Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

Brian Street1a, Reza Pishghadam2b, Shiva Zeinali3b

Abstract

ARTICLE HISTORY: Granted that literacy is a social practice involving different values, attitudes, feelings, and social relationships, this Received June 2014 study attempts to examine literacy practices and the Received in revised form September 2014 potential changes made through a history of forty years. The Accepted September 2014 study was conducted in the village of Cheshmeh, near Available online September 2014 Mashhad, Iran, where the social definition of literacy emerged. The data have been collected through participants' observation and interviews. The results proposed that literacy progress has been uneven and unequal across countries and within a country or a population despite some achievements gained internationally. This study is a KEYWORDS: challenge to the idea that literacy is the same thing across all kinds of settings and under all kinds of conditions. In fact, Literacy widely varying personal, social, religious, and economic Social concept factors imposed their constraints on literacy practices. In the Cheshmeh Street light of the results of the present study, the future literacy Village effort may achieve better results and increased opportunities of success for all individuals if it takes account of such local social factors.

© 2014 IJSCL. All rights reserved.

1 Professor, Email: [email protected] 2 Professor, Email: [email protected] 3 PhD Candidate, Email: [email protected] (Corresponding Author) Tel: +98-915-322-3557 a King's College London, England b Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

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1. Introduction and write a particular script but applying this knowledge for specific purposes in specific iteracy as an important concept in contexts of use" (p. 236). In this sense, literacy education has attracted the attention of is associated with higher-order thinking and L many researchers (e.g., Heath, 1982, development of cognitive skills, and is more 1983; Rogers, 2008; Street, 1983, 1984, 1995) broadly related to social and economic and undergone diverse changes from development, political democracy, and even cognitive, autonomous, one-dimensional, and civilization (Graff, 1995). Literacy research modern views of literacy to social, ideological, also focused on the ways in which literacy is multi-dimensional, and postmodern perspectives informed and shaped by wider contexts, social towards it (Pishghadam, Tabatabaeyan, & situations, communication, and cultural tools Navari, 2013). In fact, literacy was first which Gee (1992) referred to as “the New conceived of as a construct residing in Literacy Studies” or NLS. This approach leads individuals’ minds, which emanates from to the recognition of multiple literacies and schools and books, guaranteeing success in life incorporation of the power dimension (Gee, (e.g., Scribner & Cole, 1981). Later, the 1999; Pahl & Rowsell, 2005). concept was heavily put into question by Heath (1982, 1983) and Street (1984), who Psychology dominated educational practice argued that literacy is a social concept, having until the 1980s and the focus of literacy varied aspects. studies remained upon cognitive and internal processes involved in reading and writing. Street (1984) in his influential work Literacy During the 1980s literacy studies shifted from in Theory and Practice drew on his own cognitive psychological-based approach to a research on literacy in an Iranian village socio-cultural perspective. The research was (Cheshmeh) in the early 1970s. He adopted the mainly centered on the practical usage and multiple literacies approach and argued that meaning making of language and literacy. The the literacy cannot be studied autonomously, move from psycholinguistic to socio-cultural- apart from the larger social ‘goings-on’ in informed education was the first main which it is rooted. In other words, literacies "paradigm shift" in literacy (Lankshear & diverge according to different situations, Knobel, 2004). functions, and social relationships. In effect, more developed conceptualization of literacy The "Sociocultural" study of literacy typically is needed and this can be seen in the refers to practice rather than process. Scribner subsequent works in the 1980s and beyond and Cole (1981, p. 236), drawing on the work (Barton & Hamilton, 2000; Prinsloo & of Vygotsky (1986), defined practice as Baynham, 2008; Street, 1983, 1984). "socially developed and patterned ways of using technology and knowledge to Due to the importance of the social concept of accomplish tasks". From a socio-cultural literacy, we tried to focus on Cheshmeh, the perspective, literacy is not a single de- village Street (1984) put under scrutiny to contextualized skill or one-dimensional come up with the social orientations towards construct which can be applied in any literacy. In fact, in this study we attempted to situation. Rather, it involves multiple social examine closely the social and cultural practices within a particular context and for a practices of literacy in this place after 40 years specific function. In fact, literacy is not a to pinpoint the possible changes and generalized competence but it is situated, challenges. communicative competence embedded in cultural, social, historical, and political 2. Theoretical Framework contexts in which children have grown up, and The definition of literacy is broadly varied is influenced by the thinking of a particular throughout the literature. Research on literacy group of people who have directed the is traditionally concerned with the recognition children's thinking (Heath, 1982, 1983; of cognitive developments, strategies, and Rogers, 2008; Street, 1983, 1995; Tracey & skills required in reading and interpreting the Morrow, 2006). printed texts. Scribner and Cole (1981) defined literacy as "not simply knowing how to read 18 Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

Given that literacy is located in the social, they have selected to devote their identities. cultural, and political context in which it takes Multiliteracies draw upon the local and global place, Street (1984) referred to this model of contexts in which literacy is situated, and literacy as “ideological,” in contrast to students' own linguistic, cultural, and socio- autonomous model of literacy. From an economic backgrounds in literacy learning autonomous perspective, literacy is a set of (Pahl & Rowsell, 2005). practical skills that autonomously affects other social and cognitive practices (Street, 2001, This perspective shed light on this fact that 2005). The Ideological model highlighted that literacy practice created opportunity and literacy is rooted in power structures in affordance for a group of people and society. Actually, the existing power dynamics constraints for others. Those practices which is frequently maintained, produced, and did not fit the norm were considered reproduced through imposing in the course of inappropriate or problematic (Sarroub, 2004). schooling, language, power, values, and As a result, in many sociocultural studies, beliefs of the dominant culture on marginal literacy and language were viewed as forms of groups who may not share the same “capital” (Bourdieu, 1982; Bourdieu & experiences and world-views. Gee (2005) Wacquant, 1992; Grenfell et al., 2012) that referred to these imposed concepts as disposed individuals in certain ways and gave "models". "Models are the ways in which possibilities and resources to those who history, institutions, and affinity groups think possessed it. People who have been socialized and act in and through us" (Gee, 2005, p.142). into these dispositions were able to interpret and creatively engage in the flow of social A strong impetus for an interest in literacy as a practices. That is, the ability to engage in sociocultural practice originated from Heath’s valued language and discourse practices is (1982, 1983) classic study of south eastern associated with power and access (Foucault, communities in the USA. Heath argued that 1981). From this perspective, it is important to different ways that children learned to use study how the value of literacy practices is language hinged on a situated communicative decided by those who are socially, competence rooted in learnt deep cultural economically, or politically more powerful knowledge. In effect, children's success and (Besnier & Street, 1994). failure required to be identified with reference to wider and deeper cultural practices. The implications of this approach for research and practice are manifold. It raises serious As a useful framework for thinking about doubts among researchers about what literacies, Green (1988) provided the three- constitutes literacy and what it means to dimensional model of literacy, based on a people. So, instead of giving advantage to the socio-cultural perspective: the operational, the standard literacy practices, they become aware cultural, and the critical. The operational that other versions of literacy exist and are still dimension deals with language aspects of being created. It is recognized that as a social literacy. The cultural dimension focuses on the practice, literacy varies across cultures and meaning systems of social practice. The contexts and for that reason, the consequences critical dimension involves awareness that all of the different literacy practices in different literacy practices are socially constructed and circumstances are noteworthy. ideological. NLS is interested in all of the three dimensions of Green’s (1988) model of Many people who are considered "illiterate" literacy; and proposes a further three key from the autonomous viewpoint to literacy interconnected aspects of the approach: may, within a more culturally sensitive model, Multimodality, Multiple Identities, and be seen to have the ability to use of literacy Multiliteracies. Multimodality is a shift from practices for specific functions and in specific an identification of literacy with the situations. This approach also raises awareness conventional means of typographical printed regarding whether the influential literacy text to taking account of different modes of practices are accessible to the variety of communication – visual, kinesthetic, etc. populations (Cole, 1996; Wagner, 2010). Multiple Identities mean students often have rich literacy in the areas out of school in which Literacy studies have often embarked on the full description of particular social activities.

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Ethnographers working in the general area of 3. Method literacy have examined social activities from a particular social and institutional lens. They 3.1. Settings and Participants of the Study consider literacy as a social practice that requires studies of this practice in the everyday The research was conducted at the research life of people (Barton et al., 2005). site, Cheshmeh in June, 2014. Cheshmeh is a village in Shandiz rural district, near Mashhad, After all, the chief purpose of this study is to Iran. It is located along the mountainside of delve into the world of literacy to identify the Binalod Mountain and at fountain-head of possible changes and challenges. Developing Shandiz valley. The village is about 30 detailed local ethnographic perspectives seem kilometers from Mashhad. This is where Street to be an efficient tool for challenging the (1984) was inspired to propose a more existing assumptions and generalizations about developed conceptualization of literacy that literacy. Perhaps, the future literacy effort may resulted in introducing an ideological model of achieve better results and increased literacy. opportunities of success if the new insights are applied. The basic aim of this study, which is Cheshmeh is organized in two separate parts, first and foremost exploratory, is to describe upper and lower Cheshmeh. Most houses, the existing situation, to diagnose the major shops, mosques, and important buildings are problems and challenges that it may poses, to located in the upper part and the governor's identify the potential causes of these problems, office of the rural district is in the lower part. and finally to propose the solutions which The total population of the village is about seem most promising. There is also an interest 3000 people in more than 600 families. With in encouraging researchers to reflect on and try respect to the stunning deep valley, river, wild to find out the invisible aspects of literacy flowers, mature, and bushy trees, this village practices and its meaning in different contexts creates a very beautiful landscape (Figures 1 & in order to promote the status of literacy in the 2). The main economic activity of the village society, amplify our understanding of the is agriculture and gardening. In addition, since effort necessary to fill the gaps between Cheshmeh is a tourist spot, commercial different areas and domains of social life, and activities such as shop keeping are also better address such challenges in primary and widespread among people. higher education.

Figure 1 Figure 2 A View of the Research Site, Cheshmeh as a A View of the Research Site, Cheshmeh as a Tourist Spot; 1978 Tourist Spot; 2014

The fieldwork entailed several semi-structured other important buildings in the village in or informal interviews, observation, and visits order to see “what is going on” in this place to the schools, shops, post office, governor of regarding literacy practices. Eighteen people rural district office, public health office, and were interviewed and asked about their 20 Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

experiences on literacy, the perceptions of allowing participants’ accounts of their own schooling in the village, and their beliefs and experiences to emerge. The questions were values regarding education. The researchers built up from the background knowledge and tried to elicit what literacy looked like through experience of the researchers. the eyes of different people who lived in the village. Interviews with official figures like It was important to keep the interviews school headmaster or the governor of rural sufficiently open and be led by what the district were preplanned and arranged. In the participants mentioned. Whenever necessary case of interviews with people of varied ages the researchers brought back the conversation and genders, they all simply arose from what on track. During the conversation, the caught the eyes of the researchers. The researchers' roles were different. Sometimes researchers seized all the opportunities to learn the researchers were engaged directly to the something about people’s practices and main topic by interrupting the interviewees. beliefs, sets of values, and experiences. The Other times they were completely detached interview continued until a point of data and allowed the conversations to flow saturation was reached and no new uninterrupted. The researchers made eventual information was added to the obtained data comments or questions for clarification at the (Spradley, 1979). end. The participants were encouraged to discover and identify local cultural meanings The fieldwork was commenced with informal in context and reflect upon their own ideas and conversations with different shop keepers, values. particularly those who seemed to be successful in their jobs. Then, there was an opportunity to The second source of the data collection was chat with different school-aged children and observation. There was a need to observe in teenagers about their daily lives, schools, and order to gain an in-depth understanding of teachers. Other stories came from post office what was going on. What was inferred from managers, customers, the oldest man of the the observations together with the answers village, and a public health worker followed given to the questions, shaped the total by a chatting session with a group of middle interpretation of the situation. Observation aged neighbors. Then a semi-structured helped to assess and evaluate the activities and interview was carried out with a local school the relationships of those engaged in them. headmaster to get an in-depth understanding of These observations raised further questions the status of literacy in the village, school which were subsequently asked from the facilities, the students' access, and retention in participants. Part of these observations formal schooling and the factors influencing involved not only listening carefully to the the participation of students in school. Finally, words being spoken, but also noticing the following a visit to the governor of rural attitudes of the speakers, their actions, verbal district office, an interview was conducted and non-verbal behaviors, and facial with the secretary of the office in order to gain expressions, which resulted in discovering formal and exact information about the village what people might think and feel as well as population, people's level of education, what they might tell and do. religious activities, and the status of schools and education in the lives of people. Taking photos and videoing the participants, places in the study, and features of the 3.2. Data Collection environment relevant to the study were one part of this ethnographic work. In taking the In order to examine the literacy within this photos and videoing, the researchers tried to context, the data were collected from different highlight and reflect the central facet of the sources. The first one was composed of asking study and its context. The data were recorded questions from the participants and listening to through taking notes, audio, and video the local views. To do this, semi-structured recording. All these were very helpful to interviews and conversations about literacy understanding the participants’ points of view were conducted, which were guided by open and validating what they were expressing. interview schedules (provided in the appendix 1). The schedules were oriented towards

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3.3. Data Analysis less knowledgeable than literate ones. They assumed that it was possible to make As already mentioned, the interviews and themselves functionally literate by learning observations ended up in some forms of field from people and from the environment, notes, audio, and video records of what was without attending any formal literacy heard and seen in the field. Since the process programs. Moreover, some people did not of qualitative data collection and analysis is consider school courses as inappropriate or recursive and dynamic, data analysis in this irrelevant, their reasons for dropout might be study was ongoing during the data collection that they were too busy or too old or simply stage. The ongoing analysis resulted in thought "education is not for poor or rural identifying up-coming patterns and themes. people". However, more systematic analysis was carried out after the data collection was Although the motivations found here were accomplished and the interviews were different, we were able to recognize some transcribed. The transcripts of the audio and common patterns. Interestingly, formal video records were produced by observing schooling was not generally considered as a contextualization cues to recognize the themes source of power by people of the village. They that were registered in the data (Gumperz, even thought that in many cases education was 1982). The material compiled (observed or not money making. Formal schooling would heard) was collected into major domains be beneficial if and only if it enabled them to which included different views and gain access to employment, better working perspectives on literacy. These domains were conditions, and higher incomes. Moreover, further broken into smaller categories. In they believed that if the type of literacy classifying the domains and categories, all students learnt in the classroom was functional kinds of field notes which had been collected in preventing them from being cheated by were employed to triangulate the events. The other people, it would be worth being literate. analysis mostly relied on the researchers' This was in line with the finding of Nabi, subjective intuition and reflexive involvement. Rogers, and Street (2009) on the role of The perceptions were allowed to emerge freely ‘hidden literacies’ in people’s everyday lives. from the data. Nevertheless, checking, cross The status and social relationships which had checking, and triangulation were applied to the been carried in schooled literacy were ignored data to increase the validity of the final by most people. In fact, they just considered conclusions. In the final stage, the analysis of the present time. They did not regard learning audio records of these interviews made at school as an investment for the future that different features of literacy in the field would raise their income levels in the long run visible. or would have the potentiality to transform their lives. They thought formal schooling was 4. Research Findings somewhat a waste of time, particularly in higher levels; and that it would be better if The analysis of the data revealed that there boys learnt those skills which were useful for exist conflicting viewpoints among people of their business lives. the village regarding the importance of literacy and the kind of literacy needed to survive. The According to the Cheshmeh school question of whether literate people were more headmaster, schooling had to lend weight to effective in their activities in the village was the idea that literacy could enable students to not straightforward. Some people believed that be more efficient in their roles within the in order to function well in the society, it was family and work. Practical instructions were necessary to use literacy practices on-the-job, needed such as instructing students on better at home, in religious places, in trades, and in health and hygiene practices, efficient the community. At the same time, they thought interaction with other people like elders, it was somehow impossible to apply the kind neighbors, future family, and the ways of of literacy learnt in the classroom to their participation in the village economic activities everyday lives. Others obviously objected to or coping with a heavy burden of domestic the underlying message of the schooling and work. She was of the view that non-formal formal education that illiterate people were education for students would be more useful 22 Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

and practical, deserving more attention. She They learned by practice and problem-solving, emphasized the importance of unconscious which were similar to what they might face in learning that school would provide for everyday life and even by looking at the large students. In fact, the whole environment, posters around the schools. The effort would people, context, and tasks can form a learning be necessary to build bridges between literacy environment, even if the individuals engaged practices in schools and the realms of social in learning did not realize they were learning. life.

Figure 3 The Secondary School of the Village

Besides, according to the principal, in rural had mastered the ways of managing literacy areas, schools had seriously tried not to have and numeracy, and in some cases they had the students fail a course even if they were not discovered their own methods of recording qualified enough to pass, since it would calculations and financial dealings, a feature of provoke the students to drop out, while by local literacies that Street (1984) noted in the commuting to school they were provided with same village 40 years ago. Regarding the required social education that was economic activities such as shop keeping, considered more applicable than the mere older people maintained positions of authority subjects of their books. Thus mastering the and were respected for their experience and content material was not considered as age within their communities, without learning important as peripheral learning that school literacy. In fact, they learned the unconsciously might come about by attending literacy skills necessary for their jobs. The key school. It was not surprising that many school issue here was a matter of relationships – programs suffered from irregular attendance of informal but close, sharing, and hard work. students. Sustainable and quality formal Besides, Shop keepers and self-employed education was regarded as very difficult in workers had their own informal literacy and rural areas (Figure 3). numeracy practices. They had not been to school or adult literacy classes. These so- The obstacles identified included young called ‘illiterate’ people managed their jobs in people’s lack of time and heavy workload, a satisfactory manner, in fact often to a better indirect costs of school, distance to classes, standard than some of those who attended male teachers (for girls), opposition from other formal schooling. family members (particularly parents), mixed- gender classes, and poor associations with Many old people still thought learning to read other development inputs, such as income a religious text particularly Quran, keeping the generating programs. accounts in a small shop or in agriculture activities, and performing their tasks in banks The main economic activity of the village is and offices are all that they needed from the agriculture and gardening. Every one of the educational system. In fact, it was discovered people in these jobs had some experience of that different literacy practices were employed literacy. Some may be totally non-literate in by different people for different purposes formal terms but all the same, they had (Street, 1984) – for example, religious developed many different skills on their jobs,

23 B. Street et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 3(1), 2015 ISSN 2329-2210 literacies or workplace literacies as well as the because schooled literacy is mainly practiced formal school-based literacies. All of these among the younger generation. In the past, literacies had their own functionality. It is people at a higher level of education were worth mentioning that using digital regarded as an out- group and were seen to be technologies was widespread among younger oriented outwards and "lacked the integral generation of the village in the same manner relations to everyday village life" (Street, as anywhere else, although differently from 2013, p. 2). This situation has not changed so the period when Street did fieldwork there. far. According to Street (1984, 2013) there were also certain identities associated with It seems that few people planned to pursue particular practices. Although some changes their study in university. For boys the only have taken place in the past forty years, the functionality of studying at university was situation has not fundamentally altered. In obtaining employment in the formal sector and fact, informal literacy practices are still none of them expected to look for such significant in the social and economic life of employment. For girls, who mostly get the village. Religion is considered very married in teen years, education could not help important and religious people are more them to do their domestic chores (Figure 4). respected and have a better chance to succeed There was a considerable gender gap in this in their jobs due to their higher social status. regard in literacy rates among people. Most of While Qur’anic or Maktab literacy still exists, the teenage girls had been excluded from it is much less widespread than in the past, schooling due to economic and social factors.

Figure 4 Girls of the Village Who are Expected to Marry and Leave Home in Young Age

Parents' attitudes toward schooling were with family economic activities, domestic different considering the gender of their labor, and care giving. children. They wanted their sons to have full schooling and even in certain cases they tried 5. Concluding Remarks to persuade their sons to continue their education, but at the same time they felt going Over the history of literacy studies (Green, to school was not a useful activity for girls and 1988; Heath, 1982, 1983; Street, 1983, 1984, would be a waste of time. The point is, since 1995), a broader understanding of what the girls were expected to marry and leave ‘literacy’ means to individuals in differing home, it was seen as a poor investment to social, political, and cultural contexts has been educate them. Religious factors also have an realized and this has brought about a deeper impact on girls' school enrolment. Moreover, analysis of the role of schools. A vital first most women in the village were poor and self- step in setting up curriculum and schooling employed, working in occupations such as objectives is recognizing what being literate or selling vegetables, snacks, weaving, tailoring, illiterate means to people in specific cultural and domestic works. The rate of illiteracy was contexts. Considering the fact that informal higher among women than men in the village. and everyday literacy practices are very The primary roles of women were helping different from the more academic literacy taught in schools, there is a wide gap between 24 Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

the everyday and the formal literacy of the considering the fact that people in these classroom. That is why so many of these regions are still struggling with some of the literacy activities have not been recognized as basic necessities of life, and education is a sort Literacy, even by those who employ them – of luxury in their lives which can easily been what Nabi et al. (2009) referred to as ‘hidden ignored. literacies’ in her Pakistan study. Literacy in fact, in many situations, is being carried out People of the village like to apply literacy unconsciously, set in some ordinary activities skills in their everyday lives. However, there is of life such as shopping, cooking, playing a gap between policy makers’ objectives of sport, social interaction, etc. This, yet, education, the kind of curriculum provided and emphasizes the importance of regarding students and their parents' reasons for literacy as embedded in a wide variety of enrolling at schools, a theme that is also social practices within a specific context and evident across many countries (Rogers & for a specific purpose rather than as a single Street, 2012). This conflict is the main reason de-contextualized skill which is relevant in for high drop-out rates for many students any situation. among the local population. Since formal education fails to meet people's need to Such research results have resulted in a survive in the poor village, the dropout rate is growing recognition that being “literate” has drastically high. People feel that such differing meanings according to cultural and education leads nowhere. The course content social context. Indeed, the education and needs to be more creative, skills-based placing literacy practice can only be empowering and more emphasis on practical activities, as the cost-effective if planners are inspired by the principal stated. Above all, education should wider definition of skills and build up a more include vocational-technical training, as holistic approach. The term multi-modal Rogers (2008) demonstrates from an literacies has been introduced by some international perspective. scholars (Robinson-Pant, 2004; Street, 2001) which means that literacy activities are done Over the past decades, Iranian policy makers for many different reasons such as religious attempted to raise the status of education in the activities (engaging with Quran, for example), society through improving school facilities and commercial or job-related work (keeping notes employing knowledgeable and skillful of stock or credit given in a shop, for example, teachers. Children everywhere, boys and girls or paying bills), personal or family purposes alike, have to complete a full course of (letters or lists, using a calendar, etc.), or primary schooling. Contrary to all the effort practical reasons (filling in forms, or for bank that has been made, some school programs in accounts) (Street, 1984). Iran fail specifically when targeting the poorest groups in rural areas. At the same Analyzing the obtained data, the researchers time, girls' subordinate position is evident. In concluded that people of the village fact, schooling reinforces women’s second considered themselves marginalized within the class status within educational and work educational program, finding the curriculum contexts and multiplies the effects of irrelevant or not being able to attend schools, discrimination. Many girls face significant because classes were held at the nearby towns difficulty because of their limited mobility. or at times when students were needed at Limitations such as location considered as one home or work. Literacy programs for school- of the main reasons for school dropout. The aged children which have been implemented long distance from the school can in some in the rural areas have often been characterized cases result in them not feeling safe going to by high drop-out rates and low achievement. school. Moreover, parents’ concern about This is caused by the lack of social girls’ safety is higher compared to the boys’. circumstances in which students are either motivated to obtain knowledge or are actually All in all, planners need to respond to people’s capable of applying this knowledge in their own purposes for wanting to learn literacy and everyday lives. It seems that minor changes in participate in schools. This also entails that the outlooks of individuals have been made in curriculum planning should be more the past forty years of literacy development by participatory, considering not only the visible

25 B. Street et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 3(1), 2015 ISSN 2329-2210 barriers, such as timing or location, but also encyclopedia of anthropology (pp. 527- the relation of school programs to their 562). London: Routledge. everyday literacy practices. Achieving this aim Bourdieu, P. (1982). Language and symbolic and finding out why people in rural areas want power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard to acquire literacy or how it could be useful in University Press. their lives is not easy. Planners have often not Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). An taken the differences of students in different invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago: geographical areas and varied economical and University of Chicago Press. cultural status into account. Concerning Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once females, planners need an investigation of the and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: roles that girls and women currently play. This Harvard University Press. includes how they use or draw on other forms Foucault, M. (1981). The order of discourse. of support for literacy in their everyday lives In R. Young (Ed.), Untying the text: A and they have to try to incorporate literacy poststructuralist reader (pp. 48-78). skills relevant to women’s lives into school London: Routledge. programs. Gee, J. P. (1992) Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. Planners should identify required skills for London: Taylor and Francis. people living in rural areas and try to build on Gee, J. P. (1999). Reading and the new these skills. At the same time, they need to literacy studies: Framing the national provide opportunities for people to go into academy of sciences report on reading. new areas of work. This also involves an Journal of Literacy Research, 31(3), 355- awareness of differences along with social, 74. cultural, and economic background. A one- Gee, J. P. (2005). An introduction to discourse size-fits-all program using a standardized analysis: Theory and method, second textbook cannot meet the many different edition. London: Routledge. experiences and motivations which exist in Graff, H. J. (1995). The labyrinths of literacy. society. We see in many cases that school Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. curriculums make many students and their Green, B. (1988). Subject-specific literacy and parents disappointed. Different approaches school learning: A focus on writing. will be needed for different learning needs and Australian Journal of Education, 32(2), experiences. Much greater flexibility is 156-179. required to meet the expectations of people. Grenfell, M., Bloome D., Hardy, C., Pahl, K., The school curriculum and program should Rowsell, J. & Street, B. V. (2012). help and support students in developing Language, ethnography and education: greater confidence to handle many different Bridging new literacy studies and situations as they arise. Literacy with practical Bourdieu. London: Routledge. empowerment needs to be coupled to promise Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse strategies. of long-lasting impact on the society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heath, S. B. (1982). What no bedtime story Acknowledgements means: Narrative skills at home and school. Language in Society, 11(1), 49- We would like to express our profound 76. gratitude to Dr. Alan Rogers for reading the Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Life first draft of the manuscript and providing us and work in communities and classrooms. with some constructive feedback to improve Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the quality of the work. Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2004). A handbook for teacher research: From References design to implementation. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press. Barton, D., Hamilton, M., & Ivanic, R. (2000). Nabi, R., Rogers, A., & Street, B. V. (2009). Situated literacies: Reading and writing Hidden literacies: Ethnographic studies in context. London: Routledge. of literacy and numeracy practices in Besnier, N., & Street, B. V. (1994). Aspects of Pakistan. Uppingham: Uppingham Press. literacy. In T. Ingold (Ed.), Companion 26 Changes and Challenges of Literacy Practices: A Case of a Village in Iran

Pahl, K., & Rowsell, J. (2005). Literacy and Street, B. V. (1999). The meanings of literacy. education: Understanding the new In D. A. Wagner, R. L. Venezky, & B. V. literacy studies in the classroom. London: Street (Eds.), Literacy: An international Paul Chapman. handbook (pp. 34–40). Boulder, CO: Pishghadam, R., Tabatabaeyan, M., & Navari, Westview Press. S. (2013). A critical and practical Street, B. V. (2001). Literacy and development: analysis of first of language acquisition Ethnographic perspectives. London: theories: The origin and development. Routledge. Iran, Mashhad: Ferdowsi University Street, B. V. (2005). Literacies across Mashhad Publications. educational contexts: Mediating learning Prinsloo, M., & Baynham, M. (2008). and teaching. Caslon Publishing: Renewing literacy studies. In Prinsloo, M. Philadelphia. & Baynham, M. (Eds.). Literacies, global Street, B. V. (2013). Applying earlier literacy and local (pp. 1-16). Amsterdam: John research in Iran to current literacy theory Benjamins. and policy. Iranian Journal of Society, Robinson-Pant, A. (2004). The illiterate Culture & Language, 1(1) 1-9. woman: Changing approaches to Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2006). researching women’s literacy. In A. Lenses on reading. New York: Guilford Robinson-Pant (Ed.), Women, literacy Press. and development: Alternative perspectives. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. London: Routledge. (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge: MIT Rogers, A. (2008). Informal learning and Press. literacy. In B. V. Street & H. N. Wagner, D. A. (2010). Handbook of cultural Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of developmental science. NY: Taylor & language and education (2nd ed., pp. 133- Francis. 144). New York: Springer. Rogers, A., & Street, B. V. (2012). Literacy Appendix 1 and development. London: NIACE. Interview Schedule (Issues Discussed in Sarroub, L. (2004). All American Yemeni girls: Interviews) Being Muslim in a public school.  Financial issues in the village, ways of Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania earning money, Press.  Social and cultural context of the Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1981). The psychology village, of literacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.  The religious character of the village, Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview.  The ways in which the village relates Orlando: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. to the city, Street, B. V. (1983). Literacy in theory and  School-related issues such as physical practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University condition, school facilities, and Press. teachers. Street, B. V. (1984). Literacy in theory and  factors affect the decision to quit practice (the introduction and the school, ethnography in Iran at the end of the  Which varieties of literacy are more book). Cambridge: Cambridge University influential and mostly employed in the Press village, Street, B. V. (1993). The new literacy studies.  Whether the different literacy Journal of Research in Reading, 16(2), practices identified with specific 81-97. social activities or not, Street, B. V. (1995). Social literacies. London:  The relationship among education and Longman. power, income-generating activities, Street, B. V. (1997). The implications of the employment, working condition, and ‘new literacy studies’ for literacy social status, education. English in Education, 31(3),  How people of different ages think the 45–59. education affects their future,

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 What is difference between girls and  People's ideas about the quality of boys in the village regarding school education in the village compared to and literacy, the other places,  People's dreams about the future and  The status of women and girls in the possible changes that may occur, village? Do they study? What is the  Whether children remain in the village average age of marriage for girls? Do or go to the city for further education/ the fathers and husbands generally jobs, agree to woman education? How do  People's ideas about the importance of women participate in village economic education, literacy, and the kind of activities? literacy needed to survive,