 and 1949 (Currie 2019: 305) with the programmes presenting artists from both sides of the Atlantic. Interestingly, the year 1949 marked the symbolic beginning of the ‘festivalisation’ of both Estonian- and Soviet jazz – the seminal meeting of two groups in 1949 initiated by Uno Naissoo expanded and grew in prestige year by year, and became an important gathering point for the entire Soviet jazz community. The first event of the magnitude of a real festival was a three-day gathering in 1958, Introduction 4 when 12 local ensembles took to the stage at the Club of the Tallinn Plywood and Furniture Factory. By contrast, the first festival-type events in Soviet Russia were not held until 1962, organised in Leningrad by the State University jazz club (Vikharev 2004: 114) and in Moscow in the café Molodyozhnoye (Ritter 2017: 58). The Tallinn ’67 jazz festival, 14th of the series, marked the high point in an 18-year evolution of the jazz festival tradition in Estonia. These events had become the trademark of Estonian jazz culture across the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s with Tallinn being awarded the status of the Soviet ‘jazz capital’. In addition, Tallinn ’67 was the first international festival of such magnitude in the Soviet Union. Tallinn ’66 had had foreign groups from Finland and Sweden but the event in 1967 expanded the scope by including musicians from Finland, Sweden, Poland and, most importantly, the United States. Tallinn ’67, however, marked the termination of the entire series of jazz festivals in Estonia, only being re-established two decades later when Pärnu Jazz (1986) and Jazzkaar (1990) appeared. The significance of Tallinn ’67 rests not just in it being the biggest jazz gathering in the Soviet Union up to that time but, in addition, it denotes the pinnacle of the new awakening of Soviet jazz that began with the opening up of society during ‘Khrushchev’s Thaw’.6 One of the first signs of libera- tion following the period of the Zhdanovshchina7 intolerance towards jazz was Leonid Utyosov’s article in Sovetskaya Muzyka (Soviet Music)8 trying to reha- bilitate the status of jazz orchestras and saxophones.9 In 1955, the Voice of America (VOA) and Willis Conover initiated the Jazz Hour programme, the impact of which was enormous for the entire Eastern Bloc where musicians and fans received jazz enlightenment through the baritone voice of Conover. In Estonia, the sign of a new era for levimuusika (the term designating both jazz and popular music in Estonian), was a ‘historical commission’ from Union- wide Radio for Estonian Radio to provide a one-hour programme of instru- mental light music in 1955 (Ojakäär 187: 213). The year 1957 was significant, with the 6th World Festival of Youth and Students in Moscow indicating a breakthrough of Western culture into the Soviet Union with the presence of numerous foreign representatives, on a scale unprecedented.10 The festival saw the appearance of a new generation of Komsomol11 functionaries, who supported the expansion of recreational activities in the form of special interest clubs, including jazz clubs (Kozlov 2005: 101). The first Soviet jazz club, D-58 in Leningrad, was opened in 1958 as a site where fans and musicians could share their interest through numerous activities: listening to lectures and records, reading jazz books and magazines and exchanging jazz-related information (Feyertag 1999: 84). In 1961, the first jazz café Molodyozhnoye was established in Moscow as a Komsomol enterprise (Ritter, 2017: 57). In Estonia, the main driving forces were jazz festivals rather than the jazz clubs and cafés as in Moscow and Leningrad, and radio broadcasts initiated by Valter Ojakäär at the end of the 1950s. The significant signal from the side of the Soviet authorities of the approval of jazz was the conclusion of the fourth plenum of the Composers’ Union in November 1962, declaring that a general Introduction 5 condemnation of jazz was a fruitless task, and the best solution would be the creation of an independent and distinctive Soviet jazz (ibid.: 56). In parallel with the increasing number of performance opportunities, a new generation of musicians, sometimes called dzhazmeny shestidesyatniki (jazzmen-sixtiers), appeared on the scene covering a great diversity of jazz styles from Dixieland played by the Leningrad Dixieland to the free sounds of the Lithuanian pianist Vyacheslav Ganelin. A crucial role in developing a jazz culture was played by jazz fans involved in organising numerous jazz activities, creating infrastructures and documenting the history. As an elitist phenomenon, it engaged numerous intellectuals, where among the leaders were Alexey Batashev, Leonid Pereverzev, Yuri Vikharev and Vladimir Feyertag. The most significant individuals in Estonian jazz culture, Uno Naissoo and Valter Ojakäär are introduced in Chapter 1. The possibility of jazz connections between America and the Soviet Union was first discussed in 1955, when the director of the United States National Foundation, Carleton Smith, negotiated with the Soviet Minister of culture, Andrey Tverdokhlebov, about bringing 60 leading American jazz players to the USSR.12 The first jazz ambassador, Benny Goodman and his Orchestra, reached the Soviet Union seven years later in 1962, followed by Earl Hines’s group in 1966. The first Americans performing in the Soviet Union during the Cold War period were, however, the pianist Dwike Mitchell and bass- ist Willie Ruff, who, with the Yale University Choir, travelled to Moscow in June and July 1959, performing at the Tchaikovsky Conservatory and the University of Moscow.13 In this succession of US performers in the Soviet Union, the Charles Lloyd Quartet with Keith Jarrett, John McClure and Jack DeJohnette was the fourth. The visit, arranged by the manager of the group, George Avakian, outside the official cultural exchange, generated a scandal that reflected the discrepancies between Soviet and American realities. The furore was heightened because of Lloyd’s fame – the year 1967 marked the peak moment of his early career in the 1960s, when the poll of the leading American jazz magazine Down Beat acknowledged him as saxophonist of the year. For Estonian audiences, the opportunity to listen to a live concert by a musician of such world class repute was something unprecedented. Equally sensational for Soviet jazz fans and musicians was the visit to Tallinn of Voice of America Jazz Hour cult broadcaster Willis Conover, meeting his adoring audiences in the Soviet Union for the first time. Paradoxically, the climactic event in Soviet jazz of the 1960s coincided with a crisis of jazz in America. The death of John Coltrane in 1967 left the avant- garde jazz movement without its most charismatic leader, jazz was losing its audience, nightclubs began closing and concerts were drying up. The brilliant aura of The Beatles directed jazz towards electric sounds. The new jazz generation started to form rock-influenced groups and Down Beat writers received the new sounds with approval (Giddins & DeVeaux 2015: 480). The first groups to begin to break down the barriers found opportunities in the California jam-band scene. One was led by Charles Lloyd, a Coltrane-influenced tenor Introduction 6 saxophonist whose syncretic, genre-crossing style took him to the top of the musical scene. The visit of a group of such significance to the Soviet Union was a culturally important moment, symbolically situating the Soviet Union as part of the transnational new jazz scenes.

Jazz as a Subject of Academic Research During the 30 or so years of the evolution of academic jazz studies, the field has now, at the beginning of the 2020s, extended to new horizons, with proliferat- ing historiographies from the formerly marginalised area, including the most relevant region to this study, the former Eastern Bloc. A quick overview of the field indicates that the first significant moment in the evolution of jazz research was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when jazz commentary as previously shaped by discographers and journalists was becoming part of the American academic establishment.14 Concurrently with the questioning of canon forma- tion in many academic fields and the emergence of the New Musicology movement, the New Jazz Studies appeared as a field of research examining critically the previous jazz historiographies (Gabbard 1995; DeVeaux 1991; Gennari 1991). Scott DeVeaux (1991: 489) in his seminal ‘Constructing the jazz tradition’ discusses what I call a jazz-as-a-tradition paradigm by referring to jazz as ‘the relatively recent construction of an overarching narrative that has crowded out other possible interpretations of the complicated and variegated cultural phenomena that we cluster under the umbrella “jazz”’. Elsewhere, DeVeaux (2005) summarises the traditionally understood boundaries of US-centric jazz through four dichotomies of race (jazz is black, it’s not white), gender (jazz is male, not female), class (jazz is an art music, it is not a pop or folk music) and nationality (jazz is American, it’s not European or African). The second important moment of change in jazz studies appeared in 2003 when E. Taylor Atkins published Jazz Planet – the first scholarly collection of articles on jazz beyond American borders, making jazz studies a transnational enterprise. His critique of the domination of the US-centric perspective is succinct: ‘Practically all jazz discourse rests on the premise of American excep- tionalism, the dogmatic conviction that democracy, individualism and social mobility, civil society, free enterprise, ingenuity, inventiveness, and material wellbeing are peculiarly American traits.’ Now, 17 years later, the status of what the prominent critic of North American and European jazz historiography, Australian scholar Johnson (2020: 8) calls ‘diasporic jazz’, leads him to conclude that

in neglecting and even completely ignoring the story of jazz beyond the borders of the US, the established canonical account seriously limits our understanding of the cultural work that jazz could perform, and falsifies what it did perform, as a global force. To view the history of jazz from, so- to-speak, the ‘outside’ is potentially to fundamentally rearrange the whole historical landscape. Introduction 7 His account draws on the premise that jazz was not just ‘invented’, but was invented in the process of being disseminated (Johnson 2002: 39), and calls for the recognition of the role of jazz in non-US areas and advocates for studies that depart significantly from US-canon-centric or Anglo–European-centric historiographies. This monograph about the Tallinn ’67 jazz festival exemplifies an ‘outside’ perspective while aiming to reconfigure our understanding of the music from the Soviet perspective. By closely examining how the institution of jazz festivals functioned, the particular case study of Tallinn ’67 demonstrates the distinctive Soviet dynamic relationship between the state and the event, and the decisive role of particular individuals in the dissemination of jazz culture. The transnational dimension of the festival is an instructive opportunity to display the divergent aspects between American and Soviet cultures, explicitly evinced in the dichotomies between commercial and non-commercial music, and between the freedom and suppression of artistic expression. On the other hand, the myth-making qualities and their affects proved to be global models, assisting jazz transculturally. The overview of research on jazz in the former Eastern Bloc demonstrates distinctive dynamics that reflect the developments of the Soviet and the Cold War studies. The earliest writings based on the presentations of the Warsaw conference ‘Jazz Behind the Iron Curtain’ in 2008 were the basis of the first multi-authored collection of articles (Ritter & Pickhan 2010), and tended to reproduce the Cold War canonical narratives of jazz as a forbidden music prac- tised with the aim of resisting the oppressive social system and fighting for freedom. Later collections,15 however, disclose challenges to these clichés, focusing more on the individual agency of music practitioners. The most recent monograph on jazz in the former Eastern Bloc comes from German researcher Abeßer (2018), arguing that the appeal of Western culture and jazz in the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1970 resulted from the internal logic of the Soviet System. Weißenbacher (2020) bases her research on interviews with jazz musicians, written documents, music examples and Stasi files discoveries. How did a jazz scene develop despite the GDR ideology that criticised the ‘American way of life’? The only extensive monograph on jazz in the Soviet Union available to an English-speaking readership is still Frederick S. Starr’s Red & Hot: The Fate of Jazz in The Soviet Union, first published in 1983. The critique of his work includes the book’s selective use of facts and its Cold War perspective. For example, his conclusion that ‘any creative art form will ultimately fail in Russia because moralistic bureaucrats overregulate and overcontrol’ (Starr 1983: 317) is highly contestable if not downright erroneous. Culture in the Soviet Union was highly regulated, indeed, but despite this it produced a great body of internationally recognised and admired art. Starr’s account of the Tallinn ’67 episode (ibid.: 285–287) reproduces the heroic narrative of Lloyd against the Soviet, seen through the US prism of the Cold War. Tallinn ’67 has received some attention, with the lengthiest discussions made outside the framework of jazz scholarship. Tsipursky’s (2016: 200) book, Introduction 8 portraying Soviet youth in the context of state-sponsored popular culture, mentions the Lloyd incident in Tallinn ’67 with a focus on politicised aspects of the Soviet American encounter. Maristella Feustle’s (2018) article ‘“Liberated from Serfdom”: Willis Conover and the Tallinn Jazz Festival of 1967’ praises Conover’s visit to the festival as the culmination of years of American cultural diplomacy through jazz. The event received little or no attention in histo- ries of the globalisation of jazz. Brief references may be found in Wassberger (2017: 204–206), Ritter (2016: 185) and Martinelli (2018: 410) describes the ‘overwhelming effect on the Soviet musicians’. This monograph is therefore the first attempt to explore in detail that ‘overwhelming effect’, drawing on contemporary reports and interviews with surviving participants, both Soviet and American.

About the Book This book is first and foremost about memories. In defining the concept of memory, I follow those who have argued that remembrance and archives are different modes of memory (Taylor 2003; Assmann 2010). What I refer to as modes of memory are people’s stories, which have come to me whether through face-to-face meetings, Skype or phone calls or via the mediation of biographies and personal archival collections in the case of those who were no longer alive. In addition, I include as particular categories of memory, jour- nalistic texts incorporating the remembered episodes and impressions of their authors, official archival documents mediating the memory of administrative practices, along with visual materials that by recording a moment in history make it ‘memorable’. The recollections of my subjects concern how and what they recall of their 50-year-old experience and why it has left deep traces in their lives. Furthermore, their memories provide us with a picture of the lives in jazz within the Soviet framework, what tactics these jazz enthusiasts deployed to ‘get-by’ (Johnston 2011) and achieve their goals and how their observations interpret life with jazz and in the society of the time. My firm conviction is that the full presentation of personal in-depth testimonies of the musicians, especially in the case of such an under-researched and controversial field as Soviet jazz, deserves a different kind of attention from the usual scholarly presentation simply as illustrations for an academic argument. And this is so even if they might encourage the reproduction of existing myths and creation of new ones. As instructive contrast, the narratives of Americans bring to bear different perspectives on the Tallinn festival, and provide an excellent opportunity to iden- tify the discrepancies between ‘American’ and ‘Soviet’ understandings of jazz. While I explore the subjective meaning of the event for its participants by asking, as in the case of Rubin (2002: 81), ‘how it was for him, or her, or them,’ I don’t dismiss the possibility of finding answers to the question of ‘how it really was.’ The festival has produced numerous, sometimes contradictory, narratives, which have gained legendary and mythical status, whether because Introduction 9 of their sensationalist distortions, the impact of political confrontations, ten- sions between idealism and reality or the fallibility of human memory. To dis- prove or confirm the validity of those stories, that is to detect their truth value, is among the goals of the book. The challenge here will be to test the validity of the data through multiple levels of checks and cross-checks based on a large body of empirical material – primary archival and media sources. Framing the debate over ‘truth versus falsity’ are the contradictions between history and myth, which according to Jan Assmann (1997: 14), have led to ‘an all-too antiseptic conception of “pure facts” as opposed to the egocentrism of myth-making memory’. The mythical elements of history have, nevertheless, nothing to do with its truth values, since history turns into myth as soon as it is woven into the fabric of the present as remembered, narrated and used. However, to seek for the ‘truth’ value and separate history strictly from myths is to sever the past from its representation, which is much less fruitful than to explore their dialectics – the means by which history converts to myth, as well as how the past itself might resist certain forms of mythmaking. Yet mythologies are durable since they tend to resonate with us today by serving an important cultural function, giving form to codes and conventions by which we live our lives (Whyton 2010: 135). Myths are integral to jazz discourse, where the promotion of a teleological, causal narrative has led to history taking on what is often a melodramatic and romanticised character (ibid.: 134). The constellation of jazz myths includes the exclusionary narrative of jazz as an expression of independent African- American culture, of the alignment of the aesthetic status of jazz with classical music, of jazz musicians as often dysfunctional individualistic outsiders and hipsters, ‘rebels without a cause’, or of jazz as a gesture of freedom (Sanchirico 2012; Whyton 2010; Johnson 2018). The myths circulating around Tallinn ’67 include for example, the question of how Lloyd got into Tallinn, how and who obstructed the performance of his Quartet, or why the tradition of the festival in Estonia was terminated after 1967. In addition, as we will see, the accounts of numerical data, whether related to the capacity of the hall or the number of participants, varies greatly as it passes through the personal ‘filters’ of journalists. Part of that Tallinn ’67 ‘tradition’ is based on myth-making com- parisons of some writers with the legendary Woodstock festival,16 or referring to it as a ‘Soviet Newport festival’ (Abeßer 2019: 442). In addition, I wish to explore the (ir)relevance of popular simplistic and clichéd American Cold War paradigm myths which still circulate as part of the collective memory and claim jazz to be a forbidden music in the Soviet Union, a tool of resistance, fighting for freedom or a ‘betrayal of the homeland’. Finally, myths can also provide people with models for behaviour (Whyton 2010: 135) taking the form of ritualistic acts of listening, as well as lifestyle choices that include modes of dress or the consumption of alcohol. Myth can articulate and model both aliena- tion from and cooperation with the state, or adoration of the West expressed through unselfish dedication to jazz, and such myth-based models can hold the affective jazz community together. Introduction 10 Deciphering the abundance of myths entails the deployment of the concept of affect which is deployed here in the conventional sense of its meaning ‘as something like a force or active reaction’ (Wetherell 2012: 2), or ‘something throws itself together in a moment as an event and a sensation; a something both animated and inhabitable’ (Stewart 2007: 1). The claim here is that the myth-making nature of Tallinn’s festival draws widely on the affective qualities assisting its occurrence and generated by the event itself. The multilayered phenomenon of affect first figures as an indicator of the specific type of the event – the festival possessing affective qualities as ‘a time and space of celebra- tion, a site of convergence, separate from everyday routines, experiences and meanings – ephemeral communities in time and place’ (Gibson & Connell 2012: 4). The specificities of the historical moment – the Cold War confronta- tion and the turbulence of the late 1960s – intensified the affect. And of not least importance is the affective foundation of music itself, since its expressive quality deeply influence people’s affect (DeNora 1999; Sloboda 1992).

Method and Chapters The core sources of the book are oral accounts, and these number around 50 interviews with individuals who claim to have some memory of the festival: musicians, jazz fans, organisers and listeners. Since more than half a century has elapsed, most of those involved with the festival have died and therefore the selection of interviewees was based on accessibility – interviews were conducted with everyone available and giving consent for the interview. The entire record of oral material is around 120 hours with duration varying from half-an-hour phone interviews to up to ten hours per person, depending on the mode of interviewing, the capacity of the particular individual to remember or other time limitations. The archival memories include around 1500 pages of documents from numerous archives, the most important of which are the New York Public Library, Jazz Archive of Oslo, University of North Texas Library, Tallinn City Archive and the Archive of Estonian Public Broadcasting. In addition, around 200 photographs and 100 newspaper articles were collected. Among the secondary sources the most important is Vikharev’s autobiography, Yest chto vspomint (The things to recall). Since one of the main tasks of this book is to investigate ‘how it really was’ – that is to reconstruct the course of events – the construction of the narrative form is an integral part of the research method itself. In that sense the meth- odology relies on the principles of micro-history, which has as one of its distinctive features the special attention paid to narrative construction (Ginzburg 1989; Magnússon & Szíjártó 2013). Four main chapters form a narrative based on voluminous empirical material, both archival and oral, while the scholarly discussions are conducted in the introduction and conclusions framing the main body chapters. In addition, the chapters are of uneven length, with the second one being the longest because of the extensive amount of oral material collected. Introduction 11 The study is micro-historical in a general sense, as the intensive historical investigation of a relatively well-defined episode and with an intensive focus on agency; that is, the ability of individuals to make meaningful choices and undertake meaningful actions in their lives. The importance of agency is par- ticularly exhibited in the special presentation strategies in the text, where the personal ‘voice’ of the interviewee is made more audible for the purpose of disclosing the richness of the conversation by presenting minute details and emphasising not only what the informants say but also how and where something is said. For that purpose, I incorporate some performative strategies and signals such as dialogue, direct speech and animation, with descriptions of the environments, analogies with theatrical performance and the visual and other particularities of the interviewees. To make the past speak in a more personal way and to increase the cognitive power of the narrative I will deploy self-reflexivity (Rosenstone 2004), the strategy of acknowledging the subjectivity of the historian in the narrative, undercutting the illusion that history already exists somewhere and ‘narrates itself’ in the smooth flow of the story. For me, this means the interpolation of personal experiences I underwent during the research process. In most cases, the interview process was much more than just people giving me information and me listening, but it was about human encounters invested with a mutual appreciation of the topic. For the reader, the aforementioned strategies provide the sense that behind the historical narrative there is a person who has made those choices – aesthetic, political and moral – in order to create this work out of the historical past, and bring the actors in the narrative closer to the reader. Therefore, I expect my readers to listen to the voices in the text with ‘big ears’, as jazz scholars Ingrid Monson and Paul Berliner suggest for engaging with the perspectives of jazz musicians, to notice the nuances in the way the interviews and documents convey the experiences of the subjects and how the voice of the writer makes itself audible, and ultimately to consider how the reader’s own presence is part of this multivocal process of sense-making. The first chapter can be summarised as a lead-up to the Tallinn ’67 jazz festival. It opens by examining the role of two prominent jazz figures Uno Naissoo and Valter Ojakäär in Estonian and Soviet jazz culture, and whose enthusiasm was the driver in establishing and sustaining the jazz festival tradition. Based on the primary and secondary sources, the areas of contribution and personal life paths of those two all-rounders are disclosed. The second half of the chapter, based on archival documents, discusses the administrative procedures by which the festival was organised: its initiation, the financial procedures, the amateur status of the Soviet jazz festivals – and introduces the members of the orgkomitee (the abbreviation of the word for the committee of organisers will be used from that point onwards). The last short subchapter provides an overview of the course of the festival. Based on the interviews with musicians and jazz fans, the second chapter investigates how Tallinn ’67 was remembered by its participants. The length of the material introducing particular individuals, however, varies greatly Introduction 12 depending on the source material available. The discussions focus not only on memories of the festival, but extend to more reflections in which the interviewees have the opportunity to share the details of their life-journey, and which helps to reveal the role of individual agency in Soviet/Estonian jazz culture. Among those appearing with in-depth autobiographical stories are historian and compere Vladimir Feyertag, pianist Yuri Vikharev, Russian pianist Boris Frumkin, the Estonians, guitarist Tiit Paulus and singer Els Himma, and Latvian jazz fan Leonid Nidbalsky. The chapter also includes what I call meditated oral memories in the form of autobiographical books. The third chapter on American visitors contributes substantially to the festival story by providing explanations regarding the biggest enigma surrounding the event: how the Charles Lloyd Quartet came to be in Tallinn. Based on the close reading of the documents from the archival collection of Lloyd’s manager George Avakian located in the New York Public Library, it will unravel the more than one-year long trajectory of Avakian’s effort to get Lloyd to Tallinn. The rest of the chapter presents memories of Ron McClure, Charles Lloyd and introduces the most eagerly anticipated star of the festival, Willis Conover. Relying on memory stored in media, archival texts and visual documents, the final chapter presents selected post-festival observations. It explores the role of television and radio in disseminating the event, and gives further insights into reports in the print media in Estonia, Russia, GDR, Norway, the US and Poland. Enclosed is also a lengthy review of the masterly literary essay of Vasily Aksyonov on the festival, ‘A Simpleton in the World of Jazz, or Ballad of Thirty Hippopotami’. Visual media provide descriptions based on the docu- mentaries, and the opportunity to evoke the environment and the symbolic meaning of the festival. The two final subchapters respectively disclose the Soviet and American official reports on the festival and the reasons for the termination of jazz festivals in Estonia.

Notes 1 The first Soviet occupation took place in 1940–1941, and the German occupation, 1941–1944. 2 Soviet annexation of Estonia lasted for 46 years terminating in 1990 with the collapse of Soviet empire. 3 The Zhdanovshchina doctrine, the basic principle of which relied on antagonisms between ‘imperialistic and democratic camps’ under the emerging conditions of con- frontation within the Cold War, was named after the secretary of the Central Committee Andrei Zhdanov. It became Soviet cultural policy – the requirement for excellence in artistic output. 4 See Reimann, Heli. 2014. ‘Late-Stalinist ideological campaigns and the rupture of jazz: “jazz talk” in the Soviet Estonian cultural newspaper Sirp ja Vasar.’ Popular Music, 33(3), 509–529. 5 See Reimann, Heli. 2010. ‘“Down with bebop – viva swing!” Swing Club and the meaning of jazz in late 1940s Estonia.’ Jazz Research Journal, 4(2), 95–122. 6 During the period from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s in the Soviet Union under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev, Soviet society witnessed the irreversible transforma- tion arising from the reforms initiated by the new party leader. Introduction 13 7 The cultural policy of the Soviet Union during the period from 1946 to 1953 called for stricter government control of art and promoted an extreme anti-Western bias. 8 Laulust ja kergest muusikast, reprint in Sirp ja Vasar 18 December 1953. 9 Like Feyertag (sometimes Feiertag) below, there are variant transliterations of Utyosov’s name, including Utesov. 10 See Peacock, Margaret. 2012. ‘The perils of building Cold War consensus at the 1957 Moscow World Festival of Youth and Students.’ Cold War History, 12(3), 525–535. 11 Leninist Young Communist League in Soviet Union. 12 ‘U.S. jazz festival in Moscow? New cultural contact.’ Manchester Guardian, 7 October 1955. 13 NJPL. GAAAP. 15.15. 14 For the disussion on jazz research see Reimann, Heli. 2013. Jazz Research and the Moments of Change. Etnomusikologian Vuosikirja, pp. 8–33. 15 Ritter, Rüdiger & Pickhan, Gertrud. 2016. Meanings of Jazz in State Socialism. 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