Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology

GLOBAL EDITION Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology ELEVENTH EDITION Martini • Nath • Bartholomew Spotlight Figures 1–2 Levels of Organization 2–4 Chemical Notation 3–1 Anatomy of a Model Cell 3–7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging 3–22 Overview of Membrane Transport 3–23 Stages of a Cell’s Life Cycle 3–24 DNA Replication 4–21 Inflammation and Regeneration 5–3 The Epidermis 6–11 Endochondral Ossification 6–17 Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 7–4 Sectional Anatomy of the Skull 8–14 Sex Differences in the Human Skeleton 9–2 Joint Movement 10–10 Events at the Neuromuscular Junction 10–11 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 10–12 The Contraction Cycle and Cross-Bridge Formation 11–3 Muscle Action 12–8 Processes that Produce the Resting Membrane Potential 12–13 Generation of an Action Potential 12–14 Propagation of an Action Potential 13–8 13–14 Structure, Function, and the Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves (T1 – L2) Spinal Reflexes 14–4 Formation and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid 15–8 Somatic Sensory Pathways 16–2 The Autonomic Nervous System 17–2 Olfaction and Gustation 17–13 Refractive Problems 17–16 Photoreception 18–2 Structural Classification of Hormones 18–3 G Proteins and Second Messengers 18–18 Diabetes Mellitus 18–20 The General Adaptation Syndrome 19–1 The Composition of Whole Blood 19–8 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 20–9 Heart Disease and Heart Attacks 20–13 Cardiac Arrhythmias 21–33 Congenital Heart Problems 22–21 Cytokines of the Immune System 23–13 Pulmonary Ventilation 23–25 Control of Respiration 24–15 The Regulation of Gastric Activity 24–27 The Chemical Events of Digestion 25–4 The Electron Transport Chain and ATP Formation 25–10 Absorptive and Postabsorptive States 26–16 Summary of Renal Function 27–18 The Diagnosis of Acid–Base Disorders 28–12 Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction 28–24 Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproduction 29–5 Extra-embryonic Membranes and Placenta Formation Chapter 11 The Muscular System 391 Figure 11–4 An Overview of the Major Skeletal Muscles. (continued) Axial Muscles Appendicular Muscles Occipital belly of occipitofrontalis Sternocleidomastoid Trapezius Deltoid Infraspinatus Teres minor Teres major 11 External oblique Rhomboid major Triceps brachii (long head) Triceps brachii (lateral head) Latissimus dorsi Brachioradialis Extensor carpi radialis longus Anconeus Flexor carpi ulnaris Extensor digitorum Extensor carpi ulnaris Gluteus medius Tensor fasciae latae Gluteus maximus Adductor magnus Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Iliotibial tract Gracilis Biceps femoris Sartorius Plantaris Gastrocnemius Soleus Calcaneal tendon Calcaneus b Posterior view ATLAS: Plates 1b; 40a,b 392 UNIT 2 Support and Movement Position, Direction, or Fascicle Arrangement other clues as to the appearance or location of the muscle. For example, the extensor carpi radialis longus is a long muscle along Muscles visible at the body surface are often called externus or the radial (lateral) border of the forearm. When it contracts, its superficialis. Deeper muscles are termed internus or profundus. primary function is extension at the carpus (wrist). Superficial muscles that position or stabilize an organ are called A few muscles are named after the specific movements extrinsic. Muscles located entirely within an organ are intrinsic. associated with special occupations or habits. The buccinator Muscle names may be directional indicators. For exam- . (BUK-si-na-tor) on the face compresses the cheeks—when, for ple, transversus and oblique indicate muscles that run across example, you purse your lips and blow forcefully. Buccinator (transversus) or at a slanting (oblique) angle to the longitudi- translates as “trumpeter.” Another facial muscle, the risorius nal axis of the body. (ri-SOR-e-us), was supposedly named after the mood expressed: A muscle name may refer to the orientation of the muscle fas- The Latin word risor means “one who laughs.” However, a more cicles within a particular skeletal muscle. Rectus means “straight,” appropriate description for the effect would be “a grimace.” The and most rectus muscles have fascicles that run along the longitudi- . 11 sartorius (sar-TOR-e-us), the longest in the body, is active when nal axis of the muscle. Because we have several rectus muscles, the you cross your legs. Before sewing machines were invented, name typically includes a second term that refers to a precise region a tailor would sit on the floor cross-legged. The name of this of the body. For example, the rectus abdominis of the abdomen is an muscle was derived from sartor, the Latin word for “tailor.” axial muscle that has straight fascicles that run along its long axis. However, in the case of the rectus femoris, rectus refers to “straight muscle of the thigh” and not to its fascicles (which are bipennate). Checkpoint 9. Identify the kinds of descriptive information used to Structural Characteristics name skeletal muscles. Some muscles are named after distinctive structural features, 10. What does the name flexor carpi radialis longus tell you about this muscle? such as multiple tendons, shape, and size. See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book. Origin and Insertion The biceps brachii, for example, is named after its origin. It has 11- 5 Axial muscles position the axial two tendons of origin (bi-, two + caput, head). Similarly, the triceps brachii has three, and the quadriceps femoris has four. skeleton, and appendicular muscles Many muscle names include terms for body places that tell support and move the appendicular you the specific origin and insertion of each muscle. In such skeleton cases, the first part of the name indicates the origin, the second Learning Outcome Compare and contrast the axial and part the insertion. The genioglossus, for example, originates at appendicular muscles. geneion glossus the chin ( ) and inserts in the tongue ( ). The names The separation of the skeletal system into axial and appen- Table 11–1 may be long and difficult to pronounce, but and dicular divisions serves as a useful guideline for subdividing the anatomical terms introduced in Chapter 1 can help you the muscular system: identify and remember them. pp. 56–60 ■ The axial muscles arise on the axial skeleton. This category Shape and Size includes approximately 60 percent of the skeletal muscles Shape is sometimes an important clue to the name of a mus- in the body. They position the head and vertebral column; . cle. For example, the trapezius (tra-PE-ze. -us), deltoid, rhomboid move the rib cage, which assists the movements that make . (ROM-boyd), and orbicularis (or-bik-u. -LA-ris) look like a trap- breathing possible; and form the pelvic floor. ezoid, a triangle (like the Greek letter delta, ∆), a rhomboid, ■ The appendicular muscles stabilize or move structures of and a circle, respectively. the appendicular skeleton. Forty percent of skeletal muscles Many terms refer to muscle size. Long muscles are called are appendicular muscles, including those that move and longus (long) or longissimus (longest). Teres muscles are both support the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdles and the long and round. Short muscles are called brevis. Large ones are upper and lower limbs. called magnus (big), major (bigger), or maximus (biggest). Figure 11–4 provides an overview of the major axial and Small ones are called minor (smaller) or minimus (smallest). appendicular muscles of the human body. These are superficial muscles, which tend to be rather large. The superficial muscles Action cover deeper, smaller muscles that we cannot see unless the over- Many muscles are named flexor, extensor, pronator, abductor, lying muscles are removed, or reflected—that is, cut and pulled out adductor, and rotator (see Spotlight Figure 11–3). These are of the way. Later figures that show deep muscles in specific regions such common actions that the names almost always include will indicate whether superficial muscles have been reflected. Chapter 11 The Muscular System 393 Next we study examples of both muscular divisions. Pay but they share a common developmental origin with the attention to patterns of origin, insertion, and action. In the oblique and rectus muscles of the trunk. figures in this chapter, you will find that some bony and carti- ■ The Muscles of the Pelvic Floor. These muscles extend laginous landmarks are labeled to provide orientation. between the sacrum and pelvic girdle. This group forms . The tables that follow also contain information about the the perineum (per-ih-NE-um), a region anterior to the innervation of the individual muscles. Innervation is the distribu- sacrum and coccyx between the inner thighs. tion of nerves to a region or organ. The tables indicate the nerves that control each muscle. Many of the muscles of the head and neck Muscles of the Head and Neck are innervated by cranial nerves, which originate at the brain and pass through the foramina of the skull. In addition, spinal nerves We can divide the muscles of the head and neck into several are connected to the spinal cord and pass through the intervertebral functional groups. The muscles of facial expression, the muscles of mastication muscles of the tongue muscles foramina. For example, spinal nerve L1 passes between vertebrae L1 (chewing), the , and the of the pharynx 11 and L2. Spinal nerves may form a complex network called a plexus originate on the skull or hyoid bone. after exiting the spinal cord. One branch of this network may con- Muscles involved with sight and hearing also are based on tain axons from several spinal nerves. Many tables identify the spi- the skull. Here, we will consider the extrinsic eye muscles—those nal nerves involved as well as the names of their specific branches. associated with movements of the eye. In Chapter 17 we discuss the intrinsic eye muscles, which control the diameter of the Checkpoint pupil and the shape of the lens, and the tiny skeletal muscles associated with the auditory ossicles.

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