293.

posture of Peter Horn i gc poetry. Rat.her , Sole employs a

complex compar-i son bet'l:.veen his wife t s pregnancy and an l~XP Losi.ve poli.tical situat:i on to exp l.ore the problems ..if ret,po).'};,.1ing to h i.s mill.t:"ll.l. On the one hand, his unborn child is 11bm;;,.d in :t'ts unpred:i.ctab:Uity, powel'

an~ notentialil:vl"'{, ..- to bomb the futu:ce" ! poet to consider the wider which his pecg':mrd Girct.un-, stan~e3,. ar e part. 8~ the ot,t:ter hand, his desire tor political justice. and an ende ~D stateOoppressicn - ~ the form of p'ropaganda, rnilit.ar.:y force oz the sifene:i.n?, of p rot.es t ","is (;omplicate~ by S,' d0~:il'e to keep his wife and unborn child safe from the desnructLvenes s .of " w~):. Thisl:;, ee§ire fi)r safety is he i.ghtened by the o ironic twi..:;t in the penuc,ltimate stanza ?1,ht!re the W'arm~ £j.rs' turns out to be 1:1('\: a cosy, household hearth, but

rather the house it9E~lf. I~ I r'eaponse to this"; highly pzob Lemat.Lc disjun{;tion between i'lldj;viUu~rl, pl.;rsmlal

,) C7 desires en the one hand, and larger,O politJLcal," desires on the other, Sole offers" no easy l~esolutions. 0 G" •

'!:\ lnsl:~ad$ the poem cone Iude s with a conipres sed , compkex and" even ambiguous image 'of words ~ meaufnga ticking

q/~~.bo~bs in the P?et I s throat. Whethel:' their (', ar t fcu LatLon w:l,.ll u_f.t:~mately f,;1vour the explosion of the .poet;IS chf.Ld itlt'~1 the worla, or the traum.atie birth of 1:' new politQeal dispensation, remains undenermtned and is. perhaps. for the ti.nie being .cit: least, 1/ undeterminable. The poem's 'unrpsolved ending .ought; not to be construed as weakness or as an undermining of the poet IS materiali.st p(.'1sition, but rather as an" honest and courageous acknowl.edgement of one of the highly (l ·s~"'-., complex dilemmaV/ confronting all South Africans, including Mar.xists, living in this count4'Y today. 294.

(b)

;) Th.e criti.que of the preva.iling South Afri.can political system, off~!'I.'ed by cont empor..al~y South African Engl Lsh poets, has been conduc ced, generally. f1:'cm two main ideological p'crspe9tives.. The Marxist cri.tique of the sys r.em, A.,S exp re s sed in the w(yck of poets such as Pet er Horn , 'eremy Cronin and- [elwyn S(/le, represellt:s one such po ':)P!~cti\11e,. For, the most part. however ~ y,ha'C(;>'Vet' the intelle(~t1JJ~l or thEtoretical f:orce of the Marxist perspective, it 't''Ctnains an option embr-aced by only a small propor-t Len of tho se white Engl Lsh-d.ariguage poets who have (lffered a crij~ique of the ,apartheid:~ tern. By £ar the majority of politically oriented white English-langu~~~ poets Ln South Africa have t.ended to follow a line of pol:ltical thinking which may be classi1;Jed brQ~dly as It~~iberal humanist". 63 This term has 'been f:l=(equently a.nd··widely misunder'stood, however, ~spe:cially in t,rle cont.empoxarv period, and; so it is D " • II neceasary to provide some definition of the t!'erm before suggesting how it may u~~eftlily be applied to the mo1e of political analysis al!v/in~~d by a number qf rece~t South Afric(!(n English poets fiP whose work one aspect 9\£ the WESSA tradition of d:i.ssent is manifested. li i; h

I ! As was noned ear!ie'r when dealing with the Marxis,F per spectrrve , i.n the y4~ars f"ollowing the Nationa\~ Party! s 1948 election ViC\;O~Y the main lit~e ·of official, whi.te political oppositi~,;m to the government was a', '.. \ generally libet'al one. W'ltQ_ the drastic poLarLaat.fon : and radicalis~tion Of po'litie&l thought and actipn which took place 'during the 19~Os, such liberal opposition (as it was zhen "under'stti~d) seemed ,to become inbreasingly ineffecti."I1e and even redundant. l'artdy in respons~ to its own apparent inadequacies" and partly 295.

o in response to the challenge posed by the emergent Marxist: schCtol of. thought, liberalism was forced in tlt~ l.~te 1960'S and early ..1970s :lnto an urgent process of o reassessment and adapnat Lon of itself to the changing political" condi tiona in South Africa. It: is the contention of. this study tha.t in the concemporary period the liberal humanistic tradition has adapted and deveLoped ~uccessflllly and once more represents" an effective and lfuwerful mode of oppcsi~i()il tl';capartheid. 'I'o substantiate this, it is useful b~"ie£;ty\'I~O explote some of the central criti~ia~c of liberalism in South Africa. ~" "

(",;, A'B Butler, Elphick I'and Welsh ncce , WE'SSl:l. liberals have ,:"'" been accuaed oi) being bach strong and wee~t;" o

o ,,~, \~\\ I,' "all members of the establishment cO-NpJ,icit in \', (1 ,...~_ ': ' i:, maintaining ap&.rtheid and as peripTli:ral. idea:listfJ (J;': 'li I,\' with no political co'nstitullncy an~ a. long record () . 64 90£ failure in producing reform.H

(' , \ They have, for exasnple, been perceived at: ~lJpporting

(~, exploitative' apartheid capitalist practices, of \Joffering empty,,, pat:e~listic gestures rather than effecting real refo.rm, and of obstructing the path to justice and democracy by insistii.1g on adherence to the law. In"addition, they have: been condemned f'}r lacking rigour and e.mpirical 8ubsta!}tiatiot\ in thei,r social and political analysis. Mart.in Legassiek,," the Marxist • 0 ht~~i:'~i~, "m.ak~s ,the poi~t" tha~ lib~alism' in South Af~Ef iia$ often been, 1~-:t (>:.::;.~~, ,~ ~ ~~ ~.~ \;: ') "a- force t:rying on the one hand to minimize or disguise the confli.ctual and coerci~e aspec.'t:s of the social structure, and on the other to convince 296.

selected Africans that th~ grievi;£l.'lces they felt could be ameliorated through reforms which liberaL; could promulgate. ,,65

As applied to South African liberalism in the 1950s and 19605. such criticisms, while not wholly justi,fied, are nevertheless not without some valldity. In the {/ _. contemporary period, however f liberalism in this coq,ntry has responded to altered circumstances and has adapted and developed to the extent that it now requires an objective reappraisal and retiefinition. Such an assessment" of the liberal tradition in the contemporar.y period is provided by Butler, Elphick and Welsh .?6 who mainta.in that present-aay liberalism in South Africa is based on three central concepts: freedom, democracy and" humane values. Firstly, freedom, as understood by" liberals today. is concerned ~, • (i rtot 8(11~ly wi:'th individuals in an at.omistic view of society, but a.Lac 'with the protection of communities

and groups, ethnic and other J that' have been the objeGlt8 of dis~rim.:(natiot'l. (T,he Rawlesian notion of "affIrmative act.fon" therefore forms an important part ~f liberalism'$ strategic thinking.) Equally important is the def~lnce of private ·institut.ions threatened by the state, including tqe' ,press. judiciary, universities and busine.8 S • (Though the emphasis with regard to " " qt1siness falls, on free enterprise, there is no pLace . for th~ unchecked exploitati~eness of completely laissez-fair.e capitalcis.ln.) As B~ltler at al. o~serve, ~)"only a It~ociety ~T~th multiple centres of power can withs,and the p're~sure,~ f~r ..authorit/frianism end,emi.c in South IlAf';ican society". 67 The second basic 'tenet. of (! (.) cdnte.mpora.ry' Soutb A~~ican lib~ralism",s democracy. Despit~l disagret!::ment (Sri' the most effective str.:a.tegies,

for 0 achieving a democrat:f ..c society t there is little

o

/)

(\ 297.

support ii? liberalism today for defining democracy ,,_s anything less than universal franchise, exercised in free and op.~n elections for the country's rulers. The third crucial aspect of South Afri.can liberalism in the I) contemporary period is its emnhasi.s on humane values

that trapscend the usual. r~alm qf(,~,~,olitical ideology, o' Thes~ humanistic values include. as Butler ~E .~1.note, Il

1Ia reliance on altruism as a force for social r~n1!Wal ••• ; as optimism about the regenerative II ,End healing possibilities of history, despite much Ii

o distressing evidencf~ to the contrary;" an emphasis on fair play and ethical behav'iour in politics; a reluctal1ce to agree that the end can ever justify the meJ~s. "and a conflcfence that education and " I') religipn based on liberal values can shape a moral, well-informed; and democratically minded citizenry" •.,68 c. c,

An essential practical extension of thi,s humanistic tradition, i~ the l1elief that political change in South . Africa £.a..f! ot4ke place through peacefu L, evo:lutionary ~means, rather than through vi~lent revolution, and that

adherence 1,1 to the rule. of'~aw remain~ an" indispensable. element in such pOliti'clil f2hange. o

It must be, ser:ssed;:, that contemporary South African lii:;;erali.sm ought not "to be construed as conforming" to a 1:'igid,_)ideological pattern, despite the heighten~d rigour and aophistication of its" socio-poll.tical analY6is Richard E'lphiCk,69 in framing a theoreti- caL characteri~ation of liberal, thinking, maintaitts' that i.t lacks a !'pars.digm" analogous to the Marxist. that it Ls, in fact, pluralist by conviction, and that ~ it is committed f;o no causal model and af£inp,s no (/

o o 298.

fundamental to South African history. At the same time, however, liberal thought is not to be seen as vague or amorphous or Lnccnsi.s'terrt . It possesses a unity resting on common political allegiances, on. a critical stance towards the whi.te ..dominated SoiJth

African statec,,_andt especially. on a conmt.cmenc ,to freedom and jl~·s·tice. ~£hUSf while liberal thought '~n r- Sout'il. Africa today may be clU:it;:'act:~rincd by some ,fu~ality, flexibility. and heterogeneity, ~t ; nene.the l.ess possesses a coherence ana unity wh~'ch derbres f rom its foundation, upon a binding set [iof values and principles and attitudes, particularly those of freedom. demo<;racy and social humanitari~nism.

o From this., account. °i~ would seem that liberal f;uma.nism. as it has developed..\ and adapted in the contemporary pe;oiod, continues to 'l?it)resent ~ powerful. and relevant D\)·

o p~loitic'al ftorce and- to form an im...portant component of the WESSAt ~adition of dt

a liber~)l POE\,t. Nevertheless, it is possibl~' to t> categorise; a ,body of poetry or t.he work of G'h " .!\., . 0 o 't~irtdividual poet as liberal" human~st it1:, i~s political orien'tation. as .long as the categori~ati4 is li~t;)ted IJ tJ o . strictly·· to ~oe.try whose content and focus iSlj of a . . 70 directly. political nature.' This limita.tion allows o cogni.zence to be taken of the fact that man)1!"1il>eral" '.' . 'I poets. do, not a.lwaye and necessarily writeli po~itical

pcems, and also that many poems t while II i.n~luding

C1 '

\(' D 299.

passing or peripheral reference to politi.cal Lssues., are ..not necessarily "political" in any specific sense of the word. Poetry may be termed libe.ral humanist in so far as it expresses, or embodies, or adheres to, or is based upon, a core set of liber~h hUft.unist values. These values, as outlined above, are fundamentally

those of freedomt democracy and soci.al humanitariardsm. Thus, despite fairly wide variations in style, f'crm and c? temperament., a number of South African English poets may be classified as liberal humanist in that there is evident in their politicallY focussed poetry an or to fundamental liberal humanist adherence commitment~ . "' values. Such poets include not only those, such as Lionel Abrahams and Patrick Cullinall, who have openly declared the,ir liberal humanist: orientation, but also those, such as Christopher Hope, Mike Nicol, Chris Mann,

Rob~,>~:tGreig and others I whose work clearly enbodies liberal humanist v41ues even though the poets themselves may not; have directly ackn9wledged .their I, ' commitment to such values. \ \

It must: be noted that not all literary critic:ts»;! has regarded contemporary liberal humanist poetry in quite this 'way. A number of critics, influenced y,:,,=rhaps by the radical, shifts in critical practice, in the 1960s a.nd 1970s, have tended to define recent liberal poetry rather narrowly as merely a continuation of earlier liberal poetic activity and have hence tended to equate

it with the Q traditional, the conventional, the familiar. The tendency, as a result, is to see liberal poetrY gen1'!rally ):!lot 'as var Led and diverse" but rather .... \f-.. as \''U.rt,iform, customary, non-innovative. Micha~l Chapman, for ex.ample, in h~iS introduction to A CentuF.I. 9f_Q?uth African PQetrI, sees the liberal humanist :pc.i:.tic traditiorl fonni~g 'an unbroken line 300.

which begin.s with Pringle, is taken up by Sla.ter, and culminates in the poets of the war generation: Butler, t C,urreyt D• e1'l.US," vug1·'l.ng,r..on. W·rl.g h-L. 71 Aceor d":Lng .0 Chapman,

If this is a poetry ¥7hieh. in keeping with those conc tI 18tory ideals tr.aditionally aseoc Lated with English intellectual life, broadly characterises a humane and reasonab le speaking voice which dominates over image-making. The tones are t I familiar $ community-inspired; and, while there is "1 willingness to criticise soc LaI authority \ \ •.. ;~ the poetry's syntax, which is usually logically arranged, implies an underlying confidence in given moral and literary values.,,72

i) Chapman chen goes on to asser t that this "literary traditionalism" cont tnuee to inform South African English poetic activity today in the work of poets such

as Cullinan a;d Mann~73 Thus t while he does concede

some limited diversity within. the t traditional f t liberal poetry of today. Chapman generally 'seems to vi'ew it as largely conventional, unidimensional, unoriginal, particularly in comparison with what he t'Cd~s nan exciting literary rac:U.cilism" (whether of an "anti-poeticH or a "romantic-symbolist" mode) and to which he wishes to give prominence in his criticism.74 Even more harshly» Stephen Watson, Ln much of his earlier. materialist-based literary criticism, 75 (I upbraided Iiberal:"humanist poets for reproducing the

c: banal, sterile. moribund qualiti.es. (as he saw them) of the W'ESSAs'.:.b..cul~;ure in their poetry. " This poetry, he

felt! ..was unimaginativer,. superficial/ prosaiC, dull, "and was typified by Ita curious linguistic deadness" and

"a one-dimensional vision. It 301.

In these kinds of critical appraisals, it seems that the critics have not taken sufficient note of the developments and adaptations which liberal humanLst thought "bas undergone in the contemporary period, and so they continue to apprehend li"oeral humanism in outmoded and partial terms. Consequently. they struggle to see the \~ays in which ccnt.empoxaxy liberal humanist values inform recent liberal poetry; in par ti.cul.ar , critics such as Chapman and watsor, do. not: seem alive to the real variety and range of c-' on rpore.ry liberal humanist poetry t especiall.y in 'its cr _ique of the apartheid system in South Africa. The rest::of this 9hapter will therefore examine the various ways in which liberal poets have criticised the South Africa.n poli.tical order, a criticism which ranges in

fo'rm from direct J graphic descriptions and ccndf4mnations pf apartheid practic~s to. more subtle and

suggestive poetic strategi.es t and from candLd, self-evaluative reflections on the nature of liberal humanist opposition to apar the Ld .!=" exp16r£tticns of possible medlod.s of finding solutions to the problem of apartheid itself. Each of these forms of critique will be treated in turn. 0

In the first:' "place t a number of recent liberal humanist poets hav~ otf~red a critique vf South Africa's political system'lin a direct way) effectively utilising a ptjetry of plain st.auement to confront the major evils of their society clearly and forthrightly.

!n the past, liberal poetry has stoS,d accused of seeming unable or unwilling to face up to social injustice directly.76 It is suggested that its typically refined discourse, its concern with . aesthetics, its concentration on formalistic devices ~ 302.

all serve to obscure a. poem"s meaning and to d~..vert atd:mt:ion (llwa.y from the ostensibly poli.tical content of a poem and cowards eliti,st, hegemonic cu l.t.ural, concerns Likewise, ambiguities in political

responses I conveyed typically through linguistic ambi.guities and semancLc multivalency, are seen not as an honest and sensitive acknowl.edgement; of ambivalence, but rather as at best ignorlknce and weakness and as at worst a t acLz supporting of the §!;,atus quo. Wha:cever the. validity of such criticl.'sms i.n the past, they do not seem justified whel1 applied indiscriminately to contemporary South Ai:cii>~art lil>:ral poetry. . Far from seeking ref~ge 1.n th~ evasiveness of metaphor or layered ambigulty, several lir>r.al poets have presented

unequivocal and direct c6ndel!D:lations(.i of the i.njustic'E!s and brutality of the apartheid system.

I' Huce Nicoll a poem," "A Violent Country" (Among the Souvenir!, 1978), exemplif±es the capacity of liberal humanist poetry to address social and political eviJ. directly.

"That is a violent country: harsh in landscape and governmen\:." People live, ccld and unsmiling, with the rope's knot againsr.. their necks, waitirlg for the trap to open. Everyone, those in labour camps on the edges of cities, or tho£te i.n grand houses on wide avenues 1.s "ruled by the hard law of death. Hatred a.nd fear have bought their hearts. There'the State is all:

\\ (J 303.

its;geogr~phy a m.atter \_ of strict borders electrified against enemies; its uniforms and laws. , institutions and politics \i\, control the whole life of the people< Even J Ii ~ - ('- \. '../ion qUl.et. coacs arcer I, \ '\ ~ \ ., < "'-., \ the breathless tens ton 1/' () at sunset. Authority's frigh ter.ing' vo ice . shouts f rem mountains:

'Regard ooly ~he State. Q 4: The State is the true Reality. I Love means nothing in em iron Sta te • ( (] r-, \\ 1.1 DOliticians wear the utl.iform. ,:" o,f power. '.jUstice '-' D " .,,~) is :a suddep. dtop into a white~"laslied room. tr () \ , ' . . ~\,\1 ' Nicol employs a' Language of pJain statement t a Language '

, ~ .' "'\' Q (almos~ entirely stripped of poetic embellishment f in order \ to a~se'r£\ \mequ.ivocall'Y tne brtltal injbst,ices. ,perpet\ated by ~\he Seuth Af~ican ,Sta t;,~. ~~he 'poetic vo Lce :Il,f r.edu.ced\~to a virtU; ';--:'.1 peoaaf.c , bare utter.~n\ce in 'whic\, the horrifying' fa'C:i~ of the apartheid system are exposed and condemned. Yet the poe,.n is nodi a'mere ~, imitation ef th~ Marxist ideal poetic f<>ni as practised, foi'~xalllple, by. Peter Horn. Though Nicol's " o poem denounces apartheid, the terms iv, wh:f.ch it doas so \ ..\ '.) J' C, L' are clearly libe:ral rather than materialist.. In '0 par tLcular , contrary to the M~t·'d.st polit1.cal analysis, this poem identifies the fundamencaL Ci{USe of political • I) injusti\.~e not as e'3se!\tially economic, but rather, ''in. •-;=" \, humanistic terms: "Hatred" has replaced "Loven f true o tiju~ticetl has beertc supp Lant.ed by the "power" of rho

State J and individt~al rlght;:s and liberties have been, e~otied by ~he arbi.tra't'Y exe~cise of f'Authority". 'rhefle 30/... '

violation); of humane values are 'not occasioned by the cLas s surugg Le but rather cut across class div:;,sions and affect all members of the society u~let.eriouBly~

"those in Labouz camps on the edge"s of the ci:ties t ol:'those in grand ho'Uses on wi.de avenues". If

~gain unlike much Marxist poetry, Nicol f s poem" s~ops short of proposing cl.ear=cut; Hsolut.:;'otls" to the problems of South Africa t:md so functions not: as an u attempt to mobilise and mi.l.Ltar Lse it:s audience, but \1 rather as a straightforward protest against ( zhe infr:lngemcl1t of human rights by the Government and aga Inat the perpetration of polit'Lca1 violence. Whatever solutions are to be ,iound. the underlying impli,cation of the poem is that they too ought to be grc-und~d in the V'al'U~~ of, freedom and justice and love. 't;) (, i,1

\::. I"~ (iJ p Like Nicol, Chris Mann has also at made .use of d:mes. ',' simple, unadoxned language in layIng bare the lsrim

realities .of II oppression, (711ft in "Shoo,tiug Prac t tce" (!'

World of Their ()'r..m,. ed. S. Gray, i976~\ IfLove 'and Fear" (I

and HT11e Detainee,fi" (both in First Poems J '.' 1977). !) In this last-mentiBned poe~~ the continuing psychological c 1\1.;1. trauma wrought r¥ a per!od of detention with~~t trial, i~. conveyed all the more v>qwe,1:ful1y through the plain

() dictioti and I quiet rhythms> throue;h a" poetry °shorn 'Of

all obt rus Ive literary e,ffects or hyperoole~ "-,,,,0:'

I) "Haxs wa~'.no "physical beat~tn:g~ with s:ubtl~tv awl great pa'\lence her captors \?ingered out her thoughts, then battered them with ridicule, II untqi.t' all she was and stood for!( seemed cringj;;tg i shabby, and wrong.

I) I>

o 308.

final line. At another level, however t the word "etcetera" does convey meaning as it suggests that so long as ?Ipeop,le ignore GUlch vf.oLence and simply carryon

H 8ith the rest of their liv~s ("etcetera ) so will such acts or vf.o Ience and others ("et<.1titera") continue to be committed. However inadequate language may seeIItto be, it is the one tool at t:he poet' ,3 disposa.b to pt:'otest against violence and injustice and to help bring about a more equitable and humane soc Lecy , even if it means going back to the ver.y roots of."la-q,guage:

H "And there :is 'grammar •

Numerous liberal htlmallise')poets have f :i.ndeed, presented direct and unequivocal criticisms of the whole panol?,ly of apartheid pul.Lc .e s arid practices, from decent Len {J rI without tri.al to the migrant labour system to the Group Areas Act to the Immorality Act. To take a single example, the cruel practice of forced rpmovals has been condemned in the Nost" umambiguous terms by poets such

aa Mike Nicol, "Urban Renewal: c:' Fourteenth Stree til (Among the so,,!~i.r~i!" 1978) ~ ~riS Mann, "on the

Di&posal of Effluent" \(A World of' 'rEefr OWUt ed , S. Gray. 1976)~ Franc'~ls Faller, I~-M:agopd,: The

\', , , ~~,/~ Recettlement'l (Weather ~oT.'ds, 198'6), and Ali"YilJames, \1 ,",,' "~ nAfter a De11l,61it1on Raf'? on a Squatter Camp" and

"Squatters t Homes Demolished: tro~sroads and KTC Camps" (both ,In I:roducing the, ..~!ndsc~p~., 1987) • In this ~ last-mentioned poem, James 1.$ confronted ,'by !'~the "rank , \~ festivalll of the demolition of homes, an action which ;1ames condemns as a crime, ag.s'inst humanity and a sin against God. Jam~s chare.ctert~ticaU.y employs a style \~o'i,T,lprising short, abrupt pbr~~s and unusual, even a-::chaic: diction, a practice which at times results in '.'some degree of obscurity and diffic'\llty. In this poem,

however t the poet I s condemnation of the demolit. ion is

(J 309.

/) couched in a. language of astringent clarity and directness and in tohes of barely controlled horror and rage:

"Can be no account of. it compJ,.ete, ruled: the brokenness I_) and' bre~k~~g 1.;1.11n?t ba;lance, not ~e sa1~ utt~rly. the knOY7ing of it too little ~\ and not ~nough, not ever enough- wholeness of hor ro r not I~ossible to know~ Cross- roads, KTC... names as stones ~ I' ) thrown and these but bits, crumbs of J happenings of dark. Beasts in the heart so there are. Dh this rank festival. Ho~ they scoff at shelters J °m,.;ck gt;p'..lud giVq:ll over. Stop. Do not pxosper .euch evil. its men. Will you not drag them away with hooke? [) Use what yO\! H.ke. Tear each one '0 °apart. Unmake them, Take not your eye. from this place: le~ the innocent be annocentn oh how coula you give them up? c Their sufferi.ng like a stone o hits you in °yi.Jur own very intestines: a i::ompU~ion ., ",( 1\ of 8uffering t;:lat is ",\P unknowing obedience ~~~ which h8S become !Jubmis ion. Shall this be suffivien Shall \\ ~re be flrequired? It: despair still ~l;:j c.ome1 A frenzy out- grows cprayer and. ~eleva.t~ce of ,~,~raya~..Mercy. Veng~nce." "\\ o \', In adgition to a poetry -o f direct polit!1.,,e81 criticism .' . (.\" . 11 .:: k'· " :>, c expreased through simple. straightforwa!'4': Language, a number of contemporary liberal humanist poacs have also utilised other Dl~thods to expose and" condemn Sobth Africa r s apar thef.d syst em, In p~rticular, 2,th~s'e voets have offer.ed a critique of the ,;t~'~litic3.1 S.it'.!l8tion. in

g'outh Afri,ca ti'n:'ough va~'iotr~\:;=indi~ect means. 0 To J u _ .. address political issues in 3,'fl i!ldirec,t or oQ~ique wal /, l 310. " need not necessarilyc "indicate an ev.-a;,;iveness, or a - l) " 0 timidity about confrontation, or a d Lsguf.sed If~servatism; it may rather be seen simply as, a di.fferent, and at times highly effective!\? set of tact;53:.S.) The insistence on the continued and exclusive US\~ of direct methods in political poetry seems to lead inevitably to imaginative exhaustion, repetitivenes~ "and cliche - a charge which could be levelled against Harxist poets" suqp as Peter Horn or the Soweto poets 'Of the 19709,. manyf of whom, like Hongane Serate, found 1! 0 themselves' unabte to continue writing poetry. Tf4US) \) II I a'Lt hough , as, dfscussed above, liberal !)poets have! no't been unwill!n,~ to employ dne most direct and 3traight£qrwar!~ strstegies in their political poetry, o ,I they have a18,b recognised the necessity and thfi: value of e'xploring/other means of expressing their anaLys Ls and critiei~~ o(\tne South, Afr;i.can. political order. " If _ I r ,) The variety! of such :l,ndirect methods is coo wide for

/;"0 f) 0 "this study! to be able to provt.de a corap reheas tve ii ? account. }instea.d, a few reasonably represent;;ative if () . examt'les I will be ~~~lected which 'U.1ay serve (1as illustratf'ion of the range and diver$ity of sudh methods.! G ;! Ii c ii" / 0 One ~)Jrtieular dev1C7,e which ha.s, ,~een utilised frequ,lltly by nUmerous liberal poets in Soutb Africa is

cU i17ony",i The. ironic ,mode in pOlitte/H poetry has been vB.ified by soma

improbity than the obviousness of direct::statement~ In p:articular, this bas the effect of compelling the readers to fill in the gaps or make the final logical step themselves in .order to make sens~ of the pem. As a result. the readers are forced into o. active,,,, par't LcLpet Lve role in ana Iys tug and evaluating the political issues raised in the poem. In Robert Greig's "Watermelon Breakfast" (Talking Bull, 1975) t for example, the reader is f'.)t"ced to interpret the eating of" a watermelon as symbolic of white political o oppression and cupidi,;':y. In Geoffrey Hat"esnapeIS '/ "She'ep" (Drive of the 1i_de f 1976), a poem superficially deacribing the slaugh ~ring of a sheep," the abjence of consider o " formal closure compels the reader to the

.ymbolic implications or,the event described: 0

o /) U:fhe happening may perhaps be'glossed as - ,mutton, holocaust ~or revolution) "', ?--) c- ~" ,~ar~ Swift's Speaks Vo (Seconds Out. "History ~, Iumes " _'._..... t· ,_ \l19~3} inv;.tes the reader to see the connections :'between at~ocities committed in th~ past and present-day South Afric.an political practices, as ~,ell as ,between earlier Q ' , political. mistakes and continu~ng South. Afric~n f,polhardi.n~s£. (;:, And in Christopher Hope's "RegLona'l

News" (£atpe "Drives f 197") 'f v the reader ~s ma~e to see that the appazent.Ly Lnnocuous regional news items are

c representative of the underlying stupidity and evil of o South Africa's political system.

A ,'poem which examplifies the use of implication and qp.ggestivertessto bring attention t.o the iniquities of 'apart-heidLs Roy Joseph Cotton's "A South African Day" (Ag, Man, 1986):

o 315.

the gardener serves as a. remtndcr that not all blacks are similarly "fri.endly", while the pain felt.. by the speaker as the gardener spades the earth begins to take on such political associahions 4~ white pain and dread in the face of an analogously violent political action. The poem' s opening line, accorddng Ly , seems sudden'l.y menacing: the word "rattle", with its associations of the chains of imp'risonment or death , .:highlights the pol Lt.LcaLl.y viple.l1t and oppreas Lve role pI ayed by the :t t! .. South Afr i.can Police in maintai.ning the apartheid system. In the light of the accumulated meaning of the

poem's suggestiveness t the .rindl· phrase that

"Everything is I as it normally is" becomes I in fact 1 the severest of indictments of the poLdt LcsL status_9..!!2 in South Africa.

Apart from s\.¥(.n.parti.cularised poetic devices as irony

',,/ < and implicati"9." several liberial poets have developed thei r 01h"tl uniqti:e' indirect s ti1rJ;teg1es for revea,li,ng and criticising the South African political order. blhile it i.$ LmpoasLbl e withit1 the scope Of the present study to identify and discuss all of these personalised methods, mention may be made of a few notable examples.

Stephen Gl-:ay. ;i.n The Beast t s HistoryH (It 1 s About !..!!!!~, 1974)? constructs a parodic historical verse sequence to expose with corrosive wit the fl:agilt;:fous- ness of white .Soutih African politics. C~ristopher Hope, in his long, fragmet\tary poem, §E.&!..i~hmen(1985), also adopts an historical per spect Ive to reveal the I) roots of pre3ent-day political injustice and hatred in

South Africa. And Chris Mannc. has used the ballad form, in poems like uThe Hunger of Ezrau and "The Ballad of

Braamfontein" i,.~.bothin !:irst PO!!!!!, 1977} t I\to point subtle political morals. "

Particular attention needs to be given to Peter WilheLm's "Spring ~fo~ i"t~f! Prisoners, November 1975" 305.

And hers is 1:V:'; quf.ck recovery: bewildered by the sudden freedom, mistrnsting the kindness of fri,ends, she \~.l;:if'7;~;lptshed .fright 1'Nh~ch br ings a gap 1.n every laugh she tr:Les, and devils crashing through her sleep.

A sunflower in the dusts of Hay!, its green and yt.~lj.ow summe'rhead droop'Lng scorched and sootily, husks up a thousand ;:imes itself sf:!ed, 'Whose oils and r Lpenes s

.;..tAo.'''''~e ....her,_..;.:. ~'HId....,l. \1:1,aLwavsQ",'f" he·4,,-""",,·I·.illrn 11

s terrza Ln which it simple, yet. f2'VGcat:iv(~ metaphor is ut:ili§t'd. If tha.: first two s t.anz e.a state openly and ~ :.-' plainly the i.njmf~;ice and inr~~mard.ty of such apartheid barbarities as d~tention, with~ut trial and the brut.a l . t'l':'eatment of detainees. then che f Lna L stanza sugges cs til1at the basis of resistance\) ~o ar;arthe1

'Mann is alway's ",'vJa.re, how~ver. tn-at'i\;" o at times" 0,:'11y a " I, language..1 of "numb hprroll'" e.l~~ lIyi.(\,1.ence" can be used :In \~ h: \ / th~ attempt to come to lterms \'1i.th such political :1 /" atroa.it, ies,' as the brutal as's,"lssinat:ion of an actfgi~t i?t'iend~, "In th~ poem; n;:U M::'ffiory of ,h~"'nett:e S\~hoon 'i Killed by a Parcel, Bomb ill Exil(~ :tn Angola" -\QI~ !~I'~EE.Q£!< o;__SOllt.LAW:p'fn_~~~.§h P9£_P,:_ty., edll'i\ M. Ghopma:r. 1986), Hann finds.. when he - consd.der-s ,Ithe horrifying detai.ls of his fe.. end ' s deatt!l., that language Lt se Lf becoraes "r:i.ppedff <11,1<;10 smashdd and almost" beeazs down into Lncoherence r \

\\ 11 'J I, 306.

"Your n.ervy laugh and small, neat hands Jeanette, the high, compassionate ideals which you like a swallow, tossed about in stormclouds still flew' towards, these litleS eommemoxat;e .~abunch of winter marigolds, bitt~r but affi.rmatory, gath~red t-O mark the graveside reverie of a::, S ell dent friend. Bur language t its close-knit fabric of words, which speaks with ease of precious, humdrum things - tile,kitchen's bright kettle, those hands cradling "Chat last blue mug of tea - Language is ripped, the thread~ ~angling, by such a smashing «: blast, ,can only gesture. patchily, at: a room in shambles, tpe rafters smoking. freak- l mangLed chat.rs , the haH:tufts. flesh, s -bits, the 5patterings •• ft " 1\ . ,7' ge Such, la",1i)l17S '" while not plain "r simple 'Js\.evertheless ccnf'rorrt s political violence pla:i.nly a \ with a shocking directness which is $ru~~som.elY appr riate co- the _l1ightmarish ~ubj~ct matt.en of the poem. \\lLhe rest Of.eh~, •. poe.'m fun(.~t¥~ as a cow,riemoration .~o~~\5r::tnP1Yo~

tP~=jViO:;tim herself f ') bu,~ ".also of &e.rr) "high, o co~~ssionat~, ideal$lt: ideals qf humanity, ,,,~ntlenes,s c and --truth utterly opposed "tGI cruelty and human ovi

1/"NJ)t grief. Jeanent;e t .some sort' of l:emembrance i3 all you I d .ask , a w<.'/.:ilanof privilege o who spoke her mind J who never would accept; in prison or out, hOWl much we humans loathe '.\to b~' conEr9pted ~.,it.h our. cruelties. Thi~ truth w~both misjudged, when as students our'pJ.acards !\li:f-led; we marched the .Ioburg- screer s , your language d_':ll a tapestry of dreams ,,0 1.\,;; wit.h,pumb horror, at: human violence, torn through, JS m{ne, in memory of your h~gh idea_ls, your g~ntle hands and voice loS nOli, 'Jeanette."

\\

1,1., 307.

(In this regard, consider also Anthony Delius's "Eduardo Mondlane" (Modern South African JlO~' ed. So. Gray, 1984) and Peter Sacks I ~ "For Richard Tutner" (TIt...! Paperbook of South African English-2petry, ed. M. Chapman, S~1986), two other poems commemorating the victims of similar political assassinations, as well as the i.deals f,or which they stood.)

Like Chris Mann, Patrick. Cullinan has also confronted directly the" te~rifying facts of politic:ll violence committed by- ~_' '~State, conveyi,ng, hf.s ho'.cror and o outrage in 8." f $ta~C brutal di,ction in the poem, "Grammal:" (Today Is Not Differen!, 1978):

'~I (J "Slowly-no sq,qnd but the sound of rain, The calr'i\:~ess" of it falling deep Into the night'. ' /)' Somewhere'outside they break a man's face SlotHy. N('lW the ,face" has no eyes, No country, The tongue Ie pulle_4out: I must speak. These wdtds aze my own,c The memory. ~ blind desp into" the night, zgemember a. couRtry where rain 1./ Blurs on the window and slowly A fire chokes on its ash, And' there is grammar; ,)Soufids that were made before. Broken. Somewhere outside tr~ night goes on, Slowly the rain E:'tcetera." c;

'l'he sheer savagery of such violence .utterly dest~~;:;s the 0poet' S initial peace of mind and compels him to articula te hi s prates e , Like Chris Mann, how~ver, he finds that Ln the face of such b~rbari ty Language prove~ inadequate, becomes "Broken" and lapses into the ,; ~~ -: (\ helpless non..signification .of ~'etcetera!' in the poemt s 311.

system and grounded firmly in the of undamental liber.al humanist values of freedom, justice and sec LaI humand t ar Lan Lsrn, In much liberal South Afri~""n poetry, the ej:f ....'t.iveness of irony in exposing the ,,t;:;,} \..\~tices and "inhuUli ity of the apartheid system lies, J;:l~ .'~~befact that such nO,etry works on two differr~·(~t; levels. Firstly} th poem present a. typical, easily r-, r ecogud.sab l.e , rd apparently "normal," South African scene . Secondly, the supposed normalcy of the scene is ironically undercJ~) and its :in,1J.'t.tent in,.~ustice. immorality and abno rmal.Lty is caustically expO's The ',,=::::~,ffect is that \'- ";reality o~ current injustice and the ~ '"" possibility of" iuture justice are sImul.t.aneous Ly present in the poem so that the reader is forced into active" vaLue judgements and a personal assessment of his or her attitude towards the current political system. \1 These ironic t#.~ .ue s are evident, for examp l e , in Roy Joseph Cottdu ._-H~ndigenous Letters frmn Hell" (Mt. ~.!lt ~'J986) , ;~ihere \~he "!leritage" of white, South

, \', " ': Afrieans is revealed t~'''lbe qt..t, te unwort;hyCof the pride the speaker of the poe.~ feels in, it; in Christopher \ ' "". Hope' s "Tn thee! Middle o~\ No\V'here"

reactionary f ignorant and r'~ci.st; 1ft Sheila Robert s-' s "I.aula Life" (Lou's Life al~d Other Poems, 1977), Ln \.) - , \,"" ._ "-.. ~J which the apparently f8ir-min~~ed Lou is shown to be no les,s insensit$.ye anti prejudice~) than her white friends; \./1, and in Francis Fa,ller's IIW,tre the Muse to Come" (!i~!.th~r Wordso;_, 1986). which confx-o,nts" a ccnse rvacfve 1'ntellectual'. ' \4hiteI) readership TNitfi~::"." tht.~ realities of '~U'scrimination on otheir own terms by likening the Huse .,-

to an" underprivileged domestic 0 servant. The use. of c.' i!'on~ ,i.;<_""·:;~r:,t:~.t:'Jlarlyw'ell demonstrated in Patrick Culli~.'ia"'~l"S{ ts ~:i$.iwaysGre~t You Smilingti (!£.~a:z Is. No~ Different, 1978,):

/) (I

G 312.

"We: always greet you smi.li.ng, Raisi,ng a hand as yot.'_ drive past'; An.d should you wish. we pose before our huts,

Set8 among dry meaLi,e s ca Iku , The rolling hills of dusty veld. Sr":netimes, Uriasked. the piccanins will sing and dance o (You always like that pq,rt), and certainly a few cents help. But have you seen limN' joyfull~ we starve our dogs, How hopelessly we heat our women? And do you know That when their hungry be l.Li.es svlell We hate our children?

.Wewant to learn from Yf(U. " "Wealways greet you smil'lng. '1 s»

,\ The poem presents the familiar scene 'of rur~.f blacks II .: waving and smiling at passing l.vhite motorist-.s. The

apparent; ru~tic contentment gives way J howeveir,0 tv a .• " I shocki'l1,~ () revela.tion of t.he poverty, de'{>rivat.ion .and ,\ mf.sery \~revalent ~

opprEliss1~~~-o practices of the affluent, dominant wh~tes of sout\f Africa. In. this light, the comarent; in the poem' s ~enultimate line that the blacks ';Iisn to learn ft;p'm the\ whites.~ suggests not a. call" for paternali.stic white al~ruism Dor for("!(:uftural deve l.optaent , but rather a desire to learn how to exploit and oppress in the way that the t~rivileged whites do now~) The poem' s iro~.j.c charge fo~ces the re~der to acknowl.edge 'Chat wlfl.tes"do not., If;epresellt the" forces of ,civillsation and. charity, but instead thbse of brucal, ovpressi.on and bar,parism.

(J ,. JI o If .) Apart 'i ~rom othe ~evic; of iro.ny, a number of pot::ts "have also made use of fhe techniques of im.plication and sugges~iveness which in politically foctlsQd poetJ:'Y is often more effective in revealing injustice and ) 314. l "The police vans rattle thro,:ugh 'Our windy cities, Eve~~thing is as it usually is. The garden 'boy' is friendly and i feel ~~in as i watch him spade the earth. The milk 'hoy' is called 'Milkie' by the woman who works in the chemist. The delivery tboy' calls me rMister Roy' and does not mind when i tell him the wind is a langerous thi.ef. The suburbs are sunny. Everything is as it normally" is. to

The poem d~scri~,~s a seemingly tranquil. i.nnocuous, quotidian suburba~ scene, yet every detail serves to suggest: with the utmost subtlety an element of the aparrbct.d sy~te1ll. The reference to the black gardener, milkman and delivery map as "boys" highlights their in~rior SOCial..statu~,.under 8vartheid, par.ticularly in

U comParison wit!:) the white woman (not "girl ,)' in the chemist and the speaker himself who is addressed

respectfully as "t1;i.ster Roy"; Mo:r.eover, the 'be menial nat.ure of their cccupat Lona dra.ws attention too dt,he reality of econoPlt.~ disparity, between white and black in South Africa. Given these f,;!.cts of apartheid, several ot.her apparently innocuous phra.ses begin to assume darker impllcations< The sp~j!ker·socomment that

"the w;~r,d is a I dangerous thiefH t for example, begins to persona~ seem~ less an expression of unfounded ~ parat}cia and more an expression of general white fear in the face of an impove:r:ished and frustrated black. o· ,: majority. This sense of the phr ase is enhanced by its connection "r~ith the ~arlier phrase, Hour windy cities"c1 which implies that the danger of robbery 'is ever

ll present in the ess~l1tiall~> white ("our ) cities. In - f? o the l~ght of this reading~ the n6ted friendliness of

o 316~

(Y.bit~_ F~R:!~r~f 1977), which blends together sati:set innuendo, thinly '·.reiled scorn and black humour to formulate an indirect, though pungencly eff~ctive condemnation ot s~ch aparth~id "realities as censorship, impr'isonment for p'olitical: activity and the torture of II prisoners:

HI want to,c.~lebrate spring .. Not any spl:j.ng, maybe memo~i$ed from *=llose 19th' , century poets '~H!":cead in sehoo l, a,rId so m~thologised into the m"e and onl~ spring there 18, " • with April's' sweet show;~,s andrth~ March winds blowing_, "No: I want co- ~elebrate this south~rn spz Ing , so I have to s£JPose my wf!t'ds car'.!fu,ly

to fi t in, "< 0 " c "',

t(}' fit into w~'ac-ff~."spti'i'!l5 ~e.ans her\~ n I , (./)) ',~ (1-'\ .0" C) ~~~~:u:~l~~h~l::~~:tf'tt~s:~~tfit~fmy language () the Language doesn 1\;" r50rk anr more. " it doesn t t work wel~';., (,' " ' " I co,'n1,d,celebrate" a \spring that hamtners· out ha!?pifre:s~"" after a~,l that sll)Ok! from S6weto ' " ,oli£t~d 6£f" the M,li.[ " , . And small green hird.\S ma1<:etrill~ng loye in my lemon tree'~r They really do.' 0 And those clouds" that come up north with electricity and rain, lete this ~p'1'ing; /J,.. 0 sometimes a. cloHd so .hi'~h 0 the blueness seems infinite and expanding like the unb/erse someone discovered by aced dent - the one that began X"'milliol'l. years ago \ c when th.e First Cause liberated e7ltponentfal €.TJergy for Jesus and Krishna to preside over quasars a.nd , neutr(.'):'1,.stars,))" c\ . ~he dragon in the fire that eats J.\./~~--:-"''P tail and all of us cling t.o its;'\ sides. I. ',..._/. " But spring is Ii~o irre\evant. 1\ who can celeb3.~t~ sp:ring? You can mak~ivil with interrc._gations and app Hancas so real it's like concrete. (\ ),( It.'s even more real than sp:ring. '\j So what does language come down to? We can talk about love. (! 317.

I love, you love, we love, Pt.",tyour arm here, there~, anywheze , ' F' Let me record our lCHie making 8 landscape of fiJ.esh, corrugations and dunes for the.rea.lity-asserting peace. How pr2cisely I can delineate l'Ove o with the l~sc fibres ~f language. " And" che're ~re even thtf pCiss:i.biJ.iti€>s of, metaphors "which transcend evil, 'provided evil is. only a metaphor aad I apply myself t"rP;iprecision. (/

c HOur boys. on the border guard the fortresses of love in this 'intolerable spring." That's a mli:i;a.phvi,t.hat's get Past the Mind Central Boa;rd, if

or I 'can take it on appeal. o

I do so want to celebrate. Jr kn(}wVan Riebraeck had go.ad.inteJltions, \~, and after all Agost:triho Neto is a. poet .. which is a. point to ,~emembp.'t'when th~ hloody dawn comes in Luanda. .'"

.>And t k1l6W'.}:hi:3tgs f~~getting.i better like :in the song t and we'll have m.usa-t!!all ,the w~y to the hangmasi who 1 s a

o Q The apparent Ly Lngenucus nature of th~ poem's openfng ;

in whic.h the poet clai'll~i merely to W2,nt to ,~lebrate (e spring, ., soon gives ,way to a much more sombre perspective as the particular details ot' "this scuthern .., 1/ springft ar.e revealed: the need to choose words ca'tefuli~~ not si~ply .tor arti~t5"C! precis Lon, but fn " ozdar to e~cape censorsh~(p; white "happ Ineas" at the succes~)ful' suppression',~f bl~dk 'fo~shiP unrest; the brewi.rig storm pf :tne'v-itnble Poli~ri~~~,~lcat;~tlysm. Under the cons-cant; threat of cel1sorsbip and a:r!~!fst'f the poet t~ho~tinues .c~o dis~.uss the harmless t~PiC" of a 'k,oetic ') Ii l!

c;: 318.

ce.LebxatIon 'Of spri{~g, while "accid(,~i.;talIfitl alluding to \\ t~.1C chilling fact&\ of politic.?l Imprf.sonmant; and \) zor ture i

"But. spring is 50 :Lr·p~levant. Wbo can celebrate spring? . " You can. make evrL ~'ith intet'ragaci.ons and app l.Lances so real itls like ~oncrete. It I s ':,Vell more reaL th,3.:q!spring. n

" 'Similarly, a seemingly innocent m~.ditatio:'t on the, poetic articuldt.l.otl of love becomes in actuality an exposure of the almost cornpLet;e .ab sence o~; love and )I humanttarianisT;' in South African politics, whether in tht microcosm of '.ndivi,gual human rights or" in the /T) macrqcosm of intei'nation:ll rela.tions. The poem ends o wi~h ~i terrifyingl,y nihilistic vision of the uniYerse, in which religious 'and rr.etaphysical truth are in reality me=ely meanirlgless :l::ragllh~nts', and ,,~:heconcept •of lqve, accordingly, has no bas~:; as an absl:>lU'te value CI.t; all: \1

"The d"~hirl~~~ngfragments of thts universe are more (~d, more ~ifficult to cling to '=~~c=aa~~-,lovel'Uhh;p.O more l'neaning than a whit~~ cloud in. 'the il'l!in:f.5te expartding blue". c

o ';, .:~: In zhe, light of this radically secular, 1\~,ti"meta- ph~fSic8t Ilision, it Ls clear t.hat the solc~ possf.'ble, source bf n';.eanintr and value in" the world lie.s in human conduct ~ ::the prt'tound :i.mplicatiioll of this noz Lcn Ls that th~r aces of, intense cruelty, l~atre:d and. mendacity perpetr4rted by the South Africarl ,St~te are crimes" against III humanity of the W'..)rst 'possible order, imagina~i.le.. 1':.1 the face of this;) the poet might well find ce 'et~ratirJn Lmooastb l e , " '. .i' .' .r In the <;lpritempOrrary period, li.beratl humanist "~oets have employed a "l;,trtety of methods and [cecbnt.ques in their !: i \\\ 319. \\ '~ i,\ . , "~~ , \ crit~1je (:~t..I. the South Africae ~olitic:a.l system, ranging fl~om. th~ d\~M::"ect;ness of plain s~~temen.t to. the. obliquity of subtil.e ~~ugg;estiveness., take, as a whole, . t~e forma! d. i,terS ..l..t.x "~r.&scope Oc.I the poeljl.fl' hac s ensured that.the CT.itiq~~ iJ\ rea.sonably compreh rsive, substantial .\~nd 1\ c, thorough, \~nd thc;u; it bas \ seldom lapsed ~nto repetitivene':rs a..nd alic~e. \ ,; \\ . However, lib~\ral hum~nist poets, in focussing upon the politi.cal 8:f.~~ion 'in South Africa, have not simply

I' D p:ce'a~~ted a ck1.tJ.ci.i(SIll.of eXi.st:tlbg structures, policies and practicas,\ important though this area :~f their work

undoubtedly i~I\~ They have" _.1so, in 1 their poetry, \ « acknow:"~dged and re,flected critic.ally on tHe complexi- ties ~d difficulties involved .in their own liberal q.t.unar:d.~lt poU,tical. position, and they have 'attempted, .. ~ by so doing, to provide the basis for the develoBment of pos&1,bl. solutions to South Africa's political. problems.

Chris IM~)ln, for example, is one poet ,who has £requ~ntly and ,f~nestiY sqbjected his own political persiS~~'iv~8 in hii.ll~'poetrytu detailed scrutiny, in poems such aa "A

Pr~yer' for My Work" t "Whistling in the Dark" (bo,~,ll in Fir ' Poems, 1977) and "Strategieslt (New Shades, ~·ti82).

It J.:;), however t in the poem, ";a,etween Calm Contempla- tion and ActionH Cf'irst Pq~!!.!t 1977), that Mann .~Rrov:ides perhaps .the ,clearest o1.ltlin¢ of his personal political position and attitude:

"Well-fed philosophers in universities fl who meditate upo!), the 'Word "good , and, chop it into .'small ,and ,.smaller senses until no 'sense .::>£ it rema:Uis at ~ll t make dithering seem the rightful conduct and hesitance a virtue. 320.

Gutter politicia.n.s ignore. them, ,and greedy for ordinary comforts and an ordinary self-es~eem lambaste tbe land's injustices unt:i"l~21 purity turns to rage; \~ which pul.Ls the temple on their heads. I, I! 11e known the disciples of both: a tall fastidious architect, who'll emphasize the need for thought even ~'hile"they nail his coffin down; and a blue-jeaned missionary lady, SQ intent on the riddanCe of hunger. she~d fenced a dozen tropical sties be fb re she' d'''grasped how pork WaS taboo. Between ca'lm contemplation arsd action ..the.re I S no ,,!';hoi.ce or middle ground. ,~ They are where the talkative. shades start or cease to counsel us, at the old interf~ce of what's right and possible, of stony sustenance and brittte or blossoming thorn."

The opentng two scanzas identify and evaluate twt) characterist\ic responses to" the ~rrent political

1/ situation in South Africa. In th~ fi-rst place. Mann condemns the over-intellectualised, aloof inactivi'7Y oc~ those who seem more interested in theorising about:1the,\ ' nature of what is "gcod" and",'\,rightn than in actua~ly ~ . .~ working, to bring about a good and rigbt "pol;J.tical order. In the second placet Mapn condemns t,.ose at the ' other extx:-eme of the anti ..apart.heid spectrum who, act rashly an;i recklessly without giving proper' consf.dexat Ion to either the practicability or mor~~lity of their "actions. The result of the first zesponse is that an unjust ~~!~ guo remains in place whiit'!i its phd Lcaopbd.s i.ng oppcnent s' dither and hesitate. The result of the second response is that all notiot1tS of justice and purity are lost in. violent, self ..de8j~ruc-

tive mindlessness. Each of these ,.responses f in isolation, needs to be rejected. As the final s t.anaa

\\ 321.

!l\ak~~scleat.", what 1,$ required is that the two modes of response are synrbes Lsed into a complementary

' t f'lf . . ., ,t· W1LO 1enes s , so t.aa - C.Uj.7,t;,. ccncemp 1f!.t~on. a,s geaze d towards practical j_mplemet~i':.t'*l::i.on, and "acti •.on" is informed and underpinned by sound, morally justified

theory. Tl;lis synthesis ~ moreover f is non-negotiable: I ') Nann's political credo is spelled out: ~n an sbse luce Ly clear, un~quivocal, matter-of-fact formula:

"Between calm contemplation ~nd aC1:j,ion r) there' s no choice or middle ground";

Yet Hann is acutely aware that such a synthesis is far Ii ,', "II easier preached chan practised, and ~t1.a,t,!th,e decistort-s and compromises and sacrifices that' h~\t~{to be made in

balancing flwhat's right I and possi.ule" are never 0 straightforward or ~asy. This complexity is signalled and represented i1\ the final b ..n~s of the poem by a cluster cf dense, polyvalent symbols. The syt\tacf;-ical

(j arrangement G.': the lineE suggests that the idea pr .trightH is r~pre8ented by "stony su:stenan.ceH, while the \dea 'of, the, "pos.sLbLe" is represe:~ted by "brittle or.

b\ossmning thorn"; Firstly f this implies that commi,1',;...o ment to 'rightness ought to be 6'f the same resilient." tough, solid quality as (r""stone, and that such a

commitment f rather than r~s~lting in' rigid ster.i'lity t ~ .> , will in effect provide sup~prt and vitality_ Second1:¥" the suggestn.on. is that 1;:'0" take the practical and the realistic into account may involve a degree of painful, o even bitter cQmpromise (Lfkened, to the harshness of "brittle thorn"), but that ultimately such practicality may bear fruit even in the most unpropit'i.oU8 of cic;cumstances (as :hpplied by the hardy productivity of "blossoming rhoen"}, t)The crucial wor:d ip -chis regard I Co lt i~ , clearly, I and ), which serves not 322.

only as a reminder of the q.pcessity for synthesising the right and the possible, but also that it is the very conbLnata.orr of the two not Ions that will produce hoth endurance and revitalisatiott. The set of symbo'l s ;. -, ~-- function:~ on a deepC1' referentia1 l'1.":v~,l also t th:t,ougb

their Christian associations. i'f' 1,:r,age of stone suggests not only Christ~s pruci:ff,Lk"m\ ;d burial in,a

tom:':)sealed-~by stone f but" al~o the s~b:,-equent rollij)g

away of~~he.. stone and Christ I s resurrecti~h; s~il_~~ly, ~he image of"thorn im~ies not only Christ's ~u~ing and his ~)crown of thorns. hut also his subsequent; :'tr1.uflph. over death and his crown %;>f glory"

« The effect of t.l1~se associations is not C simply to offer o " a .symb 0 t Lc analogy to verify Mann's pol i ti'ca 1 credo t o ~- 0 but. Ulor'~ imporm;~ntly,~ to reinforce the" idesl{)gical ,n morality of MannI s libe'ral, hum.a~ism"by 1inking it witp "'= i\~'" the ethical found..f1tions q,f act:L'".e Christian humanism.

o in factf at di~v;ry core of ~'t,nnts political thinking (i lies !;ithe 8impl~~t" and lllOS.t profound of Christian injunctions~' artlculate'd b,y Mann in "RorKe's Drift a

C~ntury aftar ~h<:t Battt~\" (New Shades t 1982),.78 In G It'~.: ;)'? 0 ---- (; 'o thl.$o pqr-.Ul. the speaker is led, on the occasion of" a visit. to dle memorial of the famous battle at Rorke.' s (, - Or:ift:. between the British and- the Zulus, to consider the possible ways of achievin.g peace "aqd harmony between white and black,,)in South Africa. The ~~swer is I) , o provided by the. motto" on the, memoria!.., in an

o U appropriate amalgama.tion of Zulu and Christian ethical

j,mperatlves: 0

(J tlTHANDANANl. 'Love.. One Another I !tt

The morality underlying Christopher Hope's political is never expre,$se~ as pla.iQ,.ly in his poetr.y as t~~g , . 0 in Ch;iS Mann's. Neither is Hope's political 'luorality \IS 0',1

.as closely linked with orthodox Christian belief as i~ Manl' , s . Nevertpeles'g: in their understanding of, the (I fundamental vaLues needed in the development of political solutions in South Africa, the two poets

share a very similar vision. Like 11ann'J Hope is as c (.;:, opposed to proponents of reckless, violent political act,ion as he is to those who pas's fve l y all.ow an unjust

political syste,r.n to remain in place. Though Hope 1 s views are eVident throughout hiS(1 work, f):,om poems such as "The,Olci'i,Mel1are Coming from the Durban ,Club'" {:::at>~ C) (J _:" ., . _ c \,,~_'~ D!ives, 1914). to uIn the Country of the Black Pig'! (..!!l !=r~ Country of the Black~.Pi,g, 1981). ~hey .are .expres sed (:~l with particular force i.n hi~ long poem, Englishmen (l985) • wgich'" explores the hi.storif!al roo~s of PQ1~Otj..calh~tr~d in S6U~,~1Afri.ca. Hope's central theme

ih the poem, conveyed" wJ:th hf's ti~ual vitriolic wit f i5;i'~ hi'S unwa.vering op,posi.tion to all for'~s of : opp,~es$i.dn ("

;.;:;;:- and the abuse 0 qf po~r t whatever the source. !'he terrible tutUityO of di~ drive for power , apart from o its inevitable v1ol,&ti.on of 'h~n rights, Jos that it yJtimately destroys not only the oppressed but also the c> o QPpressor:

o 1PO'iier,is in IJ1Ve, With" rese,rve.t, ions , eserving the right t9 have bt'-sn there \ieserving the right to move along again reserving the right co hold the ground sti.ll. nle place of power ii not its own but the spaces it makes others fill; its instruments are ~Jtherin8;s, sniffings out of ''tJitches J (XI).

The alte.rnative to such power-lust is the Crecognition o of the essential si~ilarity and.~equality of, all South !,:::: -"\. \ ,,(1:...,,'-' H Africans t t4t1he.the-::-"Englishman , "'aoer" l'ro'r "Zulu". The Ii common humanity which lies at the basis of such \1

II'.

~ () 324~

egal i.tarian values is eonveyed in the poem through ~. startling yet forceful vision of the ultimate fact if? J shared mortality: G , I\

'\~ "These '\ c!3 (~ . ..,,' graves \rere unmarked for Christian slaves and cOloured\servan:s. Across the way YOl,l see headstones of tl)e cf~izenrYl broad as culverts; tall as ourhousas , '% They' keep {,their distances even underground \ .. ,

(C> but m~.xin" (h~ bone t as the mole knows) \ croas i.ng the lin,E:;" 1:, , ~ and is pitied for his blindne :;;.fI \(XII) .

" \ Like .M.al1n ~ Hope is {.only too aware t however., of th ~ \ p08s'ibility that such "liber.:al humanist "arueU will be\ neither acknowl.edged nor put into .practice in SOt;~;:.{h \.

African poli.tics, lt~~d ;1;:he, poe~?:ends ~n an inconcluai~e b and," deep~y ambiguous note in Lts, vision "of the .-:f:~ politicfi l:ut:ure of this country:

I~, '

o o £XIJ.I).

As is dile case with Chris};opher c:.ljope. Patri~k Cullinan's pQ,l.:i.ti(.!a.l thinking tends to e~lerge ~/ i organica.lly from h.;is poetry rather than to be concisely fill formulated~" and he too has turned to South African histo!'y in an B;ttempt to understand the present and to provide' a vision for the future. Proba.bly his most o meticulous examination of the nature of the liberal humanist po~itionf and ~he '/}poSSibility of a liberal humanist soLutd.cn to the"" contemporary South I! African predicament. ocburs in a poem describing the adventures of a French naturalist which took place some years "-" before the arrival of the English in the Cape. In his l~'ngthy poem, H1818. 'H. FranCOis Le Vaillant Recalls \'"...... \~,

Ii 325.

His Travels to the Interl.or Parts of Africa 17BO-17BStt . /"') (Today Is ~ot Diff4.:ent ~ 1978), Cu'lLfnan \a*p1ores an alternative, liberal -response to the encounter between white and black, just as in his ear l.f.ez poem, "The Steadying Effect" (The Ho:t"i~ Forty lUles Away~ 1973).

he described how so much conflicto and bitterness between English-speakfng and Afrikaans South Africans could have been avoided.

U1818. M. Francois let' Vaillant .••If opens- with the explorer and ornithologist of the title,sea.ted~be£ore a fire in his homE', in "the damp hills of Champagne"~ recalling h,~s "long journey" .through southern" Afr!.ca , " 1 some thirty' or m01::~ yea't's I!revioy.SlY. Although he "chcas to t~11" the story IH his travels he "had no choice" about ~ts ,\;ontent8)for he is Iluncompromisingly committed, as a BCie~~~~st, to the emPi,fical truth:

'I il "I found] c" " A"not:'Dlalcountry t Q rather like par~fdise In.places, a ~3rden JI C\amouflagea by scandal, il c Dark~n~d ~y a kind of hf.story. H Ii il , II O If Cullinan's Ie Vd Llant is a scient~~t, he is also a product of the ccnt.empoeanecus libe~:al sentim.ent in France, and so he not only debunks fan(dful ~yths about Ii - Africa, but also reveals a genui'hely "egalitarian attitude towards the inhabitants of Africa, judging men accoxdfng to thei.r worth and not .a.ccording to their CI

II liMy friends became:'the fearful tribes, 1'1 II Unwanted half-breeds, a.nd" by"letters From the wilderness A lonely Bav~nt at the Cape. Only The Colonists were not to b~ endured: Vicious at times or just plain boring, sly; 326.

Cet) r-:..ly not«schoolecl enough To ••teave the T,Jlild unp Loughed , Brandy-sots who could qot comprehend Rare "'Sensibi litv, true Pride. ,t " . J. 0

o AO t.h~"'·poem progresses. Ie ~illant consistently reveals himself to be an h\,\est and reliable interpre~er of his own experiences, insisting on the (7~ard facts of his discoveri'ss:

)'/ "I said and say again: The Fabulous ~as quite destroyed

And in its pLace I set the truth. n 0 l made a country real, a normal p Laee ." ~ntic, I ~ree, and od4 but _ t;avag~ the .~Jght way at; last. I showed '!'hIre were :a6 Gianta, club-footed or one-eyed. o Wh&"'\flow denies ~\at Pigmies are small men? Monomotapa, Vlg1te Magna have disapp~ared From the m.pSI :~.;andwhere I t;ravelled That continent it is not dark."

C'\ 'I.

And "it i. pfu:haps because oJ this hone sty and) f' 1\ reliability that he, confirms ~the notion that aU men

D are es.e'U-tially alike". diffitring only in externals:

"1 have shown . 0 That men in skins'J tIloue in a certain Land8cs:pet are men like us t have name.~: Gonfused, they love fnd hate.n ). o

o In spite of this, however, ,1.e"Vail~ant, in .. th~," poem remains trpubled and unsure of himself. To ,his eii:edit, he is- candid enough to a'Cknowledge that wh8~ h~' ~as PfTsented has~.been hi; truth; it is not nec~·s;~;:~~.rilY the only truth or the ~lhole truth. He recalls', inatu\~d, .:that therp., was one, night whf&n, 'in the moonlight, tI somehGW 327.

"the normal landscape I) Seemed to shift, to alte~ •.• what I saw Remained authentic. yet 1'knew ,It was not rear'

if and so he {(is forced to admit the limi\;ations of empirical perception: c,,:/"? "The ~orld is what it seems Alw ys. but itocan flow benea.;h the moon And ch4,n,ge , alter the s,t af.d ' Seq ~mces of \ti.sion~' ~ c ,

o ~ 0 o "comp~l~ ,,", to" r,ecrogn1s.e that hts consciousness is u ' cpnditioned and restricted by the" determinants of his -.1 , place,,,,and time, and by his ."f~)tmintrinsic (i~i8positlon, o he conc ludaa on {) note of confuaed, despond~;~cy: o ..' ':t~i . "Half ,hlind amid The"humdtum panic of tbe herd Or camouflage of predator and prey I saw o~ly what I" was made to see, Could ~: :~tfhehend ' Do"all Travellers into darkness kg,ow, !beLt" eyes half' closed. " Exploring they betray th~mselveBJ Betra.y what they have found?ff

The fundamental point that Cullinan is making79 is' that although Le Vaillant is a celebrated and succeeafu'l , 0° o"'<;·sclentist. he is(.\,unableto comprehend a truth beyond mere sense experience. He is perceptive enough to

glimpse it> tha.t one moonlit night t "but he cannot guite gr'~iSp it, and ao , Ln a way, he ~etrays himself in not bed.ng able "ro see the whole tr.ut~,. and "i.ie betrrays what he has found in not fully tiHderstandi~g it j! Precisely r "what that something beyond. the realm ot the empirical Q " is, remains. of necessity, undisclosed in Ie Vaillantis narrative, but Cullinan has provided enough .~lties in

II

(I

I) 328.

the course of the poem fo·r the reader to identify the natr11re of Le Vaillant's, inability. The principal " verbal clues lie in the unkJid word~ "alter" andrtf~\~ "vision" ~"or "change" and II see" t for what le Va'il1an~{ ~ e~sent~al1y lacks is the ima~ina:tive and c"ceatiV~!

C;::' abilit~ to see things n~~tjust elM t;,ttey are" but , as the~) could b,~\ Le Vaill:.:lnt :ha;3 the i~cieriti.fic~ 7bercq.ption to c:' ',_ " '_.. .::-;. ,_ _.' .0 ,.,' _' .. ".'/. .. i':· s~~ that' all mE:'~~\ epen in l\frtMpa, ar~ essentially

mike t but he Lacks t,ph.eI~mag:f.nattve visJkm tI!O see how /" . ' ,> thit'l' princiifJ1e coul.d b~ app~ied! in oringinf( about an altered world oj.n wt.~ctf sll peoi~le are vie~;d without

racial or other prej~dice ~ c a~1p trested fairly and equa.l1y. 'CuJ.linan IS "..hain concern is not, hO)1ever, to. condemn 1. Vaillant. It i:f, rather, to demonstrate the need for contetnp9rary South Africanse" firstJy, to recogni$e. 8S l~ Vaillan.t: did, the equality of all

.) ') '\) their countrymen, and to see, as le Vaillant :I Q secondly, . ',\ co~ld not, hQW this recognition may be used to create

c an iwag!nativ~ vf.s Lon of ,a future so<=.iety. To use the \, wo,rds of the t~xt;, what is needed is cthe ~~visionu to i I H It .al.'ter South Africa from a soci1ety based: on apartheid '1 to one grounded in the liberal humanist:'"' values which, I

() the poem fundamentally affi7s. Q , ~

Of all those poets who have made the question of the '\ G liberaJc humar,tist political perspective, a central \\ C' concern in their poetrYt none have done so as ass Lduousl.y and as Pl1ssionate1y- as Lio,[>,i\,Abrahams. On a number' of occasions, Abrahams h~s ,) forthrightly as sez t.ed his desire lito serve the ends of lib'bral

humanism".80 Such service, however, is C not to be undertaken blindly, and Abraha.ms has, throughobt:'~ his p'betry, sought to \':~xplore hO.1l:est1y and earnestly the tensions, ironies and dilemmas involved in remain iqg, o 'J , faithful to liberal values within the contemporary 329.

South African milieu. In poems such as "The Whiteman Blues" ",>\Thresholds of Toleranc~~ 1975) and "How t Take ItH (J~f.lrnal of a New.31an, 1984..), for example, he examf.nes with scrupu'l ous candour the _J)imits and o V limitations of white sympathy for black South Africans under apar the i.d , More par t Lcul.ar Ly , the «poem, HThresholds of Identity" (JournaJ of New Man, 1984)'II'.t rutbJ,essiy strips \) away the stereotyped. expected " D ges cures and postures U of white" poUtical progr~sive- neg's to delineate tne re'al extent of" 'mutual \\ und~rstanding and shared exper'hence between b lack and White .in 'South Africa ~

,,"Vt'~itors. ,indignant~ .,didactic, pronounce thlfdr solutions 'Or Gooins. ~, A 1)ome poet: 'to;:rment_k;,'They speak and go bacjC. [3 (\ Inll ellis pJace jit is ,}'i>u and me.,t I 'j~?prehend the challenge in his t!1ough't: inhabitants t we ",are alone and the difference chat still lies btHzweenus ma~,sMtl:er ,the lahdo' 0 Yei; h,="'and d sgree enough to discount the:: 'Old dfVides of" p:l'iment&1;:icm\ "CILtltur'e, class; pI) e nOl~ would he or I endorse th,~ u~e of blood spilt on the s.t:reet o or i silence of the blackened cell. In" this 'W;~ are jOined. So far have we come. But as I calmly sorrow over 'acts of years that grind his feeling small and his \th~gn't na.rrow q-, or sputter' anger oyer days·. ('ij that smash him. into terror, griefl and rage so he would deplore, merely depLore, q the' ferocity that in its turn could mat::.e the children of my ,race bleed. If

The poem begins by dismissing the supt;;!rfi~ial, polemical pzonouncement s of foreign poli1:ical ,\ j', cotnment~tors, and focusses instead on the positions and per spect.Ives of local South ~~£ricans." In this poem, Abrahams is particulat'ly coneezned with the connect.t.ona and dt sconnecrtons between himself as a white South -::;1

o 330.

, African Pget a!'Id"'\an unnamed black South Africa.n poet 'Th~.y.find, in fact ~ that they are able to surmount; many of the usual barriers in South Afrir.a., such as colour, ~,::::,

cul.ture and class J and Chefy Learn that they are in (I agxeeraen t on a-~-rtu~ber, of opolftica} and ethical -:pfinci~PJeE~«Such mutu~lity is cf.rcumscr tbed , however ,

'0 ~,r1din' the final eight lines of the poem Abrahams is' .1\ forced to acknowledge "rhe "difference th€lt still lies

be,tween us" ~t a fundamental, experiential level. "The C - 0 (_/, o choice 'n;,of diction is cruc Lal , as it emphasLs es n jl)'>, ,.' \) ,::1;ingui~;~;b:NlllyIltl~essential differences between the .~. , .' ~l,. , two ,poet.A" instinc(!.)e. vital responses. to political c~:c"~umst~hces and events in this country. 'Whereas Abrahafus inay m~rely "c~imly so/row" or "sputter anger"

over tearl~1i of rncial oppression Q or. specif.ic ~cts of .....~\ 0 ~j bt"utal· repre8eivenes8~f his black count~rpart finds that "F ~. the s-am,,e(;!rcumstances "grind. I his fe~ling small and 0 _.(i:l liis th~1@tl~tnarrow" "and "\~lil&s,h 8im into ;~""te~r?~~''''",,'i'F";;' and rage;' ~ The fat' mor~. painfui~ a.~~c-"y~nl resp\:ms~" c;,_ ."-(:,_-_-;---.,r, ~",-,:;:7'''-::;') of tJ:,.e (;black poet i:S· signallec[" also ;0, tne very

auditorv patterns' of 'the 1ines j' with the soft, " ., :_..~.:3- ,-; -or sibillant Us" sounds of I'sorrow" .t!rla ''"sputter'' in the case of' tlte whi~e poet ,heightening and" intensifying into the. _harsh. grating Hgl{ and "z" sounds of "grind", tlgriet''' and" "rage" in the C2.iSe. of the black man. ' As" >'-=;]' tCl the "temnorat'".,r:, perspectiv:e,,:,. in the poe~~shifts" the ,~-c!.? J ('

futurEt"f however, ..and the possibility 0 of .a black o . Lnsur rectrl.on , the tables are turned. and' Abrtrhams realises thlit cin the event of revolut';:f.on; his own response to "tihe cl-:a-ocity" that could make Tllhite "hildren "ble~dft would be fa!' more intense than that of t"T:·, .. ,," - "",," " " 1\15;P black counterpart', who ..would Hrnet-ely'; dep4,~eH S1J,ch violence. Again, l:he muted, labial_,~nmtJ ai{d Bp" soundc of "ll1~re'i1~ d'Cplor~~;-"'c reinfoz.'ce~ the,." c~lllparatively

subdued nature of the bLack manf s resp0tl§.~'" ,Yet the 341.

Yo 20. As Denis Worrall rightly points out, refuting the view of Dr Edgar Brookes, to 'whom the quoted phrase belongs. 'See Worrall) "English South ~Jrica ana the Politi,cal System" in ~]lgl!.~h-

speaking S0!1th Africa T£l.d!X1 p.20S.

21. The only lengthy c2xamination of Sout~ African J;:nglisb' eoer.ry prior to 1970 was G.M. Miller and Howard Se~geant's A Critical SurveI of South' African p~e1:~in En lish (Cape Town: Balkema, 1 9 5 7 ) • ", II ('<'

o '"

22. As this study owlll demonstrat~, even I' those: ,',tew Ii '. poets i." such as Guy But Ler and Anthony Del Lus ,' ~,ho ~~re\concerned at this time with aocLel i~sues,

never" ~~eless produced PO,at.".1:, Y of a differen,t order o "from tn t of the co'ntemporary period. ~ <;) ... ".

, 0) G ))(i C: 23. TheLle pa ~rs are collected, in §p.glish Stlf,dies in Africa, l~\.l (Mar~,h

;, ~~ 24. ~or ex8mp~. as Guy Butler sugg;sts in "The H Purpose of he Conference t .,~ibid. t p.16, a nu.mber of conferee \ felt that South Af~ican English literature ou~ht to have no place, in the 8y11 ',bi of South Afric n !lniversity English)'Departments.

25. A se1ection Ot plpers is collected in Poetry S0u.th o Africa, eds Pet r Jhlpelpl and James A. P.olleY ~ (,f/') (Jobannesbur~l; Do er , 01976). o 0. '\ 26. Papers from this onferen.ce are collected· in !!!.glish';;sEeaking So~~h, Afrisa. Toda_!t ed. A. de Villiers u(Cape Town: Oxford University Press, ~' 1976), 8 sehtinal source of ma'te'liel on white () English ...speaking South Afr1c

c> 331.

poem is not wholl:,? pessimistic ~ It is to be noced that the central 1 s of che' poem 'are couched Ln conditiqCJal and provisional terms:

Hand thi difference that still 1:L~sbetween us !!lay shatter. the land" (my underlining) •

Tht'; _,implication is that, bowev;;'·t~ slight, the ''':l~>'' possIb Ll.Lny eXJsts that the remau,'l.ng interr· ..ra"cial .J :!'HlT;:'ier~v:r'canbe overcome and the country need not,

'i"tec.essarily t 'be devastated.

() <->'j Abrahams' til t;;w{( suggested strategy for overcoming such \:, barriers \~nd for obvf.at Lng .such devas ..tation would lie 0' ~ in the wicl~sprea.d acceptance and app~ica1;ion or liberal

humanist val.ues throughout South' African 0 society. j~hough Abrahams i~ sensitbrely ·<~.w~:t'cE:f'of th~, obstacles

I ~nd difficulties confronting lib~'t'al thinkers in (J the contemporary South ";'African s i.t.ua t Len, 'he remains passiona.'I:ely and unequivocally commiFted to the principles and idea] of H.beralisDl, and confident' tha,1'71 such values will pr. "~capab Le of providing a practical and endu,t":i.fi'gsolution to the' socio-politica.l probl.ems ~; 0 .v . JI t,~f this country. As Patrick Cullinan has pointed nut ,',1 r '.;)..",4J. col in'\~}>review of Abrahams t s poetry, 11 .x

"the imag;~\ of the :J..iberal as s~ kind of gently equivocating humbug gets its comeuppance h~r~. At;

(;:othe centre of 'Lionel Abrahamsr s worl( is an ardent political con~cience. It is no less ardent ~or 'believing in r~son, for belie"l.d.ng that tlu~ issues are complex, and for believing ithat i.E there are answers they will be complex too. In this pol.itics"are no di.ffe17ent from life. This should ,,.bEI -se Lf...evident., but it is certainly not sc to the '~lerri.bole r;:i.mpl{fiers' of the Left and Righ~•.,81 332.

Lionel Abrahams himself has t in f'ac t;; f:t'e~ue!.l.tlY responded to criti.cism~/ of liberalism f,;t"om both right -wi'l.13 and ;1<.?ft";;wing sources. His, councex- criticism of both conservat tve and r add.cal, political over~simplifica.tion6, and his t ough-mf.nded defehce of H~beraf va Iues, have he Lped clarify and forti.fy the liberal humanist position in the \~ontempor:arJ' South African po H.t.Lce L context.' For example, in his acceptance speed} for the Thomas Pringle AW8.1:'d for " \l Poetry in i'988t Abrahams reacted against the ~fevailing mood of "revolutionary perfecti~ism" among "many political thinkers "in S'mth Afric

o

o "we need resist this da~ge1:'>iJ.s naivety, this c revoltiiYi.onary transcendentalism that finds dii;'; givet}. world e\'j~l and pos,tr.oncs every good to soilie new 'ill~rrld .that it hopes to bring into heing. We need to ~ake hola of the vulgarly visible, " l.mperfec~, .~resent good - the\~kind of thing we,;; can t~~t" and taste for~(our tndividual selves, ('Ordy through this .".. carl we be purged of .the vit~'1ous

< U old idel11l-ms, like the one that turned rice into a moral valu~, and \\stand a chance df making our \1 given world. ••• (Fore l,iveable, more human and ~ore sane.',82

This cogent and ferven~ liberal perspective informs all

of Abrahams 1 s "politicall.y focussed work, 8.t))d is \' , -;; . j

especially evi.dent in poems such as liThe Issue" r~ "Our Way of Life" (both in Journal of a. New :MC:"1~.1984), "Not Asking ~~r Tro~ble" and, "A Week of Debussy While Revolutioi\ Simmers'" (both in The Wri.te.r in Sand" 198B). But the poem which provides perhaps t.he clearest 0'·; articulation of Abrahams's libeIJal humant s t positi.on is "Three Liesl! "(Journ~l 'of a New Man, 1984):,'

\-_ j) 333.

"One said: 'We are locked in separate worlds. We can do nothing together.' One said: 'Because I ha'lbe worked 'with them in their name, have thought and spoken for their cause until it is my cause, ,they 'will not know how '" II "to kil.l me when t he time comes - therefore it is right that I leave our country lest my presence confuse the issue.' One sa Ldr 'Wnat though some of the tnaste rmf.nded c Las's subdue t~eL!: arrogance to act or play or T.4ork as men Wl th men? They have a purpose aUG are not changed at heart. Violence alon.e ~an change their hearts or make their hearts Lrre Ievant , ' Now, these axe If-es . .The first, as he spoke, counted the days ') for t.h» fr.uit of work 'that he and I had jointly done. The n(fxt betrays the caus,~' of alL his worlt for everym~n in making way so that simplicity and innocence elm appertain to murder.

The third. denying the good thi).t's done '/ is good, because it isouot absolute, WQuld have destroyed all hope - since war, whlch may break wills. must leave hate" whole. .s : But we know this: that men w: act ~.~ight again~.!'l their hearts are the on . who Can breed through a slow gen~rf;tion of dying 0" • o o !~JiKe those Israe~ites astray between two Lands) D il i~he succe ss ton of.' the t1.'f" .~mutedhl!art. II

o The fir§~ half of the poem functions as ani exposition 91£ W~4£' Abr'ahatas r~f.'gards sa tnree kinds of poli tic,al :fallacy; the second half, of the poem, in taking the form of an a.ngry·chastisement of the advocates of these fallacies. serves to define and eluc~date the liberal perspective. The first 'f~lie" is that propagat.ed by those who feel politically paralysed by continuin~oo ·enforced racial segregation, and who would thus t'le~at'e sl.L the useful, joint work that has been and can be . accomplish, The second hli~tt is ;,£dvanced by those t .,," who feel compet Led to emigrate :f.tt order to avoid hampering 8. black revolution, and ..who "Would thus be content to allow a just political, struggle to be· 334.

trallsformed potent~ally into mass murder. And the third "lieu is promulgated by those who c Lafm th~t only through vi5'lent revolution can the oppressors!

attitudes be altered 0r made immate.r:ialJ and who would I thus deny any goo~ except ~bsolute good, forgetting in d~e process that: violence may bring superficial change hut can never eradicate deep-seated hat red , En

refuting" these ilmisapprehensions J Abrah~;ms I S O"A'11 pos LsLve political beliefs are implicitly clear: that d-espite segregation. the possibility foro meaningful, '-_) cacially co-operative work exists; , that whites have an

O Impcrnanc , creative ro Ie to. play not only in changing s~c.~iety but also in the c,hang,~fl society itsel~f' and that violence ~ a means to political ends- Ls alwClYs

ult,imately futile, ~o" that o~\her, peace'l-ul t evo l.u-

\ o .1' tiomu:y methods must be sought to 801ve South Africa.'$ pzob lema. 6f1

,In l.ts final six li!1es, the "poem under'goes a.n IJ ('; al~eration in tone and mocd, In tlt,e' body. of l!jhe J~oemJ-

,PAbrahamst s angry. t'ough-minded" co" a8ser.tiven(!~s is

o \\ expressed in blunt ,0 straighr,°fotwar,d. unequ;i,\\Tocal o ,~ o c . \\1/

D language which cOJ.nw:unipates h\f8 ideas c with precIsion e anef clat'i~y. It is the Jat1gua~e ~a straight-talking f; II p..91itic,:ll ~~\>ater confident in th~- cogency and quality " "_', \\ ,',1 j) Q of his S:'i.'gumf?n:t.!n the final six lines, however, this

sinewy, rilml)st prosaic speech becomes softened 0 and \ I) lalevated ~~l the poem offers a strikingly evocative '''''. vision of ~rhe capacity for liberal values to effect. ppl!tical change; 'rhe poetic elevation, -of diction and

l:-egi~ter transfers ~the poem fro~ the realm c of :ldeolog.ical £a~lacy and menda.city tQ the arena of

o humanistf'c truth; fot~> example t the poetically

)1 335.",

heightened phrasing of the need for men to "act aright against their hearts" signals the superi.or nature and qual~r(' of such conduct. The political change which wilrL be brought about; by thi~ right action may occur gradually and even painfully, but it will u,ltimately prove endur'Lng and pr0:4uctive: the supe r f Lcf.a.Lfy uege t Lve ccnno t a tLons of the phrase, "au slew f () generation ,of .dytng'", are relieved and tranSfOl'1l1ed by th. e alternative, '~i\Olsitive associations of the ce.ntral wo'rd, "generation'\ which imply produ'Ctivity .and \ ,?:v.eativit!. ~iS sense of fruitfulness and crear,iv-ity is reinforced b~ two other crucf.a l ~ords "'/hich bracket: thea phiJi8.se; "'bree~'- and "succeas ton", The image ,which emerges "is of an \~tterlY changed society in w!li,ch hatred and ~estructiveness haqe been su~lante9 by compassion and vitality. The final phease 6\£ the poem, "the transm\:ted heart", encapsulates this v5.s:ion as it ,- (\ c' '-',.>~'.:\ SUgge.a~8 . not or~;,!y..a ~\eart which has been radically

altered i.\1 form and nature t but more specifically one in which hardness and violent 'hatred have b~en Itmut.ed" \)

.into sympathy -and love. Like: Chris Mann in "Between G c Ca~lfIo\ Contemplation and Actiontl (discussed earli,er). (~/ . ...,,_': - - .! Abrahams also utilises a teligi(Jus ap.alogy tq,. sugges.t; the underlying ethical basis of ',the liberal "position, as 'i~ell as~ to concrucLse the .visi~ presentec;l" in the o 0 poem. In this case, Abrahams's allusion to the 'Ian(l~ring of the, :tsraelites iTI the wIlderness is a , particularly apt" Irt ,s'l:~gests that -Souch Africans are .:movf.ng from a society of oppressi~p. and exploitation. to one of freedo'O;l and just'ice. I~! sugge~t5 that the period of t ran.: tion may well be lengtlhYi\and a cause ,'/ 0" c J~pr uncertainty." But most important.ly. it suggests that the attainment of a South ..African po).it~ca.l

"pcomt.sed lan~" is inde~ (with:tn oui;:-C~pablli,tieJ. 0"

G iJ

()

(j 336.

4.

As this chapter has demonstrated, South African English (J

poets J both in their critiq1.l,e of che Lr fellow ~"ESSAs

'J and in their critique of' the cur-rent; South Africarj ,={j (I ("' ..Q o pol t t Lcal system" (fro11\ whatever pe~spective)u," form an import{iJ.nt part oi~ the ~orttef,rporary" WESSA tradition of n dissent. The existence of this sometimes unrecognised l;,utvital tradition may be regarded as a source of.hope both for South Africa 'in general And for t.'1SSAs In pa1!ticular. It confirms that there are, tt. number of people within the WE'SSA gt-QUP (as there are within the other ethnic groups" in this country) Who are &0J: a. prep""red to allow injustice and oppression to continue, (. (1. c atid who' are determined to bring about a more·equit~blet "-free arid fair aoeia! "and polt,d..cal order in South

Africa". 0 As s~ch. this tradition of di8~ent ought to be" °Viewed by other, more conservative wESSAs not as _

". (I- ". _ .. 0 o tJ!.;reat: but as 8. source of lDotential benefita to the 'C__ : .. c .. IJ _- ;)

WESSA group as a whole. ,l~: 0 a free and just South ' Africa,' many 'of ~ <:~tltral dile1Dl'1a.f curtently

"i confronting the group w(vlii;ld0 be largely reaQ,lved'~ WESSAs would be able to dUlcovf:r a cogent and, Q ),) , .. \;) , :f

II llI,ean!n.gful 1denti.ty as equal !:Demb4!-rs cQf ~ democratic, jI n6n-raeial South Aid.eEl. Thad" would be abl~ to

1I _ eX'Per1enc(~8 genuine sense of plac!~ in an undivideli and li ,I V -,-.6 ,I undivrding home cC>untiy. They would be a.h~e to pU,rge "I;hemselves of' th~~r profound, debilitatin~ dread in an open and ordered society.; And they would., be able n. 0 .. Without guilt and wi.thout fear to shape a meaningful existence for themsel',es in a country "i7here there would ., be no need , perhaps, for -a trap.ifioQ of dJssent. 337.

o NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY )1

u NOTES =

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUC1'J9.f.!

1. Anthony Delius, !h!L._La,st Di'vis ion , Canto .:two, XXXIII {Cape ToWQ.,.:.Human and Rousseau, 1959), p.45.

2. '.,,,David Welsh, "Why CanI t the EngJ,J.sh .. ..1"~ Living (June 1988), ',.214.

00 U 3. Andr' o ' de Villiers, f'lntroduction , English;. " s2eakina Sou_th..Afric!l ; Toda.y;t ed. A. de Yi,lliers (Cape TOw:p.l Oxford University ~e$s, ;'1976), p.\\~.

, ~;\ 4. This is not to say that English--speaking' sociol(Y- gi.~ts and Ibterary cri,otics ha.ve been inactiv(!, but "t'~ther that th,ey have taken little or no irterest in concerns ethnic the.J;\ ,') of ,their own group • ,_) '. 5. The· phrase was co tned by Guy Butler. See t for I) " '

ex,amplet IITlJe Purpose of the CO!1ference'lr·, a §!!glishO ~ Studles in Afri.ca, 13.1'" (M,arch 1970), p.ll.

This phrase .. derives from Christopher HopeI HlntroductionH to Mf¥e Nito!" s ~~S the Souvenh::s. (Johanni!sburg: Ravatl. 1978) ~ p. iil~. " " .. [I (l I I ({ I,i (/

/J 138.

7. .the term which will be used to cover this area of investigation is "poetry of dre ad'", a term which seems to 'have been first employed by Chris Mann, intclfviewed Ln English Ln Africa ~ =6 ."1 {Harch 1979} ~ p.6.

8. This phrase is taken from Noel Garson, "Engl t sh- speaking Sout h Africans and the British Connec t Lonr 1~20-1961H, in,i~~glish-speaking South --~.~~.\ Africa Toda_y,,,p. 37. '~J' ,'.

9. Gareth Cornwall. "Beauty with Cruelty" (review of

Stephen Watson's In This City) t New Coin, 22.2. (:, b - (D~c~mber 1986), p.44.

\" 10. Lionel Abrahe.ms, ~cceptance speech tor the Olive Schreiner Prize for Poetry, 1986, de1iveted at a (;' c· ceremony held ,~t the Univeraity of thell Witwatersrand in November. 1986, and reproduced in En.alisn Aeac;'e!lY Revi'~l.,~ (l987), p.1Sl. ll. While noting the cogency of certain structuralist and post ..structuralist critical arguments - for , example t Ito14lnd Barthe"s' critJ.que of realism., in Writing Degrf:e Z,erC?, tra~s. A. Lavexs and C. Smith (London: ,Cape. , 1967) and Jacques Derrida' s analysis of t extual. meaning in Wx:.iting and Dlfference, tr.ans. A. Bass 0967, Chicago: Chicago " /\,I{' U. P. f, 197~<5 .. this study 'Would still claim, £und~~ntally, that a literary text can ha~e I\{ "authentic reference to the social world beyond the text itself and that it: can reflect mea.n.ingfully the experie.nces of individuals and groups in. r"f lSociety •.,

II o i,j!). I 339.

12. !bi.s term forp1s the, sub-title of Stephen

Clingman 1 s book, The Novels of Nadine Gor.£Imer (Johannesburg,: Ravan; 1986). r:

13. Ibid .• p.l.

14. T'HJ..s;ttt~dy has examined the work of more than 60 contemporary poets, contained in over 90 individual volumes and at least six anrho Logd.e.s,"

15. c Stephen Clingman, The Novels of Nadine Gordimer ~

p.2topP.13-18. 0\1

16. Some prominent examples of ma.terialtst criticism o of South African English poetry arC! :rim Couzens, " Q "CritiCism\) 'of South Afrl:"Can L:f.terltture',', Work...,tJ:! c: frOgre.B. (November 1977) h pp , 44-52; Kelwyn Sole ie' U "The Abortior. ,~f the Intellect ,. Work in 'Progress "" (August 19'79') pp.lJ-18; and Jeremy Cronin~ !,,'South' African English Language Poefry Written by Africans in the 1970s", English AcademI R~view 3 o (1985), °pp.25.ii49. While there natura.lly' are c il ~, l\ . . '_

differences .Ln emphasis and focus be.t!.'een these C r:-:.-II o ~ . \1 1..\ critics, the discussion cffe~~:ed bere" of the approach to be adcpzad by this stu.dy ma.y serve as (i an indic~"tion of tthe discrepancies between this study and materialist criticism in general.

11).'In Clingman's critical thinking, three levels of li.mi.tation'l are identified: the historical, the

social and the ideolcgical. Each of these levels >,;.;I:;'·-;:tk\ ~r"':;,1 Qlt_ tmay be associated" with the theorists to ~~h9~_.:t, \'::,;~>:

ClingmGt?~is most inde~ted: 0 the ,historical ~'i~~;~'7~r',,~ Georg 0Lukacs. for exampLe t The ~il.storical Novel:, l/ \~ trans. H. and S. Mit.che 11 (196 it; Harm()ndsVi'orth: ~,

(J 1/ q \\ .~ 340.

PenguLn, 1969); the social '¥I,Tith Lucien (l;'<>ldmalln, fO'li) example, Towards. a SocioloSY of the N,,!vel, trans. A Sheridan (London: Travistock, 1975); and the ideological 'with Pi.~rre Macherey, for example • •\ TheoT1.. of Lit:erary Production; trans. G. Wall . <1966; LOJ1dO!l,~"Routledge'\,<"da Keg~n Paul, 1978). o c;lingman does riot. however. con~:ider the notion of .~ 0

"limitation" ,,/~) app l I ed to his C own criti.cal Wb_i"ting. or to-' .ate~i.alist critical writing in ;:::":i.,.>' general.

18. As M~ch4el'Chapmanpoiqted out in his introduction o to Th.• Paperbook .of" SmJ,Fh African En<sh Poet!!

1.1;;; ·c (Johannesburg: Donker, 1986,,) j pO. 25, the function of th~) literlfr'y critic "should be to ~pen up the.)

po•• tbi1ities of debata rather than t~ hurry to a c c :::: prema.t\lr~ and preferred mer.s1 or ideological

() "closure". Such an approach 8e~8 pragmatically desi~abl9, /J.{/e8iJecially in & situation of

,pro'51emati~ and (lunt:'8solved aesthetic and ..ideological debate, such, as exists at pr.esent in South Africa. C! '

o 0,:>

190 Michael Chapman, !tIrttr~duc~~onn, The Pa!?ei;bi)o~ ,o~~_' South African Engli8h·Po..!.!=r~l. p.24. It is ~o-be noted that Chapman has recently altered his critical stance (unfortunately i~..the "llew,of the ,opreserit s~udy) to" that of a materialist ~r.ienta- 1) .., tion. See his 4rticie, ~J'TheLiberated Zone;: The

c ~ Possibilities of Imaginative Expr~ss!on in a f',t~<~e . /; of Emergency", Engt1.sh Academy" Revi:!1"'2 (19~&J

pp , 23'''53 0 0 o! ,,\ ,\ . \\ 342.

27. "The Sestigers ~ A Post-Hortem", :Jber 1973), pp.19-35.

il 28. for a con. ction -of .articles on the s1~bje(!t:, l~ee !/ Sowet<1_~P0:>.t:ry~ ed. M. Chapman (Johant:l,esbul~g: C> (') McGr'lw Hill./; 1982) ,0

J.9. Philip, 1979)•

o

Michael Chapman. c- South African Eng1istLJ!oetry: A n .', ,~ .~ . tfodern Perspective (Johannesburg: Donker , 1984») :'0 p .14. () (y", ~;_.;_,_! ' 8 31. Lionel Abrahams, quoted by Chris~opher Hope (,in itA

~~ ".. "" " ;0- \;' Conve:C9a:~lt.J0n~?~;!'thGuy But l er" f Bolt. No'~ 7 (March

1973), p ~:51. V »

(.i., '\\ ._;:-, ~ Clayton (Wilhelm), "South Writin"g 32. Cherry c f.~ ~,African', lf in English:' 1976 , §tan

Driving Lessons" t Bblt, K)). 10 (May 197~) t p.4~V o ()

34. Andr~ Brink~ "lntroductiou"~ A World of Their Own: §outhern African Poets of the S\W'ent#;.~$' ed , S • b Gray (Johannesburg: D?nker, 19l6), p:9.

35. See Stephen Gray's introduction to. Modern South ~! c .,.Arrican PoetrI p ed. S. Gray (Johannesburg: Donker, ,1984), p.ll, the ,revised and cexpanded p.d~,tion ;,~tt~, World of Their OWn. \_;! 343.

,.:

36. I,n order to k~ep the range of poat ry 'Within

I.) manageable l"imits it has been decided to consider - \ only J~)ose poems which. have been published in antho1'6gies or in individual volumes. Moreover, -a .~ --.t,)nly those vol~mes art(} antlJ~logies published in or .' . iJ \; c'- before 1988 have i::been caken, into accoun:;i

37. This study' wil;l al'so take note of the PQsicion ~md

responses 'Of those poets whou remain on the periph~r, of the white ~nglish group , and wt\Q areG

not easily classifiable: :Wcpko Jen$ma <) is an [) '~US' examp Le ,

38. 9 GQ,y Butler., "Tb'e ~atur'e vand Purpose of the 'Conference" , !ngl4.sh-sJ!eaking SQu~h::;~trica"

!.~,d~:tt p , 8 . 00

'0 \] 39. The onlyo comparable group. is the so-called u o "Col,pured opeople"pf South Africa. although their difficulty is ass(')cf'ated more with enforc~d raci,il" n _- _, I' elas'l'ifi'cation than aoc~o"'r;ultural factors·" See,

io); '~:&amf"} Henry 0 'Lever~ South ~frican,,' ~oci~tv

C)' ,,(J~h$i\n.s\Ydl'g: "Jonathan Ball, 1978-), p.34. "'ji ,,,," 1 6 4O. ~ ,,0. MacCrone,o "Open Ing Address", ~ngli~~ 5_!:!!.d,ie!!,

in Africat. 13.1 Ct1-arch1970). p.2. I~' c j;'~" -c. -~I I>' '::.j

!+~~. !!: . () , ,:' \, ".,~' t, Arthur Rawmscrl.:iJ:'t:, "South African English

H J,iteratult,--f: ,,,, in Engl:Lsh"'!Eeaking South Africa__.....,_.~ ,,-'I '_ ~~(.' ~';

.iodc!y', p , 3t'!:f' t a ""fl 42. Guy Butler. HEngl;'ish and ~)he English in the New Souuh Aft'£C~H, English Ac'-~~my Review 3 (1985'1. 0

,,0 pp .1£3-176 f for ex~ple. u- 344.

'I ~HAPT£R ,,2i~._A CRISIS OF IDENTI'I!

it

n I

1. Anthi~n)f 'Oelius, The Last DivisiQr~o$ Canto :\Tt'lOt XX-XI ~;I, p , 4 5' • '\ ',~ " \ 2. Guy Ji~"c{er. "Introduction". A___l!!>q\s_of sbford ~::~~;:it~e;;:~s.e~~59~: p:~t~::i:~~~~~~n: O'i

3. For j' m,ore comprehenSive, disc¥ssion of t~ese cire stances, see t'he int du·:.:tory chapnen] of this Irt~,dY,

I 0

4. bu; Jlutj.er, inte-:vtewed by Chril3topht.n:: HopeJ itA Conversa'tion with Guy' Butler", Bolt, No. 7 (t,4rch D (; 1973), p.4J;~ f I

5. AndrE de Vi 11iers • ,n Irit.rcduct.t.en" • !l.!'.gl(fSh- !Reak1ng__South AfricIL_Toda.l, p.V. See also :the series. of"'"articles 01"1' English~ speakers i,h '\New !iation, ra,nging from Cather1.ne TtLyl?r's ll}fy ,fiew of English-speakers". New Nation (September 19€i7) , -- .,~ Ii ',' I R9.10 ...11, to Denis Worrall' s "Ert'~lish-spea~ling ,." ,'" '. d n, South Africa 8 over Twe:nty-five Yearsft, ,~ew N~'ion (July / August 1..973), pp , 5...9. .

. l 6. David Welsh, "Why Cat" f t the Erllg;l.isl:\ .... 'il'. " , Liv:tntr___ __...g. (June 1988), p.24.

7. Guy Butler, trts the ESSA a Dodo?Ji" puriday Star: {l· April 1986)>> p.14, col. 3.

8. The phrase vwas Of 1 ned by Guy But Ler , See, for

exampl.e , liThe Purpose of the (~onferencen f English Sttidies in Africa, 13.1 (March p.ll. -; }n70), 345.

9. Lawrence Schlemmer t "English-speaking South Afri.cans Today:" !.denti,ty and Integration :theo the Broader Nat:i.ona.l Community", in ~nslish-.2.Eeak.fng So~!=hJtfriqa Tot!l!l.t pp. 91....135"

Sch1t:,mmer refere to Beuj anun Akzin, §1=ate ....§!l.§..

Na~~~~ (Londonf 1964); Clifford Geertz~ "Primordial Sentiments and Civil Poli-t:ics in rhe New States", in c. Geertz, ed, Old So,cieties and .' ~~-~ New Stat;~ (London, 1963); and Hugh Trevor-Roper, .:;;;.J.;;ew.;.;.;;;;;.is;;.;h;.;;_&;:;;;n;;;.d::;;.._O::;;.t_h;;.;.;e...r .N_a_t....i...o....n....a...l.....,i__s__m (London, 1962). In thi.s regard, see also E,: Aronspn, The So§j.a~

fAnimaf (San Franciscq,: Freeman, 1976) t 'and D

Bem, !eli~fs t Attit}1de~~Lnd Human Affairs (Belmont: Brooks-Cole ," 1970).

11. Lawrence Schlemmer, ttEnglish-speaki,ng Sou.th Africans Today: Iden:tity andoIntegration into the ,Broader National Cotmllunity", in P;"!y~,lisn.-spea!S!l&

South...... _.._.Africaai.,___ ..Today,,.. __ --.._ p.91. c:,

12. Brunhilde Jh;J.m, "A Sociological' Commentary c;rn

J£ng1is'b-speaking South Africa" f quoted by, DEllnls I Fo:~rall, UEnglish South) Africa and" the Polit:bzal System,j, in English-speC!_king South ~f:;.fca Too;!,I,,, p.l94.

13. Lawrence Schlemmer" :~English ...speakang South Africans Today; Identity and Integration i1"\,to the Broader National CmllInunity", i~ ~Al4..£ill::iE.tl!!J5.ins /i South Africa '!'oda:9:1 pp. 98 ff. /1 II 14. f ILl ... Watts, "A SESlcial and Demographic Portrait of

\1 ! C·nglish ...speaking \i1hite Siouth Africans"-y in ~..!'!S~ish"sEeaking .~outb ~frica ToO:!Z. pp. 51 ff. 346.

c 15. H.enry Levez , SOU!:!!, Af:?;can~.Soci~llt pp .14 ff. " '. 1.-<;/ Ie " 16. The 19}O census givt;s the wh~,te English-speaking population ht S{nlth Africa as 1 404 4;1g::;--"6utof a total white i5opulation of 3 773 2B2,1(Republic of: Sout:h '~,fr:ica. Central S't'at:istical Service, Report r- o Number II .,02/01',/09). 'ib.e 1980 census gives the ftgure1! as €:rl0 205 (,ut); of 4 551 068 (Republic of South Afrir:;~t Centr.al S~atistical Service, Report ~umber 028010). The 198~\ estimat';tQ,n is derived by

extrapolat.ion from the o ~~rve fitted to 1936-1980 , f\ "censQ~ data, S.e also \MoL. oWatrts~ Tahle 2, HEstil~ate~ of () th~ Numbe~ of English;-spea.king n Whitell~ in South Africa :\ in "A soc:un and DemO&:raPhJc . For;.trait 0t EJj~li~h~.speakin.g White ~,outhiiA~5:icansn, ,~in'E!2~lj!h-s1\~!cLn~ Souto Africa

'T' d I. 3 ,\~?:; frO ali p.", • 0" ~.:,:;\ ,; [) \' \.,1 '\.w? <1' D, it., 0

I) 17. See ..H.L. Watts t Table P4c ~ "COunt\: of Originu. in

ibid .• p.76. 0 \ .~ .: ~.. "" \

,/ C . (] 18. A recent: study puts the figure at approxiJ;atf,J:y e 118 1)00. pee( Dr Gideon Shimoni, "Foreword;t" !M'

Jews of Sout'b AfriGa: What Futut'e~l t eds. l'zi:.ppi -... .,'~.',.-.' ... -- Hoffman and Alan Fischer (Johannesbtrrgr seurhern , \1 19881. n.p. = Q

19. A useful az t LcLe in this regard is Noel Garsc'm, ItEnglish-speak:i.ng South Africans and the British

ConnectJ.cm: 1820 .. '~61" J in Ens.1\s!'-.,:sEeak!_ng Soutt;. A;~~9a Tod~f pp.17-J9. (\

20. A~I Garson points out; t the term "Eng+ish-speal~~:~g South Africa", app l f.ed to the pre-Union pe r i.od , is

an anachronism t but may he used provided th~,;. anechrcntsm is r~c<,gnised: !PM., p.17. ." 347.

= o 21. See, for example ~ John 0 tone, £glon.is.t_,,-2'! Uitlander1 A Study ..~th£. BritislL.J..1nmig_rant_JE. South Africa (Oxford: Clarendon PreaSe .." >1973)', pp.215-219.

,) \,1 1/ 22. ILL. Watts, HA Social and Demographic Portrj:tit of English-speaking, White South !.\fri.cansl!, in.

Eng>1:_ish..speak!E.s...l'2Ufch Africa T,9$~CZf P, 44. Some (i . .- '-< \) of "the main reasons for emigration. such as the avo rdance of military couscr Iptrion , have also served to disunite the WESSA commut11ty in recent (;'I o 'years.

(I u 0 23. Fo'l. det~iled stat'istics these areas, see H.t.. t, f~ Watt's. ~id. ",?p.49-79.

24. Denis ·Io~rall.· "l;:\,~l!.Sh-~.o;;:t!l Africa and the l!olitic,~ System" ,",' in 'Englf_!i,h-speaki:ng II South

b~frica Today t p , 2 '

25. '.Johl1 Stone, Colon t or Uitlande:r'?, p.2IS.

~ . 0 26 .' For exatllPl(~, John I~tone. 1b.i!!., p.2o, Henry ~.kver, I SO\)l.th AEt9.~~,~~iet!, . pp .15~18, and Lawrence

. I o'Schleamer, :,tEnglrsh"spealclng South Africans TodJY: , I Identity a~d Integration into tne Broa.der National ~ommurlityn • in §'n!.l.is~.\.s1:!eak;ing__ South Africa I Iti !yd&I. pp.98~116.

{/ \"

,': 27. \·1.H,. Macmillan, fu!lltU, Boet:, .and Briton, revised edition (Oxfordt CLa.rendo\1. Press, 1963). 28. Guy Butler, Ulntroduct:i.on", .;..;;._------~~-A Book of South Af1!ican Verse, p.xvti.

II a I1\ ' ' [I II <":1 'I \1 o 348

29. See, for example, Hike Kirkwood, "The Colonize:r: A Critique of, the English South Afr.ican Cultu-fe

"Jfheo't'y" f in !:g~try.7J;O~tth._,Af!iCa, especially pp.l06 ...108. I

30. Christopher Hope, "A South African Abrcad'", Fair

~;\ 1_a.d.1(24 .Iune 1987) f P .102.

31. Lawr'er;pe Schlemmer ,0 "English-speaking South Africans Today: Identity and Integration into the Broadar Nati(:m.~lo C<;mlInunitylt, Ln §11s1:._ish-sEeaking South Africa Today', 'FF. 94-95.

a 'j''\to. , pp.18 ...19.

33~ D. Ar~hiba.ld, BTh Afrikaners as an Emergent:

7!::~:~'19:~~~!:~4f~~U~!.-...!._._O....'f;;..' _,,;;S;;..;o;...;c;..;;,i;.;;o;..;l;.;.q.lil~Is0 20.4

E.A. T~Fyakian, ~'SOCiol\\~gical., Realism: Partition

fo~ South Afri.ca" , 0 Soc:f.~).l Fo'rces., No" 46 (1967),

P.1'211. This, is not to deny the (.U.~·i8ions within 0 ,:::; the" black African group;, in South' Afr;ca. for , c· example, th~' tensions between Inkatha (the Zulu

ethnic 0 movement) and the African .N~tional

II /~ongl"ess, but simply tq streos how opposition to /~partheid has sezved to forgE t'be black reosi!3cance "movements' national character~

II 35. Hichael Chapman, South African English Poeltr>:! A Mo

(l so-called "CoLouzed" :find Ind:tan groups may be viewed also a~ ~ occupying .", middl~') pcs Lt ton in South African socLetry , they are more ~t'operlY to be as aocf.atied with, and subsumed into, ~the "black"

resistance movemerrt s ,i within the context of ai1;~rtheid •

• 36. Christopher Hope, "A Conversation with Guy Butler", Bolt, No.7 (Narch 1973), p.,S1.

37. This chapter ccns Lders more than thirty .poems by sixteen different poets. Jl o o 38. Guy Bu~lerJ "The Nature a.nd PurpoS'e o~ the

Conf,~rence" t in ~lish-speakins 2 South Africa. TodaI, p.ll.

39. In cont raat;; thus, with a poem such as Francis

Carey Siater' s "Drought" J Q in Collected Poems ~Edinbu"rgh: B]~ackwoods, .1957).

,0 o ' " ' 0 o 40. Unlike ccount~~ie8 "such, as B~lgi~1 and espada,

" note~ "bJ,; ,Ro. C' Landes t ., II "Bili~~guaJ::1s~, the Individual anl~ Soci'et,y". unpublished paper ,; 1970, quotoed by",., ~~b:ry Lever, South _!frican" 5~QietI' (~tA,V .: p. 15+ • ':'( '~,()

a 41. S~e,1\ for" eJ::am.ple, John 5tone~ Colonisil~ Uf'tlat1de_£1, p, 26. and Henry Lever, South A~t~ica!l. ,. §£~, pp~15-18. ~.

42 ~ See t for e:liample, La.wrence Schlemm!>.r, "English': C\

sp~a:king South Africans 'roday: Identity and c Integration into the Broader National Connnunity", .c; I) :.::: ' in §pg11~h-sEeakins South Africa T~daI' p.133.

43. See Henr;y I::ever "Ethnic ,Preferences of o cWh,it~ o t H Resid~nts in"Johannesburg , in Cq,nt:empo.r.~u South Africa: Social Psychot£!~cal t~Iiectives, eds , 5.J.oMorse and C. Orpe.n (Cape Town:. ,Tues., 197.5),-, p.56.

G

o )1 'r

350.

44. r;li5 discrimination ~j discussed in Henry Lever, (r" ,'/' ,South ..:A.friC"al],Society. pp.17-18.

45. See N.C.J. Charton" and H.W. van der Merwe, ~ "Whither White South Africa?" in H.W. van der Merwe. M.J. Ashley. N·.C.J.Charton and B.J. Huber,

. Whit!:_. Sriuth Co African ttlites (Cape Town: .Iut.a , 1974). pp.170-178. whQ" claim tftatEnglish-speakers differ from Afrikaners on almost all important polit~)Zal issues, plart:icularly tiho'se associated with race. ,. j! 11 Q (I" ii 46. Christopher Hope t ifP9~etry and Society", in E.2.etry

South Afri~a, p.13~ .. I!

c

47. Christopher Hop~" audh.or 1 S note on itl.side cover of £..a~ Drives (J~ortdon~London Ma'gazine~ 1974)"

.48. ",Mike Ki2fkwl,pdt lIThe Ccloniz.er: A Critique of t;t;!i! ~... C! " ,," \" n o (\ (J. English South African Tbeoryll, in o Culture. ~etrz South.Africa; pp.l02-133.

49 • Ib id. t PP •102 ...118 •

c 51. This is in spite of Kirkwood' s disavowal of his ow:n poetry "as ail equally fertile source of the

(\ colonizer sne reot.ypes" as Butler',$ work, !l>id. t t1~05'.

'52. IIT"nese poems will be discussed in detail in' the

final c:haJfte:x.:of thi(~ study. a 351.

53. Jeremy Cronin, interviewed by "Susan Gardner, ~ South African Poets (Grahsmsto¥."tl.: NELM, 1986) , p.17. !I '\

54. Andre Brink, It Introducti

5S. Peter Randa'lI", 'fhe South African HEnglish~... and Race Relations (Johannesburg: South Africa.n

Institute of Race Relations f Topica.l Talk No.4, \,j 1967h p.4<

:::?' o 56". The d~tails of this Marxist ideology ~s it informs o the work of Cronin and odlf~r poets will be dealt with specifically in the final chapter of .this study. Similarly, a. discussion ~f the literary and critical debate between .Marxist and lille'tal positions which has characterise.d South African Englis:p poetry over the past; twenty or so years "

..will be treated in the final chapter. a

57. Once more. it must be recognisad that the term, WESSA, is an anachronism when appl~d to the pre-Union period. In addd.t.Lon, many of "the subjects of this investigation welia not strictly South Afri~an at all, "but British. Nevirtheless, it is the sense of a continuous ~nglish-speaking I' tr4d1tion in South Afril~'a which enab l.es the connection to be made bet~k(:n previous time.s and o II, the contemporary pel:i 0d •. II , V G

\.1 1\ I

58. 0 The synthesls is of immenj~e importance 'to Chris ~ithulele Mann, who is a rommitte?- Christian who has also adop~ed the Zulu culture and been accepted .. as a white man, into Zulu society.boLike 352.

the late Peter Becker ~ rhe anthropologist, and Johnny Clegg, the pop singell!. he is a rare example.

>",~ 0 .; c,' J;. ~_~_., . c";

of someone w"hohasr) transcended-,: ethnic an~l cultural categories, and, as such, he offers a glimpse df (I 'what~~' future uni:(ieq So~th Africa r~tght be like. II See also the discussion of Mann's poem, »»: Prayer') for My Work", ih thitii chapter. !if

59. T. S. Eliot J "Por'trait ,of 1~ :La4yll, in Collected Poems 1909-1962 (London:' Faber and Faber, 1963).'

60. Mike Kirkwood. uThe Coh1nizer", in POE!t:!.X.. South, Africa. p .riz.

61. Rene de Villiers, ed., Better than They Knew, 2 vail (Cape Town: Purnell, 1972-1974) • -e -s.,

;:0-

J 1')_0 62.' Guy Butler? "Is the ESSA a Dodo?", SundaI Star ,(3 Ap~ll 1988), p_14, cols 6-7~

A D&'f.A.GEiO SENSE OF PLACE f~'TER 3: .--.-.-t

1. Christop~\er Hope , "Introduction)! to Mike Nicol t s Mong .th~~S()~Ve;nirs, p , i 1.1. C: II . See.. foril examp~et, Guy Butler. tlIntroductivn", A Book oe South, African Verse, ·PP.Kv:U....xii; Guy

Butler J "On ~e!lng .Present vmere lLI1 Alre: Some Observat:'~ons on Sl.l~th Afrlcan f,nglish Poetry 'lS~O-1960nf in', Poetry So\.tthJ:,Afri.ca, pp.82-101;

and C.J .1>. Harley; ,:'Local C_oo:"r,'.1 r in SOU,. t~, African PoetryH. Theoria, No.7 (19::>5)~:pp.93-1t)O. o . ~.

"

o

(i' " 3. Stephen Gray, Southern African Literature: A..'1" Il1.troduc£.ion, p .158.

4. 'Noel Garson, "English"speaki:lg S;)uth Africans arid

the British Cormect Lone 1820-1,961" t in English-. u8peak~ng Soutn.._Afric,.! .;;.t25f~:z, pp..17...22. For an

!j account of the countn+ea of origin and the composition of the WESSA, group. see section 2 o'{ the previous cllapter of thie 'study, and, in particular, Ii. L. Watts, "A Social and r:~mograpbic Portrait of" Engllsh-8pea~l~g ,wllite South'

Africans" f Table 14, "Country of Brigin'~, i1.1 !milh...p.!,~~nsgouth. AfTic! .Ted!!, p. i6.

o 5. MichaeL Chapman, Sou,t;h Afri::can ~glish Poetry: A o !'f2dern Pera!!~~#.~y~, pp. 23' ff.

6. Guy 'Butler r'efers to William Plomer as tIthe poet o~ African disenchantment", "In.troduc.:tio,n", A .Book. ol South African Verme, p.xxix.

'See, C for example" Guy Butler f "On Being Pr!,asent 7. -el, Whe':ce You Are: Some Observations on South Af.:rican English Poetry 1930;'1960", in J:!oe;.rySouth g~/~:'1l!'

pp. 90~92 i and the ?pening chapter of John Bond' s ~, (/ , ) I., J( !hey IWere South Africans (Cape Town: Oxford ',,::1 U:r..ivers;f.ty Press, 1956).

tv Guy ("Butler, 0° "Introduction , A.. Book of South Afr:f.can Verse, pp •xxxii-xxxiii..

9. _!bi<,L. p ,xxxv.

10. An.thony Delius. The Last Division. Canto- Two, /I ~xxiii,p.45.

o (;~ 354.

11. David Welsh uses the phrase in a slightly different sense in ~"English-speaking Whites an~ /> oJ the Racial Probl~" in" Englllh-sEeak~' South" 1fEica.,.!odaX. p.22I.

12. The ~ttrase derives l~'l:pm R.N. Curtey' 5 1947. drama.t/~. 'POA.ID for radio, Between 'fw{'; vlor·lds.

-," 13. Michael Chapman, "Biographical S\jt:"~hes and The 'Paperbogk of South~' Afri\;;llE Engl ish p.3Q2.

14. This alienation has been by the .., exacerbatedo coultural boycott" (\ " o 15. This marginalisation is discussed in &eta:il in the ,previous chapter of this study.

16. Rge 1 Garson v "Engl ish- speaking South Africans and

n the British Connectil}n:c 01820-1961" , in English .. !.E~akin&iSouEn Africa 'Toda!, p,20, p , 33.

17• T•R. H. Duvenpor"t. South G Af.r1.ca: A Mod,~fn Hi~torx ' "

third editiol\, (Johannesbuig:, Macmil.lan. 1<)67)t p.400.

18. l..a-wret'\.iZ~ S..:hleme:Cf '?tEnglish-speaking South Africans Today: Identic~\ t~n~ Integratiot\ into the Broader.; N'ational COlllJ:t)unity", in English-speakin,& 11 . 1\ South Africa Today, esp. pp.100~122.

1900 Ibid., Table I In "Percentage Distribution of -;:_. '. "El1g1ish- and Afrikaans~speaking White Respondents Scel.ec1;i~g It2'fferent ;Descript~ons of Them8eh~Jes;8 Group,s", p.100. \\ 355. ( '" I)

(:> ~Oo Ibid., Table IX, "Proportion of EngLd.sh-cspeakdng Respondents who See their. Culture a.~d Outlook as

Specifically Sout.h African". p s Ll L, 11 and see the accompanying' discussion, pp.l10-112.

(j

21. "Ibi~~~, Table XIII. i"Percentage Distribution of 0 Respondent s Indic'acing Intentions to Remain in or Leav~, South Africa as a (;oR'Bequen.:e of Changing

Circumstan:esll~/1 pp.118-1l9. TJr")percentag: gicyen (I in this study represents an a\-erage derived from I) more thane one set of responses. r o . ~ u \\ _!bid., Table XIV, Itpercentages in Different Socia~ rf' o () 'Categori~3 Revea l Ing. Strong Emotional Ties l<1ith o South'Afri.ca", 1'.119. '11

23. Christopher Hope. "Poecry and Society". ,iiP PoetrI South ,Africa,' p. '1'31.

24. Stephen Gray. 0 itA ' Sense' of Place in New u D lilceratures t .,Particularly South African Engl ish t English Academy Iteviaw 1 (1983), p , 35.

25. Micfi1lel ~apmanf fu:!uth African· Engl~;?,h Poetry: ..~ Modern Perse~ctivef pp.24-26.

26. The poem is,; in fact J dated 1962, "'and refers in the first stanza. to !i"tennis on the Efq\lator", but (I c'

it can. noneche Less J be r egarded as a. prelimi'nary expre,_ssion of WESSA~'grotATinguneas~e y

27,. " .Christopher Hope; author's L~ote on inside cover of ,,~a~e Drives. ij ~

o 356.

-I(

28. Geoffrey Haresnape, lfWhites Under St:resslf ~review

of ChFi.sropher Hope f s 2..£_~~..pri v~s), Contras tp 3.~f

9.4 (March 1975)i p.92. 0

29. For example, Ste~hen Watson, "Recent White English C) o

Soud~) African Poetry and the '0 Language of Lib~ralism" , §tandpunte 164., .;;6.2 (April :t983) , pp.13 ...23. (\ "

~ (] 30e; . ~uian G'~rdner, intervi~w with Robert Berold,' Four '" ((\~ South African P0f:.~l!! p.S. o

lt 31. Malvern van Wyk Smith,' Hlnctrbduction t Shades Ot c c ~.~ V2-J.l o ' Adamast:.2!:,"(~d. M. Wyk Smith (Gra.'ha?stown:" NtLM. 19(8). p.32.

3 L. OJf~pial statistics for t!mi;&~ation are of °liq:le '- help since they do not recot'd the emlgJia.nts t r,as~:ms ,.for leavint~ or the:t.r tttitudes towards o leavin.g. o 0 ,,'" rt " 33. An important factor in this regard. since the ~id

o ~, 0 1970Bt has been the issue C of conecr tpt Ien in the 0 ,; :1 c_> South Africa~ Defenc~ For ce ;

'"' .'~., 3.4. Pierre L. van den Berghe ~ ;Ihe Lib'erAl Dilemma in South Africa (Londot;t: Croom Helm. 1979)..,.,~'.16~o

35. Christopher Hope, tfA South African Abroad", f~i:!

(I La.£Q!.(24°J'Jn; 19&;7), pp.l02~~~-: ... o

() a 36. Chd.s.top~~r Hope., "Lntrrcduet Lon" to Mike 'Nicol's d ,," ' . G'_ , Among the Souvenirs t p. i.

(1

37. ,:rbid., p , iii. " \ J o

() 357.

flli ! :38. Or. at; least in ~·:atsotlis case , since his '-'pIS:"~~.;onae ;7 ,I 11 dOli tend to b~ litt:le lllore than U,ltel'ary em~lodLments of his own s raties of mind: see ~elwyn solie, HCt'cat Longi.ngs , Bleak Lns t s" (r€\r- f'W of i ',' 1- '1 • T Th . (0 • ) 11' ~. 7 fI , Sq:p lli:~n i tson 0 s .,.n i J.~_ _:,.!_Ly,.t, ~lg.llS£~",~_...!?;fc.'£Hlem.z 4, ,; 198;1). 261. Re1rk~., p ,

Lind :fpies, !?Jit?"Y;_ VergeI!.2~_g (Cape 'l'f)WU; Hnrran and R(1ll',j~leau. 1971). 1\ II

40. Ant:j ie Krog , Hannin (Cape and ]:J ROll ;:.1. $ea U , 1975).

I;; 4~. M.M. H,11ters, !:!!!m.4a11 (Cape Town: Tafell.berg, /)

()

0- \ Johan- 'Ide Jager. HagBadan ,_vir __J'l-_¥it Afrikaan tt ~~

(Johann'ysburg: Persk,()t~~' 1974)" \~i \ () 43. Iltgoap.;.lJ Hadingoene, Afrika _~_.~ f;~ginnil28. (Joh(~nnesbut."g:" Ravan , 1979).

1144. M. Chapman 'and cA,_ Dangor , eds • .Y.2!E.es from Wit!),}...!! (Johannesburg: Donker., 1982), ~\r, \'

45. 'T. CO\lzemllai~~\'E. Patel t eds t The Ret,!.L~.!Lof th~ AUlasi Bkcd~ (Johannesbutg: Ravan, 1982). '

J'O 41. See for example, Guy :Sutler, "Introduction", -.;_,A '\ ~22k of SS'..!!;n. Afr~5:.~n Vt-;.p!~p p .xxxvi.LL, Guy Butler, !fA Conversation with Guy But:leT", o Bolt. No.7 1971), ___....._' (March p.Sl.. , 358.

49. Wherea~~ Livingstone's response to Africa must surely be regatded as atypical of contemporary • tI 'WESSAs, "Undez Capm.ccrn seems to embody a characteristi,c WESSA xesponse towards indigenous African culture (and people) . Sei~ l'fichael u Chapman, [2_~!Jt..!f:t·~'\ft!L..!~.ish 1?~tr •.Y.L,,~'212_de;a ~L'SE..~~~t p , 96.

50. Jensrna is J in f'act;; of Afrikaner parentage t it>1~~ites much of his poetry in Afrikaans, and has tf,~ded to 'I be cacegcr Lsed with th~' African poets-'.j of the f.'j 19708.

51. Foro a discussi~p. of Mann' s $Y~lthesis and its impl~cations, see my ciisc\.tssion of his poem,

"Rorke t S Drift a Century after the Battle" t in the ,'I previous ehapcer of this at.udy,

52. The poet stated that die incident desc:.cibed in the (I F)em is autobiograpbical, in a reading At the University of the Witwatersrand in 1986.

Q 53. See, for example, W.D. Hammdnd-T~')9ke, "Wo,rld View 1; A System of Beli~fsn, in The - l.!a~i~1;u~~eaking ~oples £f Southern Africa, ed, w~n. Hammom!-Tooke (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul~ 1974), pp.318-343. See also Ninian Smart, :the RelJ.8i_~,

Experience c';'.J1.~.l'!!<_ind (New York~ Fount; , 1969) t pp.51-58.

~I 54. H.L. Watts ~ uA Social and Demographic 'Po'rtrai.t of El'1glish"speaking White South Africans", in ~~-sp~~£n8 Sputh A!Fric~ Tod~, p.87.

55. Ibid., p , 52 ~ and see Figure 3: "'the Percentage

of English- speaking Whites t~n Urban Areas" t p , 55. c: 56. Henry .Levez , §.~A!rican Soci!!ty, pp.19-20.

57 • B. J. Huber, N. C •J. Char ron and H. W.. van de'!" 'llHerwer "b: Profile of W1;iitc~South African Elites". in _ !,.: r:n, • ~ 1 H' " E1. I') ,f+--,t ? 6 • .,.-"w,:;.ute,Soutl, ....----j,...... ----r i.cen l.tes, pp ..... " 5°. For exampl.e , folk music. ,::n;'t, chea tz e , even slogans or hypocor isms.

(/ 59. See, for example, Lawt'enp.e Schlemmer's as.se ssment; Q of t~e nat ure and strength of EngLkshespe.ake r's! emotional ties with South Africa in "Engli,sh-' apeak Lng South Africans Today: Iden,tity and

(I , \ c::J 1/ntegration into the Broader Nati.onal Commund.t.y"~ 'I o in Engli!!l-sl?~akirig -fr!19uth Africa'~ T;daz, pp~118-J2~~ , o o G " 60. They have been termed ~itlanderst rooinekke, ~. . Sbut(~ "qy Afrikaners t and likened to migrating swallows by Zulus, for example.

62. I.bid., xxv. ;:; ~

(.) (,

63. .:gil£,.. ltXJcy iii.

c 64.

" 6'5~""1RiA. Jl xxxvi. In this regard, see Michael Ch,apman's Qritical discussion in ,SoutEt_ Afri~ Ens1i.sh Poet,ry:" A J4odl~rr:t PersEectiy.!.. 'PP.26 re,

f o

Cl ,66. See also. Isabel Hcfrneyr , "The Mining Novel in Sout.h African Lj.terature", English_oill Afri(~.e., 5.2 o (September 1978), pp.l-1'S. o (J

67.. Hi.chae 1 ChapmanJ §outh Africa!!,", Englis~ ?9!?tr'y': A ~d~sn Per$pect!;~, pp.57-58 •

•5 68. I!?J.:s!., p ,52. ~ " :!. 69. David 0 Adey j Ridley Beeton, M;j.ch\'a~el Chapman and Ernest Pereir.a, ~£2,W-I!ani.onto South. Af~ican tnglish

J..it:erature (Johanne'sbur~ ~ ponker t ·~986},<"~ Ppl.SO..iH.

70. 'Lionel Abr",ahams, inte.t·viet.~~~J"bY Michael Chapman,

!:ngL1:!!t~g~lTIY. Rey!p'''!.,:'±. (19137). f "P' +44. 0

,,71. Patrxck Cullinan, '~e....iew of Journal; .of a New Ma.n, ,UE~E.realil\. 3.2 ('AutUUlIt 1985>)<, t..·...... " -;~i1 _..... JI· //

[) c > , (j-' ;, 72. J,.ionel AbrahamS., acceptance spl()cch for the Thomas Pringle Award, for Poetry ~ 1987", reproduceDd in !h~

Star TONIG[t (22 April 1988)f p.6. coLs 2-3. G)

o o 73. Patri.ok Cullinan. tltntroduction~,~ f Lionel Abrahams: q] " " -- A Reader, ea. Patrick Cullinan (Johanne$burg: pp.lO-ll. Donker.o 1988>.

o " 74. Marcia Leveaon , "Self-confession and \\ Crafe' c (review "of l.ionel Ahrah'ams t s \Journal of a New ::- ':;:' 0 '~;~ __ _~- PI

t f ___"._Man) ~__.....-Contrast 611.,015.4,~ (DecemberD 19'85) p.94. c, ('::::'=~;'~~~<

f As, c'ecily Q:;,ockett J(;ints dut "in "Poems of Our Climate" ,,(review ol Francis Fallerl s Weather

Words).--..-.-- New Coin, 23.1 (June 1981), p.46~'

\~ (_;

361.

76. Robert Herold, HAl.one , AloneJ1 (review of Stephen Watsons IS Poems 1977-1982), New Coinl' 20.1 (June 1984).

77. See my note 22.

o 78. (/ Stephe.n Watson, interviewed by Susan Gardner ~ .Four South A.frican Poets, p.S2. il l!) 79. !bid., p.66. It is to be noted t:h'at although he G speaks '·of working in an old tra~h,tion of city poetry, his enterprise is,·· in fact, a novel one in

Q South African English poetry ~

, 81~ Aprop6s th~ epigr~ph of In '!'his "C~ty, a quotation from A:Lbert Camua.

, 82. Gareth Cornwell, "Beat.\ty with Cru,e1.ty" (review of

Stephen Wat.on's .!!L..!h.is pity), NeT) Coin,a 22.2 (December 1986) t p. 44 ~"',

o I See Ber.old' s ointerview'!, with Slisan G,'lrdner. Four 83. '~I .---...-.-

South .!!::rican P2!!!, pf,q3-11. Q

II. I) 84. Douglas Reid Skinner, '.\ "Self 3!1:1 Protagordst" "'(t'eview t')f Don" Maclenn~,l S Reckon!n&!~~ Contrast

(['Sr, 15.1 '{-!ulcy 198"4), (p.8~. 0" •• - '. o \~

o 0 o

()

a ()

. It' l( 1;' 362.

• CHAPTER It: A POETRY OF DREAr)

1. See, for e~ample, A.M. Lewin Robinson, !9pe p~Eing .t~~ Us Airaid:_ A ~tudy of Engli~h Periodical o Li teratuX'.e in ,the__ 9a..E~,If.,om its !?.!=~innings - fa'

a 182i:1.!ll (Cape Town: MasR~ Miller, 1962).

2. Especially sections xxx-xxxv. . ) ~1 See the variou$ selections in Guy Butler, ed , ,

'b ,~{n Boys Were !.fen "(Cape Town: Oxford Utiive+sity Pi-hs, 1969).

4. For ex~~e, M.B. Hudson, A F'eature of Scuth Afrie~ Frontie.r Lif4\.f-.!. ~2!R lete Recor~ o£. t;hf! Kafit War (mimeo; 1852).

\":1 5. ,. Tbeo ide. of !tdt;aadU ~n the sense. that the present stud.y meaus, dees not appe~\?, for, exampl.". in Ma~vern ~sn Wyk S~~th' s !?~r Hodge: '" The 1.t?~trI of if _t.h! A1}slo-Soer' War, 1899-190~, (Oxford: Clarendon', ·1979), and seems not to "have been all G iinpor~ant featiIre of Boer W8.tpoetry in general.

(' o 0 II Guy Butler, ttItltroduction" , A ~ook of South o

African Verse I .•p. xxxi..

7. See Peter Alexander, Roy> C!EPbe1l:" ..A "C:riti<;:&!

Biogr~~h! (Cape Town~ David Philip, 1982) I I>p.l~2

~" ff.

\ o

8. \ For '8; discussion of white F,:nglis~~spe",king ~\ ..atti tudes in the ear~y years of the twentieth \\ century, see David Welsh, ·'Et1,glish ...speaking Whites\' (I \ and t~, Racial" Prcb Len,' ~ in English"', ~ \ () 363.

!R~,§lkiillLSouth Af~:i.ca To~a:t:f pp.217-i!31, or David vlEdsh, t_he Roots of. Segregation,; N8.ti~,EOli(!y, in fS~nial Nata.l a 18~?:1910 (Cape, \-Town: O. U. P .• ,. 1971), espe9ially pp.30-35.

fl 9. Guy ':,~;ltler, Yflntroduction ," Q A Book of Soua:h

~~'ric~nVers¢, p.xxix. 0 10. St~hen Gray, Southern African -~---Lite;ratdre: An Introducti,2E.. p.37. See ~lso "Malvern van Wyk

Smith t ,; "Intt'

Q n II 'J 11. H.t. wattS\t"A So~ial and Demographic Portrait of EngliSh-'1lP~ king White South Af~icansu , in Engli.s~-..!I2e~.kng South Africa TodaZ, p. 60, p , 63, p.87;' For dar at.Led statistics. see Table 8~

"0 "Occupat.Lona l Categories of English ...speaking and Afrika'ans-speaking v,~ites. Liv;,.ng in Urban Areas", p , 59, Table 9. "The Percentage Wh:ich Engli~p- speaking WhittlE Form of the, Total Number of White" Il Worket's' in Each Occupat LonaL Category" • p ..61 ;0,~,

'table 10 J "Respondent t s Social. Status ~ for" a '

Sample of Whites Living in Cities, I', Towns and Vil1ag~sl'f p.62: and Table n, "Fathei"'s Highest '. ~ , cO Occup.atlon, for an Urban S'ample of Whi'l:~,S", p.65 c, -, \\1 1,'; • (titles of tables slightly abridged). n o o ~

12. 'Bettina J~'.Huber, "'I'tIlages of the ~ture'" ,in Wh1.t~ Soutoh Altrican Elites. pp.151'~169, i,(.~m hez ,I"- un1>ublish~rd Ph ..D. dissertaticln, lI!!!lges "o;'_the, Future .A.m~ng the Wh1.te South Afr:f.g_an El.it~ ,(Yale University, 1973). o 364.

13. That is, the "Self-Anchoring Striving Scale" developed by Hadley Cantrill [land Lloyd Free in Hadley Cantril1, The Pattern of Human Concerns ::' )-- . '.. ' ... ' .' _....,.._. ___ (New Brunswick: Rutgers. UniV'esicyPress, 1965). I! ~~. Bettina J. Huber, "Images of the Fut}lre". Ln llhlli South African Eli tes, p .15,4.

o ii ~ ,_,

15:::, lbid.. Table 27, "General NaturE' of Hopes and FE!Bl'Sby'Home Language", p.156.

!)

c 16. See chapter I, s&ction 2 of the present studYi (.)...

17. Bett,ina J'. Huber, "Images of the Future", in White South African £li tea, p .165: the source is in

Radley Cantrill t ~,Pattern of Hum.!~ Concerns, 'pp.180 ..187. 18~ -Ibid., Table 30, "Per Cent of National Samples Expressing Various Fears", p ..Q167 On o

\\ 19. ~., Table 31, "Ladder Ratings by Country: Means and ~hifts", Ii> .169 •

(' 20. William Hudson.., Gideon Francois Jacobs and Simon

Biesheuve"l t ~natonlY of South Africa; A Scientific !~.u!iz_jf Presel}t Daz Atti~~.!! '{Cape Town: Purnell. 1966), especially pp.33",;38 and pp.91 ..1?4."

o lY 2~1. Michaal Chapman, a·lntroduction , A Cent-urI o~" ~

22. Chris' Mann, intei:Viewed in English in ~frica..t 6.\ (March 1979), p~.10-11~

\~] 365.

24. Christopher. Hope, "Introduction" to Mike' ,Nicol's Among the S0!.lYEm irs , p. i:t .

25. See note 11 of the present chapter. '!

26. Hop~'s later version of this poem, HComingRound;! (In the Count!]! ,.,Jf .!he :Bla~~kPig) seems :rather less successful. at least as far as the themes of ,the present study are concern~d. (I c \(~,.,~ ~ o 27. Michael Chapman, §.2uth Africal1 Engli,sh Paetry: A MddernPerSEective, p.Z69.

28.. Christopher Hope, "Poetry, and Society", i"Qr.oetrx 'South Africa~ p~138.

29. Robert Herold, "Alone. Alone" (review of St,~phen Wat$cn'a Poems 1977...1982), New Coin. 20.1 (June '"1984), p. 49 ..

30. Stephen Wataon, "Recel:....t White English South ~African po~try and the Language of Liberalism't, Stand£untL..]64 , 36. t (Apri.l 1983) • pp .13-23. "'~'o Watson has, more recently, abandoned th~e materialist critical perspective which ..he displays

.Ln this article (see, for exa:tnpleto his later

arti.cle, "Poe.cry and Poli,ticization" I ~ontl'a8t 61, 16.1 (July 1986), ~pp.15-28}. Neverthele~st he ... , • ~ '1 remains I/ant.agonlstic t owards ,the poetry discussed in the ,,'former artic~~'" which, iridJ2ed,D is fa.irvly repr~sent&tive ~.'of a good denl of materialis.it criticism of recent white English;"language poetry . 0 ' . " in thts country. For these reasons, the article necessitates r~sponse. 366.

31. !2!£ .. pp.19-20. o

! , ,Ii

1\ 33 . Mi.cha;~;{ Chapman" Sou.th Afr.ic.sIE_:_~?&l!s~Poetry ..,:~ Modetu Pe~sEecti~, p.264.

34. ~.t p.264.

5. Michael Chapman, "Intro?Uction", A C!,_ntury of , South A'frican .!"getry, p. 28.

36. Michael Chapman, SouthAfri.can~En~lish; Poetry: A

Modern PerS2ective. p.Z,66. \J

,,)7. 3.M. ,Goetzee, !1aitin&" for the Barbarians .'(Harmondsvorch , King Penguin. 1980):

38. C.P. Cavafy t "Waiting for the Barbarians" f tra'llslA.ted ,py E. KeeleY and P. Sh~r.rard, in!£~. Greek Poets (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966). p.ll. a

o c 39. Chri$topher Hope, "Introduction" ato Mike Nicol f s ~~ng the Souvenif.!t p.iv.

40. The t'e~ gained special currency through Michael Ch{lp~nts book, §~~to Poetr...I~ The poetry is also termed t'Township Poetry" "and "New 'Bta~k PoetryH.

(! 41. Michael Chapman, South African English °Poetry ~ .! Modern Perspective, p.14~

42. Frederick Johnstone, "White Prospel;"ity and White Supremacy in South Africa Today", "African Affairs,

c LXIX.274 (1970), pp.124 ...140; and "'Most Ptlinful to Our Heat'ts': South African History Through the c Eyes of the N~'W School~,', Canadian Jou:t:nal of African Studies 16 (1982), pp.5-26.o 367. o

43.'J C;!1oln:tin Legas s Lck, "The Rise of Modern South, African Liberalism: Its Asstnapr Lons and Social

" \, Baae" t Institute of Commonwealth Studies f (mimeo; '119:;'2) n ip , f and t!Legislati~n, Ideology ~nd Economy

H in :eost~1948 South Africa t ~£>)E!nal of Souther~ Afr'i:can ~tudi~_!_ ('l974). l?p.S::'35.

44. St~td~y Trapid9: "Soutb Afrfrta in a. Comparative

it Study of Indust'tializatton • ' Journal of Development St ..u..~ies 7,

~- ('i 41J. cClb:istop~er Hope. personal communication, 0 o 0 (I Johannesgurg, 1 faugust 1987.

i'l a _,"'<;;:.<~~ 47. W.B. Yft4t3, little" Valley of the Black Pig", ,;lin

'Colleefed Poems o:':o'tidonJ Macmillan~ 1950) t p , j3:~ .. I., - _- \) ,

c Y.ate, UNotes" , Collected Poems p i)J>. 48. W. B. [, t, 526 ..5027.'J

Ir 0--, 49. pus Ferguson. "Introduction·t to Roy Joseph Co,~on'8 All Man (Cape Town: UpStream, 19S6), paS.

s. ee. 'alao p.O.. r.ian Raa~hbf. ,."~he B11.ght ~hat M•...n Was! ~rn For" (review of Roy Joseph Cotton 'os Ag. M.!!!), '\' New COin, 22.2 (December 1986), p.33., ''1\ o ~,

50. Stephen G~aYI Southe;p African Literature,t An Introduction, esp. pp.i4-28. -- ~ '\:1-- - o

A TRADITI0N'OF DISSENT

1 .... . Michael Chapman" ftlnt'iioduceicnfl ()to The Pa.2~!:pO'ok of South AfriJ:an E(1g1ish ]petry. p. 27. -- "", '7f~.~, r' "!I. ~ ('j" Noel Oar son , "Eng''_'~h'' speaking South Africans and the" Brit:i.sh Conne~i::j,on. 1820 -1961" , in §2.~Jish::: sEe~ki!,lg So~.tb(A;.;AC~i~~d8.Y, p , 35.

3. A. de Villier:s. HIntro~uctionH to ~Ei}.ish-~E!!!1.1!& South Afriea .....1oday\) 'P. V .'

D 4. c. Noel Gars.)1,1 t "Engtish-speaki~g qouth Af(~~:(.ans a{~d c' _, 0

the Br~~tish c. Connection: 182(}~19tH::'l' Q in c. ,English-sl~eakiIP!. ,South,M:rieaj.'Gq~, p.3].

o "." ". '\ u 5. He~ry Lever , ~'~h ~e:idm~S9ci~tl~~'P .16,£'." o 1~1 0 ( \ 6. 'BtH:t,}:na J. H~ber and H~,:W. !f,an de.r (t1~rwet "tJ~~

iel~tive 0 Impact of Et'hnic and 'St~uct1~;al Factor.s ;, Jl ' '.~.:,< , ~'-. 1_, o on Attit~des ('Towa ds Segregat'ion,? and Disse'htt\~' in

White sllu:th Ariea )' ttes t p. 6L ' ~ ,', ,,",_'-" \' \' (,2 " o Lawr~nce "Schlemmer, "English ..speaking So~th "d:l/) ,,,,; Africans Today: Iden1;ity and Integration into Fhe \\~"Broad~j National Commur.dtylf, ,in !'P~lish-,~Eeakingf ~ South Africa Tod..!.!, p.91. .. I) 8. David ,Welsh, tlEnglfsh-speaJr.ing Whites and the Racia~ Problem", in E!r..3li~h-speaking S;'i:>uthAfric~ Tod~I' p.236.' See. ,for example, N.C;J"", Cha,rton 8I).d H.}:' van der Merwe, "Some Political Attit)..ldes _' '.' \, , n of t,he \Elites • in White South African Eli£~, " 8P.l.~~-~lo; Hen:r;y Lever , ,"Ethnic Preferences of lf White 'Res~dents in Johanne.sQurg , 'in Con1;!m£.~,E.a;y'

o ,\ ',L., 369,

() I>. S,·mt..!b~frt9a: Social PSlehological Pe,E~Eect~e~., pp.62,j(-63; J.W. H~nn,onAttit~,ldes Towards Ethnic ,- '-I I." GroupsH. in ~.Q~~h Afripanl Sociologital

Per-sperr.tives._ ed. H." Adam, (Londori i Oxford

a Univer~ity Press,'\;197ir~ pp.SO-72. l,~

o f ~ {j'a'Vid Welsh ~ tlEng1:tsh-sp~aking!c Whi,~~s ai:i.q fhe o : ,.;'. -~1FJ _ Rac i.a l Problem". ~n English+sR~~a!5:j.ng So.uth_ Africa'

(, "I !oda~J p.236. ';;) D

10,' NoeI Gar son , Cit ,.glish"'speaking South AJ:ricans .and "the British Connection: 182:0 -1961", in ,:1:"81 i~t~ , .§.£.taking South Africa_Tod'!y:, p.36. ~, ,~'] . . ",

11. Law!"e:n~e 'Schlemmer.. "English-speaKing, South ,'I Q ,," '. " African,s Today:' Identity and Integration tIltD the q-_, Broader .N;at;//(.)haJ,COmDlUnityH, in English-speakiE.,g

S~uth Afri'~.JJ!_day~, p .133. (! .~ (fJ

c' ::: C' 12. Dav,!:,.t Welsh, "English-speaking Whlt;es lias? the~}

Racipl Pr~blemH t in En81~sh~s~~ak;ing South '\:S7f .zs Toda,I ~ p , 2'31. II !) ~ ~

13. Lawren~e Sch Lemmer J 1fEnglish-speaking South 0 \, Afi'1ca!1si\"1oday~ Identity and In~\~gra,~ion ~lnto the

() C' ,l,!roadlif National, Co~nity!t, in \§n'li8p.,;~~,e~ki~g_

(1 pouth AtrAc:a Toda2> p .124." 0'" o

<;) .= 14. Ibid •• pp,,12?-12!1,:i, 9 " ( >

\', ", \: \)16.;; l3en:!s Worrall, "English South Africa a~d\ \lhe Political System" t in §ngli8h ...spe~~,:~I;l:~S6!a£!! , 0 ~~ri~a "Today, p.202...... 'J '.'\. ~~o; " ,. " \.r.,/'"

G

\. 373.

Saunders, .!h~....J:Wking ....'?f the South African Past.: £fajor Histo'ria~us ...on Race and Class (Cape trown: DavidQPhilip, 1988).

44. 'rhis incident has ai~ been treated by lUke Nicol ~ r' ill !·UndEir the Stone" (~the SO...\lY-~!tj:rs, 1978) a~1.dby Sheila Fugard in HPlatform ,S". (!hf..!.sholds, 1'9'75) .~

o 45. Jeremy Cronin, interviewed by Susan Gardner" Four ;, ~"" South African Poets, p.17.

46 Douglas Livingstone, "~,Africa Within Us I •• ,,1". ,tn jloetry S2~f"h Afri.£!b p .142. "

,'J

" 47. Ttle(} inverted commas are used to suggest .the fail.ly ,tentt'ative nacirre . ot these terms ~S" app1ied to • 'J poetry. For the purposes (..If this study" these • D terms J which" are for the m.ast: part interchange- :-:J able, may 'be regarded a~"?identifying a particulsr

body of poetry" withi,:ll t~. definition provided in Ii this chaptere t and s~ the lIse ,~f inverted commas

48. ::l a:::.: o:o:::,:ei:\ra~ Party in ::8 following the '\ Government's banl" on mul't.ti.racial political pa:rtfes is an obvxcus \\example. For an extended account of the t:E.~t'l"sionsexperienced l"r liberalism

in the wake of t.he National p&rtyts !";l.;seto powert see Janet Robertson -. !4..~~lism in':"~k":th. Africa:

1945...196l. (Oxford: Cl?~~.~don, 1971), \1

/{ ~.~ G 4S. See Harrison M. wrig1\t ~ ivjl.~urden _of t:!:!...Jresent and Christopher SaundeJ)s, !he.]1.~_kinf\l.of the!~,§~

;1 African_ Past for extended ve~sions of "\this c cr Lt Lque of liber,'l,lism. T.R.H. Davenport provides

\ 1 ()

370.

17 • David WE;;lsh, "English-spealdng 'V1h:i.tec.1and the Racial Probl('m", in Engl,ish-s~eaking South A~~ica Today, p.229.

18. Noel Garson; "Eng Id sh -epeak+ng South Aft:,i<';4ns and Il:he Br Lt i eh. Connection: ])320 ~1961", in ~~E.e,glJ:iU.:.

J 9. Chris t opher Hope , "Poetry and, Society" ~ in -,~._....,Poetry Sct~th AIr2:CCl, p ..137. 1\

20. "',jal Garson. "English:-speaking South Afri(!an:; and the British Connection: 1820 ..1961" ~ in ]~ngl~f.2.~- sDe~k~~ ..§o~th A~rica_tod~lt p.28.

21. Ib i d., p; 37 • o

22~ David Welsh. tlEnglish-speakir~8 Wh~tes dt!ci the Prob Lem'", -Ln .[ng1i.)~h,1"S.E~~k(il1g' S£l~l!!t AtEJ:£.i! o Racial Tod.!I.r pp.236-237. \' , o \',~)

o U ? 3. Colin Gardner. "The English -speakfng Whites f In, South Africa's__l1!ncrit!..e..!t' ed, p • ()}\~ndal1

(Johannesburg: Spro-CalJip 1971) l p.42~'

., ~.~ ,(l' ~\ 24. Guy But;ler t' "The Nature',;, and '~urposIJ 'Of the.

() 0 Confer~n\~elt , in Eng1~h"'~~~Y!JL" So~.~~ !9.~al' p,.13"1 o

.2~L Lawrence Schletri:mer I ~'Ellgli,sh ..apeakd.ng Soufh Afx'icans Today: Identity and IntErgrati,o'n into d\e Broader NatiO'tlal Community", in :Er&l!!!!:sEea~;'l!S. South Aft:ica 1'.s~d8J p'.12Z-123, Ii

o II 26. I?:i~., 1'.127.\\ II 311.

27. Ibid., p.l23. I.' -,

28. ,Ib!!!•• p.127.

29. Bettina J. Huber and H.W. van der Merwe, "The Relative Im~act of Ethnic and Struc.tural Factors on Att i.tudes 'rowards Segregation and Di,9sent", in ~f,te S6uth Afri~cal1 Elites, p. 76. See Table 9, "Jridex of Legnl Segregation by Home. Language", 1,,1' '" i.\. p , 54; '1?able 13, "Proportion of Respondents Favouring Lill\ited OF No Lega L S~gregat:(~on by Home Language". p.70; ,:,and Table 15, "ReLatri.onshf.p of 1.egai"' SegFegation and Dissent", p , 7S.

30. ..1 .W. Harm, "Attitud~s Towards Ethnic GroupsH, in South_b!'t~~..l1 Sociolo~ic_al "Pers,Eectives, pp. Sp..72. (I f ,;; o

(] c.c. Kinloch! ;"Racial' Prejudice ilV Highly and Less H Racist Societies • ~ologl and _§oci&l Resea'r:.£ht No~ 59 (l974)t pp.1-13. (I, ((

o32.r, Henry l.evet:' t "Ethnic (Preferences of White.

''', Residents itt" Johannesburg" t in !;ontemE

"A:l7.J_ica: Socia l".__ .!'sychological' P'e!!!E~..9t!~~!?t

:"pp." 5'"''~,'"63 .c

33. DG.yid 'Welsh, "English··speaking W\Jites 8~d the Racial .P:r.oblemltc~()in El1g~.t~"1.1~!±g .SoutL~rica l(jqax. p., 236 • o (\ ~4. Colim Gardner.. HTbe English ...speaking Whitesl\, !.~

§.2J:~sP AfriS!! t s J1tp.ori._ties t p , 42 if'

35.

o o Ii J.' ~! 372.

36. Jeffrey Butler, Richard Elphick, David t';e~sh, "Introduction!! to Democratic Liberalism in South ~fric§., p .11.

37. See the introductory chapter of this present study.

t)'( 38.

o 39. here is taken from l.awrenee Schlemmer's classification of WESSA political ",3ttitudes. Sec! .my notes I'I ana 28.

40. Lawrence Schlemmer, "English-speaking () ..) South Afr:;'cans Today: Id~utity and Integration into the Broader National COl"lmunity", in ~ns~!.!.h=.f!E.g_lf!nbl. South,Africa TgdaX, p.123. () 41. ,+he fact that Mann's poem dates from the mid 19708 ctug. Solec's from the mid 198Q,s sugge81;.:~, ,!:hat the

" o fundamental attitudes of the majority of WESSAs, a~~ identified in the two poel~.r l~&ve uo.e) altered ,;rkedlY in ,."'e coneemporary pet~d. c ~. ,I /1 42. The nature a~l\d impl,icati.ons of I the Nkomati Accord \\

arl~ df.scus s~4 in T.'R. H., Davenport t s 2..2y"tl! Afrl:.£!.:. (,II

()

43. Two full-lenf~th historieal accounts of the debat;e between liberal and Marxist thought are Harrison.

M. iyright t lhe Burden c_{ Eh~1:.r~s_~,nt!_)'t!e Liberal:. ~~di£a~. Corttr0.1prsy .. q~r South ,Afr:f.c.!!l.__Hi.sto_r..l '(Cape Town: DavId Philip, 1'971') and Chr1.stopher 381.

I' INDIJ~J).UAL~:'UMES OF SOUTH AFRI~l ENGLISH)'lET,S.'i'

Abrahams, Lionel. Thresholds of t£1..~~.a.Ilce.\Johannes- burg: Sat~ieur ?:re-;~-:-I9 75 ..

Ii (I

.. _ ...... uo< ... _ #<.~_ " 1984.

o ,. ~"' __~ t"; c._, ....'t.....h..;e_Vl..J:!ter _.t~ s'siia. Johat\nesburg~ ;~ "';' " a 19&8,°

"Bp.eton , ",Ridley ~ The c;i;..._1,and.ca:ee of, ,"" '.'it!,9._uireme1!£. "JohaRlhe'sburg }1lonker, ",1, 981. ,0 ~

o 'u

u ~ • ---., ...-----, 't&tto98. Johannesburg! Ddnker; 19fh.

Berold, Robert. b,:hle ~or to the River. Johannesburg: : . "J

Btr;teleur Press, 19~;' ~ o ,I G "(J 1\ BrodricK, Al¥rt, Ef.t~i_fugitive :Fancie's in Verse.- Pret "v, J...,...... --./ --- ...... _-, A Wanderer's RhYp;tes. tJ..ortdon: The Record

I Press, 1893. (f

Bryer, Sally, §.g11letim..!~..l David, o Philip, 1913., \1

Butler., Guy, Selected Poems. Johannesburg:r;) ': "975°°.1, • \/

) 382.

)) .zr 1978 • . 1

',-:,-.~";"

((

c:.l (/',: • 4iito __ ,""fI I:;

1986. c

I: ' Co'Uzyn, Jeni. M01'lk~ylsrWedding. London: Ca.pe, 1972.

(r" ... 1'fo .--, Christm§~' in Africa. l.ondon~ 'Heinemann, \1. (\ 1975. , Cr

c /) ,Cripps, Arthur Shear: 1y, African Verses. London: ~Oxford

University Press 1 1939': <:'3 to _(.\_'_' 'J Cl

f~' /1

C1:'\)pin, Jeremy f !p;l:Je. ..Tohanne("r.p.rg: ~Ravart, 1983. \·.~f PI \ ..

i,\ () h~. 1)' c " '0' Cul,linan. Patrick, !he J Ho~izon 'For';! Mi~~s_.....Aw~:z.."

MachadOdor.~: p;rivately pUb1ish~d~1 19 n.· 1\ , (, -;;---- .....--, ~ Is Not Dip"e1?~~' Cape ":town: David ~") Philipi, 1978. 375. o

c'O c, 57. Mongane Serote is am obvious exampl e , See Stephen Watson. "Shock of the 014-: '.]hat's, Become at' Black Poets?U, U:eStream, 5.2 (Autumn 1981), pp.22-26. Q . - Y:eh.ryn Sole's rejoinder, "The Shock of the Old? l'1ore Likely N()stalgi~ for the Pasc" * l1ryStream, 5.4 (Srn:ing 198'7), pp.26~29. is not convtnc mg , as Lionel Abrahams demonstrates in a letter to the edf.ucr , UESti1eam~ 6.1 (Summer 1988), p.40 •

., 58. Much of this pqetryOwas given prominence inoHorn's' '1 (.\ Q mag~zine, 0Eh~.!,

(\ 59. Jeremy" CroJlin, interviewed by Susan Gardner, FO~lr (/ o South African'Poets, p.14l\ p.18.

60. Quoted by Keith GO'!=t9chalk'~n a review of Inside c "" t > ....._~ "in .Q:eStrL~. 2.3 (Wintb:) 1984} , p.19.~ " 0 G ",10 61. Jeremy Cronin. interviewed by Susan Gardner. Four Q (3 (; - South Afrlcan Poets," p .17. o fI

o o 6Z. The reoent poetry" (and literary critic:i:sm) of wri.teros sucb, "as Mike KirIs,jood, Mafika Gw&la and J) {..l- (/ " c Andries Oliphant continues to. express a hard-line. (.::.'

Harxise perspective. o o

o \, \.') o

63. Ex~.ept where ..c, stated othe~.:,ise, the t~rtllS , "lfb~rallf; "libe~al~", humanist" and 1!1it1~ltal de~ocratic" will be £rig'arded as equivalent' within

o the defini:tJ.on provid

\) 61~. Jeffrr8Y autler e.t a1. , "Introduct'ion" to (\ ~~ratic Liberalis.m Gill S~uthAftl-.!?a. fl.l!. o ~ ~ ~ 377.

71. Michael" Chapman, "Introduction" to A Cent.ury of §2!l..th~£.~n LPoetn:_. p .16.

:_D,,~"'j. d.• , p.1"6. o 73. ~d., p.lS.

7!~. ,t~J5L1, p.184 The criticisttl by Chapman referred to

here \~~, essentially f that embodied in his book, South _.!.fri~.an E~gl~.sh _ Poetry: A Modern

C)

7'5. Stephen Watsonr "Recent White English South

H African Poetr~\ and the Language of Libera1:l-sm t

St;,~ndpunte 1§),36.2 (April 198,~)t pp.13-23. o u ':\

n: See. for example, Peter Horn, tiThe Psychological Pauperiz~,tion of "Man h1 Our Socie~i,:;{ Reflections

~~, :/, \' .) U "on the Poetry of Wopko .Iensma'", in g__~.arn '77, eds. j , D'lonel Abrahams and Walter Saunders (Johannel~burg: t' oqonker:. 1977), ~p.lil-121, and Isabel HoJmeyr, l '. " , ' Ii o"The. S.ca ..te of S()uth African Lit.er~ry Criticism", 1...:/ in J;nglish 'C in Atricat 6.2' (September 1979). l o pp.3~-50';. . i

For :'!,~ample,'"Stephen Watson, "~cent White EngliS/ , South A~r~C1!n Poetry "l> and" Vth~ J..angu~i!e, ~,t I!..iber!\lism" r §.tandpp.nte 164 t 36.2 (April 1983~i) I' PP.~1-~2. '~( ,. (;:,' f

The poem is di~cUt"l~I~d fully earlier in this stu~y. in :he J.hapter entitled. "A Cd.i.s of Idehtity'i

79,. Cu,llinatt's , point I) is\\ rather m('~ compl.es fthan Michael Chapman .sugg~~ts in his interpre't~tiQn

H tha~ :'$,o otten. we find t1;\.. ;.: which w~ w~sh to /find ))

(SouE:!._ Afri(~an English ....,P

';\ .. ()., (-' 1'0- Persp~2J:.!.Y!:.t p J'271) • ' .' 374.

a compressed account in Scurh Af~.ica I LMode:rn !!istor;y, pp.571-578. For a Marxist account; of the

demise of Qld·~style fiberalism Ln South Afr.i(';;~. c se~ Paul Rich, White Power and the ,Liberal -....-."...,..-'~'- -~""""''-'''--...ioI~,--'-'. ""'" Conscienc~ {Manchester: N.~~c.hester rJhiversity Press ~ t 98: }•

50 .. For pub H.cat.Ion details of these Mforl1;ist w:riters, osee rtotes 42, 43 and 44 of the previous ~hapter of this study. ,

Q :'}l. For an ace »mt; of the Marxist approach to U.terary /). criticism ~, ~puth

Q 52. Marxism was but one of a'o nbmber,~ of iTl.termingled influences ..on' the Soweto poez s of the 1970s < For a mcre, det3iled account of these influences. see ',' (\ . ,I, '; ", 0 Michael Chapman I s chapter ~n ',·Soweto Poetry" in his book, ,~uth ~Africart Engl;sh'_~f~\~ry: A 'Modern Pers2ect1~~ pp.181-242.. ,\\ \

53. Michae 1 Chapm"~, South...;_Afr.ican /) ~rn P~r61:e~ct}?~.' p. 252. " "

o (\ Co , () ~4 • o~f'fI'ey ~~tle;r ll.....41. • ulntroductl,ot\H " to ~2£!ati(.~._L;;.;i._b,.;;e;..;;.:r..:;.;;a;,:;;;.l..;;.i_sm;;.;...;i;;.;;n.;.....;;s~.o;;;.....U,.;;t,;;,;;h_A..;.f.;,o,~~'CCi,p.9. o g, .. .r <: c: '-,"::\\ 55. \.,-Ibid. , pp. 9-10; pavid Wo1.sh~ "Democra.tic LioE',rali-.ann and TheoL'ij.~$of Racial Strati£icat.ion;~, in .:!.1?i

~ 56. D~~id Yudelman, ':,~tB:,~e'and C,~pita.l in Cont~mporary

f pp Sout:h Africa" Ln iblst~~,. c .250..,268. 376.

65. "Ma7:t:in Legassick, "Tbe Rise of Modern South '" African Liberalism: Its Assumptions and Social

Base" ~ in ~.l:~titute of Commonw:~~;~i':~J~",~StudJ..~f 0 (mimeo; 1972)t n.p.

()

66. Jet '''"ey Butler t Rich7),x;d Elphiclt and David Welsh, as c. editors of Democratic Liberalism in SOlltf~ ,-- .._."'...... --- ~frica,' ....Its H.is1:.2FIan.5L•.P,!

June '\ -",,\July 1986 f provide a seminal as.ses smerrt 7 o{ liS'b~~lism in the contemporary, period. The , <) account of modern day liberalism offered in the next pages is heavily indebted" to their valuable tnt.roducc Ion in whi,\{l the -::entral conclusions of the conference are summarised. See also Char Les Simld.n~\. ,,~~collstructin8 S2.~th, African Liberalis1l! (Johan' '1::g: South African Institute of Race

o Re:ati;'-' ,'1986}.

., :~J 67. Jeffrey Butler et Cil. ) "'rntroduction'l to o o Democratic Liberalism in Sou1;:hAfrica, p. 5.

~--~~~~~~~~~~~~--~----~o D o

69. Richard Elphick f uJfistorit')t~t!'aphy and the Future of l,lberal Values in South. Afri~\:au, inc::,Democralli 'I:!!p~ralism in South Africa", pp. \166-181. '

h ',.1 70. The term, liberal hument.e t , refers here primt~-\~) to the content of the poetty,as an expression crl;fa o II poli"ti(;al perspecti.ve, r~h.ei than to the ro,nn or 'J (;~2: .' .' . . .:',-::;J styie 'or ?esthetic qualities of the poetrry as part 'of a lite'dlry, tz·adition. (i

II

/) c, 378.

80. For exampLe J in his "acceptance speech £lor the Olive Schre~ner Prize for Poetry, V~86, reproduced in !nglish ..Academ~ Re~w 4 (1987), p.150. See

also II I DOWt1 With English'" t in Lion~,Ll')rahams: A Reader, p.328. "

81. Patrick Cullinan, review of Journal of a Ne.w Man, in U~Stream. 3.2 (Autumn 1985), p.26.

82. Li.onel Abrahams. acceptance speech for the Thomas Pringle Award tfcr Poetry. 1987, reproduced in""The Star TONIGHT.(22 April 1988), p. 6, col. 7.

o

o /.) o

o 379.

I! ------BIBLIOGRAPHY

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( )

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"~, \\ ,( 384))

------...... " Mythi.t; Thip.gs. Johannesburg: Danker, 1981..

Gr.dY, Stephen. ,!t's About ~. Cape Town: David Philip, 1974.

-~-"--"'--''', Hott;,entot Vf;n\tS and Other Poems. Cape Town: David Philip, 1979 .

..--- ..-:--:;;,~, ~!?ve Poems, Hate Poems. Cape 'tOWt1: David Ph~lip,19~2. 0 (J Gl.'e;.g, Robert, Talking Bull. Johant'tesburg: Bateleur Press, 1975. 0

Gwala, Mafikat Jolfiinkomo. Johannesburg: Denker, 1977.

_...-.....--"'...." No More Lulla.bies. Johannesburg: Ravan , 1982.

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Hewett, Broce, ~he Man f'1i='0m Bridegro9...,rq. Cape Town: Children of Atlantis, 1974. ~ Hope, Christopher, Q!~p_e D~·_r.iv_e_s_. London: London Magazine, 1974.

------, In _the Country ~f ,t~_ Black _Eta. Johannesburg~ Ravan, 1981.

//" n ...... _..._-- ...:_"., ~E-glishmen. London i Heinemann, 1985"

Ho'(.n, Peter, Wa.lking, through Our Sle~E. Johann.~sburg: Ravan, 1974. 385.

------~--- Silence in Jail. Johannesburg: Scr:i.be'J 1979.

James, Alan, At a. Rail Halt. Johannesburg: Bateleur Press, 1981.

----~-----t ~~oducing the .~andscape. Cape UpStream Publications, 1987.

.Iensma , Wopko, SimL_for Our Execution. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1973.

---"'-"'-~''''-, Yfue.:.relih..~te Is the Colour. Tt.t"hereB!ack Is _!.:heNumber. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1974.

------..-, I Hust Show You Mv Clippin..&!. .Johanneebueg i Ravan, 1977.

Keech, Ruth, Regarding. Johannesburg: Bateleur Pres S t 1981.

King, Mic.hael, The,~o()l. Cape Towt'H The Poetry Prhss, 1987. 51

Kirkwood, Mike, ~"££'yeen Isls·Q£!. Johannesb\:rrg: Press, 1975.

\ Levinson, Bernard; ."[rom .1reakfast to Johanr.esburg: Ravan, 1974.

o Lipkin. Jean, Among Ston~!. Cape Town: David Philip, 1975. \i

With Fences Do~. London: Grosvenor Freas» 1986.

\\ 386.

ji" Livingstone, Douglas. ~~l?ok and Otherj~ Poems from.....--\..... ~£§;.. London: Oxford University Presdl, ,-l964. 1/ 1/ Ii ---"' ..-----, h~'es Clo_s~d against the Sun. lrcndon: Oxford University PrE;:ss, 1970. If

\1 ...... _u , A Rosary of Borre, Cape Town: David Phili.p ~

=--.--;. 197,5; 1983.

-'~-""-"---, The An.V'il~, Undertone. Johannesburg: Donkar , 1978. l

-..----··-"'t', ~l!.cg.c!,Poem~. Johanaesbuxg i DO~t!~=Y~~.

Mac-1:-en~on t L~fe Songs. Johannesburg~ Batel~llr Press" 19'77. ~. l;l

.. _ ...... - ...... t Recko-:;ings. Cape Town; Dlivid Philip. 1983 • (Ie"" \\ r) NaCn~\~, Roy, ¥inged g\l.8gga. Cape Town~ ': Davi.d Phi,liPot 1981.

i.1 Macnamara. Michael, !he Falls Run Back" Yohannesburg: Ravan , 1976.

...... - ~- - ~..-.... :l'oSso s __;;a;,;.n;;,.;;d--._J_.;;e_z_z • Johannesburg: Bateleur Press, 1981:

Ma.dingoanet Illgoapele., Afrika ~t:l Beginnin.a. Johannes- i) burg: Ravan, 1979. I)

Ma.nn, Chris. First I'oems •. Joharmesbuxg i Bateleur Press, 197;. 387.

'Hiller tRuth, Fl.9~!:ir.g Island. Capt'! Town: Human and Rousseau, 1965.

_____ .u_t~ .. _ Selected .._f.oems. London: Cbatrto and ·Windus, ::) 1968.

Johanl1es-

=,~ Ii \~ ;/ \'1 \\ - ..~--- ...--- Firefla~s. Pietermaritzburg: Shut er and (\ Shooter; 1980.

(\ , '~. <

N:LcolJ Mike, ~mong 0 the Souvenirs \johannesburg; Ravan , o 1978. .J

, Paton, Alan, Knocki'llS ...."m the, Doo:!:_ Cape Town: David Philip" 1975_

o P!.()lk~r, ~H.lli~m~ Collect~ __ }?oems-. JBondon~ Jonathan C4pe. 196~1973.

o , ,'Pringle, Tl}omas, Poems Illu)s'trati-ie' of c South _Afric~..L bfrican Sketches. Cape To~m: Struik. 19"10. o

Rob~rts, Sheila, 10u' s Life and Other Poems. Johannes- burg: Bateleu~ Press, 1§77: !?

'"';,--"";)--_...... , ~i!.logues and Divertimenti. Jchannesbsrrg s ---~- (j - Donker , 1985. (1

Sacks, Peter. In these M2~noains. New York: Macmillan, Ii 1986.

Saunders, Walter t (:Facet?, Masks.!.....Animae. Johannesburg: Bateleur Press, 1975. 388.

Sepamla, S.ipho, Hur;-y U.:pto Ill. Johannesburg: Doakez , 1975'~

- .. -~ ~_M___ The Blues _!I? ._Yo:u.-.i!.1_lfe. Johannesburg: Donker, 1976.

- ..~...... -----~ The Sc-weto I Love. Londom Collings] 1977.

.,----- ..-- ..., Childre1r of the Earth. .Jchannesbuzg r Donkf;r , 1983. '

Serote f Mongane, X~hal f inkomo. O:}ohannesburg: Renos te'r Books, 1972. 0

-- ..------, Tsetlo. j.1;)hanllesburg: Donke r , 1974'.

"'!_ ... _ .. _ ... ,..... _, No cBabv MustL...~ee'Q~ .Johanneabuxg e Danker, Co 1975.

G () :...------~h-~Jd Mama, Flo,*~~ .• JoharmealJ1.1rg: l?r:onk$~,J, 1978. o ------, Selected .~-Poems. Johannesburg: Danker, 1982.

Skinner, Douglas Reid, Cape To:wn: ;.~, David Philip, 1981.

Cape 'ro'im: David Philip, 1985. \; Slater, Francis Ca-reyp Collected Poems (includes ~ark Folk). Edinburgh: Blackwoods~ 1957.

Sole, K(~lwynf The Blood .of,· ,Our Silence.o Johacinesburg: I"'- Ravan , °1987.

\~ P"

" )' 1/ (( it 389. i,\

Strauss t Peter t ?hotcg~aEhs of Bushmen. Johannesburg: Bateleur, 1974, I); , " /;1 / \\~ . _._.;.n , Bis'h0,E , ~.5':.BSward r s Door and 'v.tner PO~!!l?• Cape Town: DavLd Philip, 1983.

St yLe , Colin, Baobab Street. .Johannesbuxg i Bace l eur r- iI Press. . 1971",. (~,

Swift, M:ark. 1'.n~ading Water. Cape Town: David Philip, -; (':J ~<) -- 1974.

u .. ~ Seconds Out. Johannesburg: Bateleur PresS', 1983," II Van Wyk, Chris t,op!3,r, 1.,1; Is Time to Go t;~.!)me..Johannea- -:::? t.. II ir'(9",l} burg: Don",er .' l r'7.

Watson, Stephen., p-,oems 1977-1982. Johannesburg: 1;" ...... ___. ~ateleur Press.~1982.

o O "

I~, ' .._."" .... _- , In ,thilti) ,Citv• Cape /"!'bwn: oDavid Philip, - --;r~r--:::.=..L. 1986. Iii' f

1/1 ,'I,

W~l.sh, Anne, Set ;n .. ~.rightness A Cape Town: Putnell, {~r _ 1) , 1968. Ij II

l~, Wilhelm,' Peter. White Flowers. Johannesburg: Bateleu.r Ii ,',Press, 1977. (j

\, Wright, David,,~L§outh African Album. Cape Town: David ',' ','., II", . Philip J 191,1~. " J! C\ I, l lj , , ,,~ co ... __ .... - .._-- ...... Selected p(,)ems.~X~hanneSbUrg: Donker , 1980 •

(,

I; 390.

WORKS (fit CRITICISM ON SOUTH-AFRICAN ENGLISH POETRY

Adey, Davi<.!, Ridley Beeton, Michael Chapman and Ernest l?exeira" Cumpanion_ to South Afri9an English !-it;~rature. Johannesburg~ Dpnker, ,1986. {)

Alexander, Peter, !~yCamppell: A Critical Biography. Cape Town: 'David Philip, 1982.

Alvarez-Pereyre., J.¢cques, The Poetr:y of 'J Commitment .;:~ South Af1.'1,g,!.F . C. l-lake• Lo~~on: Heinemann, 1979, tr.,1984. \.1

Beetion, D.R. a:np. W.D·. ~ax~~ell-Mahon, eds , South African / PQ.~try: A:..~~itical 1\nthology. Pretoria~ University /flY 07ffSouth Africa, 1966. 11 /:;:Y I I', U

Ch,f>man, Mlch:aelJ Dou las tivin stone: ACrit~cal Stud /' of his 'Poe~F.'l. Johannes u~g: Donker ,u 1981. \.\ \"~"-.~='''''''">'''''' .....- .....-----, eel., "Soweto ,_~oe:$.'t. .Jchannesburg s" McGraw- Hill, 1982. ,~~:~ 11 ) ;c,

o - .._-_ ..._...... , South" African English Poetry: A t!gdern ~erE:E.!cti'!!..Johannesburg,: Donker, 1984. ~,) . />:. 0 o I \ Cullinan, Patric.k, ed; , 'i.ionel . Abrahams: A Reclrler. Johann""burg: Donk~r. 1988. 7r- CV.. ~/l " DayUlond, M.J.» J. U. Jacobs and M. LrJta, eds t Mome~tum: On Recent South African _Friting. Pietermaritzburg::'

Natal University Press, 1984. (I 391.

Doyl,\! .John R., Rilliam P'Lomer , Boston: Tvlayne, 1969. ,.\

--_.,--\--, Francis Carv SlatgT.'~ BOSt0l1: T'(vayne, 1971. ~

" < --- ... ----- .:f!12.masP,ringle. Boston: Twayne J 1972. \~ ~ February, V.A., ~ind '\Your Colour ~ The t Coloured I Ster~otype in Soutl1--kir.ican Literature. London: Kegan Paul~ 1981.

---~,--~-,.-.:='ii ~- Gardne7;, Susan, ed.. Four "~outh African Poets: ln~ervie~s ,-1\ wi th_ Robe!.£._ Bero~ J et'e~i:<:t.,-._.::.C..;:;.r.;;.on.:.:::.;:;.in::.:.:..,

DouglaL-"! _Reid Skil1n~ 1" and _§_t-:: ..e:::..Ipi:;.,;h;.;.e;;.;,n;.;._,_...;.r"..;;;a~t..;;;s..:;;.o.:;;;:.n, ( ,_ ~ Grahamsto~h\.~! N~LMf 1986. "i'"

Gordim~r.. NadineJ The Black InterEreters. JoBannesQ;urg: Sp-rc....Cas" 1973. .;;

Gray $ 'Stephen, §.9..!lthern_ 1\frican Lit~)ature: -A!!_ ~~ Introduction. Cape 'Town: David Philip, 191~9. ,) ~----- (~ () . . lieywood, Christo!~her, ed , t ASEects of South. A~rican Literat~. London: ?1ein~man Educational. 1976.

Lennox-Sho-rt, Alan. ed., :§!..1gU.shand South Africa.. Cape

I) TO.Wl1: Nasou, n , d.

"'.. \', Miller.. G.M. and 'u. SergeaI'l,t ~ A Critical S1.'.E.vey" of South African Poetrv in ~nglisij'. Cap~~"Town: Balkema, ~ . . . . .-~, '''''c' 1957. II povey, John, Roy Campbell. Bosrom Twayt\e~ 1977. I! \\.j

Robinson. A.M. Lewin, None..."Daring tcf Make Us_~E...L.! Study of English. Periodical Lit;,~:r:a~.:re_in tE.e Cape f~om' its Beg:!-':.1n..,ings in 1824 ~~~L,'~8.ll. C~pe Town:

Maskew Millex, 1962. }l( " j

\' ;1 392.

Smith, Rowl~nd, Lyr~c and Pol~ic: The Literary Personality of_Roy _.Campbe11-_. ~fontreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1973•

.§.2'1.tl}_African 5iEi.ting.i:.n Englj..sh an,d its Place in Sehool and Univ~rsitz:_.?roc~edings at the Ertgli:.~.h A,£~demy 2.~~_~olltf!.~rn. Af~!.ca Conferenc_9 E.~ld at Rhodes

!!giversit:y, Grahamstow,n , 7~~11 July 1969, .....,.,.,;..:....;:_En$lish ~ies in Afri£_!, 13.1 (March 1970).

c Van Wyk Smit~it J1alve~n, llrumme-:t HOdge: The ..Poetry qf.

..;;;t.;;.:;h..;;;e_,,;;.,A.;.;;n.;.1ig~,l;;..;o:_-_B;;..;o;.;;;e;.;;;r;__W..., 'a;;;;.r;;;".l...l __ 1;..;;8..;;.9..;;.9_.•~1291/ Oxford; Clarendon 1 19'P8 .:

,~ I Van Wyk S,ntith, Malve,;t'll and Don Maclennat~ eds , Olive Schreiner"::, and A:fi:ter~ Esssys an ~2u.th AJ,rican _ ... __., """"",,"",'r' 4 .....-. . !:4!!rature in Hon.o_u_ro.._f_G_U_.'Y_B~!.~. Cape Town: Dav;id Philip, 198~~

o }'l,ilhelm, P(~.7(!r and James A. Po11~y,~eds t P,oetr,y South

)., I' Africa t \\Sele...:'·~"?'d" Papers iI fr0I!!, Poetry ~,t 74.

Johannesburg: DQPkert 1916. 1 , I)

I) White, Landeg and Tim Couzeas , eds , I;iteratureii _ and. I) . Society in South AfIi£!. London: Longmans, 1984.

G

_J

'\) /I o (,\ 393.

,-,_---....,...... Articles Cited

II Abrahams~ Lionel, accept ance speech for the Olive, i) Sch'reLner Prize for Poetry, 1986, delivered at=a=---~" '"p

cer-emony held at the University of the 'Witwatersrand ~-.;o -t, ' in. Ncrv ember 1986, and reproduced in ~nglish t\..q_a'deWY Review 4. (987), pp.150-152.

~_",,\~i~\. _,. __ • int:erviewed .by Michael Chapman, English !tc'~demx..Rev1.ew 4 (1987), pp. 143-149 •

A~_.",,-- i~; I, '1.. -'''------, accep cance speecnh tor~ th..' e Thomas t'r:tn&...... (''.~'i'e

Award for Poetry.' 1987 t.," repr.oduced in The Stc!!' ,. TONIGHT <22 April 1988). cols 1-7. -.,--....-- ,', 1:).'" p.o. At

------, letter to the editor J :o.~itf:aE~116.1 (Summer 1988)" p.40.

o

f ~--"------, itDoWT!. with English" in Lionel Abrahams! A (;'o ~, Reader, ed. Patrick Cullinan. Johannesburg: Donker'"-.,.' 1988, pp.327-331. ') ~~

Berold, Robert, "Al.one, Alone" (review 0(" Stephen Watson's Poems 1977 ...19~..£), in New Coin. 20()1 (Sune 1984). pp.46-49.

;~ Brink, Andre, "Jrit roduc t Ion'", LWorld of Their Own: §~ern A:Al('iClan Poet!_61_!.~u::Seventies, ed'~ scephen Gray. .Jchannesbuxg r Dot)t,:·.",\. 1976, pp.,9-12~ . '\ ,'3

Butler t Guy~ "Introduction'!, A Book of South African Verse., ed , Guy Butler. London: Oxford University :;Press, 1959, pp.xvii-xli.

\) ii .394.

! 'i Ii) ' (~) II \1 I .... _-_ I...__ ..._, !tUn 1/Being Present w1:l1~re You Are: Som~ 01:iservations .1.1 "'I, South. Africt" ~.~.gli.h Poetry ft c H130-1960 t (lin ,}?oetry._Soutp )Af::-ica'f eds Peter "W~tl'helm and Ii James P.('lley., Jo111annesburg: Danker,

1!r76, pp.8z-1r°1. ,) Ii 0

i II -'~"'- --- ...- .and Illchris Mann, "Guy Bu~l&r a~d Chri.s Mann

on ~ New ~o19i of .S~outh0 African V~!se ''in En&li'!htt, Engl, sh\)(~,nA_fr~~~) ~..l (March 1~79), pp.l&,ll. -; II , ii" Ll i.,i _,

"C~PF" Micha~:l, "Introduction" ~ A_m '_' _ ...... _---...... • ~~rican .' ~1~trI. Johannesburg; P~.J3-31. Ii , i) Ii"

0; 'I c I·'. .'<. (\ ---.+---- ..J "li.troduct1on" and" "Notes", 'J;he oPaperbook, g~' South Afric!!l_f.e.~E1Jsh _PoetFI>:" Johattnesburg: qrnier. 1~~6~"PI>;,15·32, pp. 300-'314., '

- .....,dr.~"·"'...--, "!he" l.i'ber4ted. kone: .The ~o8aibilities" of ., ~!~gin.ative' EXr~ress,~o,p.Gin. a '.State r.Em~rg~ncyn 7 !!!!Slish Ac!demy\Review S Jl~8S) t pp. 2;,...53. i~ . "

') .(;.' Clayton, Chert'y, "South African Writing in English:

,1976':', !,tsndeunt:e 133....• 0 31.1 (February 1978ti P'P' Il4··59 ..

':',) \' Cornwell. Gareth~ !I~eauty with Cruelty" (re.view, of Steph

(December },9(6)~. pp. 36-1144.,

COUZ6ns, Tim, "Criticism. of South African Litere,~ureH,

Work in Progress (November 1977), pp.44;"S2 0

Cronin, Jeremy t "souzb African English Language Poetry

Written by Africans 1.n the 19708" f Eng,lj.sh ~('::.!a£!nl..:' .: Review 3 (1985), pp.2S-49. 395.

'1 / .Cullinan, Patrick, inter'l,,:iewed ~~iA1.an Jam.esJ 'tJEStreaII\, 2..4 (Spring 1984), '?P ..1ij. (' "'::::5

.. - ... --- •• --- t review at L'ionel Abx~~hams'f;:;Journal of ;st,

New Man, :Qp,ptre~l!h,\\ 3'/.2 (Autumn 1985) t pp~jJ-28, ,,,)

,.---- ...- ..--, "Introduction'~ J Llonf~l Abrahams ~ A Reader t ----- .-.,.r ed. "PatricK eullinan. Joh~nrLe~burgt Donkez , 1988,

pp.7-14. G o /? ., II Fer,~~pnt Gus, '~I'ntrodu(;~ioJ'!n , to ,RocY Joseph ,Cotton I s II' ~ c c. • ':. ., ~. Cape T,?wn:,'iUpStr~,am.J" 1986, pp.8-9.

Gottschalk, Keitl\;I..,~i=-'ljie~>qe .~;remy Cronin's Inside,

.1;(, UR~srfl'~j':'::;f.!'i:'3·{Win~er1984) i" pp.,16-21 . ~.::.: -r ,.~. ., " Ii 0[\ " n ~ G;ray.... Stephen~ "A. Sense of ?la:ce in New I.it~ratui\...;.-J , .' , .. ,ij:l ~.au:tt'eulartL, .,South African, English". En$JJ~h ,Acade&

!t~v~(::w.~. (1983 ~ J "(~l" ~9-3~:: () " G _- G

>"'1 '. d • II M .A S' 4·h ...--- . f. l~nero y~~l.on , c _~.!:.ern O!q.': African \\ ?oettt~J. 'Stephen Gray. Johannesburg. Donker, lS~4t pp.l1-15.

litla:~hoff" Dorian, HThe BJight th~t Man Was Born For " (/ " (revi~ of Roy J~"seph Cottofll s AS, ~.!l)' ~w Coin, "-, ~'2. 2 (December 1968), pp. 33-35.. c, " Ha;,esnape ~ {ieoffrey. t'lihi,tes Undt!r Stress" (Beviitwi of

\:;h.;i~t:ophero Hope ~s J~~.2!'"1)ri,res),. COHt:raat :12" 9 ~4 o§: (March '1975), pp.9'1-93.

Harvey, C, 1 ..D., "t,.(,)r.lil co~our Lr. Soui:h Aft:l:1(:a~ Poetry". c=' !.l}epr!.!lc~o~>7('1955),') pp.93 ...100. ()

';"

(';) '.~ J 396.

q~ Jfmey.c, Isabel, HThe Mining Novel in South :African Literature", !tlglish_,;.\!l Afti_ca, .5.~ (September 1978), pp.1-15.

------, "The State of South African Li.terarY I) Criticism", ~:nglt~hin I}frts!. 6.2 (September 1979) t .,..-'J pp .139-1;50. C/"

Hope. Christopher, "L!e Elephants 0 are Taking Dl::Lving Lessons", ~.2lft No.IO a' 'r 1974), pp.49 ..52..

(j 1/

... M ..; __ .... , author' 3 not;e 011 Lns Lde cover of Drives. London: London Magazine, 1974, n~p.

------, uPoetry and SoCiety", in .PoetrL"",_South" Aft'ica, eds Peter ,Wilhelm and James Polley. Johannes9urg: Don:,'er, 1976~"pp.134-141. o

\' <,) .t. - . . .• , M·1•. Ni 1t ,', () h \I - .... -.~-,":'--- t Introduction to :tr>:C £ co s ~..&... .. t.- e oI scuvent rs., .Iohannesbuj'g s RaVA'fi"1978, pp i-iv. -----, ."A South African Abroad", f!ir La.d.1. (14 !, June 19,87) f PP .102-104. "

Horn, Peter, "The Psychological P;.\up.erization of Ma.h in O~r Society: Reflections on the Poetry of Wopko (1 ... ~\ J.envitna'ifl, in guarry , 77 ,/i ads 'Lionel' Abrahams and Wal~er Saunders. Johannesburg: Donke r , 1977, pp.111-121.

!) K~rk~ood, Mikr'i¥. "The Coloni.u;r: t\ Critique of the

Eng!ish i~~.,SouthAfrican Cul~:ure ,Theory" f in !:g_etr.x

4,·Sou.th Africa._ ..... eds Pete.;; Wilhelm and James Po11~y.• .Jonannesbuzg s Donker , 1976, Pll.102-13l.

:..) 0 397.

Leveson , Narcia I IISelf~Confession and- Cr'af t;" (t'eview of l.ione;'~ Abrahams IS :!'2.1.!!'J1q.1. of §l New l-Ian), .£ontrast &.Q_, 15.4 (December 1985), ':pp.91-95.

Livingstc>ti,l,?, UCll,lg1a::; , H f Afi:ica Within Us I ••• 1H , in roe~_.~tll __Africa, eds PECal:' \<1ilhelm and James Polley. .Iohannesbueg, Donker, 1976, pp.14:1.~'144.

Lockett, Cecily, "Poems of Our Climate", (review of Franci,s Faller's ¥~~JJ)!..L.E2!d§), _N_ew__ '.;;..::o,;...=bn, 23.1

(June 1987) t Plb' 42-46.

o LOUW~ P. P " "The ~t is!frs: A p,?S t -~lortem", Be It, No. 9

(October 1973).'_:) .19-35.

111);:",'" Ravenscroft, A},:,t;hur, "South African ~nglish T..iterature" .(j' I' .• / !_, in Engli,sh-,sEeaking South Africa TodaX, ed. A. de" Vi\_liers. Cape Town: Oxf'ord University Press, 1976, pp. 316...329. \~

([;'., Skirme r , Douglas ReLd f "Self as Prptagollist" p review of

Don Maclennan t s ~ckonings'), ~on.trast...J1., 15..1 (.July

1984), ~p.87-92. (I t

Sole.l, Kelwyn, The Abortion of the)<: Intellect"., Work !P. ~rogrel!!. (August 19i'9), pp.13~28.

- ..-~- ..- ...- ..., "Great; Longings f Bleak Lusts", {review of " n Stephen Watson f s In Tlli.!,__gp.tx> , §E.glisp.,_Mademx Revie.'q 4 (Janual:'Y 1987)"t pp.254 ...2~,511\

-·i'~""-"---'J "The Shock of the' Old1 More Likely (I Nostalgia for the UpStr(~a..!!!, 5.4 (Spring 1981), pp,.26-29.

()

" 398.

Va'll ~Jyk Smith, Malvern, "Lnt roduct.Lon" 1 Shades of Adamastor, ed , Malvern van \~yk Smith. Grahams town : NFUl, 1988, pp.1-37.

\-Jatson, Stephen, "Recent \-illite English South African

Poat ry and the Language of r~iberalism" f StandEul1te J64, 36.2 (April 1983)~ pp.l~-23.

------, "Poetry and Polit:ii.ciza.tion" p 16,1 (July 1936), pp.15-28.

------.--- ..., "Shock of the Old: What's Become of Black Poe cs r ", UEStrf>a~, :.>.2 (Autumn 1987), pp.22-26e

o

'( \1

i', , "~' 399.

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De Villiers, Rene, ed., B~tter Th~G They two volumes, Cape Town: Puzne'l.l., 1972 ..1.974.

Hammond-Tooke , W.D.? ed , , l!,1~ ~a;~tu-speaking P..e_gE!~s of souehem Africa. London: Routledge and Regan Paul., \ .. \ -.....----",--- 1974.

Hoffman, Tz1ppi and Alan Fi.scher, edst The Jews __Qf

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Hudson, W., G.F. Jacobs and S. Biesheuvel, A~0!!lx. _ ~.2f South Africa=i_§_cientif:i,(;_ Stuey of Pfesent Dav Attitudes._ Cape To'\Yll: Purnell, 1966. ---

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__u,______ed," Readii1Ss in, So~h African Sl)ciet;¥. Johantlesbu~g! Jonathan Ball. 1978.

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Ii ',I !\a.ndall, Pat er , The 'fiouth African "'§.flglisht! and Race C.' 'Rel~\tiQns. Johannesburg: South African Institu~e of Race Ralat~ons, Topical i1alk No.4, 1967.,

----~-----, ed., South Afric~'s Minoriti~s. .Johannesburg: Spro-Cas, ~~---~----~:~~~~1971. o o

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Ravan , 1978. I)

\\ , \~ Simkins. Charles, Reconst,E},ctilllL..-,_" south -~S\u Liberal ism. Johannesburg: South African Institute ofll Race Relations, 1986.

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i c :, Stone, Jo~n, COlori~St;,.~LQ.itland~~? A ~~Y of_ ..the ~~t;sh '~mmigrant\)-.!!i~_;,S~~th ';Afr~~~ Oxford: ',r ~~~rendon, 1973. ,0 ~ I ! Thompson, Leonard, M•• The Political Mxtholo&,l. of. j1 Apa~theid.. NewHalen; Ya~ 'Un1yesii:y Pres's, 1985.

Van den Berghe , Pierre L; , ed , , The Li.beral D~!!:..l!!i!iIl S£l.ith AfI'ica. London = Croom Helm;' 1979.

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B ...J. Huber, Wh,"i:..;:t;.;,.e_.:;;Sou._ ...... __ th ,Af:d'lcan.:~ ...... ~ El.it'es. Cape Town: I) ":1: If Juca , 1,974. ,.---' (;

Welsh! D~v!9. Th~r_Roots of Seg~egation: ~~~tive P,1licl i.n C2,lonial Natal, _184S-191G. Cape) Town: Oxford University -Preas , 1971. 402.

Wilsonf H. and L.M. Tg(.)mpson, eds, The. Oxford History .2L... SOtit!L._!.4'.!i£~, two volumes. London r Oxford UnivarsJty Press, 1969-1971.

Wright" Harrison M., ~ Burden of the f:resent t The .,Libera.l-Ra.dical Cont roversv over South. Afr'ican --. ~.~~--...... - -~-" Hio$~Cl·Y. Cf~P(;). ;1'own: David -Pk'\liPf 1977 •

., Yude Iman , Davt d, The Eme_riencE:_of '-'Modern()South Africa. Westport: Greenwood PreS$, 1983.

1\

i Archiba'ld, D.': hThe Afrikaners as an V Emergent I Minority" • British JournaLf?_f), SocioloS;Y:, 20.4 ! j\ C'" (December 1~69), pp.41o-426.

tf I I!Butler. Guy. ""The Purpose, of the ·Cotiference , E-gB!.iM~.h (\ I o CJ Studies ;'n Africa, 13.1 (March 1970), pp.ll ..20. G ! t i~ i ,Q (\ ------., ~'A Conversation with Guy, But;ler (inter- ~ Viewed by Chris cophe r Hope) t Bolt, No. 7 r ~}'-"-""" {March ~ 1973)c' pp , 46- 55 "

\\ I .~ ...... :--- .....--, \\rtThe Natt1;;re and Purpose of t~ Conff~renceH, i in English-'a2~,aking Sou~ AfrJ..~a Tod,!!, ed , A. de Villiers. Cape Town: Oxford Uni,,"ersity Press, 1976, c- pp.7-16." c.

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------, "Engl.f.sh and the English in the New South Africa." , ~I_!g1!ph Academy Review 3 (1985) , pp.163-176.

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Butler, Jeffrey, Richard Elphick and David Welsh, Hrntroductiontl to Democratic Liberalism in. South Africa. edss;'·:raffrey Butler, Richard Elphick and David Wels~:~' Cape Town~ David Philip, 1987, pp.3-17~

Char ccn , '1eN.C.Jt_) and H.W. van der Merwe, "Whith~t White South Africa?", in H.W. van der Merwe, M.J Ashlef~ N.C.J. Charton '~nd B.J. Huber, White South African Elit.es. Cape 'Town: Juta, 1974, pp.lIO-178.

() ...---- ...~-- .. , "Some Political Attitudes

De.Villiers. A., 11 Introduction" t' ~Mlish:speakiE.u.,?uth_ Aftica Toda~.ed. A. de Villiers. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1976, pp.v-vi.

Elphick, Richa.rd, "Historiography and the Futlire of ~I ,,:} !', !_I LiQ,eral.'_',. Values in South Africa", in Democrat Lc 'j 11· L:tberalism in' South. Africa, eds Jeffrey Butler, /1 ~ ~i Richard E1phick and David WeLsh. Cape TOW'1'H Dav:td ! ,:, ,t Philip, 1987, pp.166-181~ 0 ! I I \\, j Gardner, Colin, uThe English-speaking,,'Whites", in South 1 c; Africa's Minorities, ea. P. Randall. Johannesburg: Spro-Cas, 1971f pp.39-~5~ f ,. it. \i i 40!~•

Garson, Noel, "EagLdsh-espeak.Lng South A;fricans and the

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pp.41-89. o . f',J Welsh, Davf.d , "Engli~h""speaking Whites' and the Rae LaI () Prob l.em'", .trn English-sp_etlking_.South Africa S.:ad~, ed , A. de 1 \Vitliers. '~Cape T()wn~ Oxford ~~n~~ersitY\1 Press, 1976~1 pp.217-239. I ~

I: (", I'· [! (f Ii . ('>,

~--- ..~- ...- .. , "DI~molbratic Liberalism ".nd II Il"heOries." ..o.f

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() (\. Yy.d{;:lll).8.n,Da:'/id, n$tate and Capital in Conte""~'Pora.rY D. _. . .. ,_, South Afric~" t in D~tnocratic LiberalisI!l in _§,guth Africa, eds Jeffrey Butler, _ Richard Elphick and Davtd W~jlsh; cap~( Town: David P~il:t:Jic~ 113:.S7.

pp. 250-268. ;) D 0 0 IJ

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0. /) Author: Foley Andrew John. Name of thesis: The white English-speaking South Africans- contemporary dilemmas and responses in South African poetry.

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