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The United States government’s cultural presentations program in Korea from 1955 to 1992

Chun, Myung Hye, M.A.

The American University, 1993

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproduction Further reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT'S CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS PROGRAM IN KOREA FROM 1955 TO 1992 by Myung Hye Chun submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree

Master of Arts in Performing Arts: Arts Management Signatures of Committee:

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Date 1993 The American University lAm Washington, D.C. 20016

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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT'S CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS PROGRAM IN KOREA FROM 1955 TO 1992 BY Myung Hye Chun ABSTRACT Korea and the United States celebrated the centennial of their diplomatic relations in 1982. However, in the 1980s anti-American sentiment arose in Korea with consequent attacks on the United States Information Service facilities. Considering that Korea had been a calm area without any "Yankee go home" sentiment, these attacks were quite startling in Korea. The United States viewed anti-American sentiment as a serious challenge. Cultural programs have been a powerful mechanism for creating better understanding and possibly changing the image of the United States in Korea. This study explores the U.S. government's Cultural Presentations of dance, music, theater, fine arts and folk art sent to Korea from 1955 to 1992 and the impact of the program. An examination of the program in Korea reveals the role of cultural presentations as important aspects in international relations.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. By portraying America's achievements and leadership in the arts Americans can win the respect and confidence of Koreans.

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT ...... ii CHAPTER I. KOREA AND AMERICA 1882-1992 OVERVIEW .... 1 II. CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS PROGRAMS PRESENTED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ...... 27

III. DANCE AND U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN K O R E A ...... 46 IV. MUSIC AND U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN K O R E A ...... 68 V. FINE ARTS AND U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN K O R E A ...... 75 VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 90 APPENDIX ...... 98 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... Ill

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter I. Korea and America 1882-1992 Overview

Korea and the United States celebrated the centennial of their diplomatic relations in 1982. The history of political and economic relations during the last hundred years is one of many changes, resulting in misunderstandings and conflicts on both sides. Despite the centennial celebration, in the 1980s anti- American sentiment arose in Korea with consequent attacks such as the setting on fire of the United States Information Service (USIS)1 facilities. Considering that Korea had been a calm area without any "Yankee go home" sentiment, these attacks were quite startling in Korea. The United States viewed anti-American sentiment as a serious challenge. Such a hostile attitude perhaps came from the way in which Koreans saw America. To young Koreans the image of America has been tarnished as "immoral and stingy."2 "Koreans suspected U.S. support to the former Korean President Chun Doo-hwan," a military dictator, particularly during the early 1980s. In addition, America has increased "demands for

1 United States Information Agency's overseas post. 2 Sung-chull Junn, "Why Koreans Think We're Jerks," Washington Post. 9 April 1989.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. trade barrier."3 Cultural programs are a powerful mechanism for creating better understanding and possibly changing the image of the United States in Korea. This study will examine the Cultural Presentations Programs sent to Korea by the U.S. government between 1955 and 1992 and will make some suggestions for the future. Throughout recorded history, the Korean people have seemed caught between different influences, generally rejecting them, yet dependent on help and intervention. Koreans share a common racial origin with the other peoples of North Asia.4 By temperament, however, Koreans seem different from their neighbors. Diana Yu pieces together the common-knowledge facts about Korean history in a concise and useful way in her book, Winds of Change: Origins of the Koreans and the dating of their appearance on the peninsula continue to be speculative. According to ancient Chinese records, the Koreans' first king lived in 2332 B.C., at the same time as the legendary first king of China. Like other early people of North Asia, the Koreans appear to have been tribal people whose main livelihood was fishing and hunting. Gradually they became an agricultural society under hereditary aristocratic chieftains.5 The early Korean people were in constant confrontation with

3 Ibid. 4 Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th ed., s.v. "Korea, History of," 506. 5 Diana Yu, Winds of Change (Silver Spring, Md: The Women's Institute Press, 1991), 8.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 the Chinese, as they were later on with the Japanese.6 The Three Kingdom Period between 57 B.C. and 935 A.D. is regarded as the beginning of Korea's nationhood. Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla ruled the Korean peninsula.7 All three kingdoms adopted certain aspects of the Chinese system of government, as Homer Hulbert observed in Passing of Korea in 1906, including many practical rules of conduct, a penal code, and a financial system.8 They "preserved, however, the aristocratic basis of Korean society, which restricted positions of authority to the upper classes."9 With considerable Chinese influence, Koreans have maintained their individuality and independence in adopting Chinese culture. Han Woo-keun, Korean historian noted: The most significant fact is not that Korea adopted Chinese culture in such massive doses, but that she managed to retain her own distinctive individuality, and to adapt Chinese culture to her own purposes, while many other peoples who came under Chinese influence were completely absorbed into the body of Chinese culture, and their own cultures ceased to exist.10

Since the Korean peninsula was unified by Silla around 668 A.D., with the collaboration of the Chinese T'ang

6 Encyclopedia Britannica. 506-507. 7 Yu, 8-9. 8 Homer Hulbert, Passing of Korea. (Seoul: Yonsei University, 1906; repr., 1969), 70.

9 Yu, 9. 10 Woo-keun Han, quoted in Yu, 9.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dynasty, Korea remained basically unified until the end of World War II. Also, during the Silla period, Buddhism became "the dominant system of thought."11 It played a vital role in the intellectual and cultural life of Silla society, which produced many temples and great works of art.12 In the middle of the eighth century, the golden age of Silla waned. Koryo, from which the present name of Korea is derived, was founded in 935 A.D. The kingdom introduced social reforms in many areas, including a civil service system, a social security system and an educational system. Invasions, both by Japanese pirates from the East and the Chinese Ming Dynasty from the North, contributed to its destruction in 1392.13 The Chosun (Yi) Dynasty was founded in 1392 by Yi Song- Gue, and remained in power until the Japanese annexation in 1910. At its beginning, Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the state religion.14 For the Yi Dynasty, Confucianism was not only the rule of life but also the standard of conduct in government and education. The early years of the dynasty, particularly under King Sejong, were most notable for practical inventions: new astronomical instruments were

11 Carter J. Eckert et al., eds., Korea: Old and New (Cambridge: Ilchokak for the Korea Institute, Harvard University, 1990), 50. 12 Encyclopedia Britannica. 508. 13 Yu, 10-11. 14 Encyclopedia Britannica. 508.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 made, and a rain gauge was invented in 1442. The most significant achievement by King Sejong was the invention of a phonetic system of writing, hancrul (Korean letters).15 In the 17th century, Catholicism was brought to Korea. Within "the early stages of the transmission of Western culture," "it was introduced through European Jesuit missionaries residing in Ming China."16 During the late 18th century the religion spread steadily. However, the incompatibility of the Catholic faith with Confucianism posed a serious problem.17 To suit their own temperament, the Korean people had developed more indigenous beliefs, blending the spirituality of Buddhism and the materialism of Confucianism into a composite religion which included spirit worship.18 Thus, it was shocking to the Korean government that Christianity disapproved of ancestor worship, which was part of the most highly valued family rituals. Catholicism rejected ancestor worship as pure idolatry. Moreover, the monotheistic belief of Christianity was incomprehensible to the Koreans, whose religions were polytheistic.19 In 1785, Christianity was outlawed, and in 1791 its followers were

15 Yu, 12. 16 Eckert, 170. 17 Encyclopedia Britannica. 510. 18 Hulbert, 404. 19 Yu, 13-14.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. actively and officially persecuted.20 A long-time resistance to foreign influences by the Yi government could not last indefinitely. After opening Korea to foreign countries, an Education Department was established and the Ceremonial Department was relegated to a secondary position.21 Korea signed treaties which opened its ports to Japan in 1876 and to the United States in 1882.22 The treaty of 1882 was the first that Korea signed with a Western power.23 The Korean king, Kojong, asked Li Hung- chang, a Chinese statesman, to mediate this treaty with the United States. Such an agreement would not only provide a U.S. counterweight to Russian pressures but also would undercut Japan's monopolistic position in Korea trade.24 The resulting "Korean-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce" was signed at Inchon in May 1882 between the Korean representative Shin Hun and Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt.25 Shortly thereafter, treaties with Germany and Great Britain were signed and other Western nations were permitted to "walk through the opened doors of the formerly 'hermit

20 Ibid. 21 Hulbert, 50. 22 Ibid., 14. 23 Eckert, 203. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. kingdom.' "26 The Treaty of Amity and Commerce established Korea as a port to harbor U.S. merchant ships on their way to and from China. Another major American interest in Korea became missionary work. American missionaries had success in Korea and the country became known as a leading Christian country, even sending missionaries to the United States. American missionaries founded two prominent private institutes that later grew into great universities: Yonsei Hakdang in 1885 and Ewha Hakdang in 1886. Ewha Hakdang grew into Ewha Women's University, the world's largest women's institution of higher education.27 In the meantime, the late 19th century was a difficult time for the Chosun Dynasty. "Internally, a rebellion called Tonqhak (Eastern Learning) was quickly spreading in the countryside" under the leadership of Chun Pong-jun, a Confucian village teacher. "The philosophic foundation of this movement was anti-foreign as well as anti government."28 The Chosun government asked China to help in appeasing this internal rebellion. And the Japanese intervened. These alliances and tensions triggered the Sino-

26 Britain in 1883; Germany in 1883; Italy in 1884; Russia in 1884; France in 1886. 27 The total number of enrolled students in undergraduate and graduate schools as of March 1991 was 15,258. The University has a medical school along with a general hospital. 28 Ibid.; Eckert, 218-221.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 Japanese War of 1894.29 Korea wanted to be more than a U.S. port and hoped the United States would protect it from Japanese and Russian expansion.30 But the Chosun Dynasty "failed to arouse either indigenous nationalism or to secure international support."31 Although, in 1884, 1894, and 1904 the Koreans outmaneuvered the Japanese in diplomacy, it was by force that the Japanese capitalized on the situation. Korea fell to Japan at the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.32 A clause in the U.S.-Korea Treaty of 1882 said that if either of the parties is injured by a third party, the other shall intervene to bring about an amicable settlement. Because the Foreign Office of Korea was controlled by Japan, an unofficial letter of protest was to be sent to the United States President Theodore Roosevelt, but remained unheeded.33 The Japanese formally annexed Korea in 1910.34 Roosevelt considered the U.S.-Japanese alliance more important to counter a Russian threat in Asia, and never

29 Yu, 14. 30 John Chay,"The First Three Decades of American-Korean Relations, 1882-1910: Reassessments and Reflections," in U.S.- Korean Relations. 1882-1982. ed. Tae-hwan Kwak (Seoul: Kyungnam University Press for the Institute for Far Eastern Studies, Kyungnam University, 1982), 31-32. 31 Yu, 14. 32 Hulbert, 347. 33 Ibid, 220-221. 34 Yu, 14.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 sent United States troops to the Far East to fight the Japanese for the Koreans. Instead, he established a policy of non-intervention that became known as "the open door policy."35 This policy stripped Korea of moral support and contributed to the demise of the Korean nation in 1910.36 Abandoned by the United States, Korea was powerless. From 1910 until 1945, Korea suffered as a colony under the Japanese, who forced Koreans to speak only Japanese, punishing them if they spoke Korean. In addition, the Japanese forced Koreans to take Japanese names, a painful experience for Koreans.37 Carter J. Eckert and other historians commented on this colonization in Korea t Old and New: The Japanization of Korean history and culture and the spread of the Japanese language and values subtly eroded Korean cultural identity and confidence....While some few Koreans were happy to participate, the vast majority of the population only suffered [from this forced assimilation.]38 Finally, after the defeat of Japan by the United States and its allies in World War II, Korea was liberated from Japan and divided into two zones under the separate military administrations of the United States and the Soviet Union. The division into North and South Korea along the thirty-

35 Chay, 24. 36 Andrew C. Nahm, "U.S. Policy and the Japanese Annexation of Korea," in U.S.-Korean Relations. 39. 37 Yu, 16, 38 Eckert, 263, 319.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10

eighth parallel was supposed to be a temporary military measure, but it remains in force today. Free elections had been anticipated for both Koreas, but disputes between the superpowers arose as to how the elections would be supervised and monitored. Finally, in 1948, elections took place, but only in the South.39 As a result, North Korea became a communist state and South Korea joined the democratic nations as the Republic of Korea. Until the 19th century, the greatest influence in Korea was Chinese culture. Although there are undocumented indications that Korea may have influenced Japan very early on, Japanese thought and governmental organization moderated Chinese influence on Korea all along.40 When Korea became a colony of Japan, it was invaded by aspects of Japanese culture, such as language and songs. Since World War II, however, the United States has become the major foreign influence in Korea. In 1950, the North Korean communist army launched an all-out military invasion into South Korea with the support of Communist China and the Soviet Union. In less than three months it occupied most of South Korea. The United States, with the help of other allied nations, ultimately pushed back the communists. President Harry Truman considered the success of the war crucial in maintaining the security of

39 Ibid., 343. 40 Hulbert, 74.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 the Western World.41 The United States had no intention of losing South Korea as a buffer against Chinese and Soviet expansion. Since the U.S. government sent its troops to defend South Korea from North Korean aggression, the United States and South Korea have been strong allies.42 Kwak Tae- hwan noted about Korean-U.S. relations: The United States has become the ultimate military guarantor of South Korean security against a North Korean attack, although U.S.-Korean security relations have undergone gradual changes in recent years.43 The Korean War "killed and maimed millions of Koreans," and left a very deep scar on "an entire generation of survivors.nU The United States also paid a high price. According to a New Republic article, 33,629 Americans were killed.45 It has been said that General Douglas MacArthur made a mistake crossing into North Korea,"arrogantly" ignoring China's repeated warnings. The result was large casualties.46 However, South Koreans praised MacArthur highly for his decision. They even built a statue in his honor in Inchon, where his landing was considered equal to

41 Gerard H. Clarfield, "The Last Domino: America, Japan, and the Blair House Decisions," in U.S.-Korean Relations. 56-57. 42 Ibid. 43 Tae-hwan Kwak, "U.S.-Korea Security Relations," in U.S.- Korean Relations. 223-224. 44 Eckert, 346. 45 New Republic. "Allies for Hire," 13 December 1969, 5. 46 William L. O'Neill, American High: The Years of Confidence. 1945-1960. (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 125-126.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 the Normandy invasion during World War II. Although President Dwight Eisenhower repeatedly advocated Korean reunification before the United Nations, American policy toward Korea sought only to maintain a strong government capable of withstanding Communist subversion, rather than promoting immediate reunification. In April 1960, a student revolution overthrew the autocratic government of Rhee Syngman.47 When John F. Kennedy became president in 1961, he "gave strong moral and economic support to the first real democratic government in the South."48 American Ambassador Walter P. McConaughy announced that the United States planned to raise economic aid by $43.7 million, bringing the total above $251 million in FY 1962.49 The new democratic government, organized by Chang Myon, guaranteed the rights of freedom of speech and assembly. However, less than one month after the first anniversary of the student revolution, the situation changed abruptly as a military junta led by Park Chung-hee overthrew the democratic government. The United States refused to endorse the new regime and voiced its strong opposition at the

47 Eckert, 355. 48 Soon Sung Cho, "American Policy Toward Korean Unification, 1945-1980," in U.S.-Korean Relations. 79. 49 New York Times. 3 February 1961.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 American Embassy in Korea.50 According to U.S. Charge d'Affairs Marshall Green, the United States backed the former (Chang Myon) elected government in Korea.51 Washington sources maintained that the coup was not supported by the United States.52 General Park realized that South Korea's regime and its creaking economy would collapse overnight if the United States withdrew its support totally. He made conciliatory gestures toward the United States, while he tried to establish his regime as the legitimate power of government in Korea. As a result, within the next two months, the United States changed its attitudes toward the military junta.53 Cho Soon-sung explained the change: The United States decided to accept the. coup and to work with the new military government. This change may have been due to a feeling on the part of the United States that continued negative reaction to the viability of the military junta would inevitably translate into increased confusion, and possibly bloodshed, in South Korea.54 The U.S. policy toward the Park regime changed over the years with successive presidential administrations. During President Lyndon Johnson's administration, the major emphasis of the United States policy toward Korea was on

50 Cho, 79-80. 51 New York Times. 16 May 1961.; Chong-ki Choi, "American- Korean Diplomatic Relations, 1961-1982," in U.S.-Korean Relations. 101. 52 Choi, 101. 53 Cho, 80. 54 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 enlisting Korean forces in the war effort in Vietnam. The United States needed Korean troops not only to assist the military operation, but also to gain moral support. This was necessary as the Vietnam War became increasingly unpopular both inside and outside the United States, particularly in Europe.55 It was said that President Johnson had to "sell the war" as an important concern of the free world. While most American allies were reluctant to commit their troops in Vietnam, Korea was one of five allies who joined the United States in the war effort. South Korea sent the largest contingent, 50,200 men (2,980 of whom were killed) to help the United States turn back the communists.56 The United States paid a premium for the support from Korea.57 A New Republic article commented that "The South Korean government demanded major military and economic concessions in addition to the continuing presence of 50,000 American soldiers in Korea."58 It required a pledge from the United States to "completely equip" three Korean divisions and one marine division in Korea; to equip three additional reserve divisions in Korea; to replace the troops being sent to Vietnam; to buy Korean goods (with dollars) instead of buying American products; to build an ammunition factory in

55 U.S. News & World Report. 12 January, 1970, 24. 56 Ibid., 24-25. 57 Newsweek. 15 December 1969, 26-27. 58 New Republic 5.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 South Korea; and to supply communications facilities between Korea and Vietnam.59 The result of negotiations between the two countries was a fourteen-paragraph document known as the Brown Memorandum (after the American Ambassador to Korea, Winthrop P. Brown.)60 This memorandum went a long way towards persuading top Korean officials to send troops to Vietnam. Some anti-war sentiment built up among Korean students and dissidents, too. However, every Korean man twenty years of age was required by law to serve in the military; and President Park, heading a military regime, did not need congressional approval to send Korean troops to Vietnam in exchange for political and economic benefit from the United States. Moreover, the Korean anti-war movement was not as strong as in the United States.61 Actually, the Vietnam War benefitted the economy in Korea.62 As a result, Korean-U.S. relationships grew closer during the Johnson Administration. When President Richard Nixon took office in 1969, he enunciated his "Nixon Doctrine" on Guam, "It [Asia] is not worthy of defense at the cost of American lives" and "Asian

59 Ibid., 5-6. 60 Newsweek. 27. 61 Professor Hyung-kook Kim, assistant director of the Center for Asian Studies, The American University, interview by author, telephone, 20 November 1992. 62 Cho, 81.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 boys should fight Asian wars."® According to Choi Chong-ki, this "Nixon Doctrine" "signalled the beginning of a process that was to affect significantly America's military posture in Asia."64 In 1970, the Nixon Administration began "negotiating in Seoul for the withdrawal of a large part of the U.S. forces in Korea within two or three years."® With the promulgation of the "Nixon Doctrine," Korea feared a total withdrawal of American forces and even abandonment by the United States. To deal with changes in the international and domestic situation, President Park, after the 1961 military coup, had taken steps, such as suppressing dissent, tightening government control over the mass media, and cracking down on student activities. Pointing out recent political arrests by President Park, a New York Times editorial questioned the continued displays of American military support to the Park regime.® This became a political issue in the 1976 election in the United States. Senator Alan Cranston (D-Calif.) called on the Ford Administration to re-examine the U.S. alliance with South Korea, possibly to the extent of cutting off a portion of its military aid, after reports of mass arrests of political

® Ibid., 84. 64 Choi, 107-108. ® Cho, 84. ® New York Times. 12 March 1976.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 dissidents in Korea.67 The U.S. State Department served notice of displeasure over the crackdown on political dissidents.68 An April 1976 letter signed by 119 senators and representatives and made public by Senator Edvard M. Kennedy (D-MA) and Representative Donald M. Fraser (D-MN) warned President Ford that continued military support for South Korea might make the United States an accomplice to political repression by President Park.69 Cho Soon Sung commented on Jimmy Carter's agenda concerning the withdrawal from Korea during his 1976 campaign: While campaigning in 1976, presidential candidate Jimmy Carter called for the withdrawal of all ground troops from Korea "on a phased basis over a time span to be determined after consultation with South Korea and Japan."70 In response, President Ford said that Carter's intention to remove combat forces from South Korea was an "invitation to disaster."71 Carter also said, it should be made clear to the South Korean government that its internal oppression is repugnant to our people and undermines the support for our commitment there.72 Carter put political pressure on the Korean government to

67 New York Times. 14 March, 1976. 68 New York Times. 20 March 1976. 69 New York Times. 4 April 1976. 70 Cho, 93. 71 New York Times. 27 October 1976. 72 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 move toward democracy and human rights, as anti-government demonstrations exploded. Relations between the two governments turned chilly.73 Thereafter the nervous Korean government resorted to illegal lobbying in the U.S. Congress in order to stop further withdrawal of American troops and to acquire the funds for its troops' modernization programs. U.S.-Korean relations deteriorated more "in the wake of this complex peddling scandal dubbed 'Koreagate.' "74 The scandal led to a wide-ranging congressional investigation of Korea-U.S. relations. It revealed illegal attempts by the Korean government and Korean Central Intelligence Agency, such as harassment and bribery, "to influence the U.S. executive and legislative branches and the American academic community."75 The investigation had begun with reports that as many as 115 members of Congress took illegal gifts from South Korean agents. It ended with the House voting its mildest form of punishment, a "reprimand," for three California Democrats: John J. McFall, Edward R. Roybal and Charles H. Wilson.76 With considerable media attention to "Koreagate," as

73 New York Times. 5 November 1976. 74 Ralph N. Clough, "U.S.-Korean Relations in the Year 2000," in Korea The Year 2000. ed. Sung-joo Han and Robert Myers (Lanham, Md: University Press of America for Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, 1987), 20. 75 Eckert, 370. 76 Congress, House, Congressional Quarterly Almanac: 95th Congress 2nd Session. Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1978, p. 803.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 well as attention to frequent violations of human rights in South Korea, Americans changed their attitudes toward their ally on the Korean peninsula.77 However, the United States, in recognizing the strategic and security importance of the Korean peninsula, returned to a position of strong support for the government of Korea. The U.S. State Department, concerned about long-term security in Northeast Asia, sought to reassure South Korea that despite revelations of questionable Korean activities in the U.S., American military ties to Korea would remain unchanged.78 When Carter took office, he revised his view on troop withdrawal from Korea. He had to face the possible consequences of a North Korean invasion, and suspended the planned withdrawal in 1979.79 Later, the Reagan administration strengthened U.S. military forces in Korea with improved armaments.80 When the Korean Central Intelligence Agency director assassinated President Park in 1979,81 Washington repeated its pledge to South Korean security, noting that its greatest concern in South Korea was the security problem. Defense Secretary Harold Brown announced that an American

77 Choi, 112. 78 New York Times. 6 November 1976. 79 New York Times. 21 July 1979. 80 Clough, 20. 81 Eckert, 371.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 aircraft carrier and radar warning planes were being sent to South Korea to deter North Korea from taking military advantage of the political confusion.82 A few days later, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance reaffirmed American commitments to the peace and security of South Korea at a meeting with South Korean acting President Choi Kyu-hah and Foreign Minister Park Tong-jin.83 According to media reports, South Korea appreciated this prompt and strong response to the emergency situation.84 Some opponents of the late President Park, including groups for democratic reform, were hoping for heavy American pressure to push the interim government under President Choi toward an immediate amendment of the Yushin constitution (system)85 in favor of democracy in Korea. Kim Dae-jung, opponent to President Park, broke an unofficial moratorium on political activity by calling for direct election of the new president, pointedly urging the United States to keep military power in Korea out of the succession process.86 The United States did express the wish that South Korean leaders move in the direction of political reform, but did not urge

82 New York Times. 29 October 1979. 83 New York Times. 4 November 1979. 84 Korea Herald. 31 October 1979. 85 Yushin Constitution was the legal foundation of the late President Park's dictatorship since 1972. 86 New York Times. 3 November 1979.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 that they make sharp changes immediately. The Secretary of State was careful to point out in November 1979 that the United States had overlapping interests in the stability and security of Korea and the development of democratic processes.87 In December 1979, General Chun Doo-hwan seized power of the armed forces in a night-time coup.88 Thousands of university students at most colleges and universities held anti-government demonstrations. Student demands included lifting of martial law, ensuring freedom of the press, and processing quickly toward full democracy.89 When political dissidents demonstrated at Kwangju (the capital of South Cholla Province) in May 1980, General Chun commanded a violent suppression of the citizens' revolt against him, generating a great deal of hatred from opposition groups.90 According to the Korean government, 191 Koreans were killed during this incident.91 However, "other estimates range as

87 Washington Post. 3 November 1979. 88 Donald N. Clark, ed., The Kwangju Uprising: Shadows Over the Regime in South Korea (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), 4. In February 1981, Chun was elected as the new president under a revised constitution drafted by the government. The new constitution was approved by a plebiscite conducted under martial law in October 1979. 89 New York Times. 11 May 1980. 90 Junn; Clark, 28. 91 Clark, 5.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 high as 2,00c)."92 U.S.-Korean relations deteriorated sharply in the months after the military took power under General Chun Doo- hwan. According to The New York Times, the military government of South Korea twisted the U.S. disapproval of Chun's crackdown into endorsement, misrepresenting it through the censored press. This led to anti-American sentiment among the Korean people.93 Particularly important was "the students' belief that the United States shared responsibility for the Kwangju incident by having approved Chun's dispatch of troops to the city."94 Carter J. Eckert and other historians commented on the background of the students' anti-American sentiment in Korea: Old and New: There is no evidence that the United States conspired with or directly supported Chun, who was outside the operational control of the U.S. forces, a fact generally unknown or ignored by the students....Neither the State Department nor the American military seems to have made any serious attempt to impede the coup process at any stage....In August 1980, General John A. Wickham, the commander of the American forces in South Korea, further inflamed anti-Americanism in South Korea by suggesting in an interview with the Los Angeles Times that the United States had, in effect, decided to support Chun as the country's next president and that all the South Korean people were lining up behind Chun

92 Ibid. 93 New York Times. 23 June 1980. 94 Eckert, 379. A 1978 agreement creating the U.S.-Korean Combined Forces Command gave operational control of selected units of the Korean regular army to the commander of the American forces in Korea.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 like "lemmings.1,95 Several months later, in February, 1981, President Ronald Reagan himself seemed to confirm the students' worst suspicions about the United States support of Chun by according Chun the honor of being the first head of state to visit the Reagan White House.96 This anti-American sentiment led to the first attack on the United States Information Service (USIS) facilities, in December 1980: "the American Cultural Center in Kwang-ju was the target of arson attack"97 and in March 1982, the center in Pusan was extensively damaged.98 Vice President George Bush arrived in Seoul, amid increasing expressions of concern in Korea about growing anti-American sentiment. This tour was designed to reaffirm traditional American military and diplomatic support for the South Korean government, but it was not completely successful.99 An attack on the USIS Library in Seoul in 1985 was considered particularly shocking. Bernard J. Lavin, public affairs officer at that time, negotiated with Korean students in a tense overnight session to quell the riot.100

95 Los Angeles Times. 8 August 1990. The U.S. State Department said that General Wickham was not speaking for the United State Government. (New York Times. 9 August 1980) 96 Eckert, 379-380. 97 Academy of Korean Studies and the Wilson Center, Reflections: on a century of United States-Korean relations: June 1982 (Lanham, Md: University Press of Amererica, 1983), 131. 98 New York Times. 20 March 1982. 99 New York Times. 25 April 1982. 100 Dona-A Ilbo. 24 June 1985.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 However, attacks resumed in 1986, in 1988 and more recently in 1990.101 Considering that Korea had been without any previous "Yankee go home" sentiment, this attitude was quite startling. William Watts commented in 1982: There are recurrent reports that a number of younger Koreans find the continuing division of the Korean peninsula not only painful but also a reason to fault the United States in highly critical terms for the arrangement reached with Soviet Union in 1945, in the aftermath of Japan's defeat and the end of its occupation of Korea.102 Park Kwon-sang also explained the students' feelings against the U.S. government's backing Korean military government:103 There are some Koreans who believe and expect that America should take a more active role in support of democracy in Korea. To the extent America fails in meeting their expectations, they are disappointed and disillusioned. These Koreans are mostly students, professors, intellectuals, religious activists, and dissidents who believe in democracy....Ever since the days of Park Chung-hee, Korean dissidents have complained that America's ability to influence Korean affairs is great but the United States is not willing to exercise it.10* Anti-American sentiment was also a result of America's ever-accelerating demands on Korea for the removal of trade barriers.105 In the eyes of Koreans, American demands were far out of proportion to the relative wealth of the two

101 Ibid., Nov. 4, 1990. 102 Academy of Korean Studies and the Wilson Center, 131. 103 In december 1992, South Korean voters elected their first civilian president in three decades, Kim Young-sam. (Washington Post. 19 December 1992) 104 Academy of Korean Studies and the Wilson Center, 149-150. 105 Ibid., 131; Junn.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 countries. Korea recorded the first trade surplus in its modern history only in 1986. Although quite a few Korean intellectuals understood America's need to reduce its trade- deficit problems, it was hard for most Koreans to believe that America found it "necessary to demand aggressively— even with threat of retaliation," that Korea provide open access to its market in order to reduce Korea's trade surplus with the U.S.106 During the 1980s, TV news reports showed Korean students "burning the American flag, a near-obligatory ritual in their many demonstrations." The future of U.S.- Korean relations, depends on these students, and thus the United States viewed "anti-American sentiment in Korea as a serious foreign-policy challenge."107 In the past, economic, military and policy measures in United States-Korean relations have focused on healing damaged relationships between the two countries. Because of basic cultural differences and frequent, often misunderstood political shifts, these measures, however, were insufficient and led to more conflict. Cultural programs can be a powerful mechanism to create trust and better understanding between countries. The following chapter will discuss cultural programs that were

106 Junn. 107 Ibid.; William H. Gleysteen, Jr., "Korea's Foreign Policy in the Year 2000," in Korea The Year 2000. 47.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 created by the United States government and will show the involved processes of implementing them.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II. CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS PROGRAMS BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT

A Division of Cultural Relations was created in the U.S. Department of State in July 1938, as the first federal office of the United States to direct cultural programs.108 Dr. Ben Cherrington, chairman of the Foundation for the Advancement of Social Science of the University of Denver, was appointed the first chief of the division.109 Until then, major private foundations such as the Carnegie Endowment, the Guggenheim Foundation, and the Rockefeller Foundation had involved themselves in cultural relations.110

Federal funds of only $27,920 were allocated for the first year.111 Given the budget, "the Department of State's primary responsibility was acting as a 'clearing house' or 'service agency' for private cultural institutions across

108 Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 28-29. 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid., 14-15. 111 "Culture Division," Time. 8 August 1938, 8. 27

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 the nation."112 While the division combated Germany's cultural penetration of Latin America through the dissemination of representative American culture, Cherrington tried to "avoid having anything to do with current State Department political policies."113 He "planned to focus the division's activities on what he called genuine cultural relations."114 World War II, however, disrupted the programs of the division, absorbing all the resources of the government.115 Differences between the government's international cultural relations program and the government's information program became obscure during the war efforts, "a development reinforced by the Office of War Information's116 adoption of programs of an increasingly cultural nature."117 The Office of War Information carried out the projects in the eastern

112 Joseph N. Acinanpura, "The Cultural Presentations Program of the United States," (Master's thesis, University of Colorado, 1970), 1-2. 113 Ninkovich, 32. 114 Ibid., 31. 115 Ibid., 34. 116 The World War II propaganda agency of the United States had carried out the functions during 1941-1946. The Department of State conducted the duties in the Office of International Information (Oil) as the Cold War developed right after World War II. In 1948, information duties were retained by the Office of International Information, while cultural exchanges became the domain of a new (also in State Department) Office of Educational Exchange. 117 Ninkovich, 117.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 hemisphere while the Division of Cultural Cooperation of the State Department operated in the American republics.118 In January 1944, this division was renamed the Division of Science, Education and Art and became a part of a new Office of Public Information (OPI) with a number of other divisions.119 The new name faced strong opposition including from Dr. Cherrington, and the Division return to old name. However, the Division still kept its new information function.120 There was a need for legislation to establish a cultural relations program on a world-wide scale.121 Individuals including Cherrington, and organizations such as the Association of American Colleges criticized any bills for integration of the information and cultural relations programs. They argued that integration would destroy the credibility of the cultural relations program.122 Because of their efforts, separation of the information and cultural relations program was established under the United States

118 Gary 0. Larson, The Reluctant Patron: The U.S. Government and the Arts. 1943-65. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), 23-24. 119 Ninkovich, 115. 120 Ibid. 121 The legislation of 1938 had dealt only with the division of Cultural Relations for dissemination of representative American culture in Latin America to thwart Germany's cultural activities there. 122 Acinapura, 5.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 Information and Educational Exchange Act (the Smith-Mundt Act) of 1948. The Act "explicitly reorganized the distinction between informational and educational functions," and it stated that the program's purpose was to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries.123 With the passage of this act, the federal government began to support tours by performing artists. This support included services like transportation, publicity and general embassy support, but no direct financial assistance. Private American citizens provided hundreds of thousands of dollars to make the tours possible.124 Over the next five or six years, the cost of sending performing artists abroad became too much for many private sponsors. In addition, the Soviet Union's propaganda efforts against Americans were strong.125 According to Dr. Gary 0. Larson, "The explicit competitive thrust marked the United State's cultural exchange efforts of the fifties."126 Therefore, in August 1954, a program of exporting cultural presentations with federal funds began. The appropriation

123 Ninkovich, 133-4. 124 Acinapura, iii-iv. 125 Ibid. 126 Larson, xv.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 was $2.5 million.127 The program operated on an emergency basis until August 1956. By President Eisenhower's personal mandate, the fund became known as "the President's Fund," and was designated the "President's Special International Program for Cultural Presentations." It became the forerunner of the Cultural Presentations Program administrated by the Department of State until 1978.128 In August 1956, the 84th Congress enacted the International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act (Public Law 860) which gave permanent legislation for continuing the program.129 The United States Information Agency (USIA), an independent foreign affairs agency within the executive branch of the U.S. government, was founded in 1953 by President Eisenhower, combining the Voice of America130 and the Office of War Information. During the post-war period, the need for more systematic American information and

127 "U. S. Government Arts Presentations: A Brief History," (U.S. Information Agency, 1985), 1, quoted in the holdings of USIA Historical Collection. Of the $5 million requested, all of it was appropriated; $2.5 million went to the Department of Commerce to insure more extensive participation by the United States in international trade affairs. 128 Acinapura, 17. 129 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 1.

130 A government broadcasting (radio) service, begun in 1942, which operated in forty languages during World War II. Since the creation of USIA, VOA has been an important aspect of the total USIA program.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 cultural programs overseas became evident. A movement for independent status culminated in the establishment of USIA in 1953. The creation of USIA was for the purpose of responding more quickly to Soviet propaganda during the escalating Cold War, and especially during the Korean War.131 The agency's director, deputy director, four associate directors, and inspector general are appointed by the president and subject to confirmation by the Senate. Theodore C. Streibert was appointed as the first director (1953-1956) .132 The USIA's mission is to advocate American foreign policy and to strengthen foreign understanding of America.133 The USIA operates through its 211 posts in 138 countries,134 known abroad as the U.S. Information Service (USIS).135 USIA's budget is reviewed finally by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The estimated budget for FY 1993 totaled $1,144 billion. The budget for the Broadcasting

131 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 1. 132 John William Henderson, The United States Information Agency (New York: Praeger Books, 1969), 53. Arthur B. Larson (1956-1957); George V. Allen (1957-1960); Edward R. Murrow (1961- 1964); Carl T. Rowan (1964-1965); Leonard H. Marks (1965-1968); Frank Shakespeare (1969-1973); James Keogh (1973-1976); John E. Reinhardt (1977-1981); Charles Z. Wick (1981-1989); Bruce S. Gelb (1989-1991); Henry Catto (1991-1993); Joseph Duffey (1993-). 133 "Fact Sheet: USIA," (U.S. Information Agency, 1992), 1. 134 In 1993, six country posts will be added. 135 By administrative decision, the overseas apparatus of the Agency continued to be called by the name it had borne from the time of OWI— the United States Information Agency.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 programs (Voice of American, WORLDNET Television and Film Service) amounts to $413.0 million (36.1% of the total budget), the largest one among USIA's programs. The budget for the Educational and Cultural Exchange Programs amounts to $200 million. As a part of the programs, Arts America's136 FY 93 budget is $3,375 million.137 The overseas posts are grouped in five geographical areas: Africa; Europe; East Asia and Pacific; American Republics; and North Africa, Near East and South Asia.138 Posts in each of these areas are supported by area offices in Washington that serve as the main communication link between them and headquarters. Area offices assist in staffing posts, in allocating funds for their operations, in making decisions on physical plans, and in obtaining necessary program material— publications, speakers, exhibits, films, and other products. The chief of each USIS post is the public affairs officer (PAO), who usually has the diplomatic designation of Counselor of the Embassy for Public Affairs. The PAO is one of the American ambassador's group of principal counselors. Known as the "country team," it advises other team members on matters relating to the

136 Arts America administers fine and performing arts in response to overseas post requests. 137 USIA: Program & budget in Brief Fiscal Year 1993. 3, 5. Cathy Stearns, Office of Public Liaison, USIA, interview by author, telephone, 18 March 1993. 138 "Fact Sheet: USIA," 1.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 country's press, education, cultural affairs, and local public opinion. At small posts, the PAO may be the only American official on the USIS staff.139 Middle-sized posts, however, may have American information and cultural affairs officers as well. Large USIS operations, such as in Korea, may include branch posts in cities outside the foreign capital, headed by a branch affairs officer who reports to the national PAO.140 President Eisenhower named Theodore C. Streibert, then USIA director, as executive agent for "The President's Fund" in September 1954.141 However, the Department of State was designated as the responsible agent for establishing the Cultural Presentations program.142 According to Executive Order 10716 143 issued by the president in June 1956, the United States Information Agency would be responsible for coordinating functions and advising the President; allocating funds to the appropriate government agencies; and establishing an inter-agency advisory committee in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Secretary

139 Beverly Gerstein, program officer of East Asia, Arts Amercia, USIA, interview by author, 23 October 1992. 140 Ibid. 141 Acinapura, 17. 142 Ibid., 19. 143 to provide for the administration of the International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of 1956 (Public Law 860).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 of Commerce to assist the action agencies in carrying out their responsibilities. It stated that the Department of State would administer the cultural exchange aspects of the Act consisting of tours abroad by U.S. artists and athletes.144 The American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA)145 was given a contract by the Department of State to administer the Cultural Presentations Program, then known as the International Cultural Exchange Service (I.C.E.S.) of ANTA.146 ANTA screened all artists and groups interested in participating in the program. ANTA established the advisory panel system for the selection of the presentations to tour under the Department of State's auspices.147 With the advice of a panel of experts in each field of the performing arts, ANTA investigated worthy projects. These projects were presented to the Operations Coordinating Board (OCB) Cultural Presentations Committee for discussion and final

144 Second Semi-annual Report; President's Special International Program (Department of State, 1957), 1. 145 ANTA was an organization chartered by Congress in 1935. Robert C. Schnitzer was named general manager and ran the program for the Department of State from 1954 to 1960. In 1960, Gertrude Macy was named general manager and held the position until February 1963, when the Department of State assumed total administration of the program. ("U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 1) 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 approval or disapproval.148 This system is still in effect within Arts America, drawing expert panels from the U.S. arts community as artistic advisors in collaboration with the National Endowment for the Arts. In 1963, the Department of State assumed total administration of the program, a result of the Larsen-Wolfe Report of December 1962. Roy E. Larsen, publisher of Time, Inc. and Glenn G. Wolfe, a foreign service officer, conducted a survey of the State Department's Educational and Cultural Presentations Program for the U.S. Advisory Commission on the U.S. Educational and Cultural Affairs149. The purpose of the survey was to examine all phases of the State Department's Educational and Cultural Programs and to submit recommendations for its improvement. The report resulted in several new concepts and policy decisions, one of which was to have the department assume the full responsibility for direct management of all phases of the program, including the services then performed by ANTA.150 The department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (CU) assumed this responsibility until 1978, when it was transferred to the U.S. International Communication Agency (which reassumed its earlier name, the United States

148 First Semi-Annual Report: President's Special International Program. (Department of State, 1957), 25. 149 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 1. 150 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 Information Agency in 1982.)151 The advisory system created by ANTA was continued under CU. Each year, through its Arts America program, USIA sponsors the presentation of American fine arts and performing arts in over one hundred countries around the world. Arts America was created in 1978 under a reorganization plan instituted by President Carter. The Cultural Presentations Program, then administered by the State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, merged with USIA's exhibitions and speakers program.152 The program which USIA inherited was forty years old at that time.153 In 1978, USIA also entered into an agreement with the National Endowment for the Arts concerning artistic evaluation panels as the agency's artistic advisors. The panels are organized by USIA with the assistance of NEA. These panels recommend the performing artists and exhibitions that the agency sponsors.154

151 Larson, xv. 152 Lois Roth, "Arts America," Vantage Point (1986), 3. 153 USIA officials in American embassies and consulates, in their roles as public affairs officers and cultural affairs officers, were the ones who, since the creation of USIA in 1953, had always assisted the Cultural Presentations Program in their tours. (Allen Hansen, USIA; Public Diplomacy in the Computer Aae (New York; Praeger Books, 1986), x.

154 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 2.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38

With the exception of its Arts Exchanges Division,155 Arts America is not a grant application program from which individuals or institutions can request financial assistance for overseas projects.156 Arts America develops its programs to meet the expressed needs of American embassies abroad. In making its selections, Arts America receives applications with tapes of live performances of works or excerpts of works to be presented abroad for the performing arts.157 For the fine arts, it receives proposals with budgets and schedules from American museums and other art institutions. Then the staff sends the applications to the artistic expert panels, which screen candidates and serve in an advisory capacity. Their counsel forms one basis on which all Arts America presentations are considered. The panels judge the proposals on the basis of artistic merit as well as on the appropriateness of the works as representative of the arts in the United States. Only "highly recommended" proposals are considered.158 However, recommendation by the artists panels is only

155 Incorporated into the Office of Arts America in September 1992, the division encourages proposals from U.S. non-profit organizations for exchanges of professionals in the arts and museum fields. The program operates through biannual Federal Register requests for proposals. 156 upact sheet: Arts America," (USIA, 1993). 157 The application form is "United States Information Agency Arts America Program: Fact Sheet for Performing Artists Touring Privately." 158 itFact sheet: Arts America."

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. one step in the deliberation process. The local program objectives of the cultural affairs offices in the embassies largely determine what kinds of presentations will be supported each year.159 Final decision as to specific presentations is up to the Arts America staff.160 The Fund for U.S. Artists at International Festivals and Exhibitions was established in 1988 to improve and expand American participation in international arts festivals. It is a joint public/private undertaking of USIA (Arts America), the National Endowment for the Arts, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts.161 The NEA's Federal Advisory Committee on International Exhibitions makes recommendation for U.S. participation at the Venice Biennale, Sao Paulo Bienal and other major international fine arts events. The Arts America office develops and manages these exhibitions, funding them jointly with the Festival Fund partners.162 In addition, performing artists who have been invited to major international festivals can apply to the fund for partial support. Panels convened by Arts International, a private organization under contract to the fund, review applications for participation in performing arts festivals,

159 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 2.

16° MFact sheet: Arts America." 161 Ibid. 162 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 making recommendations to the Fund partners. USIS offices assist in their tours. In most cases, Arts America tries to target their programming toward countries that otherwise would have little or no exposure to American culture aside from popular culture.163 Recently, it targeted the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and the Middle East.164 While these programs represented new support, Arts America's core budget of approximately $2.1 million for planned cultural exchanges divided geographically, has, for several years, remained flat.165 In fiscal year 1993, there will be $240,000 budget cut.166 Initially, the only performing arts tours fully funded by USIA were those touring under US-USSR Exchange Agreements.167 The largest part of the agency's annual budget is still spent on backing tours of major music, drama, and dance companies in the former Soviet Union.168 In other parts of the world, the program mainly partially funds

163 Roth, 4. 164 Gerstein. 165 Arts America's budgets during 1987-1992 was $3.3 million in 1987; $3.23 million in 1988; $3.07 million in 1989; $3,536 million in 1990; $3,457 million in 1991; $2,816 million in 1992.

166 Gerstein. 167 Roth, 4. 168 United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy 1991 Report (USIA, 1991), 64.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 qualified artists and groups who have already arranged private commercial tours. The most common form of aid offered by Arts America is "facilitative assistance" or information sharing, such as referrals and contacts.169 This kind of assistance can be offered to artists who have already planned to tour overseas privately, but still must be endorsed by the artistic panels to be qualified as representative of America. Twice a year, Arts America circulates a list of endorsed artists who are available for booking, "Performing Artists and Exhibitions Touring Abroad Privately," to all U.S. embassies.170 It has been debated whether or not America needs to develop a cultural image overseas. For example, key government and private arts bureaucrats debated at an Arts International annual meeting in 1983 whether the tradition of "cultural pluralism" in the United States would be compromised by centralized government sponsorship of the arts abroad.171 This emphasis on private, "voluntarist" initiative had also been debated during the 1930s, with a tendency toward cultural nationalism and the aggressive employment of cultural policy for political ends among major

169 Gerstein. 170 "U.S. Government Arts Presentations," 3. 171 Phil McCombs, "Who'll Run the Arts?" Washington Post. 19 January 1983.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 powers.172 Some felt that "cultural diplomacy"— looking to art, artists and cultural artifacts to provide an image for the United States in the rest of the world— might bring the danger of "limited horizons," with propagandistic strings attached.173 However, Beverly Gerstein, the Program Officer for the East Asia at USIA, believed that artistic excellence and cultural diversity representing America are important criteria in making decisions for programs.174 In the case of music programs, Arts America has sent jazz (the Charlie Byrd Trio); Bluegrass and country music (Alison Krauss and Union Station); as well as musical theater fBlues in the Night); and the National Symphony Orchestra. There have been many concerns expressed about Arts America's budget. For example, cultural leaders at the Arts International meeting in 1983 expressed doubts about the USIA program because of its small budget of $2 million for traveling artists and exhibitions,175 which Charles L. Reinhart, director of the American Dance Festival, described as "an embarrassment."176 The late Alwin Nikolais, the artistic director of Alwin Nikolais Dance Company, received funding from USIA for years, totalling about ten percent of

172 Ninkovich, 22-23. 173 McCombs. 174 Gerstein. 175 The figure still remains about the same in 1993. 176 McCombs.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 his foreign tour budget.177 A 1986 Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy178 report found that funding for USIA's arts and cultural presentation programs had not kept pace with national needs and was far less than what was being spent by other countries.179 The Commission recommended USIA examine its overall budget with a view toward ensuring greater balance between its educational exchange and cultural presentation programs.180 The situation remains unaltered. As of 1992, USIA's budget had shown a six-year decline in real terms.181 This decline reflects the general trend in federal support the arts received in the 1980's. The National Endowment for the Arts, for example, likewise had a flat line of real-term growth. In addition, representatives of the arts community have been occasionally critical of cultural affairs officers. For

177 Ibid. 178 Presidentially-appointed, bipartisan, six-member body of private citizens who provide broad oversight of USIA's policies and programs. By Public Law 101-246, the Commission reports its findings and recommendations to the President, the Congress, the Secretary of State, and the Director of USIA. The commission members are: Tom Korologos (Chairman), William J. Hybl (Vice Chairman), Edwin J. Feulner, Jr., Walter Roberts, Pamela Turner, and Louis Douglas in 1993. 179 United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy 1986 Report. (USIA, 1986), 37.

180 Ibid. 181 See footnote 140.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 example, Martin Friedman, former director of the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, complained that many embassy cultural affairs officers were "simply not qualified," and were interested in showing only "safe and forgettable...pallid and boring" work by American artists.182 Although a few foreign service officers have chosen to pursue career as cultural affairs officers, usually the position is filled by a junior diplomat looking for advancement.183 There is no continuity in their jobs. Typically at their next posts their positions may change to public affairs officers or information officers. Cultural affairs officers usually have some background in the humanities, some in the arts. USIA offers them training in current trends in the arts. New (junior) cultural affairs officers attend a week of all-day basic programs on the arts (visual arts, performing arts and literary arts). When they come back for another post, they attend updated training of trends in the arts. In most cases, before they leave for their posts, they take courses on the countries' cultures as well as the languages. They become more knowledgeable about American arts through their hands-on experiences at the posts.184 Therefore, usually,

182 McCombs. 183 Ninkovich, I. 184 Rex Moser, program officer of Arts America, USIA, interview by author, telephone, 18 November 1992.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 the longer they have been cultural affairs officers, the better they become. Cultural exchanges between the United States and foreign peoples through the arts inform foreigners of American culture and provide opportunities for participation and understanding by individuals and groups from all the countries involved. The next chapter will analyze the particular programs sent to Korea from 1955 to 1992.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III. DANCE AND U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN KOREA

Since 1955, the U.S. government has sent performing arts presentations and fine arts exhibitions to Korea as representative of the best in America's artistic achievements. (See Appendix.) This cultural presentations program has ranged from classical music to American folk song to jazz; from modern dance to classical ballet; from a musical to a play by the deaf; from 19th century landscapes to fiber art to new abstractions. These presentations had successes and failures in their impact on the Korean arts world and in creating an overall image of America. This chapter will discuss the impact of exchange programs and particularly the development of dance in Korea.

Most of the dance presentations sent to Korea have been in modern dance, and these have left a lasting impact on the Korean dance world. The responses from Korean audiences have been very enthusiastic. Students have participated in workshops, seminars, and master classes with some of the dance artists who have come at local schools and colleges. As a result, modern dance in Korea flourished by the 1980s. Moreover, the influence of American choreographers generated

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 mini festivals, not only in Seoul, the capital city, but in other cities all over the country. Korean dance consists of four categories: Korean traditional dance; modernized Korean dance; modern dance; and ballet. During the 1980s, modernized Korean dance and modern dance became very popular, influencing many Korean choreographers and drawing large audiences. Except for the traditional dance, each leader of the three categories graduated from Ewha Womans University in Seoul. Kim Mae-ja, former head of the department of dance at Ewha Womans University and "doyenne of modernized Korean dance,"185 founded the Chang Mu Dance Company in 1976, one of the two largest dance groups in Korea, with sixty to seventy members, and a second company which focused on experimental dance theater. Kim Mae-ja studied dance at New York University. Most of the young choreographers in modernized Korean dance today have emerged from Kim Mae-ja's troupe,186 which went on several overseas tours including to the United States. The group performs works "rooted in traditional Korean dance styles but filtered through a contemporary sensibility." 187

185 William Como, "Ten Days in Korea: West Meets East," Dance Magazine (October 1988), 52. 186 Ibid.

187 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 Modern dance in Korea has another leader, Yook Wan-soon, the "Martha Graham" of Korea. Yook studied physical education at the Ewha Womans University during the 1950s. (It was not until 1963 that a dance program was offered at the university.) Yook had studied ballet and Korean dance, the only dance forms taught in Korea in the 1950s. From 1961 to 1963, she studied modern dance at the University of Illinois in Chicago. In the summer of 1962, she took the "June Course," an intensive summer course at the Martha Graham School of Dance and participated in the American Dance Festival, which was then located at Connecticut College in New London, Connecticut. At the festival, she studied under Martha Graham, Jose Limon and Alvin Ailey. In March 1963, she came back to Korea and taught modern dance at Ewha Womans University, founding the Yook Wan-soon Contemporary Dance Company. She had a "coming-home" dance concert with her company in September 1963, the first modern dance concert by Koreans.188 The response from the Korean audience was mixed: while the young generation welcomed the new style of dance, the older generation felt alienated. Critics were cautious.189 As a professor of dance at Ewha Womans University, according to dance professor Judy Van Zile of the University

188 Wan-soon Yook, interview by author, telephone, 4 May 1993. 189 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 of Hawaii at Manoa, Yook "introduced the Graham style of technique into the dance curriculum at Ewha" utilizing some of the Limon style.190 The dance program has become the "spawning ground for most of contemporary dance."191 "Martha Graham and her technique, although almost passe in the United States, have become the standard"192 for modern dance in Korea until the 1980s. In June 1972, Yook was the first Korean modern dancer to have a solo performance at Carnegie Hall in New York. She created the annual Modern Dance Festival of Korea193 in May 1981 and the Modern Dance Promotion of Korea194 in 1985. Over the years, she has encouraged Korean dancers to take classes at the Martha Graham Dance School and to participate in the American Dance Festival in Durham, North Carolina. Currently, Yook's dance company has seventy active members, engaging in occasional

190 Judy Van Zile, "Dance in Contemporary Korea," Korean Culture (Special Issue 1993), 10.

191 Ibid.

192 Ibid.

193 The title changed to the International Modern Dance Festival of Korea in 1983, when it invited the Throne Dance Company from New York in 1983 under the auspices of the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation.

194 An organization that promotes and funds modern dance in Korea. Its financial sources are the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation and sponsors of both individuals and corporations.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 overseas tours. In the fall of 1993, the Korean modern dance world will celebrate its thirtieth anniversary. Modern dancers in Korea, most of whom were Yook's students, plan to salute Yook, the godmother of modern dance in Korea, by performing her representative pieces from 1963 to 1993 at the Munye Theater in November 1993. Jesus Christ Super Star, one of her masterpieces, will be performed in December 1993. Traditional Korean dance has a large constituency but does not have a particular leader.195 While other categories of dance train their dancers at colleges, most traditional dancers are trained at dance schools. The field of traditional dance includes "Human Culture Treasures," i.e., the masters of traditional Korean dance who present, for instance, "Monk Dance" or "Salpuri" (Exorcist Dance).196 Ballet occupies a smaller part of the Korean dance world, and is not as popular as modern dance. However, a major ballet company, the National Ballet Company was founded in 1962. In January 1993, the National Ballet company appointed Kim Hae-shik, then professor of dance at California State University at Fresno, as new

195 Joon-hong Min, Office of Planning of the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation, interview by author, telephone, 14 March 1993.

196 Timeless Sights & Sounds: Korean Performing Arts. Korean Overseas Information Service (Seoul: Samsung Moonwah Printing, 1990), 6, 8.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 president/artistic director. Kim had been mentioned in Dance Magazine in 1972 and appeared on the cover of Dance Teachers of America in 1992. She had studied dance with the Royal Ballet in London. One of her students is Christopher Doyle, an American principal dancer in the Washington Ballet. Kim is expected bring new energy and techniques to the Korean ballet world. The National Ballet company offers classes for its members, but has no school. Kim plans to create a school for the National Ballet Company to improve their artistic techniques.197 Currently, the company has forty-two members.198 A private ballet company, the Universal Ballet Company in Seoul emerged during the 1980s as an active group under the guidance of Adrienne Dellas, an American choreographer, and Roy Tobias, a former American Ballet Theatre and New York City Ballet dancer. The Reverend Sun-Myung Moon was the founder of the company. In September 1988, the company performed Shim Chung (The Blindman's Daughter) as part of the cultural festival of the Seoul 1988 Olympics. The Universal Ballet Company has its ballet schools in Seoul and Washington, D.C.199

197 Hae-shik Kim, interview by author, telephone, 11 March 1993. 198 Ibid. 199 Marilyn Hunt, "Universal Ballet Company: Ballet Today in Seoul, Korea," Dance Magazine (April 1989), 58-59.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Dance performances sponsored by the U.S. government began in December 1956, when Tom Two Arrows (Thomas Dorsey) performed in Seoul and Kwangju. As an American-Indian dancer, singer and lecturer, he presented a glimpse of Indian rituals and traditional songs and dances.

The Carmen De lavallade-Alvin Ailey Dance Company visited Seoul in May 1962 as the first modern dance company under the cultural Presentations Program.200 The performances, by ten barefoot black dancers, were well received. Around 3,000 people, including seventy high Korean officials and other leaders, attended the opening performance.201 Because it was the first modern dance performance in Korea, the Korean audience did not understand it as a modern dance. It was new and different; they conceived of it as a kind of Western dance. (There was no modern dancer in Korea.202 At that time Yook Wan-soon was studying in the United States.) The three performances by the company drew approximately 9,000 people, including many

200 Eleventh Report: Special International Program. (Department of State, 1962), 83.

201 Ibid.

202 Yook.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. students, and was regarded as a success.203 The Jose Limon Dance Company visited Korea in December 1963, three months after a first performance by Yook and her new company.204 Korean audiences showed a better understanding toward the concept of modern dance. The Limon Dance Company gave performances, including The Moor's Pavane.205 Yook had previously demonstrated some of the Limon style and audiences enjoyed seeing it from the original source. According to Yook, the Korean dance world responded enthusiastically to the Limon Company, which helped Yook's work became accepted. Interest in modern dance grew. Both the Limon Dance Company and Yook had a positive influence upon each other.206 In March 1967, a modern dance teacher arrived from the United States under the Cultural Presentations Program. Pauline Koner, noted dancer-choreographer and teacher then at the North Carolina School of the Arts, together with her accompanist Glenn Mack, conducted a two-week workshop at the

203 Eleventh Report. 83.

204 Yook.

205 Yook. The Moor's Pavane was choreographed by Jose Limon and was a contemporary modern dance work based on the Shakespearean story about Othello and Desdemona.

206 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 Dance Department of Ewha Womans University, the first modern dance soloist to be sent on a tour under the program.207 Koner had a strong feeling for Eastern dance forms, having taught in Japan for seven months on a Fulbright grant just before her visit to Korea. She felt the Korean workshop was a real exchange. Instead of a series of galas or single performances, she had the opportunity to communicate with the audience.208 The workshop, which consisted of daily hour-long sessions, was attended regularly by about seventy-five students and private dance school instructors.209 At the end of the workshop, the Paul Taylor Dance Company visited Seoul, also under sponsorship of the Cultural Presentations Program.

Paul Tavlor Dance Company

Paul Taylor, modern dancer and choreographer with his company of eight dancers presented two performances at Citizens Hall in Seoul on March 22 and 23, 1967.210 The

207 Cultural Presentations USA 1966-1967 (Department of State, 1968), 17-18.

208 Ibid., 18.

209 Ibid.

210 Ibid., 32.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. performances were accompanied by the Korean national symphony orchestra, called the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) Symphony Orchestra, under Paul Taylor Company conductor Simon Sadoff. The performances were sponsored by the Dona-A Ilbo. a local daily newspaper (then with 500,000 circulation), a frequent sponsor of Cultural Presentations Program attractions. Although the 3,000-seat hall was just under half full (1,400 people)211 the first night, and just over half full (1,600 people)212 the second night, the two performances by the Paul Taylor Dance Company were considered an overwhelming artistic success.213 The local sponsor, although losing more than $1,000, was pleased to have been able to sponsor a company of such artistic caliber and expressed a sense of satisfaction and pride in having made a significant contribution to the local cultural scene.214 The Paul Taylor group was enthusiastically received by

211 420 Korean Youths; 800 Korean Adults; 150 Americans; 30 Third Country Nationals.

212 500 Korean Youths; 1,020 Korean Adults; 150 Americans; 30 Third Country Nationals.

213 State Circular Telegram 191591, 11 May 1967, "Educational and Cultural Exchange: Cultural Presentations: Evaluation Report on Paul Taylor Dance Company," (Department of State, 1967), 1-2, in the holdings of Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas.

214 Ibid., 2.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 both Korean dancers and the public.215 The imaginative choreography and flawless execution of the dances demonstrated the vitality of dance in the United States and provided a source of new ideas for Korean dancers and choreographers.216 The highlight was a piece entitled Orbs, based on a planetary-spatial theme and performed to Beethoven's last string quartets.217 When presented at its first New York performance on Broadway, New York Times critic Clive Barnes had termed the dance "the most important work to date of one of the most important choreographers. It was a work of genius. "218 Doris Hering of Dance Magazine said, "although Taylor has usually been called 'avant garde,1 Orbs is romantic in viewpoint, classic in structure. "219 The visit during March 21 to 25 was too brief for informal performances to be scheduled.220 But, off stage,

215 Yook.

216 State Circular Telegram 191591, 2.

217 Cultural Presentations USA: 1966-1967. 33.

218 New York Times. 27 December 1966.

219 Doris Hering, "So That's What the Planets Doi" Dance Magazine (February 1967), 32.

220 Cultural Presentations USA: 1966-1967. 33.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 the dancers participated in many informal activities, such as press interviews and receptions. Paul Taylor and several dancers were interviewed by about fifteen reporters representing major Seoul dailies and nationwide news agencies at a press conference held on March 21.221 He indicated that he had seen overseas performances by Korean fan-dancing groups a couple of times and had found them interesting and fine. He said, "I enjoyed Korean classical dances when the Sahm-Chun-Li Dancing Group presented Korean dances in the United States in 1964."222 The event was not prominently covered by Seoul dailies other than the sponsor. However, coverage was given in the two English language papers, the Korea Herald, and the Korea Times.223 As the newspaper, Dona-A Ilbo. noted: The Paul Taylor Dance Company, which is visiting here under the State Department Cultural Program, gave it first performance yesterday at the capacity-crowd Citizen's Hall....They performed gracefully and, at times, with comic touches, and were received by the audience with continuing applause. (March 23, 1967) The Korea Times had a long discussion of Taylor's performances: "The Paul Taylor Dancers End Seoul Performance," The Paul Taylor Dance Company, one of the well-known in the field of modern dance, yesterday completed its two-day performances at Citizens Hall. The dance group would

221 State Circular Telegram 191591, 2.

222 Ibid. 223 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 undoubtedly shake the concept of dance of any audience in Seoul. The first night audience was greeted by contractions, leaps and arabesques in a modern dance form that reflected a great deal of training and dedication to the art. The first presentation, Junction, portrayed pedestrians crossing at the intersection of tranquil streets and a boulevard in turmoil. In multi-colored leotards and tights, three men and five women moved from ground to air with steps that met, clashed, entwined and broke....The second half of the show, Orbs, saw love on Venus, fear on Mars, and distress on Pluto. Life on these planets was interrupted by the earthly farce of a marriage rehearsal. (March 24, 1967) The Public Affairs Officer of USIS Korea and Mrs. W. Kenneth Bunce gave a reception in honor of the visiting dancers. Many Korean dancers attended and the reception provided a valuable opportunity for Korean and American dancers to meet their counterparts and other cultural leaders of the community. During the visit, informal contacts continued for a number of these dancers, particularly members of the Sahm-Chun-Li Dancers and Musicians of Korea, which had met several members of the Taylor Company during a U.S. tour in 1964. On their free day the Taylor dancers were treated to a traditional Korean dinner by members of the Sahm-Chun-Li Group.224 Many dancers and dance teachers attended two open rehearsals at the Citizens Hall, and found these helpful professionally.225 According to a report from USIS Seoul, the visit of the

224 Ibid.

225 Cultural Presentations USA: 1966-1967. 34.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 Paul Taylor Company made a significant contribution to the Korean dance world, enlightening and awakening the interest of Korean dancers and choreographers.226 The visit was especially appreciated by many modern dance teachers, including Yook Wan-soon, who were striving for the development of modern dance in Korea.227 Both the USIS Seoul and the sponsor considered it essential to have an orchestra rather that tape accompaniment for the concerts. They were pleased to have Company conductor Simon Sadoff to lead members of the KBS Symphony Orchestra. Sadoff's early arrival in Seoul and hard work with the Korean orchestra, for whom several works were completely unfamiliar, led to a successful performance. The fact that Korea was the only country on the tour with a live orchestra increased the favorable impact.228 All publicity materials were helpful for local use. Korean language brochures were distributed free at the performances and were particularly useful in interpreting for Korean audiences the locally unknown company and American accomplishments in modern dance. An abridged translation of Paul Taylor's article "Down With

226 Ibid.

227 Yook.

228 State Circular Telegram 191591, 3.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 Choreography" from The Modern Dance; Seven Statements of Belief.229 was published in the March issue of the Shin-Donq-A.230 which appeared about three weeks before the Seoul performances.231 The Paul Taylor Dance Company revisited Seoul for the American Dance Festival Seoul in August 1992. Paul Taylor did not join his dancers at this time, but it was another successful visit.232

The Martha Graham Dance Company planned to visit Korea In August 1974 as a part of its Asian tour under the Cultural Presentations Program. The tour came after a highly successful season by the Graham company on Broadway in the spring of 1974. Graham, then eighty years old, no longer danced but was expected to lead lecture-demonstrations in Asia, including Seoul, Korea.233

229 Selma Jeane Cohen, ed., The Modern Dance: Seven Statements of Belief. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1966). The book included statements by Jose Limon, Anna Sokolow, Erick Hawkins, Donald McKayle, Alwin Nikolais, Pauline Koner, and Paul Taylor. 230 A monthly magazine of then approximately 60,000 circulation, published by the Donq-A Ilbo.

231 State Circular Telegram, 191591, 3.

232 Yook. 233 New York Times. 12 July 1974.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 The company planned to give three performances at the new National Theater between August 24 and 28, 1974. However, on August 15, which was the National Independence Day of Korea, Yook Young-soo, first lady (wife of then-President Park) was shot to death while attending a commemorative ceremony at the theater by Moon Se-kwang, a Korean who had been in Japan.234 This shocking tragedy brought about national mourning, closing all the performing centers including the theater. The resulting cancellation of the performances by the Graham company was a great disappointment for Korean dancers and audiences.235 In November 1990, the Graham company made a first visit to Korea with Martha Graham in attendance, five months before her death. This visit was not funded by the U.S. government.236 The visit created a sensation in Korea.237 A Korean dancer, Yoo Young-ha, performed as a member of the company, having joined it in 1988 after training at the Martha Graham School and participating in the Junior

234 Yook.

235 Ibid.

236 James Johnson, general manager, the Martha Graham Dance Company, interview by author, telephone, 13 November 1992.

237 Hwan-soo Kim, senior cultural adviser, USIS Korea, interview by author, telephone, 12 November 1992.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Ensemble.238 In 1976, the Alwin Nikolais Dance Company visited Korea. Despite concern by USIS Korea, this modern dance company's performance was very successful.239 Nikolais' work was abstract and did not concern itself with story or emotion. He emphasized pure movement, utilizing taped electronic sound and unusual costumes, and often slides accompanied the dances. Nikolais conducted a one-day workshop at the Ewha Womans University, drawing about 200 people.240 In April 1983, the Lar Lubovitch Dance Company performed just before the first Modern Dance Festival of Korea. The performances were well received.241 In June-July 1985 the Bella Lewitzky Dance Company's visit was a success.242 Both companies were sent by USIA. The Merce Cunningham Dance Company visited Seoul In 1984 on a privately-funded tour. In 1985, Yook founded the Modern Dance Promotion of Korea to promote and fund modern dance.

238 Yook.

239 Hwan-soo Kim.

240 Yook.

241 Ibid.

242 Gerstein.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 American Dance Festival

In 1987, Yook participated for one week with ten Korean dancers in the American Dance Festival held in Durham, North Carolina. She asked that American Dance Festival teachers come to Seoul.243 At that time, Yook was in charge of dance for the 1988 Seoul Olympics, and she scheduled the exchange to take place after that event.244 From 1990 to 1992, during the month of August, the American Dance Festival245 sent forty dance teachers, dancers and musicians to Korea each year.246 Dance teachers, including Betty Jones and Doug Varone, taught during the day and dancers performed in the evenings. The teachers offered classes in modern and jazz dance, ballet technique, African dance, composition/improvisation, modern repertoire, and body therapy. Two U.S. modern dance247 and Korean dance

243 Stephanie Reinhart, co-director of the American Dance Festival, interview by author, telephone, 25 May 1993.

244 Yook.

245 The festival is held from mid-June to the end of July for six weeks in Durham, North Carolina.

246 Reinhart. 247 In 1990, Dayton Contemporary Dance Company and Doug Varone Dancers; in 1991, Pilobolus Dance Theatre and New Cleodanza Dance Company; in 1992, Paul Taylor Dance Company and Austin-Hartel Dance Company.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 companies performed each year.248 At the end of the two-week session, the Korean students gave performances.249 In 1990,the first year, 500 students participated. The following year, the festival limited students to 300, through auditions. In 1992, again 300 students were accepted.250 The response from the Korean dance world was enthusiastic with some cautious views. Dance critic Kim Tae-won wrote about the festival: The American Dance Festival....was a significant event in two respects at least. First, combining dance education and creation are one. Secondly, such a private organization as the Modern Dance Promotion of Korea has organized independently an internationally acclaimed dance festival and fostered "a highly sophisticated" organizing faculty and communication....The ADF/Seoul has played as a flare to brighten tomorrow's dances in Korea.251

Dance critic Lee Soon-ryol expressed concern about the identity of Korean dance: People viewed it favorably that the ADF/Seoul would elevate the standard of modern dance in Korea. Others took a dim view, saying [the excitement caused by] the ADF risked colonizing Korean dances as a boundary of

248 "American Dance Festival's International Programs," (American Dance Festival, 1993), 5. 249 Ibid.

250 Yook.

251 Sports Chosun. 11 August 1990, quoted in Dance and Image: 1990 Special Issue (Seoul: Modern Dance Promotion of Korea: 1990).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 American dance.252 However, in an interview with Yook Wan-soon, Director of ADF Charles Reinhart responded: I would like to see Korean modern dancers not imitate American modern dance but take some of the methods and training of our modern dance, such as technique, composition and improvisation, and use that process as a way of developing their own culture, their own background and tradition, so that Korean modern dance will be of Korea.253 Another dance critic Kim Tchae-hyun gave a favorable review of the festival: The enthusiasm of almost 500 students reflected their earnest desire for veritable dance education in Korea rather than aspiration after American style modern dance. Although it was a short period of training, it offered for the first time for both dance students and teachers an opportunity to receive a high standard of technique lessons in an open and democratic manner. Consequently, we say that there will be an increasing demand to secure a high standard of dance technique education and educational system. The impetus of ADF will be tremendous.254 The second ADF/Seoul in 1991 was even more successful. ADF Director Charles Reinhart evaluated the event as better organized and more efficiently managed.255 With orientation and auditions, students and teachers got a better

252 Dong-a Ilbo. 13 August 1990, quoted in Dance and Image: 1990.

253 Dance and Image: 1990 Special Issue. 145.

254 Hankvorae Daily. 14 August 1990, quoted in Dance and Image: 1990.

255 Dance and Image. 88.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 understanding before the session. Smaller classes enhanced student-teacher communication.256 Festival participant Kook Eun-mi commented on the lessons she learned from each class: "The teachers emphasized that expression should burst out from inside.,,2S7 According to Stephanie Reinhart, co-director of ADF, the ADF/Seoul 1992 was an extraordinary success.258 The American Dance Festival has conducted other international programs such as International Choreographers Workshops, an International Choreographers Commissioning Program and an Institutional Linkages Program (LLP). The U.S. Information Agency has given partial funding for projects with China or Russia, such as ADF/Moscow.259 However, the Korean project was fully funded by Korea.260 The Korean Culture and Arts Foundation261 was a major

256 Ibid. 257 Ibid., 95. 258 Stephanie Reinhart. 259 American Dance Festival's International Programs. 1, 3, 4.

260 Yook. 261 Founded in March 1973 to preserve and carry on Korea's cultural heritage and to promote the arts and culture by supporting research, creative activities, and the dissemination of the arts and culture including cultural exchange, it is equivalent to the National Endowment for the Arts. It has an exhibition hall, the Fine Arts Center; and a performing arts center, the Munye Theater; and a research library. The budget for FY 1993 totals $55.1 million.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 contributor to this event.262 In addition, students paid tuition.263 The initial plan was to hold the festival every other year; however, due to the enthusiastic response from Korean dance students, the Dance Promotion organization offered the festival for three consecutive years. In 1993, the Promotion of Korea will send more Korean students to Durham. It also plans to invite American dancers and musicians to Korea again in 1994.264

The experience of ADF shows the demand for dance education in Korea. Another development in dance education appeared recently. In May 1993, Yook invited Linda Davis, professor of Dance at the University of Florida to conduct workshops on youth (elementary school students) dance education in Seoul and Taegu. Davis had been a teacher at ADF/Seoul 1991. Approximately 500 elementary school teachers attended. As shown in this chapter, dance presentations from the United States have been highly successful. The American workshops as well as performances left a great impact on the Korean dance world.

262 Yook. 263 Ibid. 264 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV. MUSIC AMD U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN KOREA

Most music presentations sent to Korea by the U.S. government were in the classical genre. Koreans like classical music and are interested in well-known musicians such as Rudolf Serkin and the Juilliard String Quartet. They are also interested in orchestras, such as the National Symphony and the New York Philharmonic.265 The first music presentation by the U.S.government was "Symphony of the Air" which played in Seoul in May, 1955.266 It was held outdoors at the Teag-soo Palace in downtown Seoul, drawing a large crowd.267 Workshops held by classical music artists had a strong impact on the Korean music world. For example, workshops given by the American Brass Quintet helped change a cultural prejudice in Korea against brass instruments. The quintet

265 Hwan-soo Kim.

266 Congress, House, Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs House of Representatives; Eighty Fourth Congress Second Sessions. 15 March 1956, 72, 143, 152.

267 Yong-ku Ahn, interview by author, telephone, 21 March 1993.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 had such an effect that a major Korean university rethought its plan to eliminate its brass instrument training.268

Juilliard String Quartet The Juilliard String Quartet gave concerts in Seoul and other cities in 1961, 1966 and 1973, becoming one of Korea's most popular classical music groups.(Robert Mann, Raphael Hillyer, Claus Adams and Isidore Cohen in 1961; Mann, Hillyer and Cohen with Earl Carlyss in 1966 and 1973.) In 1961, chamber music in Korea was very new. Music Professor at the Peabody Conservatory Ahn Yong-ku269, then-concert master of the national symphony orchestra called the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) Symphony Orchestra organized Ahn's String Orchestra to promote chamber music in Korea. He especially welcomed the Juilliard String Quartet.270 At that time, most music lovers in Korea did not appreciate chamber music, preferring symphony concerts, or violin or piano soloists. However, because of the quartet's international reputation, the Juilliard String Quartet concerts got good

268 Cultural Presentations USA: 1967-1968. (Department of State, 1969), 5.

269 Ahn had been a student in the first music class at the Seoul National University in the 1950s. He has been a professor of violin at the Peabody Conservatory since 1968. As a Fulbright scholar, he gave master classes in Korea in 1991.

270 Ahn.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 publicity.271 For example, the Donq-A Ilbo reviewed a concert as "the finest chamber music ever to be played in Korea."272 The quartet also gave a concert in Taegu in 1961, a city which had historically few musical opportunities of this type. According to a report from the Embassy in Seoul, the concert was an impressive event in the cultural life of Taegu.273 Ahn, who spent much time with the quartet, said: The quartet members seemed impressed with the Korean audience and Korean music world. It was the quartet's next stop after Japan. The quartet members could not help comparing the two countries. The quartet members said Japan had reached a higher level in music at that time. Yet, they said, "We see more potential in musicianship and talent in Korea." These remarks pleased Koreans very much.274 In 1966, the quartet gave a two-week workshop at the College of Music at Seoul National University. Ahn believes that, because the quartet had seen potential in Korean musicians in 1961, the members decided to conduct the workshop in 1966.275 It drew about 500 music students and

271 Ibid.

272 Donq-A Ilbo. 22 April 1961.

273 Tenth Semi-Annual Report: Special International Program. (USIA, 1961), 46.

274 Ahn.

275 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 'teachers. The workshop was an effective educational opportunity for the Korean music world.276 Some music students became interested in the Juilliard School of Music in New York as a result of the workshop.277 Another concert in 1973 was equally well received. The Chosun Ilbo said,"The Juilliard String Quartet gave an enchanting performance of chamber music again."278 In 1965, the Seoul Baroque Chamber Ensemble was created by Chun Bong-cho, former Professor of Music at Seoul National University. The ensemble struggled to cultivate chamber music in Korea. Despite some achievements, it disbanded voluntarily in 1975 due to personal reasons: Professor Chun was appointed as dean of the College of Music at Seoul National University and several members had to leave to study abroad. Then, in 1979, violinist Kim Min restarted the ensemble, giving a successful "revival concert" in 1980. During the 1980s, chamber music became more popular among Korean music lovers, leading to the

276 Woon-young La, "Influence of American Music on Korea Music Since World War II and Korea's Response," in Influence of American Culture on Korean Culture. The Institute for Asian Affairs, Korea University ed., 1967, (Seoul: Hyun-am Press, 1984), 148. This book was published in Korean.

277 Cultural Presentations USA: 1965-1966. (Department of State, 1967), 24.

278 Chosun Ilbo. 27 September 1973.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 creation of several other chamber orchestras.

Charlie Bvrd Trio fQuartetf279

Jazz music had been introduced in Korea after World War II, when the United States "liberated" Korea from Japan and set up an American military base. The AFKN (American Forces Korean Network)280 broadcast jazz music. Over the years, the popularity of jazz has increased among Koreans.281 The Charlie Byrd Quartet gave concerts in April 1968. The repertoire contained a mixture of jazz and classical sounds that combined such seemingly unorthodox companions as Bach and Bossa Nova. The concerts drew a mixed response from Korean audiences. The U.S. Embassy in Seoul, while reporting a "statistical" success in terms of large audiences (2,000 in Taegu, the largest ever to attend a musical concert in that city), was less inclined to assign a positive qualitative value to the Byrd performances. "The style," the Embassy said, was "alien ... to Korean musical

279 The group performed as a quartet in 1968 and as a trio in 1990. 280 AFKN has both radio and T.V. stations, having no connection with "Voice of America," USIA.

281 La, 150-151.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 tradition."282 The group revisited Korea in September 1990 as a trio, composed of Charlie Byrd,the guitarist, a bass player and a drummer, playing in Seoul, Cheongju and Kwangju. Again it drew large audiences, but received mixed reviews. According to William Toney Seabolt, Jr., escort manager for the tour, "Many young students showed an enthusiastic attitude toward them.... I think it was a successful event."283 On the other hand, Kim Hwan-soo, senior cultural advisor at USIS Korea, said "It didn't get a good response either from young students who like pop music, or from the older generation who enjoy standard jazz music."284 USIA sent another jazz group— the Harper Jazz Quintet— in April 1991, which, according to Kim, also did not receive good responses from the Korean audience.285 Lee Eun-ok, a jazz music lover who attended these concerts as a staff member at the U.S. Embassy in Seoul, thought that, lacking promotion and publicity, the concerts did not have a good response from

282 Cultural Presentations USA: 1967-1968. (Department of State, 1969), 9.

283 William Toney Seabolt, Jr., interview by author, in Washington, D.C., 20 September 1991.

284 Hwan-soo Kim.

285 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 Korean jazz lovers.286 It seems, however, that not only promotion and publicity were lacking. Wider jazz education would have made this type of repertoire more accessible to the general public.

Classical music programs have presented successful music events with well-known artists or orchestras. The workshops by the American Brass Quintet and the Juilliard String Quartet, for example, made a strong impact on the Korean music world. However, jazz presentations did not get good responses because of their unfamiliar repertoire and limited publicity.

286 Eun-ok Lee, interview by author, telephone, 18 March 1993. In contrast, the "Korean Jazz Club," a local jazz club in Seoul often co-sponsors jazz concerts with the Japanese Cultural Center in Seoul. These concerts, including by a well-known jazz musician Hino Terumasa, have had good publicity and positive responses from Korean jazz lovers.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V. FINE ARTS AND U.S. GOVERNMENT CULTURAL PRESENTATIONS IN KOREA

In Korea, fine arts exhibitions by the U.S. government began in 1982,287 when Arts America sent a variety of exhibitions including nineteenth century landscapes, fiber arts, jewelry, paperworks, and new abstractions. Successful exhibitions included Sam Francis; Works on Paper; New American Paperworks; Frontiers in Fiber; The Americans and Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions.

The development of exchange in the fine arts had its origin in the 1950s. In December 1957, the Korean government had sent masterpieces of Korean art which dated from about 200 B.C. to about 1900 A.D. to the United States as an "expression of gratitude to the American nation by the Korean people."288 As the first great exhibition of Korean

287 Evangeline J. Montgomery, program officer for East Asia, Arts America, USIA, interview by author, Washington, D.C., 20 September 1991.

288 "Loan Exhibition of Masterpieces of Korean Art," Korea File (Department of State, 1957), quoted in the holdings of Special Collections Division, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville, AR.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 art ever held outside Korea,289 it was organized with the cooperation of the Department of State, the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy,290 the Rockefeller Foundation and the American-Korean Foundation.291 Honorary patrons of the exhibition were President and Mrs. Eisenhower and Korean President Rhee Syngman and Mrs. Rhee. The exhibition began at the National Gallery of Art (December 14, 1957 to January 12, 1958) and travelled to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Seattle Art Museum in Seattle, the Minneapolis Institute of Arts in Minneapolis, the California Palace of the Legion of Honor Museum in 1958, and the Los Angeles County Museum in Los Angeles and ended at the Honolulu Academy of Arts in Honolulu in 1959.292 Two leading American curators on Far Eastern art assisted in the selection process: Alan Priest, a curator of Far Eastern Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and Robert Paine, Jr., a curator of the Department of

289 "Capital To Show Rare Korean Art," New York Times. 15 December 1957, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections Division.

290 The Navy transported the art works.

291 A non-profit organization, which had undertaken projects in culture, education, health, welfare and agriculture and economic development in Korea since the 1950s.

292 "Loan Exhibition of Masterpieces of Korean Art."

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 Asian Art at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts. In 1956 they went to Korea to choose objects from the national art collection for the American exhibit tour. Their trip was sponsored by the International Exchange Program of the Department of State and they gave lectures during their six-week stay in Korea.293 The National Gallery of Art exhibition rooms were designed to take on the atmosphere of an Oriental courtyard for the newly opened display of Korean masterpieces. Guests attending the preview of the exhibit found some of Korea's most ancient and treasured art works highlighted against Shoji screens and tiny "lawns" of cork and marble chips suggestive of Oriental gardens. Korean women in colorful native costumes added to the flavor. The exhibit contained 187 objects and was one of the National Gallery's major exhibitions of the season.294 The installations by Benjamin Lawless and Robert Widder of the Smithsonian Institution were cited as "inspiring"295

293 "Korean Art Masterpieces To Be Exhibited in U.S." Korea Times. 20 September 1956, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections Division.

294 "National Gallery Shows Masterpieces of Korea," Sunday Star. 15 December 1957, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections.

295 Florence S. Berryman, "Korean Art Display At National Gallery," Sunday Star. 15 December 1957, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 and were noted as "exceptionally fine presentation" of the works. The visitor was greeted by the stunning sight of three gold crowns facing him as he entered the first gallery. Lighted from below, their thousands of tiny gold pendants and jade ornaments were kept moving and flickering by concealed fans, so that they gave the same effect as they did when worn by the rulers of the ancient Kingdom of Silla 1,400 years ago.296

The Ambassador of Korea, Yang You-chan, an honorary officer for the exhibition said: I thought it was beautifully displayed, in a very effective way. I was very proud that we were able to show our old culture and civilization, which had been so little known in this country. Unfortunately, Korea had been a forgotten nation for a long time. This cultural exchange would give us better understanding, and was one of the means of establishing deeper friendship between our countries for a long time to

John Walker, then-director of the National Gallery, talked about the significance of the show: It was a rare opportunity to introduce to the American public a field of art too little familiar. Although one of the oldest and finest cultures in the world, it had been rarely seen in the West. So extensive had been the destruction in Korea's past that if it were not for excavations in the twentieth century, little would be known of her great artistic history, and no such exhibition as the present one would be possible.298 The exhibition catalogue by Robert Treat Paine, Jr.

296 Leslie Judd Portner, "Korean Exhibition Is Outstanding," Washington Post and Times Herald. 15 December 1957, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections.

297 "National Gallery Shows Masterpieces of Korea."

298 Berryman.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 illustrated and described all of the 187 objects at the National Gallery. Two Korean officials, Dr. Kim Chewon, director of the National Museum of Korea, and his assistant, Choi Hi-soon accompanied the exhibition. Dr. Kim, a leader in the fine arts in Korea, gave a lecture on "Koreans and Their Art" at the gallery public opening.299 According to The New York Times December 22, 1957, the exhibition was a chance to provide insight into the importance of Korean art forms in art history: Here in the United States it was not always realized how firm and how old was Korean artistic culture. In this exhibit were examples of metal work and ceramics that go back for two thousand years. There was exquisite sculpture in Korea in the days of the Greeks and Romans. Korean forms were derived, in part, from the contemporary Chinese, especially in the first 500 years of the Christian era on the more remote peninsula they had developed an identity and an integrity of their own. About the time of the Renaissance in Europe painting and calligraphy gradually replaced metal work and ceramics as the primary artistic medium in Korea, although the older forms were not neglected. We will make a mistake, however, if we think of Korean art only in terms of the past. It is still alive, still vigorous, still a part of the essential life of a people and of a civilization. Some of the values of the old forms have been transmitted. Some have been transmuted. The concepts remain because they are imperishable.300 The article also expressed the wish to see contemporary Korean art exhibitions in the future.301

299 Ibid. 300 "Korean Art Exhibit," New York Times. 22 December 1957, quoted in the holdings of Special Collections.

301 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80

New American Paperworks

"New American Paperworks," a mixed-media exhibition, was organized by the World Print Council and funded by Champion International Corporation and the National Endowment for the Arts. Its international tour was sponsored by USIA. From May 24 to June 13, 1983 the exhibition was held at the Fine Arts Center of the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation, the local sponsor for the show. The show was also held at the Exhibition Hall of the Central Library, Kiemyung University in Taegu during July 1-14, 1983.302 The exhibition set out to "survey Eastern and Western papermaking and paper-using traditions, and to examine the reflections of these traditions in the works of twenty contemporary American artists," including Sam Francis and Robert Rauschenberg.303 (See Appendix for the list of artists.) Jane M. Farmer, curator/project director of the show explained the significance of this exhibition as follows: Because these artists' involvement with paper so eerily evokes the revered traditions of Oriental handmade

302 "Report on the New American Paperworks," (the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation, 1983), 1.

303 Jane M. Farmer, "Paper: The Technological and Spiritual Wonder of the Ancient World," in New American Paperworks. Catalogue (San Francisco: The World Print Council, 1982), 15.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 papers, it is with great pleasure that we prepare New American Paperworks for exhibition in the Far East after its showings in the United States.304 Farmer also wrote explicitly in the exhibition catalogue about papermaking in Korea.305 Participating artists Charles Hilger and Caroline Greenwald traveled to Korea to install the art works and to give lectures. Although Koreans had developed their own papermaking process, Korean artists had not used paper as an art medium the way American artists have. Thus, the use of paper as an art medium in America intrigued the Korean audience as well as the Korean art world. "Kite Trails," a work by Greenwald, used a kind of Korean paper in a sculptural setting. The work drew attention from modern dancer, Professor Park Myung-sook, as a possible dance setting. Prof. Park and Ms. Greenwald exchanged ideas; however, no project materialized. According to Lee Kyung-sung, then-director of the National Museum of Contemporary Art in Korea, the exhibition became a chance to inspire and transform the view of Korean artists on the use of paper as an art medium. It resulted in the production of new Korean paperworks. Some influential Korean artists began to use paper (wetted and kneaded) in collages on the canvas; some young artists found that paper was

304 Ibid.

305 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 easier to handle and stronger than oil painting.306 Personal contacts with Korean artists and critics were made by Hilger and Greenwald. The American Ambassador attended the opening of the exhibition, along with high officials from the Korean art world. During the three weeks of the exhibition, approximately 19,568 people (average 931 people per day) saw the show. This figure was record-breaking.307 The exhibition of works by well-known contemporary American artists appealed not only to artists and art lovers but also to the general public. A lecture on American paperworks by Hilger in Seoul on May 25 drew approximately 200 people and got a positive response.308 The audience expressed interest in the current trends in the arts in America as well as in paper as an art medium. The lecture as well as video presentation at the exhibition contributed to the understanding of the show.309 Hilger also conducted two lecture demonstrations at both the prominent College of Fine Arts of the Seoul National University and the Hong-ik University in Seoul. As a local sponsor, the Korean Culture and Arts

306 Kyung-sung Lee, interview by author, telephone, 18 March 1993.

307 "Report on the New American Paperworks." 308 Ibid.

309 Ibid.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Foundation found the exhibition a considerable contribution to the Korean art world and to cultural relations between the two countries.310 According to Evangeline J. Montgomery, program officer for the East Asia, Arts America office at USIA, people were still talking about this exhibition when she was in Korea in 1987.311

Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions

Organized by International Art Projects, a division of the World Print Council, the international tour of "Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions" was arranged by USIA. This exhibition was sponsored locally by the Chosun Ilbo in Korea to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the inauguration of the newspaper. The exhibition period was March through April, 1990. Paulette Long, assistant curator of International Art Projects, went to Korea as project manager. The exhibition contained seventy-three paintings and prints by twenty-one artists currently working in abstract styles. (See Appendix for the list of artists.) All works had been created in the 1980s. The show featured major works from such differing stylistic roots as Abstract Expressionism, Geometric Abstraction, Idea Art, and

310 Ibid.

311 Montgomery.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 Suprematism. The artists, including Donald Sultan and John Newman, lived and worked in many parts of the United States, and were well-established. This exhibition also contained works by Young June Lew, a Korean-American artist. Lew studied at the Ewha Womans University and the University of California at Los Angeles. Her works used images of a childhood in Korea— translucent rice paper screens, colorful laundry flapping on a line, "mounta insky lines.1,312 According to the final report from the U.S. Embassy in Seoul, during the twenty-five days of the exhibition, around 5,000 people (4,125 paid tickets) saw the show. The report also noted that Koreans often complained that America did not have a large enough cultural presence in Korea. Many people commented that the exhibit was the best presentation of American art in Korea in recent years, demonstrating the excellence of American art.313 It was well received because of the keen interest in contemporary abstract art in Korea.314 Art critic Kim Chong-kun wrote of the impressions created by the "Mind and Matter" exhibit: Korea's art world has recently seen a continuing

312 Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions, catalogue, (San Francisco: The World Print Council, 1990), 36.

313 Montgomery.

314 Kyung-sung Lee.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 controversy over post-modernism as if it were an epidemic. It is particularly worthwhile to pay attention to this trend since it began as an attempt to overcome the limits of modernism which has been the basis for modern art in Korea since 1970. For this reason, the exhibition is of special interest....All of the artists in the exhibit have grown up during the era of post-modernism which was prevalent in the 1960's and the late 1970's. This is all the more meaningful to Korean modern artists in that they are given the opportunity to rethink their past practice of uncritically accepting Western art....To our pleasure, this exhibition helps complete our understanding of American modern art which before we only half understood....But what is really important is that we should maintain our own art expression even while appreciating the American artists' world.315 Another art critic, Lee Yil, said that a new wind had shaken the equation of "abstraction = modernism" and that a variety of styles and techniques were expected to give a stimulus to the fine art circles in Korea. He went on to explain, I think that now is the time when the equation of abstraction to modernism should be repealed....the freshness and variety the exhibition presents to the viewers also demonstrate the need for a new perspective....1 hope that the rare chance of enjoying the "Mind and Matter" exhibition will be a stimulus not only to our country's abstract artists, but also to all the fine arts of the 1990's.316 The location of the gallery— easily accessible— as well as the help of publicity in the newspapers, contributed to the success of the show. At the opening, the Korean Minister

315 Sports Chosun. 28 March 1990, quoted in the USIS Korea Reports.

316 Chosun Ilbo. 24 March 1990, quoted in the USIS Korea Reports.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 of Culture joined the American Ambassador. In the catalogue, Ambassador Donald Gregg expressed the wish that this would be only the beginning of many outstanding cultural and artistic exchanges between the two countries in the 1990s.317 Bang Woo-young, President of Chosun Ilbo. asked for support of Korean cultural and artistic circles, as well as art lovers, for this event.318

Of Fireflies by cilliam

With assistant William Wegee, Sam Gilliam presented his then-recent drape painting installation, "Of Fireflies by Sam Gilliam" at the Walker Hill Art Center in Seoul, Korea, in May-June 1991. The Walker Hill Art Center is a non-profit organization with emphasis on new art styles, such as video art. Its audiences are mostly college/graduate students and art professionals. It has lacked popularity because of its location and focus on new art. The center, however, stresses quality rather than quantity. Around 900 people saw the show during the thirty days of its exhibition.319 This installation contained a sculptural element: a

317 Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions. 3.

318 Ibid., 2.

319 Jang-hwan Kim, project coordinator, Walker Hill Art Center, interview by author, telephone, 19 March 1993.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 wooden arc. Sam Gilliam, an African-American artist who lives in Washington, D.C., has been changing his style since the 1960's. In 1990, he went back to the style of his drape paintings from 1969. He was picked as a "success story" in the November 1990 American Artist.320 In a review of Gilliam's work, "Someplace to Someplace Else" (1989), Florence Rubenfeld said Gilliam's paintings "can be seen as metaphors for the way the outsider/immigrant, foreigner, person-of-color, traditionally replenishes American culture."321 In Korea, drape painting was still an avant-garde art style.322 The show had taped jazz music as background.323 (Jazz music is Gilliam's favorite music.)324 According to Lee Hwa-ik, assistant curator of the National Museum of Contemporary Art in Korea, the response from the limited

320 Daniel Grant, "Gaining Self-Confidence and Patience," American Artist (November 1990), 12-14.

321 Florence Rubenfeld, "Sam Gilliam," Arts Magazine (Summer 1989), 79.

322 Kyung-sung Lee.

323 Jang-hwan Kim.

324 Rubenfeld, 79.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 audience was good.325 Gilliam also presented an introductory slide show of his previous artworks at the Seoul National University. According to Gilliam, he was disappointed that many students did not see the show and that students asked only about the artists who appeared in their textbooks. It was almost an insulting experience to him. His impression of Korean artists was not pleasant. He said most artists were interested in telling and showing their own works instead of discussing his. However, he did find calligraphies in Korean art intriguing as a form of abstract expression, and it affected his own art after the trip.326 According to Lee Hwa-ik, the location of the gallery prevented people from attending Gilliam's exhibition. Also, in Korea, audiences prefer big-name artists with international reputations. Even though Gilliam was a well known artist in the United States, Koreans had not heard of him. In addition, Koreans might have felt alienated from his African-American background. He was the first African-American artist to present a solo exhibition in Korea.327 According to Lee Kyung-sung, however, this was not

325 Hwa-ik Lee, interview by author, in Washington, D.C., 28 October 1992.

326 Sam Gilliam, interview by author, telephone, 29 October 1992. 327 Hwa-ik Lee.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 necessarily a racial issue. Rather, he thought that it had more to do with Gilliam's unknown reputation in the Korean art world and among college/graduate students.328

"New American Paperworks" and "Mind and Matter" both had contained contemporary, big-name artists' recent works. In addition, the local sponsors, the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation and the Chosun Ilbo. were influential in Korea. The exhibitions had good publicity, and important people such as the Minister of Culture and the American Ambassador came to the receptions. In the case of "Of Fireflies by Sam Gilliam," the location of the exhibition, and lack of knowledge of African-American artists made for a poor showing. The fine arts presentations possibly need to diversify their local exhibition spaces. Four out of ten exhibitions, including Gilliam's, were held at the Walker Hill Art Center. With its poor publicity and bad location, it might have created alienated feelings among more general Korean audiences. In contrast, in the case of "Mind and Matter," the Chosun Ilbo had its own gallery that provided good publicity, including an interview with Paulette Long, assistant curator of International Art Projects. The building is located downtown, near the metro.

328 Kyung-sung Lee.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As shown, since 1955, the U.S. government has sent performing arts presentations and fine arts exhibitions through its cultural presentations program to Korea. During the 1950s and the 1960s, presentations such as the Paul Taylor Dance Company and the Juilliard String Quartet had a positive impact on the image of America. USIS Korea has been an influential representative of Western culture in Korea, dominating in the 1950s and the 1960s. However, since the 1970s, French and German cultures have also become influential in the Korean art worlds through their cultural outlets, Alliance Francaise and the Goethe Institute respectively. Alliance Francaise, with daily presentations of French films, has been very popular. The Goethe Institute offers a language institute with many students enrolled. It also presents German films as well as various other arts forms. These two are relatively new representatives of Western cultures in Korea. The British Council also co-sponsors many art presentations, including the Royal Ballet and the BBC Shakespeare Theatre Company. To combat competition, USIS Korea needs to challenge its European counterparts with arts of high quality. There are

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 many private channels for U.S. cultural exchange as well. An advantage of the USIS Korea's program is that it is able to present high quality American arts without consideration of commercial profit. The role of cultural affairs officers at USIS Korea has been an important aspect of the effectiveness of the cultural presentations program. Cultural affairs officers at USIS Korea are responsible for finding local sponsors. Their tenure, however, three to four years, makes it difficult for them to have continuity.329 This lack of continuity is offset by active involvement by the Korean-born cultural advisors at USIS Korea. Most of them have worked several years at USIS Korea.330 In addition to their expertise, they identify with the Korean audience. The cultural affairs officers' continual efforts to update Korea's information about trends in American arts seem to be as important as actual presentations. However, since the 1970s, the role of USIS Korea has diminished. Many private channels have opened up and other European counterparts have taken the attention of the Korean audience away from the USIS Korea offerings. Arts America's flat budget during the 1980s also led to this reduced role. While the two countries celebrated their centennial of diplomatic relations in 1982, growing anti-American

329 Montgomery. 330 Hwan-soo Kim.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 sentiment was felt. USIS Korea did not deal with the situation in the most effective ways. Instead of seeking more cultural programming— from which a positive and honest cultural image of America would be reflected— it discontinued performing arts presentations during the period from 1986-1988, which included the 1988 Seoul Olympics. The Washington Ballet was invited by the 1988 Seoul Olympic Organizing Committee. The company gave decent performances, but the dancers from the then U.S.S.R Bolshoi Ballet received much of the attention and applause. The then-director of USIS Korea, John M. Reid, commented that "because it was their [U.S.S.R.'s] first performance in Korea— [it was] a political reason rather than artistic one [that they were so well received]." Koreans like big-name companies with well-known productions. Kim Hae-shik, new president/artistic director of the national Ballet Company of Korea, also believes that the Washington Ballet was not the first-class ballet company that the American Ballet Theatre or the Joffrey Ballet is. The U.S. government did not sent any performing arts presentation during the Olympics. A Chosun Ilbo editorial criticized this absence. Reid explained that, because the committee invited the Washington Ballet and the Beaux Arts Trio, USIS Korea did not think it necessary to invite groups under the Cultural Presentations Program. By contrast, the then-Soviet Union sent some big-name performing groups to

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 the festival, including the Bolshoi Ballet and the Moscow Philharmonic. The Korean audience responded with great enthusiasm. Korea-Soviet Union relations dramatically improved after the Olympics. Active cultural exchanges occurred and led to the official opening of diplomatic relations in September 1990. The United States missed a good opportunity to present its art forms. In 1990, with the success of "Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions," the situation seemed to improve, as Ambassador Gregg expressed the wish that this would be only the beginning of many outstanding cultural and artistic exchanges between the two countries.331 The success of the American Dance Festival project in 1990-1992 showed that American dance could have a significant influence in the Korean dance world. Although cultural diversity is an important criteria for selections by the National Endowment for the Arts and for Arts America, it may need to be adapted in the case of Korea. Because Koreans are very prestige-conscious, they strongly prefer high art to folk art in American presentations. Certain presentations such as the "American Folk Festival" have not appealed to the Korean audience. The American Folk Festival was sent to Korea in September 1982, the centennial of U.S.-Korean diplomatic relations. The

331 Mind and Matter: New American Abstractions. 3.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 group was composed of the Joe Cormier Trio, the Piedmont Buckdancers, the Valley Ramblers, Junior Daugherty, Don Stover and the Hendersons (clog dancers) .332 According to Kim Hwan-soo, the result was a "disaster. 1,333 While large concerts such as those of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in 1984 and 1989, and the National Symphony Orchestra in 1978 and 1980, were successful, as well as modern dance performances in Korea, Koreans did not respond well to folk material. They seemed to have a strong preference for classical music and modern dance. One way of overcoming Korean prejudice towards folk art might be for USIS Korea to increase its publicity and educational activities. Promotion of upcoming events through lectures and video/slide presentations at the USIS Korea's facilities and local schools and colleges could contribute to the success of these programs. In addition, there are several Korean folk art festivals, such as "the National Folklore Contest" or "Choon-hyang Festival" in Namwon, which are popular among Koreans. USIS Korea could use these festivals as opportunities to reach out to the Korean audience. If the folk art groups from America gave performances along with Korean folk art groups, the Korean audience might be more receptive. Because language has been seen as a barrier, only four

332 Gerstein. 333 Hwan-soo Kim.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 theater groups have been sent to Korea. Three of them were university groups who presented musicals in the early 1960s; one was a production by the deaf in 1979. The National Theater of the Deaf, the only professional theater company sent to Korea by the U.S. government, presented a production of Our Town in Korea in 1979. During their tour of East Asia, the company presented that production specifically in Japan and Korea because of the USIA's request for the well-known American play. A review from the Donq-A Ilbo said, It was a refreshing experience....Their serious performance— putting forth every ounce of their energies was very impressive and made a strong impact on the Korean audience, transcending the barrier of language. It was encouraging for the deaf in Korea.334 Shortly after this presentation, two theater companies of the deaf were created in Korea: the Theater Company of the Deaf and the Cheong-um Theater Company. The Cheong-um Theater Company was sponsored by the eminent Korean painter, Kim Ki-chang, who is partially deaf.335 Language was not a barrier for theater presentations. Many colleges and universities in Korea have English language and literature departments which present and produce plays in English. In addition, there are several theater festivals, such as the National Theater Festival of

334 Donq-A Ilbo. 18 June 1979.

335 Min.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 Korea, the Seoul Theater Festival, and the Dong-A Theater Festival as well as the Puppet Theater Festival and Mime Festival. The USIA could send theater troupes with regular plays, or musical and puppet theaters for children to these festivals. Musical productions were of typical American plays such as Brioadoon performed by the University of Kansas theater group in August 1960; Damn Yankees performed by the University of Utah theater group in November 1960; and Bells Are Ringing by the University of Colorado Players in October 1961. The group from Colorado was sent by the U.S. Department of Defense on tour to the Far East and performances were given for U.S. military personnel. During the tour the Department made the group available to the Cultural Presentations Program for two performances in Seoul in October, 1961. Those performances were well received by student audiences totaling 2,150.336 Another cultural prejudice in Korea is toward African-American artists. Koreans have not seen many black artists and have not heard of them. To combat a delicate racial issue, USIS Korea should bring in more African-American artists, but promote the events more effectively. It is necessary to present a more positive image of African-Americans in Korea. For example, organizing

336 Eleventh Report: Special International Program. (Department of State, 1962), 108.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 "Black History Month" at USIS Korea might help Koreans better understand African-Americans. By portraying America's achievements and leadership in the arts Americans can win the respect and confidence of Koreans. By enhancing the cultural ties of mutual understanding and trust, America and Korea can build bonds that would sustain them through political crises and tensions.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX

Cultural Presentations by the United States Government in Korea 1955-1992

DANCE PROGRAM 1956 Thomas Dorsev (Tom Two Arrows) As a singer, dancer and authentic performer of the music and dance of the American Indian, he presented insight into the traditional way of life.

1960 Dance Jubilee Conceived and staged by Rod Alexander, the performance was a review of popular American song and dance from mid nineteenth century to the present.

1962 De Lavallade-Ailev Modern Dance Company As the first modern dance company sent by the U.S. government, the troupe gave three successful performances before 9,000 people in Seoul.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99

1963 The Jose Limon Dance Company The performances by this modern dance company got an enthusiastic response from the Korean dance world.

1967 Pauline Koner A noted dancer, choreographer, teacher Pauline Koner conducted a series of lecture-demonstrations, seminars, and workshops on modern dance. She was the first dance soloist to be sent on a tour under the Cultural Presentations Program by the U.S. government. In Seoul she led a two-week workshop at the Dance Department of the Ewha Womans University.

Paul Tavlor Dance Company Paul Taylor with his company of eight dancers performed with great success. Their open rehearsal drew many Korean dancers.

1976 Alwin Nikolais Dance Company The abstract work of this modern dance company was very well received.

1983 Lar Lubovitch Dance Company

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 The audience was enthusiastic about the work of this modern dance company.

1984 The Washington Ballet The tour was organized by Universal Arts Management, and USIA assisted only in the communication process between the two countries. Besides the performances, the troupe gave master classes at local ballet schools.

1985 Bella Lewitzkv Dance Company The company presented modern dance. It was well received.

1990-92 American Dance Festival The American Dance Festival sent dancers and musicians to a mini- dance festival in Korea, funded by the Modern Dance Promotion Fund of Korea.

MUSIC PROGRAM

1955 Symphony of the Air The concert was held outdoors at the Teog-soo Palace downtown Seoul, drawing a big crowd.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101

1956 Los Anaeles Philharmonic Orchestra: Westminster Choir:Cellist: Gregor Piatiqorskv

1957 Richard Tucker. American operatic and concert tenor; Benny Goodman Orchestra: Vito and Lora. Edward Vito, harpist and Arthur Lora, flutist.

1959 Jack Teagarden Sextet Leader Jack Teagarden took his sextet of musicians to Korea to demonstrate jazz.

Golden Gate Quartet The quartet specialized in black spirituals, folk and popular songs. Two performances in Seoul and Taejon were very successful.

1960 Pianist Rudolf Serkin His appearances in Seoul were very successful. Koreans were deeply impressed by both his performances and personal charm.

1961 Juilliard String Quartet

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 The quartet gave the performance of the finest chamber music ever played in Korea. The concert was a particularly impressive event in the cultural life of Taegu, a city which had few opportunities to witness such concerts.

1962 Camilla Williams Williams, a soprano singer, gave a successful concert in Seoul.

John Sebastian As an Harmonica virtuoso Sebastian gave concerts in Taegu, Kwangju, Cheongju, and Seoul. His concerts in the cities outside Seoul received very positive responses.

1964 Peabody College Singers A choral group of fourteen voices, their repertoire included madrigals and ballads of the 16th and 17th centuries through modern compositions, to American folk songs and spirituals.

1965 University of Denver Jazz Band The Denver student’s band served a dual purpose by sending an academic group abroad: 1) demonstrating the musical accomplishments of U.S. colleges and universities and 2)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 using youth to reach youth.

1966 Juilliard String Quartet The group's two-week workshop in Seoul, attended by about 500 persons, was received enthusiastically by students and faculty.

Cornell University Glee Club The group made a good impression in its concert and in student-to-student discussions.

1967 Fine Arts Quartet with Clarinet Soloist David Glazer These artists-in-residence and music professors at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee were well received, particularly in Pusan. The group presented workshops for students and local musicians.

1968 American Brass Quintet The quintet's workshops made a strong impact upon the music community.

Charlie Bvrd Quartet The group's own special kind of music— a mixture of jazz and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. classical sounds that combined in the same program unorthodox companions such as Bach and Bossa Nova— drew mixed response from Korean audiences.

1969 New York Chamber Soloist This chamber ensemble from New York received a good response.

1973 Juilliard String Quartet The quartet's third visit was successful again.

1974 Richard Goode-Robert Martin The piano and cello duo drew a good response.

1976 Gregg Smith Singers The choral group gave a concert of classical music and American folk songs.

1978/80 The National Symphony Orchestra The concerts were very successful.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105

1981 Pianist Mona Goloabek

1982 Gregg Smith Singers

1984 New York Philharmonic Orchestra The orchestra's tour was sponsored by CitiBank. USIA also provided partial funding of $50,000. The concert was successful despite the high priced tickets.

1989 New York Philharmonic Orchestra This tour of the orchestra was sponsored again by CitiBank. This time USIA aided only the communication process between the two countries, and did not give financial assistance.

1990 Charlie Bvrd Trio The group had visited Korea in 1968 as a quartet. The trio, composed of a guitarist, a bass player and a drummer, played jazz and classical music in Seoul, Cheongju and Kwangju. The concerts drew mixed reviews again.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106

1991 Billv Harper Jazz Quintet The quintet was not well received.

THEATER PROGRAM

1960 University of Kansas The players presented a musical production of Brigadoon.

University of Utah The group performed a musical production of Damn Yankees.

1961 University of Colorado Flayers The Players gave performances of a musical, Bells Are Ringing at the two universities in Seoul. These performances were well received by 2,150 Korean students.

1979 The National Theater of the Deaf The performance of Our Town was successful. To Korean audiences it was a refreshing experience.

FOLK ARTS PROGRAM

1982 The American Festival

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 The group was composed of the Joe Cormier Trio, the Piedmont Buckdancers, the Valley Ramblers, Junior Daugherty, Don Stover and the Hendersons (clog dancers). They did not get a good response from the Korean audience.

FINE ARTS PROGRAM

1982 Graphic Arts Mixed media, organized by Landfall Press.

1983 New American Paperworks This mixed-media exhibition was organized by the World Print Council and funded by Champion International Corporation and the National Endowment for the Arts. Its international tour was sponsored by USIA. The local sponsor was the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation. The exhibition was successful. Artists included in the exhibition were: Neda Al-Hilali Suzanne Anker Don Farnsworth Ke Francis Sam Francis Helen Frederick Bilge Friedlaender Nancy Genn Caroline Greenwald Charles Hilger Charles Christopher Hill Winfred Lutz Kenneth Noland Bob Nugent Robert Rauschenberg Steven Sorman

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 Cynthia Starkweather—Nelson Michell Stuart Sipa Yarmolinsky Joseph Zirker

1985 Art to Wear: New American Handmade Clothing Organized by the American Craft Museum, the exhibition focused on recent works of wearable art, one important aspect of contemporary American fiber arts. After six months, the gallery in Korea presented a Korean version of "Art to Wear."

1986 American Jewelry Now Organized by the American Craft Museum, this exhibition presented contemporary handmade jewelry by fifty-seven artists, showing the richness and diversity of American jewelry in the 1980s.

1987 Yellowstone: The Poetry of Power - Paintings and Prints by Thomas Moran This exhibition of the 19th century artist's artworks from the collection of the Gilcrease Museum in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was shown at the National Museum of Contemporary Art. It presented landscape paintings and prints. The exhibition did not get a good response from the Korean audience.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109

1988 American Ceramics While USIA sends groups and exhibitions on extended East Asian tours (Korea is only one stop), this show was designed particularly for Korea's Olympic Art Festival in Seoul. The Seoul Olympic Organizing Committee hosted an international ceramic show— each country presented its own ceramic show.

Frontiers in Fiber: The Americans Organized by the North Dakota Museum of Art, this show presented fiber arts in the United States during the 1980s. In Korea, the fiber arts are still new and are rarely shown as pure art. With its sculptural elements, the exhibition appealed to the audience, encouraging and stimulating Korean fiber artists.

1990 Mind and Matter; New American Abstractions Organized by International Art projects, a division of the World Print Council, this exhibition was sponsored locally by the Chosun Ilbo (a daily newspaper) in Korea. It drew around 5,000 audiences during the twenty-five days of the show. The exhibition had good publicity and was highly successful. Artists included in the exhibition were: Gregory Amenoff Scott Bell

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Larry Brown Max Cole David Diao Robert 0. Glasgow Nancy Graves Marc Katano Young June P. Lew Matt Mullican John Newman Judy Pfaff Harvey Quaytman Gustavo Ramos Rivera Raymond Saunders David Shapiro Steven Sorman Pat Steir Andrew Topolski Stephanie Weber

1991 Of Fireflies bv Sam Gilliam With assistant William Wegee, Sam Gilliam presented his recent drape painting installation at the Walker Hill Art Center in Seoul. The response from the audience was good. Mr. Gilliam also presented an introductory slide show on his previous artworks at the Seoul National University. Because of the location and publicity, it did not draw a large audience from the general public.

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